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[lARMSWOR 

• 

LF-EDUCATOR 


• 


IB 


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Presented  to  the 

LIBRARY  of  the 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO 

by 
O.I.S.E.    LIBRARY 


HARMSWORTH    SELF-EDUCATOR 

1907 

Vol.  VI.     Pages  4369—5232 


1 


A    KEY    TO    THE    HARMSWORTH    SELF-EDUCATOR 


\t  thrheadir 
to  this  k*r  indie 
at  any  time  to  understand 

GRO 

Agriculture.    Beekeeping.    Gardening. 

lIHO      In..'  i  I  lain  inc.     Poultry. 

'''i'H^e'Mos.'ouTof'aMinYnminofLaud.   Garden 


,„.-  f,,r  PtflMOn  :.n.i  l'i-  til      Market  Gardening. 
r  2. 

Art.   Architecture.    Glass.    Earthenware.   Carving. 

ART.    Theory  mn.l  Training.    Painting.    Sculpture.   Architecture  (Theory. 

.1  Training).     History  and  Ideals  of  Art. 
GLASS  AND  KU.THFNWAIO      Including  Pottery. 
fAirviso.    Wood.    Bone.     Ivoiy.     Horn.    Tortoiseshell. 
GROUP  3. 

Biology.  Psychology.  Sociology.  Logic.  Philosophy. 
Religion. 

BIOUXJY.   Including  K volution,  Pala-otitology,   Heredity,    Anthropo- 
logy. Ethnology. 
r-> LOUT.    Including  Psychical  Kosearch. 

S»  i.,i.o..> .     Including  Political  Kconomy. 

.soiling. 
PHiLosomr.    SyHtems  of  Thought. 

History  and  Systems.    Cliristianity. 
GROUP  4. 

Building.    Cabinet  Making.    Upholstering.    Fire. 

firit.niMi       Kvcavating.     Drainage.      Manufacture    of    Bricks,    Limes. 
and  <vment«.      liricklaying.      Clay  Wares.      Reinforced   Concrete. 
Masonry.      Cariientry.      Slates  and  Tiles.      Plumbing,      Joinery. 
ir'v     and     Smiths'     Work.       Painting,     Paperhanging    nnd 
OX,   Henting,  Lighting,   and  Ventilation.      Building  Regulations. 
Quantity  Surveying     Building  Al.ro.ul.     In  Business  as  a  Builder. 
CABIVKT   MAKINII  AXI>  UPHOLHTERIM;.     A  3'ra.ti.  ;,:  < 
KIRK.    Fin-proof  Materials.    Fire  Prevention.    Fire  Extinction. 
GROUP  5. 

Chemistry  and  Applied  Chemistry. 

i  nruisTRY.    Inorganic  and  Organic.    Chemistry  of  the  Stars. 

APPLIKD  riiKMisTiiv.  Acids  anil  Alkalies.  Oils  (Fixed  Oils  and  Fats: 
\\ .,  xcs  ;  Kssential  Oils  and  Perfumes  ;  Paints  and  Polishes).  <  'anulcs. 
8o«p«.  Glycerhi.  Glm-s  and  Adhesives.  Starches.  Inks.  Tar  and 
U'.-.d  Distillation.  Matches,  (•••lluli.id.  Manure.  Waste  Pro- 
ducts. IVti  oleum.  PajH-r  Making  (including  Paper  Staining  and 
Uses  of  Paper).  Photography. 

GROI-P  6. 

Civil  Service.    Army  and  Navy. 

Civil.    Pmvirr.     Municipal.     National.     ImiH'rial. 
ARWr  A.M>  NA\V.     lion  to  Enter  Them. 
GROUP  7. 

Clerkship  and  the  Professions. 

CI.CRKSHIP  AND  ACCOUNTANCY.    Complete  Training.     Bookkeeping. 

NANKING.    The  Whole  Practice  of  Hanking. 

KM  H\M  K.     Life,  Fire.  Accident,  Marine. 

AUCTIONEERING  AND  VALUING.    Practical  Training. 

KMTAT«  AGENCY.    Dejiartmenu  and  Officials  of  a  Great  Estate.    Train- 


GROUP  14. 

Geology.    Mining.    Metals  and  Minerals.    Gas. 

< ;  hoto'iv.     The  Making  of  the  ivirt  h. 

MINIS  .      The  I'ractice  of  Mining  :  Coal,  Gold,  Diamonds.  Tin,  etc. 

METAIS      Metallurgy.     Iron  and  Steel.     Iron  and  Steel  Manufactures. 

Metal  Work.    Cutlery. 

MINERALS.    Mineralogy.    Properties  of  Minerals. 
GAS.    Manufacture  of  Gas. 

GROUP  15. 

History. 

A  Short  History  of  the  World  from  the  Beginning. 
GROUP  16. 

Housekeeping  and  Food  Supply. 

SERVANTS.     Qualifications  and  Duties  of  Every  Kind  of  Servant. 
COOKKKI.     A  Practical  Course,  with  Recipe*. 


ashing.     The  Laundry  as  a  Business. 
Fooi.s  AND  BEVKRAQES.     Milling.     Bread-maki 


IITATB  AGENCY.    I)ei>artm 
ing  a  Land  Agent. 
IFIMCIXE.    Training  of  a 


Doctor.     Specialist*.     Veterinary  Surgeons. 

i  h.-inisUaiid  Druggists.    Dentistry:  The  Dental  Met-hanic.    Ilome 
ami  1'ioic^iomil  Nursing. 
Cmtimam.    How  to  Enter  the  Ministry  of  all  Denomination*. 

:K.    Teachers.   Professorships.  Governesses.  Coaches.  Tutors. 
<itirs.     etc.     Institution  omcials.      Political   Organisation* 
irers. 
LAW.    Solicitors  and  Ba.rri.ters.    Personal  and  Commercial  IAW.    Copy- 

' 


Memory. 

Boiler- 

Papen. 


Drawing  and  Design. 

Hn»«i\G.       Freehand,       object.       Geometrical.    j  Brush. 

Light  and  Shade. 

T».IIM-*I.  IM  •  '  ..].)»ersmiths,  Tinmen. 

md  Joiners;  PI. 

•  ..n.       Illumination.       Textile*.        Wall 
Mrtal  Wt.il,. 

GROUP  9. 

Dress. 

I>RKU.     Dressmaking     rnd.-rel..ihing.     Children's  Clothing.    Tailor 
Illlinery.      Mens    HaU.      lurs    and    Furriers.      Feathers 

GROUP  10. 

Electricity. 

Kiigineering   ^Telegraphs  and 


Gi:.,rr  K. 

Civil  Engineering. 

.    Surveying.     Varieties  of  Construction     Machines 
Koad.       Bridges.      Hai|w:ijH  an.l  Tra.nwavs       \\  t  '",.[ 
lilies.   1'uinps.    HarUmrs     Du.-ks 
Work,     in  liiwinesH  as  a  Civil  Engineer 
GROIT  13 

Mechanical  Engineering.     Military  Engineering. 
Arms  &  Ammunition. 

<H 


IIITARV  >:N-.,I\>>:IMSI;     J'oiitoons.     Undoes      Fortifications     Rafta 
Trenche,.    Pacing  Kivers.    Condition*  fn  Peace  and  War 
HMS  AXB  A  MurxiTiox.    Manufacture  of  Arms  and  Explosives 


Gto.   H»PHY 


and  Explosiv 
GROUP  13. 

Geography.    Astronomy. 

Physical.    Political.    Human.    Com.uercJal 
A  MIIVO  "i  the  Solar  Sj.u-i,,. 


fectiouery.    Sugar. 

tion       Catering.      Brewii 

Tea.    Coffee.    Choc 


olate. 


Biscuits  and  Con- 

nts.     iruit.    t  isneries.   Food  Preser- 
Wines  and  Ciders.    "' 
'ocoa. 


Condiments.     Fruit.    Fi 

Wine 
ocoa, 
GROUP  17. 


Mineral  Waters. 


.. 

PRINTIN.;.     Composing    by  Hand  and    Machine.     Type 
Founding.    Engraving  and  Blocks.    Bookbinding  and 
Limi.uiiKS.     Officials  and  Management  of  Libraries. 


. 

Ideas.    Patents.    Applied  Education. 

IDEAS.    The  Power  of  Ideas  in  Life.    Brains  in  Business. 
PATENTS  AND  INVENTIONS.     How  to  Protect  an  Idea, 
APPI.IBD  EDUCATION.     Application  of  Education  iu  Daily  Life.     Finan.-e. 
GROUP  18. 

Languages. 

How  to  Study  a  Language.     Courses  in  Latin.  English,  French,  German, 
Spanish,  Italian.  Ksperanto,  Greek.     A  Tal.le  of  Hoot  Word*, 
GROUP  19. 

Literature.    Journalism.    Printing.    Publishing. 
Libraries. 

LITERATURE.    A  Survey  of  the  World's  Great  Books  and  their  Writers. 
Poetry.    Classics.    Fiction.  Miscellaneous.   How  to  Bead  and  Write. 
,l,,i  HNAI.ISM.    A  Guide  to  Newspaper  Work,  with  Practical  Training. 

Cutting   and 
Publishing. 
age 

Materials  and  Structures?  "Leather.  Wood  Working. 

MATERIALS.    The  Characteristics  and  Strength  of  Materials. 

STRUCTURES.     The  Stability  of  Structures. 

LEATHER.      Leather   Industry.      Leather   Belts.      Boots    and    Shoes. 

Saddlery  and  Harness.     Gloves.    Sundry  Leather  Goods. 
WOOD  WORKING.    Design  and  Oi>eration  of  Wood  Working  Machinery. 

Wood  Turning.    Miscellaneous  Woodwork. 
GROUP  21. 

Mathematics. 

MATHEMATICS.  Arithmetic.  Algebra.  Geometry.  Plane  Trigonometry 
Conic  Sections. 

GROUP  22. 

Music.    Singing.    Amusement. 

Music.    Musical  Theory.    Tonic  Solfa.    Tuition  in  all  Instruments. 

Orchestration.      Conducting.      Bell     Hinging.      Manufacture     of 

Musical  Instruments. 
SINUINU.    The  Voice  and  Its  Treatment. 
AMUSEMENT.     Drama  and  Stage,  including  Elocution.     Business  side  of 

Amusement.     Sports  Officials. 

UROUI-  23. 

Natural  History.     Applied  Botany.      Bacteriology. 
Natural  Products. 

NATURAL  HISTORY.  Botany  :  Kingdom  of  Nature—  its  Marvels,  Mech- 
anism, and  Romance;  Flowers,  Plants,  Seeds,  Trees,  Ferns,  Mosses,  etf. 
Zoology:  Animals,  Birds,  Fishes,  Reptiles,  Insects. 

Ari'LiED  BOTANY.  Tobacco*  Tobacco  Pipes.  Forestry.  Rubber  and  Gutt  a 
Percha.  Basket  and  Brush  Making.  Cane  Work.  Barks  (Cork,  Wattle). 

BACTERIOLOGY.    Pathological  and  Economic. 

NATURAL  PRODUCTS.    Sources.    Values.    Cultivation. 
GROUP  24. 

Physics.    Power.    Prime  Movers. 

Pn  vsics.    A  Complete  Course  in  the  Science  of  Matter  and  Motion. 
POWBB.    A  General  Survey  of  Power.    Natural  Sources.    Liquid  and 

Compressed  Air. 
PKIME  MOVERS.  Engines.  Steam.   Gas.  Heat.    Turbines.    Windmills. 

Physiology.    Health.    Ill-health. 

PHYSIOLOGY.  Plan  of  the  Body.  Digestive.  Circulatory.  Respiratory 
Ixx'omotor  and  Nervous  Systems.  The  Senses 

B"OMl  Hygiene-  E»vi™«. 

Its  Special  Forma      Common  Ail 


ILL-HEALTH.    General  Ill-health. 
inents  and  Domestic  Remedies. 


Shopkeeping.     Business  Management.      Publicity. 

SHOPKKEPING.     A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Keeping  of  all  Kinds  of  Shops 
!'  MNESS  MANAGEMENT.    The  Application  of  System  in  Business.        P 


Business 
As  a  Business. 


.  App 

Pi  IILICITV.    Advertising  from  all  Points  of  View 
GROUP  27. 

Shorthand  and  Typewriting. 

SHORTHAND.    Taught  by  Pitmans. 

TYPEWRITING.    Working  and  Management  of  all  Machines. 
GROUP  28. 

Textiles  and  Dyeing. 

TEXTILES.    The  Textile  Trades  from  Beginning  to  End. 
DIKING.    Dyes  and  Their  Application. 
GROUP  29. 

Travel  and  Transit. 

TRAVEL.     How  to  See  the  World.    The  Business  Side  of  Travel 

TRANSIT.    A  General  Survey  of  Means  of  Communicatnon 

\  KHI.-LES.     Construction  of  Air,  Land  and  Sea  Vehicles      'Busi 

Liveryman,  Carrier,  etc.     Driving. 
R*  ILWA  vs.    The  Management  and  Control  of  Railways. 
SHIPS     Shipbuilding.    Shipping.    Management  of  Ships 


Z"'XXyXf;X^ 

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EDITED  BY  ARTHUR-MEE  | 

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. . . . £ARIYT ELI TE  . HOUSE .  LONDpN.ENGLAN t>. 


APR  1  1  2000       J 

AGRICULTURE                               "« 

Principles  of  Cheese-makin:.'       ..  44 
!•  ,,f  Oheew-making     .  .     .  .  w* 

Pr...-ti.-:il  Poultry  Breeding..     ..  *«» 
Tlif  Art  of  Breeding       4^'-' 
Tin-  Breeds  of  Poultry   ««8 
in-  and  Fe.-dinu  I'oulm      ..   BOW 

APPLIED  BOTANY 

ir,-ttesand  I'ipfS       ..   4373 
.M  Industry        ..     ..40 

Growing  Tree*  for  Timber    ..    ..  46,<, 

I  low  to  Become  a  Forester  .  .     .  .  *9» 
Kuhl>er                     5045 

TS    OF    THIS    V 

EARTHENWARE                            ™™ 
The  Kaw  Materials  of  Pottery    ..  5160 

FOOD  SUPPLY 

Refining  Sugar  ™\ 
Suirar  Analysis  and  Glucose.  .     .  .  4554 
Condiments       «" 
Fruit  Preserving     « 
Fisheries             498'' 

OLUME 

MUSIC                                           PAGE 
Accordion.    Flageolet    and    Con- 
certina                                .  .     .  .  4484 

Fife,  Piccolo,  Flute,  and  Ocarina     4567 
The  Clarionet    4785 
Oboe,  Cor  Anglais  and  Bassoon  .  .  4891 
The  Bagpipes   5059 
Sarrusophones  and  Saxhorns      .  .  5129 

PHYSICS 

Soul  and  Matter      4449 
The  Structure  of  Matter       .  .     .  .  456( 
The  Mvstery  of  Solution       .  .     .  .   4698 
An  Eternal  Living  Thing      .  .     .  .  4882 

POWER 

The  Chief  Sources  of  Power  .  .     .  .  5010 
Fuel  and  other  Power  Producers    5127 

PRINTING 

Printing      5026 
The  Work  of  the  Compositor      .  .  5156 

SHOPKEEPING 

Photographers           4417 

Science  and'  Sea  1-islnn-        ..     ..  5188 

GLASS 

Glass  and  Glass-making  45.S1 
Plate  Glass  and  Bottles  47^4 
Ornamental  Glass    4930 
Stained  Glass    49 

HEALTH 

Rest,  Sleep,  and  Exercise     .  .     .  .  438/ 
The  Natural  Man     .  .     ••••••  4 
How  to  Feed  and  Clothe  Children  4681 
Bovs  and  Girls  at  School       ..     ..  4862 
The  Best  House  to  Live  in  ..     ..  oOoO 
Light  and  Warmth  in  the  House    5193 

HISTORY 

Medieval  Europe    *898 
Charles  Stuart  and  His  Times    .  .  4551 
Cromwell  and  His  Successor       ..  4/61 
The  Last  of  the  Stuart  Kings      .  .  4841 

Tli.'  Manufacture  of  Rubber.  .     .  .  5199 

APPLIED  CHEMISTRY 

chemical  Analysis  44°" 
Acids    4625 
Alkalies                     .  .  47TU 
<  >ils,  Fats,  Waxes  and  Candles    .  .  4829 
i:h.-erinand  Essential  Oils  4963 
Paints  and  Polishes  -"'HI 

ARMY  AND  NAVY 

The  Naval  Officer    *400 

ART 

Art  in  Modern  Times     4::«.fJ 

AUCTIONEERING  AND  VALUING 
Auctioneering  4983 
Valuing      ;>151 

BANKING 

The  Flank's  Bookkeeping      .  .     .  .  4438 
Bank  Officials    4587 

BUILDING 

Flo.,,-  and  Partitions    4445 

Photographic  Dealers                        4419 

The  French  Revolution         ..     ..  5110 

Picture  Framers      4609 
Picture  Postcard  Dealers      .  .     .  .  4611 
Plumbers    4612 
Postage  Stamp  Dealers  4615 
Post  Office  Sub-agents  4617 
Poulterers  and  Game  Dealers      .  .  4711 
Provision  Merchants      4713 
Saddlers      4888 
Scientific  Instrument  Dealers     .  .  4993 
Seedsmen                                       .     4995 

INSURANCE 

Insurance  as  a  Career    4725 
The  Branches  of  Insurance  .  .     .  .  48 

JOURNALISM 

The  Editor  and  His  Paper    .  .     .  .  4429 
How  to  Write                         .  .     .  .  4577 

The  Free-lance  in  Journalism     .  .  4671 
The  Journalist's  System       ..     ..  4815 

LANGUAGES 

Esperanto  4511,  4655,  4799,  4943,5087, 

French  4506,  4649,  4794,  4938,  5082,  5^7 
Italian  4503,  4047,  47JW,'  41)37,  5080,  5225 
Spanish  4509,  4652,  4796,  4940,  5085,  5229 

LEATHER 
Top-making             4432 

Sewing  Machine  Dealers       .  .     .  .  4997 
Ship  Chandlers  5220 
Silk  Mercers      '5221 

Fin--  resist  inn  Construction  .  .     ..  4751 
si  ite  'ind  Tile  Work                         4865 

Silver  and  Electro-plate  Dealers.  .  5223 

SOCIOLOGY 

The  Making  of  Men  and  Nations.  .  4369 
The  Ideal  Marriage                            4535 

•luiiicrv               .                     ...  5179 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

:nl  Sewage  Di-|Misal   .  .   445(1 
1-,'e  Disposal      .  .     .  .       .     .  .  4547 
Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage  ..  4742 
The  Purification  of  Sewage  .  .    .  .  4821 
Refuse  bfstnu-tioii  5<»20 
Hydraulics                                           5113 

The  Family  and  the  Race    .  .     .  .  4663 
Woman's  Place  in  the  World       .  .  4825 
What  are  Woman's  Rights?.  .     .  .  4973 
War,  the  Enemy  of  Mankind      .  .   5it95 

TELEGRAPHS 
Telegraphy        4382 
Sending  Telegrams  4605 

Bottoming  and  Heeling  Boots    .  .  4540 
Saddlerv  and  Harness    4783 
Harness  Materials    4885 
Bridles  and  other  Saddlerv  .  .     .  .  5057 
Making  Horse  Collars     5191 

MATHEMATICS 

COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Hart  h  as  the  Home  of  Man  ..     ..  4403 
Adapting  Kartli  to  our  Need-           i;,15 
Produ.  is  ,,t  tli.'  Forest  tr,57 
Tli.-  World's  Cereals  and  Fruii^  .  .    is?:{ 

i  Orop«      c.t.v.i 

..      ..   5117 

DRAWING 
DnwiBft  of  Engine  Details..    ..  u-j:i 

•in.'  !..|-  Sln-et  -metal   Workers  4521 
1'r"1                                             ....   47:i7 
Prohl.  .  ..s  in  »     .,.-,  and  Cvlindei 
In'1  •                           lindcrs     .  .     ..  5038 
Pol-  .                        .  cd  Artii-lt-s   .  .  ;,u;:( 

DRESS 

!>!•  --  !••!   '.ll-ls     .  .                                               |17- 

Triangles  and  Parallels                      4623 

Multiple  News  Messages       .  .     .  .  4668 
Telegraph  Apparatus     4902 
Morse  Sounder  and  Relay     .  .     .  .  5065 
Whcatstone's  A  B*'  System         ..   5177 

TEXTILES 

Textile  Printing       4499 
The  Hosierv  Industry    4619 
The  Hosiery  Factory    4763 
Hand  and  Machine  Lace-making.  .  4877 
The  Lace  Factory    4978 
Floorcloth  and  Linoleum      .  .     .  .  5122 

TRANSIT 
The  Railway  Staff  4379 
Track  and  Running  Staffs   .  .     .  .  4591 
Railwav  Signals  and  Brakes        .  .   4(is5 
The  Passenger  Traffic    4803 
Merchandise  Traffic       506s 
Minor  Railway  Departments       .  .  5101 

Parallelograms                              .  .  4723 

Areas   .  .'              4905 
Circles                                         5043,5197 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING 

Boring,  Screwing,  &  Sawing  Tools  447'.l 
Some  Varieties  of  Tools  4582 
Tools  for  Measurement  4701 
The  Lathe                                           4912 

Reciprocal  ing  and  Rotarv  Tools.  .  4!»<n 
Milling  and  Grinding  Machines  .  .  5204 
Dictionary    of     Terms    used    in 
Machine  Tool  Practice      .  .     .  .  521" 

METALS 

Iron  and  Steel    44(14 
The  Making  of  Wrot  Iron     .  .     .     4iw: 
The  Manufacture  of  Steel     .  .     .  .  474( 
The  Making  of  Bessemer  Steel    ..  4907 

Open-hfarth  Steel                         .      .  .    5O1.' 
Wire  and  Wire  Work      516' 

Mill"'.'                           ..      ..                    45(14 

1  Shape-making.  . 
Wire  Shape-making 

Hat  and  Punnet  Shapes   .     . 
Hat  Sh.i],«-s 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHARLES  I.  TO  THE  GUILDHALL  TO  DEMAND  THE 
ARREST  OF  THE  FIVE  MEMBERS  OF  PARLIAMENT 

From  the  Painting  in  the  Royal  Exchange  by  SOLOMON  J.  SOLOMON,  R.A.     |.See  Hisiom  J 


THE  MAKING  OF  MEN  &  NATIONS 

Human  Nature  and  Society  :  Society  and  Human  Nature.     Men  and  Systems  : 
Systems  and  Men.     The  Great  Lesson  of  History.     The  Society  that  Endures 


Group  3 

SOCIOLOGY 


Continued  from  pa-e  4i>7S 


By    Dr.     C.     W.     S  ALEE  BY 


1 


T  ET  us  take  a  single  contemporary  illustration 
of  the  all-important  proposition  which  is  the 
•central  truth  of  sociology.  There  never  yet  was  an 
autocracy  or  an  oligarchy  which  did  not  depend 
for  its  existence  upon  an  army.  One  man  cannot 
defy  the  wills  of  millions  merely  because  he  is 
labelled  emperor  or  king.  He  must  have  an 
army  ;  as  long  as  he  has  an  army  he  will  persist, 
and  as  soon  as  his  army  becomes  disaffected, 
his  knell  is  sounded. 

The  Russian  Tyranny.  Now,  a  society, 
if  it  is  to  produce  an  army  devoted  not  only  to 
aggression  by  the  autocrat  against  foreigners,  but 
also  devoted  to  the  control,  and,  if  necessary,  the 
destruction  and  murder  of  its  own  flesh  and 
blood — the  people  from  whom  it  has  sprung — 
that  society  must  be  capable  of  producing  a 
sufficient  number  of  men  whose  nature  is  such 
that,  so  long  as  they  are  paid,  they  will  not 
hesitate  to  trample  upon  the  liberties  of  their 
own  people.  Thus,  the  very  existence  of  a 
tyranny  such  as  the  Russian  tyranny,  which 
daily  distresses  every  lover  of  liberty  and  of 
mankind  all  the  world  over,  is  in  itself  a  demon- 
stration of  and  a  consequence  of  the  existence 
of  a  certain  kind  of  human  nature  among  the 
Russian  people.  There  is  an  all  -  important 
addition  to  be  made  to  this  proposition,  and  we 
are  about  to  make  it.  Even  in  this  present 
partial  stage  of  analysis,  however,  the  sociological 
phenomena  presented  by  Russia  will  suffice, 
especially  for  any  reader  who  has  read  the 
history  of  the  French  Revolution,  as  a  fair 
illustration  of  our  general  proposition  that 
human  nature  is  the  key  to  sociology — that  the 
characters  of  a  society  depend  upon  the  charac- 
ters of  its  units  in  an  infinitely  more  fundamental 
and  necessary  fashion  than  the  characters  of  the 
molecule  of  a  chemical  compound  depend  upon 
the  characters  of  its  constituent  atoms. 

The  Key  to  Human  Nature.  But  man 
is  a  spiritual  being,  and  not  merely  a  dynamic 
mechanism  like  an  atom.  No  chemist  contends 
that  there  is  any  reaction  of  the  molecule  upon 
its  atoms.  The  atoms  and  their  relations 
determine  the  molecule,  but  the  molecule  does  not 
modify  the  atoms.  Immeasurably  different  is  the 
case  of  society.  Human  nature,  we  have  said,  is 
the  key  to  sociology,  and  this  is  true,  but  it  is 
only  half  the  truth  ;  the  complementary  truth  is 
this,  that  sociology  is  the  key  to  human  nature. 
That,  perhaps,  is  a  somewhat  bald  and  imperfect 
way  of  stating  the  proposition,  but  we  so  state  it 
in  the  hope  that  we  may  make  it  memorable. 
Our  business  is  not  to  instruct,  but  to  educate, 
and  nothing  could  Toe  more  useless  than  that  the 
reader  should  accept  these  propositions  simply 
because  they  are  to  bo  found  on  this  page.  But 


here  we  submit  them  to  him  for  his  consideration 
and  reflection :  Human  nature  is  the  key  to 
sociology  ;  sociology  is  the  key  to  human  nature. 

And  now  let  us  return  to  the  illustration 
which  sufficed  in  proof  of  the  first  proposition, 
but  which  we  described  as  having  been  only  half 
analysed.  Now  if  the  first  part  of  our  analysis 
was  important,  this  is  infinitely  more  important. 
It  is  interesting,  doubtless,  that  the  sociologist 
should  find  in  human  nature  the  key  to  the 
problems  presented  by  societies.  But  we  are 
not  all  sociologists,  and  this  abstract  proposition 
has  no  particular  practical  consequences  for  us. 
The  converse  proposition,  however,  which  is  the 
most  generally  and  most  fatally  ignored  of  all 
sociological  truths,  concerns  us  all  infinitely 
and  vitally,  as  we  shall  now  see. 

A  Peop  e  Deserves  What  it  Gets. 
It  is  an  easy  matter  to  say  that  the  pro- 
duction by  the  Russian  people  of  a  brutal 
soldiery,  which  has  hitherto  been  willing  to  mili- 
tate against  the  happiness  of  the  people  from 
whom  it  has  sprung,  depends  upon  human  nature 
as  it  is  exhibited  in  the  Russian  people.  It  is 
even  possible,  judging  by  this  and  countless  other 
illustrations,  to  say  that,  in  general,  a  people 
deserves  what  it  gets.  For  instance,  only  a 
superstitious  people  will  be  governed  by  such  a 
priesthood  as  many  of  those  which  have  dark- 
ened human  life  and  served  the  devil  since  the 
dawn  of  civilisation. 

Only  a  brutal  people,  again,  can  permit  them- 
selves to  be  dominated  by  a  brute  of  their  own 
race.  Yet  again,  only  a  foolish  and  selfish  body 
of  voters  will  be  led  away  by  the  lies  of 
politicians  so  as  to  give  power  to  unworthy, 
foolish,  and  selfish  men.  From  democracy, 
autocracy,  or  priest-ridden  societies — in  short, 
from  societies  of  all  kinds,  may  be  quoted  proofs 
of  the  truth  which  leads  us  to  say  in  such  cases, 
"  Serve  them  right."  The  impartial  observer 
recognises  that  it  does  serve  a  people  right  to 
groan  under  this,  that,  or  the  other  burden. 
It  is  a  product  of  their  own  lack  of  courage,  or 
wisdom,  or  honour.  Indeed,  to  say  that  on  the 
whole  a  people  deserves  what  it  gets — a  proposi- 
tion which  has  its  light  as  well  as  its  dark  side, 
of  course — is  to  say  in  other  words  what  we 
have  already  said,  that  human  nature  is  the 
key  to  sociology.  This  is  a  doctrine  which 
everyone  really  admits,  whether  explicitly  or 
not. 

Heredity  and  Environment.  But  the 
thoughtful  critic,  looking  upon  the  present 
unhappy  state  of  Russia,  and  admitting  that 
there  must  be  brutal  and  ignorant  elements  in 
a  people  which  produces  an  army  for  its  own 
repression  and  grovels  under  superstition,  will 

4369 


SOCIOLOGY 


interest  and  a  unique  difficulty.    He  has  to  study 


hum  Hi 

•i  -"•->'  thaj .human ^nature 
ntirely    upon    the    ^™^*°^ 
wiili  which  cad,  man  is  endowed  from  the  first. 
The    Factors    in    Making  Men. 

1)mvt,,,,  :1s  we  all  know,  is  false.     Environment 

•   in  fashioning  human  nature. 
Ldv  is  determined  by  the  a  tin.,  spheric  environ 
In(.nt.  by  the  nature  of  the  food,  by  considerations 

of  tem,H.rature.  and  th*e  like.    In  this  manner  the 
inborn  bodily  eharacters  are  prof oundly  modi* 
in  every  one'  of  us.       But  what,  pray,  constitutes 
the  all'important  part  of  the  environment  of  the 
mind  •'     Buckle  thought,  as  we  have  seen,  that 
100  much  stress  could  scarcely  be  laid  upon  the 
ace  or  absence  of  mountains  or  earthquakes, 
thunder  and  lightning.  Doubtless  he  recognised  i 
truth  of  some  importance  ;  but  nowadays  we  are 
•ii;lt   the  forces  which  are  most  potent  m 
moulding     the     spirit     of    man    are    themselves 
ual.  Human  nature  is  chiefly  modified  not  by 
.//.  but  by  IniiiHin  natural  forces.     It  is  the 
Hocial  atmosphere,  the  social  environment,  that  is 
n   modifying  the  inborn  characters  of 
men        For  instance,  it   has  been  finely  said  that 
n    breathe    only  in    an    atmosphere  of 
d    super- 

,,:  the  brutal  regime  hm  ds   brutality;  in 
a  „,,:  'v  the  military  .spirit   is  fostered  ; 

kftor  heredity,  inoom- 

l.lv    tin-   most    important    of    the    influences 
•.num.-    what    a    man   shall   be  are    the 
.  tin- social  tradition,  the  spiritual 
.-pliere  that  he  breat 

Society  Makes  the  Average  Man.  To 
hition  will  he  all  but  impos. 
in-n-  ambition  is  obviously 

futile.      If    then-    be    no    conceivable    possibility 
..ut    of    his    class,    the 

.-.tious    habit    of    mind   will    not    be    fostered 
m  him      He  will  be  different,  in  a  \\.-rd.  from  tin- 
would    have    become    in    a    democratic 
we    are    not    disputing    the 
'    while  most   men  are  anvils  and 
,11  an\  it  or  a  hammer,  there 

an*  I  M  hammers,  who  make  opinion. 

forms  and 

•  hat  the  majority 

..ild'-d    by   society    into   the    form 

nd    tends    to    its 

•ion    that    sociology   is    largely   the 

to  human  nature,  as  human  nature  is  l.ir^-ly 

the  key  '  ;    profound  interest   to 

th«  «  •  pure  ir  Meker 

study  with   a  uni<|iie 


upon  and  modify  the  first. 

Brutality  Breeds  Brutality.     Thus,  to 
turn     0  our   Russian  instance,   the  sociologist 
iTto   «k  himself  whether  the  characters  of 
the  Russian  people -including  the  character  a 
being  able  to  produce  a   brutal  soldiery-are 
inborn,  necessary,   and  permanent,   or  whether 
,hev   are  not  products    of    the  brutal  military 
regime.      He  has  to   inquire,    indeed,   whether 
anv   people,    even    the    most    democratic    and 
freedom-loving— whether,  indeed,  such  a  people 
as  ourselves,  subjected  for  two  generations  to 
dominance  by  autocracy,  militarism,  and  eccles- 
iasticism,  would  not  in  turn  become  capable  of 
producing  an  army  such  as  the  Russian  army. 
In  a  word,  the  sociologist  has  to  deal  with  circles. 
Most  of  them  in  the  past,  alas !  have  been  vicious 
circles      The  superstitious  or  the  brutal  regime 
has    fostered    and   produced   the   superstitious 
and   brutal  habit  of  mind  which,  in  its  turn, 
strengthens    and    makes   possible  that  regime. 
Once  we  grasp  the  truth  of  the  two  abstract 
propositions  upon  which  so  much  emphasis  has 
been  laid,  we  shall  have  acquired  a  wholly  new 
means  of  passing  sociological  judgments.     For 
instance,  in  his  "  Essay  on  Man,"  Pope  writes : 
"  For  forms  of  government  let  fools  contest, 

Whate'er  is  best  administered  is  best." 
To  the  untrained  reader  this  may  seem  satisfying. 
If  it  be  true  it  is  a  very  important  truth,  but  if 
it  be  false  there  is  no  more  dangerous  falsehood. 
The  reader  is  well  aware  that,  at  any  rate,  it 
cannot  be  accepted  without  question^  because 
it  does  not  inquire  into  the  effect  of  "  forms  of 
government  "  upon  human  nature. 

The  Failings  of  Democracy.     Now  let 
us  sec  how  the  central  sociological  truths  of  action 
ami  reaction  between  society  and  the  individual 
bear  upon  current  political   discussion.     So  far 
as  the  influence  of  human  nature  upon  society  is 
concerned.  Poj>e's  couplet  will  stand  criticism.     If 
there  were  no  reactive  influence  such  as  we  have 
described  the  couplet  would  be  true.     Everyone 
admits  that  forms  of  government,  in  order  to  be 
-sfu!.  or  as  successful  as  they  are  capable 
of  being,  ate   at    the    mercy   of   human  nature, 
upon   which  their  administration  depends;  and 
the  great  majority  of  untrained  students  of  these 
subjects  are  content  merely  with  recognising  the 
half-truth  which  Pope  recognised.     For  instance, 
sensitive  people  are  sometimes  shocked  at  the 
MS,  the  blindnesses,  the  st upidities of  which 
democracy  is  capable.     Such  people  are  apt  to 
turn   in  disgust  from  the  democratic  ideal,  and 
to  declare  that    the  best    form  of  government, 
after  all,  would  be  government  by  a  wise  and 
beneficent  autocrat,  if  such  could  be  obtained. 
'They    see    that    democracy    is    liable    to    wire- 
pulling and   the   wiles  of  demagogues  and  the 
influence   of   wealth.     They  see,  in  short,  that 
democracy  may  be  very  badly  "administered," 
to  use  Pope's  word,  and  they  think   that  even 


such  a  form  of  government  as  an  autocracy 
would  be  infinitely  better  if  better  administered. 
Government  and  Character.  Now,  we 
submit  that  all  such  opinions  ignore  the  truth 
that  different  forms  of  government,  even  if 
all  be  ideally  administered,  differ  profoundly 
in  their  influence  upon  human  character.  It 
is  unthinkable  that  the  same  type  of  citizens 
could  be  produced  under  an  ideal  autocracy  or 
hierarchy  (government  by  priests)  as  under 
and  in  an  ideal  democracy.  Different  causes 
must  produce  different  effects,  and  effects  upon 
human  character  are  the  only  important  effects, 
perhaps,  produced  by  any  causes  in  the  whole 
universe.  The  practical  problem  for  the  sociolo- 
gist— who,  as  we  have  seen,  is  not  merely  a 
scientist  or  student  of  what  is,  but  also  a  moralist 
or  student  of  what  ought  to  be — is  to  produce 
such  a  society  as  will  make  the  best  citizens. 
It  is  not  merely  his  problem  even  to  find  the 
type  of  society  which  will  keep  human  nature 
at  its  present  level  of  intelligence  and  virtue. 
He  knows  that  the  average  level  is  appallingly 
below  the  level  of  the  highest,  and  he  knows  that, 
as  Spencer  somewhere  says,  what  is  possible 
for  human  nature  here  and  there  is  possible  for 
human  nature  at  large. 

Human  Nature  is  Not  Always  the 
Same.  The  sociologist  who  is  not  a  believer 
in  evolution  or  the  doctrine  that  progress  is 
possible  is,  of  course,  a  mere  anachronism  to- 
day. He  is  a  survival  from  the  intellectual 
atmosphere  that  preceded  the  idea  of  evolution, 
and,  as  such,  is  no  more  than  an  interesting 
and  significant  curiosity.  If  there  be  any- 
thing of  which  the  sociologist  is  quite  sure 
it  is  that,  popular  unwisdom  notwithstanding, 
human  nature  is  not  "  the  same  in  all  ages." 
He  knows,  on  the  contrary,  that  human  nature 
is  profoundly  modifiable  by  circumstances.  He 
knows  that  the  ideal  of  human  nature  is  vastly 
superior  to  the  average  reality,  and  yet  he 
knows  that  the  ideal  is  attainable.  In  passing 
his  judgment,  therefore,  upon  different  forms 
of  society,  such  as  autocracy  and  democracy, 
or  upon  different  theories  of  societies,  such 
as  individualism  and  collectivism,  or  upon 
social  customs  or  Acts  of  Parliament,  or,  in 
short,  upon  one  and  all  of  the  influences  that 
determine  the  incessant  changes  of  society, 
the  wise  sociologist  asks  himself  what  will  be 
the  effect  upon  the  character  of  the  citizen — 
the  effect  upon  human  nature. 

A  Nation  is  Made  by  its  Units.  There 
is  one  criterion  alone  by  which  the  work  of 
any  and  every  social  act  is  to  be  judged,  and 
that  is  its  effect  upon  individual  character. 
Says  Herbert  Spencer,  in  words  which  should 
be  written  over  the  portals  of  every  legislative 
chamber  on  earth  : 

"  Let  it  be  seen  that  the  future  of  a  nation 
depends  on  the  natures  of  its  units,  that  their 
natures  are  inevitably  modified  in  adaptation 
to  the  conditions  in  Avhich  they  are  placed, 
that  the  feelings  called  into  play  by  these 
conditions  will  strengthen,  while  those  which 
have  diminished  demands  on  them  will  dwindle, 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  bettering  of  conduct 


SOCIOLOGY 

can  be  effected,  not  by  insisting  on  maxims  of 
good  conduct,  still  less  by  mere  intellectual 
culture,  but  only  by  that  daily  exercise  of  the 
higher  sentiments  and  repression  of  the  lower 
which  results  from  keeping  men  subordinate 
to  the  requirements  of  orderly  social  life— letting 
them  suffer  the  inevitable  penalties  of  breaking 
these  requirements  and  reap  the  benefits  of  con- 
forming to  them.  This  alone  is  national  education. 
Of  the  ends  to  be  kept  in  view  by  the  legislator, 
all  are  unimportant  compared  with  the  end  of 
character-making  ;  and  yet  character-making  is 
an  end  wholly  unrecognised." 

Why  the  Statesman  Fails.  The  best 
form  of  government,  then,  is  that  which  makes 
most  rapidly  and  easily  for  the  development  of 
the  highest  worth  in  the  individual  citizen.  We 
must  later  ask  what  is  that  form. 

The  only  criterion  of  the  worth  of  any  society 
is  to  be  found  in  the  lives  of  its  citizens.  The 
great  lesson  of  history  is  that  other  objects  have 
been  conceived  as  the  proper  objects  of  society, 
and  that  certain  consequences  have  flowed 
from  the  pursuit  of  those  objects.  Let  us 
compare  and  contrast  the  consequences  which 
follow  when  other  objects  than  the  production  of 
individual  worth  are  sought  by  the  statesman  or 
the  social  reformer.  We  shall  choose  con- 
trasted instances  in  the  endeavour  to  show 
that  it  is  utterly  immaterial  whether  the  object 
sought  be  good  or  bad  in  itself.  In  either  case 
ultimate  failure  will  follow. 

History  abounds  with  instances  of  societies 
or  nations  whose  rulers  have  set  certain  more 
or  less  selfish  objects  in  view  and  have  for  a 
time  attained  them.  We  know  the  history 
of  empires  ;  we  know  that,  in  the  past,  at 
any  rate,  unqualified  Imperialism  has  always 
cut  its  own  throat  in  the  long  run.  We  have 
various  instances  from  all  ages  of  governing 
powers  who  have  set  themselves  to  the  produc- 
tion of  powerful  armies  as  means  of  conquest. 

Militarism  and  Family  Life  are 
Eternally  Opposed.  To  this  end  all  legis- 
lative measures  have  been  consecrated — 01 
prostituted — and  the  end  has  been  attained. 
Doubtless  many  other  things  have  had  to  go — 
education  has  been  one-sided,  dealing  with  the 
body  rather  than  the  mind  ;  moral  education 
has  dealt  with  the  production  of  unquestioned 
obedience  rather  than  with  the  production  of 
a  sense  of  personal  responsibility  for  one's  own 
actions  ;  family  life,  with  all  that  it  implies 
in  the  ennobling  of  character,  has  been  sacri- 
ficed, for  militarism  and  family  life  are  eternally 
opposed.  Instances  may  be  chosen  on  the  small 
scale  or  on  the  large. 

The  reader  was  taught,  perhaps,  in  his  youth 
to  admire  the  spirit  of  the  Spartans  who  sacrificed 
everything  to  military  efficiency.  The  Spartan 
mother  sent  out  her  son  to  war  telling  him  to 
return  with  his  shield  or  upon  it — yet  Sparta 
did  not  survive.  In  later  times,  when  military 
warfare  has  yielded  in  part  to  industrial  warfare, 
the  men  who  have  had  the  power  to  determine 
the  form  of  society  or  of  portions  of  society  have 
instituted  industrial  regimes  in  which  the  sole 
consideration  has  been  the  efficiency  of  tho 

4371 


SOCIOLOGY 

^lul    m    then''tav.    'when'' notary    elh- 
,im(,,  at.  ,t  was  often  attam.,1  when 

fficiency  is  aimed  at  .t  may  likewise 

Th;"  Material  of  Empire.     But    the  all 
important    truth    is    that    these    objects,  as  such 
.„„    U(,rth    attaining   at   their    price. 

(Heiencv  or  industrial  efficiency, 
,H1|   ,  ,  he  character  of  the ,peop  •-, .is 

to  achieve  a  tempera  at  the  rapidly 

-  ()f  permanent  failure.     The  material 
lpireor  society  that  IB  to. endure  is 
MU(MeV.    nor    red    maps,    nor    mines 
v.eld  precim.s  metals,  nor  treasuries  mountains 
'high,   but  worthy  men  and  women.     All  the 
h  OI1  rar,h.  accumulated  and  possessed 
nthend   into  the  hands  of  one  worthless 
people,  will  not  make  an  empire  that  can  endure 
x    months.     The  legislator  who  legislates 
i  han  character  may  be  counted 
-',fiil  in  his  own  day  and  even  on  the  mor- 
tal t  he  is  not  building  for  all  time— and 
time  will  pronounce  judgment  upon  him  at  the 

The  same  truth  is  demonstrable  in  the  case  of 

legislation  or  other  social  action  which,  unlike  that 

of  the  military  dictator,  is  determined  by  senti- 

ments  of  humanity  and  compassion.     To-morrow 

as  well  as  to-day  has  to  be  thought  of,  and  the 

me   factor  of  character  remains  supreme. 

It  would  be  no  more  foolish  than  many  acts  which 

unwise  people  call  charitable  for  the  State  at 

•Moment  to  expropriate  all  the  private  wealth 

of  the  ( -1111111  iv.  and  to  say  "  We  will  provide  food, 

r.  clothing,  education,  and  a  fair  supply  of 

in. -nts  for  all  who  please."     Thereby  many 

hundreds  of  thousands  or  millions  of  people,  in 

oiintrv  alone,  would  be  very  greatly  bene- 

l  indeed,  for  a  time— they  and  then-  children 

too.     A    vast    humanitarian    end    Avould    have 

tor  a  time.     There  would  be  no 

1  children— for  a  time. 

A  Passing  Good  and  a  Measureless 
Evil.  An  immediate  good  of  some  magnitude 
would  ha\  "tnplished  ;  but  if  we  are  to 

i  .1  final  judgment  upon  this  measure  we  must 
apply  to  it  0111  criterion  of  it->  consequences  upon 
•    majority  of  men  would  not 
v  had  to  work     \\hich  is  natural 
':  \\>-\r    work,    unlike    that    of    the 
iiVords  them  little  or  no  spiritual 
ritercM.      Such    men   would  cease 
to  work  under  the  measure   we  have  imagined. 
•^     that     the     nation     had     some 
Me   mineral    wealth   -o   that 
i--  a  nation,  not  to  work,  do 
•  under  the-,,-  conditions  the  State 
MI. un    Ma'.le  •;      ( )n    the    contrary,    the 
immediate  uood  done  would  he  as  naught  com- 
pared    \\ltll     the     ll)eaMirele»     evil     which     Would 

be  worked   lev  t,      h    would    involve 

oration    of    eha- 


resulting  not  only  in  the  rotting  away  of  the  fibre 
of  manhood.  DU<  also  in  the  pursuit  of  p  easuie 
by  the  many,  under  the  conditions  and  wUh  ft 
conseauenceB  whi«-h  are  now  exhibited  m  the 
casTo  1  c  unemployed  idle  rich.  Such  a  nation 
would  cease  to  produce,  or  to  be  anything  of 
worth  and  the  annexation  of  these  islands  by 
some  Continental  power  would  be  a  matter  of  a 
few  years  at  the  most.  The  little  good  accom- 
plished would  be  far  more  than  nullified  by  the 
evil  influence  of  such  a  measure  upon  character. 
Character  the  Sole  Basis  of  the  State. 
Anything  that  destroys  the  character  of  the 
individual  destroys  the  State— which  depends 
for  its  continued  existence  upon  individual 
character  and  nothing  else.  If  these  propositions 
are  true,  it  follows  that  the  criterion  of  character- 
making  or  unmaking  must  be  applied  to  all 
social  acts  by  any  whose  concern  is  not  with 
the  immediate  present  alone.  Here,  again, 
of  course,  is  another  fundamental  distinction 
between  society  and.  a  mere  chemical  molecule. 
The  present  is  the  child  of  the  past  and  the 
parent  of  the  future,  and  to  reckon  with  the 
present  alone  is  to  court  destruction.  The 
temptation  may  come  in  many  guises,  selfish 
and  unselfish,  but  the  criterion  must  be  applied, 
and  no  measure  which  does  not  satisfy  it  must 
be  allowed  to  pass  uncondemned. 

We  have  now  completed,  in  so  far  as  may 
be,  what  might  be  called  the  Philosophy  of 
Sociology.  We  have  tried  to  show  the  relations 
of  the  life  of  a  society  to  the  life  of  the  individual ; 
we  have  discussed  the  foundations  of  sociology 
and  its  relations  to  the  lower  sciences  on  the  one 
hand,  and  to  the  supreme  science  on  the  other  ; 
and  we  have  tried  to  distinguish  between  the  atti- 
tude of  the  sociologist  who  asks  himself  merely 
what  is  and  what  has  been  and  that  of  the 
sociologist  who,  being  also  a  man  with  human 
emotions  and  aspirations,  asks  himself  what  ought 
to  be  ;  both  of  these  attitudes  being  necessary,  but 
neither  being  allowed  to  distort  the  view  taken  by 
the  other. 

Marriage  the  Central  Institution  of 
Society.  We  must  now  turn  to  the  detailed 
study  of  our  subject,  and  must  begin  with  the 
fundamental  social  institution  of  marriage. 
\Ye  shall  find  it  necessary  here  to  begin  our 
inquiry  at  a  very  early  stage  in  the  history  of 
humanity.  We  must  trace  the  different  forms  of 
marriage  as  they  have  been  experimented  with 
by  man.  We  must  inquire  into  their  conse- 
quences upon  society,  and  must  determine,  if 
possible — and  it  is  not  only  possible  but  easy — 
which  form  of  sexual  relation  is  that  best  fitted 
to  serve  as  the  central  institution  of  a  stable 
and  progressive  society.  This  is  a  subject  so 
important  that  the  sociologist  finds  it  impossible 
to  suffer  fools  gladly  when  they  discourse  upon 
it.  and  being  peculiarly  intricate,  difficult,  and 
important,  it  is  naturally  a  subject  upon  which 
fools  think  it  well  to  expatiate. 


Continued 


CIGARS,  CIGARETTES,  &  PIPES 

Manufacture    of  Roll,    Twist,    and   Cake   Tobacco.     Snuff.     Making   and 
Moulding  Cigars.    Cigarette  Machines.    Clay,  Briar,  and  Meerschaum  Pipes 


Group  23 

APPLIED 
BoTANY 


TOBACCO 

ntinued  from 
page  4274 


HTHE  art  of  manufacturing  smoking  tobacco 
consists  in  selecting  the  different  flavoured 
tobaccos  and  combining  them  to  suit  the  various 
purposes  for  which  they  are  required.  As  noted 
previously,  ageing  improves  the  tobacco,  and 
sometimes  the  leaf  is  soaked  in  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  modify  the  nature. 

Manufacture  of  Shag  and  Bird's= 
eye.  After  mixing,  the  leaves  are  damped, 
or  sauced,  with  water  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
but  in  other  countries  sauces  with  flavouring 
ingredients  are  often  used.  The  water  is  applied 
as  a  spray  [7]  or  in  the  form  of  steam.  When 
uniformly  damped,  the  softened  leaves  are  opened 
out,  smoothed,  and  the  midrib  removed  when 
shag  is  being  made.  The  retention  of  the  midrib 
gives  bird's-eye.  The  leaves  are  then  lightly  pressed 
into  a  cake  to  squeeze  out  moisture,  and  cut  up 
by  a  machine  which  works  after  the  principle  of  a 
chaff  cutter.  In  the  modern  type  of  machine, 
such  as  the  Ajax  cutter  [9],  the  tobacco  is  fed 
continuously  to  the  knife,  which  has  an  out- 
ward clearance  movement 
on  its  upward  stroke  that 
prevents  it  rubbing  against 
the  tobacco,  and  thus  avoids 
discolouring  in  the  case  of  a 
bright  tobacco.  The  cut  leaf 
is  then  roasted,  or  panned, 
to  dry  and  improve  the  flavour. 
The  panning  is  done  either  on  a 
rotating  machine  or  on  heated 
slabs,  care  being  taken  hy  con- 
stant turning  to  prevent  over- 
scorching.  Shag  is  stronger  than 
bird's-eye,  as  the  midrib  contains 
a  smaller  proportion  of  nicotine 
than  the  fleshy  part. 

The  tobacco  termed  returns, 
consisting  of  broken  pieces  of 
leaves  and  sittings,  is  similar  to  shag,  but  milder, 
although  not  so  mild  as  bird's-eye.  Cut  honeydew 
is  a  strong  smoke  made  from  leaves  of  a  light 
colour  that  have  not  been  fermented  to  the  same 
degree  as  those  used  for  shag  or  bird's-eye. 
-  Smoking  Mixtures.  Smoking  mixtures 
of  numerous  virtues  are  put  on  the  market. 
They  are  produced  by  mixing  two  or  more  differ- 
ent tobaccos.  The  following  are  examples  : 

Mild  :  York  River,  4  Ib.  ;  coarse-cut  British 
cavendish,  1  Ib. 

Milder  but  hotter :  Bright  returns,  5  Ib.  ; 
Turkey,  |  Ib.  ;  light  cavendish,  |  Ib. 

Full  flavour  :  Returns,  5  Ib.  ;  cut  cavendish, 
2  Ib.  ;  Latakia,  1  Ib. 

Strong  :  Shag,  4  Ib.  ;  cut  dark  cavendish,  2  Ib. 

Many  mixtures  are  much  more  complex  than 
those  shown  in  the  above  examples,  but  it  will 
be  noticed  that  certain  tobaccos  are  used  as 
bases  and  others  for  flavouring  purposes. 


7.    CLIMAX    TRIPOD    SPRAY 
PUMP 


Roll  and  Twist  Tobacco.  To  make 
roll  tobacco  the  darkest  leaves  are  selected 
and  stripped  and  sauced.  They  are  then 
placed  end  to  end,  and  twisted  or  spun  into 
ropes  of  various  thicknesses.  The  interior 
of  the  rolls  consists  of  the  small  and  broken 
leaves,  the  outer  ones  being  usually  bright  leaves. 
The  spinning  process  is  effected  either  by  hand, 
or  by  a  spinning  machine  [10],  such  as  that  used 
for  making  rope.  The  rope  is  rolled  into  cylin- 
ders or  balls,  which  are  enclosed  in  canvas  and 
tied  round  with  hemp  cords.  These  masses  are 
next  stored  in  moist  heat  for  some  hours,  and  arc- 
then  submitted  to  continuous  pressure  in  hydraulic 
presses  [8]  for  a  month  or  so,  when  a  slow  fermen- 
tation takes  place,  and  a  good  deal  of  the  moisture 
is  pressed  out.  To  facilitate  the  spinning  pro- 
cess and  prevent  the  leaves  caking  together  in  the 
press,  olive  oil  is  used,  and  it  is  also  allowable 
to  add  essential  oils  for  flavouring.  Irish  roll 
is  a  thick  coil,  pig-tail  a  thin  coil,  and  brown 
tobacco  is  one  that  has  not  been 
pressed  after  spinning.  Plug, 
bogie,  nailrod,  negro-head, 
ladies'  roll,  and  target  are  fancy 
names  of  roll  tobacco  for  smok- 
ing  or  chewing.  Twist  ranges 
in  thickness  from  the  size  of  a 
bootlace  upwards. 
Cake  Tobacco.  Cake  or 
plug  tobacco  is  made  in  a  similar 
way  to  that  described  above,  the 
cover  consisting  of  fine  bright 
leaves.  For  chewing,  the  cake  is 
often  sweetened  with  liquorice,  and 
is  known  as  sweet  cavendish.  The 
sweetened  cavendish  is  imported  or 
made  in  bond,  and  can  only  be 
sold  in  stamped  wrappers.  The 
unsweetened  cavendish  is  not  sub- 
ject to  these  restrictions.  Honeydew  is  a  light - 
coloured  cavendish,  and  as  cut  honeydew  is  a 
strong  smoking  tobacco.  Varinas  roll,  of  Dutch 
manufacture,  is  not  seen  often  now  ;  it  is  a 
very  mild  cake.  The  twist  and  cake  form  of 
tobacco  is  much  used  by  the  working  classes 
in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as,  besides  being  stronger 
than  shag  or  bird's-eye,  it  is  more  economical, 
and  also  adapted  for  chewing. 

Snuff.  Although  but  little  used  at  the 
present  day,  snuff-taking  was  formerly  more 
in  vogue  than  smoking.  Up  to  A.D.  1700  snuff 
was  used  to  ward  off  infectious  diseases,  but  it^ 
popular  use  as  a  sternutatory  is  traced  to  a  large 
cargo  captured  by  Sir  George  Rooke  off  Cadiz, 
and  sold  off  in  English  seaports  at  3d.  to  4d.  a 
pound. 

Snuff  is  made  chiefly  from  the  stalks  and  mid- 
ribs of  tobacco  by  a  tedious  process,  during  which 
fermentation  is  induced  several  times.  The 

4373 


the 


APPLIED     BOTANY 

w  material  of  midrib.  .,„!  l;ave,  is  moist- 
wi,h  ;l  solution  of   Mfc  and  ,uled  up    into 

sr3?5s^r5S 

I    for  some  six   montns. 

,,,'     th,.    time   the   Umperature    b( 

and    th.-    heap    M    "i"''"''1  ;tiul 
LM,,und    to    a    liirht    brown 
11  .     This  lewder  is  mixed 
:i    M.lution.  top  pao«efl  in 

,  ten   months, 

when  another  fermentation  occurs,   j, 
and  the  pou (!••!•  develops  colour  ana  \ 
aroma.     The   >nutl    is    well   mixed. 
metimcs  submitted  t..  a  third   ; 
finally   the  snuff  is      , 
well  sifte<l  to  make  it  uniform.     - 
will  thu*    IM>   seen    that    the   process    I. 

.m  18  to  20  months,   i 
ntly  much  of  the  nico- 
dwnpatea. 
Rappee.     A'" i>P"  •  or  /"/""' ''"/"  • 

"   snuff  hi<jhl\  scented,  and   I 


operator.     The  making  of  cigars  by  Hand  can  be 

I Iv' ^ravine  to  render  them  pliable,  the  stem 
is  removed,  and  the  leaves  piled  on  the  top 
of  each  other.  The  workman  sits  at  a  bench  on 
whlh  is  a  maple  wood  block,  under  which  is  a 
drawer  for  waste,  and  near  him  is  a  rack  or  box 
to  receive  the  finished  cigars.  He  is 
also  provided  with  a  knife  for  cutting 
purposes,  a  vessel  of  tragacanth  paste 
for  sticking  the  outer  wrappers,  and 
a  cutter  adjustable  for  various  lengths 
—three  to  seven  inches — with  which 
to  trim  the  end  of  the  cigar  to  the 
proper  length.  There  is  a  pile  of 
wrapper  leaf  kept  damp  on  one  side,  a 
olv  of  filler  leaf  on  the  other,  and 
binder 


8.    HYDRAULIC 

ROLL  TOBACCO 


,  outainmg  on  an  average  40  per  cent. 

of  mot tu re.  The  dark  colour  is 
due  to  long  eontinue.l  fermentation 
while  in  th  •  I 'in.  7ViV'".<  nt'u-tnre 
is  a  rose-scented  rapin-.-.  whkh 
DM  from  the  fact  that 

it  was  used  by  George  IV.  when  Prince  Regent. 
Scotch  <  -«"//*  "«•  i»ade  from  st^lks 

that  have  been  previously  roasted,  which  gives 
n>tie  smell  to  these  snuffs.     Scent 
is  added  to  some  varieties,  and  the  moisture 
is  generally  about  20  per  cent. 

•Miff   is   similar  to 

itT,    but   more  pungent, 

Hth  only  about    .')    per  cent. 

I  it."  Of   Uloist  lire. 

Cigars— Colour      no      Cri- 
terion.   'Pie  dictionary  definition 
eompat  i    roll    of 
tobae  -mokin^r, 

one  en- 1  n  in  tin- 

mouth.  \\hil<-  the  other  is 
,<1  tlie  word  can  l>e 
-|»-lt    in    many    different 
ways.    A  cigar  coi  i 

•re   or   filler,   an 
'I     an 

-Imul.l  '    the 

.\oiiiv.l  t,  I 

d    in 

oner, 

HO  that  th- 

drawn  through  it  from 
It  will  b,- 

guide  to  it>  (jualit v  or 

'stirely  on  the  quality 
of  th.-  tiller  or  iii-id'-  port  inn. 

Making  Cigars  by  Hand.     Inth.  liand- 
made  cigar-  workmen  require  \V.M  -  of  e\p.-ri.-nee 

•i  turn  out  \M-ll-m.;di-  cigars  :    l)iit 
and     vaiioii-     pieces 

'  Mflisl   t  he- 


inner  wrapper  or  binder  leaf  in 
front.  A  wrapper  leaf  is  spread  on 
the  board,  and  cut  into  as  many 
wrappers  as  it  will  make,  the  waste 
being  pushed  into  the  drawer.  The 
binder  leaf  is  torn  into  suitable 
pieces,  and  of  these  a  large  piece  is 
laid  on  the  board,  and  a  smaller  piece 
is  placed  on  the  top  of  it.  The  work- 
PRESS  FOR  man  gathers  up  a  handful  of  filler 
leaf,  shapes  it  according  to  the  kind 
of  cigar  required,  puts  it  on  the 
binder  leaf,  and  rolls  it  therein.  Care  is  needed 
to  effect  the  packing  and  rolling  easily,  or  a 
defective  smoke  will  result.  The  outer  wrapper 
is  then  rolled  on  spirally,  beginning  at  the  thick 
end,  the  mouth  end  of  the  cigar  being  manipulated 
to  a  point,  and  the  edge  of  the  wrapper  touched 
with  paste.  The  cigar  is  then  trimmed  to  the 
desired  length  in  the 
cutter  machine. 

Auxiliary  Ma= 
chinery.  To  assist 
the  workman,  suction 
wTapper  holders  and 
cutters  are  now  em- 
ployed, by  which  a  sav- 
ing of  wrapper  is  ob- 
tained and  a  smoother 
appearance  given  to  the 
cigar.  Originally  the 
suction  tables  were  let 
out  on  hire,  but  they 
are  now  obtainable  at 
much  more  advanta- 
geous rates.  Some  of 
these  have  a  die  for 
cutting  out  the  leaf,  but 
improved  patterns  em- 
ploy a  circular  knife,  so 
that  the  leaf  is  not  torn 
at  the  edges  [12]. 
Bunching  machines  are 
also  employed,  in  which 

the  filler  is  placed  in  a  shaping  cup,  and  by 
means  of  a  concave  roller  and  revolving 
apron  tho  filler  is  quickly  prepared  in  a 
.suitable  shape  for  binding.  In  another 
variety  of  bunching  machine  a  pocket  is 
formed  in  the  apron,  and  no  shaping  cup  is 
needed. 


\.l\\"    TOBACCO    CUTTER 


Moulded    Cigars.      In     moulded     cigars 
the  bunches  of  filler  are  put  into  wooden  moulds, 
some  twenty  moulds  being  arranged  in  each. 
The  filled  moulds  are  placed  under  a  press  for 
some  hours,  and  are  then  ready  for  taking  out 
and  covering.      Naturally  it  does  not  require 
such  expert  workmen  to  make  cigars  by  the 
mould  method,  but  the  results  obtained 
are,  when  using  modern  moulds,  difficult 
to   distinguish    from    hand-made    cigars. 
The  revolving  mould  is  considered  to  give 
the  best  imitation  of  hand- 
made cigars.    The  hand-made 
cigar  generally  contains  more 
tobacco     than     a    moulded 
cigar.     The  moulds  are  ob- 
tainable in  a  great  variety 
of  shapes — the  Miller,  Dubrul, 
&  Peters  Manufacturing  Co., 
of       Cincinnati,     illus- 
trating    in     their     list 
many       hundreds       of 
shapes    and    sizes  [13]. 
The  nearest  approach  to 
a   machine  for  making 
cigars    is    obtained    by 

combining        bunching   10-  GRIEG  s  "  SIMPLEX     SPINNING  MACHINE 
machines  and  moulds.    The  Reuse  machine  feeds 
the  tobacco  to  two  pairs  of  jaws,  which  form 
the  core  to  any  desired  shape,  and  subsequently 
put  on  the  binder  and  wrapper.     A  small  mould 
is    employed    for    shaping    and    polishing    the 
point  of  the  cigar.     The  Wartmann  machine  rolls 
the  cigars  between  four  rub- 
ber rollers,  so  shaped  that  a 
pocket  is  left  between  the 
rollers  in  the  shape  of  a  cigar. 

Finishing  and  Box  = 
ing.  The  cigars  as  turned 
out  by  the  above  processes 
are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  by 
a  gentle  heat,  and  sorted  out 
according  to  colours,  branded 
if  needed  with  a  hot  brand, 
packed,  and  pressed  into 
bundles  or  boxes.  Before 
boxing  the  cigars  a  little  per- 
fume is  sprinkled  in  the  box. 
This  perfume  contains  rum, 
lemon,  cedar,  vanilla,  and 
other  essential  oils,  the  pro- 
portions of  which  vary,  each 
maker  having  his  own  secret 
formulae.  The  red  cedar 
Avood,  of  which  the  boxes  are 
made,  comes  from  Cuba, 
Mexico,  and  Central  America, 
but  the  forests  are  rapidly 
being  depleted. 

Cigarettes.      The    con- 
sumption of  cigarettes   has 
increased  so  enormously  of 
late  years  that  it  is  difficult 
to    realise    that    cigarette-smoking    is    quite    a 
modern  habit.     The    fashion    Avas    set    by  the 
soldiers   Avho   returned  from  the  Crimean   War, 
Avhere     circumstances     had     necessitated     the 
use   of  tobacco  in  the   form  of  cigarettes,  and 


11. 


APPLIED     BOTANY 

preference  clung  to  the  habit  so  formed  when  the 
necessity  for  it  had  vanished. 

Cigarette     Making.      The  art  of  making 
a  cigarette  is  first  to  prepare  a  sufficiency  of 
tobacco  in  the  form  of  a  rod,  and  then  to  enclose 
the  rod  of  tobacco   in  rice  paper,  fastening 
the  edges    of  the  paper  together  by  pasting 
or  twisting.      Cigarettes  up  to  recent  years 
Avere   made   mostly  by  the  smoker  himself, 
but  the  invention  of  automatic  machinery  has 
transferred  the  operation   to 
large      manufacturers.      The 
evolution     of     the    cigarette 
machine  is  a  striking  instance 
of  the  perseverance  of  inven- 
tors and  of  ultimate  success. 
Single    Cigarette    Ma= 
chines.     The  simplest  type 
of  cigarette  machine  is  that 
in  which  single  cigarettes  are 
made,  this  type  being  divisible 
into    two  :     ( 1 )  Machines    in 
AA'hich  the  tobacco  is  prepared 
and    encased   in   rice   paper  ; 
and    (2)    machines   in   Avhich 
the  plug  of  tobacco  is  stuffed 
into   a    ready-made    tube   of 
paper.     It  Avill  be  noted  that  the  efforts  of  uwen- 
tors  were  very  modest  at  first,  the  manufacture 
of  cigarettes  following  strictly  on  the  lines  of  the 
hand-made  article.     As  an  example  of  the  first 
type  of  single  cigarette  machines  may  be  cited 
the  Evans  Concinnum   machine  [14],  Avhich  first 
appeared  on  the  market  in 
1877.    In  this  the  tobacco  for 
one  cigarette  was  arranged 
on  a  grouping  of  small,  cor- 
rugated rollers  driA^en  from  a 
central  wheel.      The  tobacco 
being    neatly    arranged,     a 
cigarette    paper    Avas    intro- 
duced, the   lid  closed,   and 
then  one  turn  of  the  handle 
Avrapped   the    paper  neatly 
round    the     tobacco.      The 
makers  of  this  machine  claim 
that  an  expert  operator  can 
turn  out  150  to  250  cigarettes 
per  hour.    A  more  ambitious 
machine  on  a  similar  princi- 
ple was  that  of  F.  J.  Luding- 
ton,  invented   in    1891.     £1 
this  the  tobacco  was  rolled 
and  the  edge  of  the  Avrapper 
pasted  automatically.      The 
next  step   is  shown   in   the 
Lemaire   machine,  in  Avhich 
the  cigarette  filler  is  cut  into 
lengths   before   being  rolled 
in  paper  and  the  edges  of  the 
paper  pasted,  it  being  claimed 

„          '  -    that  less  Avaste  and  no  loose 

ends  result  from  this  method. 
In  the  Williams  machine  the  tobacco  is  fed  to 
automatic  mechanism  and  predetermined  charges 
severed  and  conveyed  to  the  rolling  apron,  there 
being  mechanism  for  cutting  the  Avrappers  and 
pasting  the  edge,  air  suction  being  employed  to 

4375 


the    uidth 


APPLIED     BOTANV 

top  the  paper,  flat.  Giranl.  in  is'...-,,  with  a 
new  to  quickening  the  process,  devised  a  mov- 
.He  part  in  *»  'uould.  through  uh.rh  the 

*  wa-  by   'l  J''1  "f  ;lir'      '',      , 

e  ako  the  edges  of  the  paper  are  t-.ld.-d. 
010  and  I'.rl-t  drvi>rda  machine  tor  making 
four  dflarettes  at  a  time,  the  rolling  being  in  imi- 
LkJoTof  the  fingers  by  means  of  oscillating 
hinged  levew.  In  Wood's  machine  the  paper  '- 
fed  to  the  m.i.-hme  t- 
which  is  equal  to  the  length 

TI.e 

,nd     Walk. 

vention  is  an  attempt  to  pre- 
pare   the    tobacco   m 
carefully  before  cutting  it 
roper    lengths  and 
feeding  it  to   the   rolling 
;  ii'!' 

Plunger  Type  Ma- 
chine*.      The      i 
Mmnot  machine,  invented 
;.  may  be  taken  a> 
an    early  example   of   the 
plunger     <vp<-      maehine. 
The  tobacco    is    brought 
fp.iii      a      receiver 
,, endless  bands 

luniiiii-      -'    ditlercnt   speeds    to    equalise  the 
the    layer.       The    tobacco    thus 
,  arri.-d  torv,  laterally  into  a  mould, 

. .tt. iiu    of    which    n-'>    to    detach   and 
•  tin-  quantity  to  form  a  cigarette.     A 
form  a  mouthpiece  is  twisted 
into   form    within    the    mould    and    is   carried 
U  w  ith  the  tobacco  when  the  mould  closes. 
M  thru  advances  and  pushes  the  contents 
of  the   mould  out   endwise  through  a  tube  or 
.m  which  a  paper  wrapper  has  previously 
been  arranged.    Nippers  hold  the  wrapper  upon 
.fid  ;it    the  proper  time  allow  it  to 
pass  forward,  so  that  it  may  receive  the  tobacco 
within  it  and  also  the  mouthpiece  in  its  proper 
position  as  these  are  thrust  out  of  the  mould  by 
the  pi-t  nd  of  the  cigarette  is  received 

by  scissor-like  cutters  which  remove  the  super- 
fluous tobacco.  The  wrapp,-r>  to  be  tilled  art) 
taken  from  a  magazine  by  a  ske  \\.T- I  ike  instru- 
ment, which  passes  through  a  wrapper,  removes 
it  endwise  from  the  mag- 
azine, and  carries  it  to  a 
•heath;  then  a  s 

',,          •]    ,     A,    ,          ,,    ,.|    •  ••    , 

•  i  n.j..  :    .-::    .  :i  Ks,-,     .nd 

transfers  it  to  the  sheath. 

TV  .11111-  that 

this  mat-Inn.-   will   make 
150)00  cigarettes  a  day. 

••a  improved  in  i.-p,.,-t 

'lie  mechanism  by  which  the  proper  quantity 

•bacco  is  detached  from  t  h.   i  •  com- 

ptWWOll    &  .'Irs   machine  of 

1886  makes  paper  tuU-s  with  interlocking  edges 

anna-ted.     These  tul*.  »rt  th.  n  placed  on  the, 

end  of  a  funnel  and    U  •••.ntained  in 

inetnushed  into  the  tube  i,v  meaiM  of  a 

P*un»Rr  of  this  type: 

•d  in  an  apron,  and  the  charge 


12.    DUBRUL  SUCTION    WRAPPER   HOLDER 
AND    CUTTER 


)U.hed  bv  a  reciprocating  plunger  into  finished 
tuts.  The  Ollagrner  machine  require, 
I  1(1  work  to  judge  of  the  quantity  of  tobacco  for 
Soh  ma-hine.  the  charges  being  then  rolled  ai 
intl,)(llleed  into  paper  tubes.  Grouvelle  and 
Belot  also  adapted  the  plunger  device  tor  a 
machine  making  two  cigarettes  at  a  time, 
fee  plunger  typl  also  belong  the  Jasmatzi,  Berg- 
straiser  and  Pederson  machines.  The  kew 
T  nmsporter  machine  is  one  which  is  largely  used 
^tobacconists  in  England.  A  paper  tube  is 
slipped  over  a  projecting  funnel  and  held  there 
until  filled  with  tobacco,  and  by  means 
of  interchangeable  parts  the  cigarettes 
may  be  made  circular  or  flat 
and  of  different  degrees  of  thick- 
ness 

It  is  an  interesting  problem 
whether  this  type  of  machine  will 
outlast  other  kinds  referred 
inw  to  in  this  lesson.  It  is  cer- 
tainly at  the  present  one 
of  the  most  popular  types. 
Paper  tubes  for  cigar- 
ettes are  made  in  contin- 
uous lengths,  the  Bruandet 
machine  being  capable  oi 
making  daily  a  length  of 
tube  corresponding  to  half  a  million  cigarette 
tubes.  Separate  machines  cut  up  the  tubes,  and 
in  some  factories  a  special  machine  is  used  for 
opening  up  the  flattened  tube  before  filling  it 
with  tobacco. 

All  =  tobacco  and  Folded  =  end 
Cigarettes.  All-tobacco  cigarettes,  in  which 
the  outer  wrapper  is  cut  from  cigar  leaf,  are 
necessarily  made  on  single  cigarette  machines, 
apparatus  being  provided  for  cutting  out  the 
wrappers.  It  is  necessary  to  exercise  care  in 
cutting  up  a  leaf  of  tobacco  to  avoid  the  heavy 
veins  and  midrib.  A  difficulty  is  often  experi- 
enced in  fastening  the  wrapper  properly.  A 
tragacanth  paste  is  the  best  adhesive  to  use. 
The  Hayden  cigarette  machine  is  one  which  folds 
in  the  end  of  the  cigarette  after  the  manner  of 
Spanish,  Cuban,  or  Mexican  cigarettes.  No  paste 
is  used  on  the  paper  wrapper,  a  twisting  motion 
sufficing  to  hold  the  wrapper  securely.  This  is 
done!* to  enable  the  user  to  readily  open  the 
cigarette,  as  it  is  custo- 
mary for  users  of  this 
form  of  cigarette  to  roll 
the  tobacco  by  hand 
before  smoking. 

Conical  and  Oval 
Cigarettes.  The  shape 
of  cigarettes  is  not  al- 
ways round.  One  of  the 
Bonsack  machines  is  devised  for  conical  cigar- 
ettes, users  of  this  shape  of  cigarette  contend- 
ing that  there  is  less  waste  of  tobacco  in  the  end 
thrown  away.  The  oval,  flat,  or  elliptical  cigar- 
ette is  growing  in  favour,  the  shape  being  better 
adapted  for  holding  between  the  lips.  The  seam 
of  the  paper  wrapper  is  generally  on  the  flat 
side,  but  it  is  suggested  that  an  improvement 
would  be  to  make  the  seam  on  one  of  the  narrow 
The  tobacco  as  prepared  for  the  machine 


is  of  a  round  section,  and  must  be  separately 
moulded  to  the  required  elliptical  shape.  One 
of  the  Elliott  machines  has  been  adapted  to  this 
purpose,  and  one  of  the  well-known  Baron 
machines  moulds  the  tobacco  rod  to  an  elliptical 
shape  before  wrapping.  In  the  Braunstein  and 
Chambon  machine  the  tobacco  is  introduced 
into  the  paper  tube  by  a  spiral  or  screw  arrange- 
ment and  the  finished  cigarette  pressed  into 
oval  form.  Such  cigarettes  have, 
however,  a  tendency  to  return 
to  their  original  shape. 

Mouthpieces.  To 
prevent  cigarettes  ad- 
hering to  the  lips  they 
are  provided  with 
mouthpieces.  These 
may  be  made  by  bronz- 
ing or  waxing  the  end 
of  the  paper  or  by  at- 
taching a  separable 
mouthpiece.  Mouth- 
pieces of  stouter  paper 
than  that  used  for 
wrappers  are  dipped  or 
brushed  with  melted 
paraffin  wax,  which  gives  them  a  translucent 
appearance  and  is  quite  effectual  in  preventing 
the  cigarette  sticking  to  the  lips.  Special 
machines  are  used  for  making  and  attaching 
mouthpieces,  one  kind  also  removing  a  little 
of  the  tobacco  from  the  end  of  the  cigarette 
and  inserting  a  small  plug  of  cotton -wool. 

Continuous  Cigarette  Machines. 
The  machines  in  which  a  long  row  of  tobacco 
is  encased  in  paper — the  operation  proceeding 


14.    EVANS   CIGARETTE   MACHINE 


APPLIED     BOTANY 

brought  to  the  middle  of  the  belt  by  converging 
guard-plates,  and  then  pressed  sideways  between 
two  pressers  moving  towards  each  other.  The 
tobacco  then  passes  between  converging  spring 
guides  to  a  series  of  pairs  of  grooved  shaping- 
wheels  on  vertical  shafts,  by  which  it  is  pressed 
into  an  endless  rope.  Running  along  the  upper 
surface  of  these  wheels  is  a  horizontal  endless 
belt.  Scrapers  of 
special  form  and 
arrangement  are 
provided  to  remove 
any  matter  adhering  to 
the  shaping  wheels. 
The  lobacco  then 
passes  on  to  the  endless 
strip  of  cigarette  paper, 
and  the  two  pass 
through  the  forming 
apparatus,  by  which  the 
paper  is  gradually  bent 
up  and  folded  round 
the  tobacco  and  finally 
pasted  and  pressed. 
The  adhesive  is  applied 
to  the  pasting  disc  by 
means  of  an  endless  thread  running  through 
the  paste  reservoir.  After  the  endless  cigar- 
ette is  formed,  it  passes  to  a  cutting  apparatus, 
consisting  mainly  of  a  rapidly  rotating  disc- 
cutter  carried  at  the  end  of  a  revolving  arm. 
In  1893  was  introduced  the  Sloan  &  Barnes 
machine,  in  which  the  ribbon  of  paper  is  fed 
round  the  rope  of  tobacco  in  a  spiral  manner. 
The  inventors  likewise  improved  the  manner  of 
preparing  the  filler.  The  Maxfield  machine  also 


DITBRUL  S    PAPER-CIGARETTE   MACHINE 


indefinitely — and  then  cut  up  into  cigarettes  mark 
a  distinct  advance  [15].  The  Elliott  machine, 
invented  in  1890,  started  with  the  loose  tobacco, 
which  was  spread  in  a  layer,  parted  into  windrows 
of  uniform  width  and  quantity,  and  pressed  into 
continuous  compact  ropes  or  rods  of  tobacco. 
The  wrapper  was  then  applied  and  pasted 
suitably.  In  the  Bohl  machine  of  1893  the 
tobacco  is  fed  forward  upon  an  endless  carrier 
belt  moving  upon  a  horizontal  table,  and  is 


applies  the  paper  spirally.  The  next  step  in  the 
evolution  is  the  abandoning  of  the  use  of  paste 
for  sticking  the  edges  of  the  paper  horizontally 
applied.  Paste  impares  the  flavour  of  the 
cigarette,  and  Munson's  machine  provided  an 
interlocking  device  for  the  edges  of  the  paper, 
the  seam  being  afterwards  crimped  to  make  it 
hold.  The  Allagnon  method  of  closing  the  edges 
is  by  two  pressures  on  the  seam,  one  being  by 
means  of  a  toothed  disc.  Kirshner  also  claims 

4377 


APPLIED     BOTANY 

an  indenting  or  crimping  de\  i,-e  tor  holding  the 
edge*    to.  Uptable     to     the     Bonsack 

Obviating  Frayed   Ends.     Of  the  many 

aj    fi-om    the 

ties  may   he  mentioned   Lumley  & 
In  this  the  arrangement  for 

i  uttmu  up  the  continuous  rod  is  so  devised  that 

.  ars  the  tobacco  away  from  the  space  about 

to  be  cut.     <  me  of  the  greatest  difficulties  that 

have  had  to  be  overcome  in  this  type  of  machine 

the  apparatus  for  carding  or  combing  the 

tobacco  to  .Mjuali.se  it  before  forming  it  into  rope. 

If  the  supplv  of  tobacco  be  unequal,  it  gives  a 

rope  of  unequal  density,   \\hidi  shows  itself  in 

difficult     to    draw.-   The 

Bonaack  machine  is  one  in  \\hich  the  mechanism 

in  this  respect  lias  reached  a  high  pitch,  one  of 

these  machines  beinir  adapted  equally  for  long 

-traitfht  cut  tobacco  or  granular  tobacco. 

PIPES   AND  PIPE  MAKING 

rials  of  which  tobacco  pipes  are  made 
are  of  various  kinds — clay,  wood,  meerschaum, 
asbestos,   and   metal.     Baked   clay  is  probably 
the  oldest  material  of  which  pipes  have  been 
i.  and  the  manufacture  of  clay  pipes 
•re  ssill  be  considered  first. 
Clay   Pipes.     The  clay  from  which  pipes  are 
ina-le  is  a  soft  clay  nearly  free  from  iron,  lime, 
and    magnesia,  so    that  'it    is   colourless  when 
baked,  and  fcoty.    Broeeley  in  Stafford- 

Cm  I..,;,  in  I >orsetshire,  and  'Glasgow  are 
centre*  of  clay-pipe  manufacturing.  There  are 
two  "  s*es  employed  in  the  making  of 

: 'testing  and  moulding.     Pressing 
»  »"-'  •  the  Continent,  and  is  rapidly 

jyaU'  results  are  very  unsatisfactory. 

'Hiding,  the  clay  is  first  of  all  weathered  and 
atured  till  on  the  addition  of  water  it  can  be 
kneaded    into    a    smooth,  homogeneous    mass, 
hciently   Tenacious  to  hold   together  readily. 
A  m"  "•'  "r  brass  is  prepared  which 

nttflMfe  half  of  the  day  pipe  cut  longitu- 
dinally down  the  „.„,„,  a  bra88  bfcok  occupying 

the  place  of   ,},,  insulrnfthr  bowl.       ('lav  is']., Jd 

b  mould  and   pressed,  the    block    being 
1.  so  Uiat  the  result  is  an  exact  half  of  a 

tuo   or   „„„.,.   «.,„.!,    moulds   be 
— in   actual    manufacture   each    mould 


the 

:  .i!',','!'1 


which  are  solid,  are 

pipe  is  formed.  a  wire 


.. 

' 


tnmi  oir  the 

ioqt  t)  |    ,,„  , 

•ng.       |!;.    : 

ilar     to     the 

;•»•'••".<  w  i-  baked,  and  - 

I    according 
i-     allou.-d     to    d 


to 


of 

'he    kind    Of 
"lit.  and  \\hen 

t  lie  oven. 

TOBACCO 


Shiny  clays  are  treated,  before  baking,  with  a 
lead  glaze,  such  as  is  employed  in  glazing  pottery, 
but  some  clays  receive  a  natural  glaze  from  the 
mould  which  is  retained  even  after  firing. 

The  mouth  end  of  the  pipe  is  tipped  with 
sealing-wax  dissolved  in  methylated'  spirit. 
The  moulds  for  pipes  are  of  various  patterns. 
In  the  list  published  by  McDougall  &  Co.,  of 
Glasgow,  over  400  different  kinds  are  quoted 
and  figured.  Pipe-making  machines  are  also 
employed,  one  of  the  best  being  that  invented  by 
Mr.  Young,  of  the  firm  of  Davidson  &  Co.,  of 
Glasgow. 

Briar    Pipes.      Wooden  pipes  are  made  of 
various  hard  woods,  the  chief    being  briar  or 
bruyere  root.     This  wood  is  used  on  account  of 
its  incombustibility.     Briar  wood  has  no  con- 
nection with  rose  briers,  but  is  the  root  of  Erica 
arborea,  a  species  of  heath,  which  is  grown  in 
France,  Italy,  and  Corsica.     Centres  of  the  briar 
pipe  industry  are  St.  Claude,  Jura  (France),  and 
Nuremberg.     The  pipes  are  finished  and  fitted 
in  London,  but  much  briar  wood  is  now  obtained 
in  Scotland  and    made  into  pipes  in  England. 
The  roots  are  shaped  roughly  into  the  form  of 
pipes,  and  then  simmered  for  twelve  hours  in  a 
vat,  which  has  the  effect  of  imparting  the  much 
admired    yellowish- brown    tint.     A    good    pipe 
needs  to  be  free  from  flaws,  and  as  only  about 
10  per  cent,  of  the  pipes  made  fulfil  this  condi- 
tion, it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why  a  good 
briar  pipe  is  expensive.     The  flaws  in  second 
quality  pipes  are  stopped  up  with  a  composition, 
but  the  difference  is  apparent  after  the  pipes 
have  been   smoked  a   few  times.      The    rough 
blocks  are  converted  into  pipes  by  a  process  of 
turning  and  grinding. 

The  other  woods  used  for  pipes  are  the  Mahaleh 
cherry,  which  grows  near  Vienna,  the  mock 
orange  of  Hungary,  the  jessamine  sticks  of 
Turkey,  Australian  myal  wood,  and  ebony. 

The  Hookah  of  the  East.  Mention 
may  here  be  made  of  the  hookah  or  water  pipe 
preferred  in  Oriental  countries.  This  smoking 
apparatus  consists  of  three  parts  :  (1)  The  head 
or  bowl;  (2)  the  water  bottle  or  base;  and  (3)  the 
flexible  tube  and  mouthpiece.  The  smoke  passes 
through  water,  and  hence  is  quite  cool  by  the 
time  it  reaches  the  mouth. 

Meerschaum    Pipes.      Meerschaum   is  a 
nydrated   magnesium  silicate    which,   from    its 
appearance   and   lightness,  has   become   known 
as       sea-froth."     It    is    found    in    Asia    Minor 
(the    plains  of  Eski-shehr),  at  Negroponte  and 
Namos  (Greece),  and  in    California  and  Spain 
I  he  meerschaum  is  made  into  pipes  at   Vienna 
and  Ruhla  in  Thuringia,  whither  it  is  imported 
m    the   rough   state.     The   irregular   blocks    of 
meerschaum    are    scraped   to    free    them    from 
iieir  red  covering,    dried,    and   polished  with 
ix.     ihe  pipe- bowls  are  also  soaked  in  melted 
arme,    wax,  or   spermaceti    after    they   have 
been   turned    and   carved.      The    reputation  of 
meerschaum  has  declined  of  late  years,  but  some 
smokers  are  still  proud  of  the  colour  they  have 
'Warned  on  a  well-smoked  meerschaum  pipe. 
i  FORESTRY 


Group  29 

THE   RAILWAY   STAFF 

TRANSIT 

The   Three   Divisions  of   the   Railway    Staff.      Conditions  of 

17 

Entrance.     Pension,  Provident,  and  Insurance  Societies'  Funds 

continued  from 

page  4231 

By    H.    G. 

"THE  number  of  persons  employed  by  railway 
companies    in    the     United     Kingdom     is 
known  accurately  for  certain  years  only.     The 
last  official  return  is  still  that  for  1901 : 

7,291 


Stationmasters      . .  8,103 
Brakesmen  and  goods 

guards        . .      . .  15,708 

Permanent  way  men  66,621 

Gatekeepers  . .      . .  3,507 

Engine  drivers     . .  25,556 

Porters 55,276 

Shunters        . .      . .  10,841 

Firemen 24,083 

Inspectors      . .      . .  6,772 


Passenger  guards . . 
Signalmen  and 

Pointsmen..  ..  28,496 
Labourers  . .  . .  53,282 
Ticket  collectors  and 

examiners  . .  . .  3,642 
Mechanics  . .  . .  81,440 
Other  classes ..  ..  185,216 


Total 


. .      . .   575,834 

The  Three  Divisions  of  the  RaiU 
way  Staff.  The  staff  of  a  railway  is  divided 
as  follows : 

1.  Salaried  officers  and  clerks,  commonly  called 
the  clerical  staff. 

2.  The    "  weekly    wages "    staff,    sometimes 
referred  to  as  the  "  uniformed  "  staff,  although 
many  of  its  members  do  not  wear  uniform. 

3.  The  "  daily  wages  "  staff. 

A  hard-and-fast  line  is  drawn  between  classes 
1  and  2.  If  a  man  elect  to  join  the  "  weekly 
wages  "  staff,  he  is  seldom  allowed  to  transfer  his 
services  to  the  clerical  staff,  although,  of  course, 
he  may  be  promoted  from  the  latter  to  the 
former.  At  certain  points  the  two  classes  over- 
lap. For  instance,  a  first-class  stationmaster 
is  a  salaried  official,  whereas  a  second-class 
stationmaster  is  in  receipt  of  a  weekly  wage. 
If  a  man  joins  the  clerical  staff  he  is  not  supposed 
to  exchange  into  the  "  weekly  wages  "  staff  ;  he 
may  do  so,  but  such  exchanges  are  not  encouraged 
by  the  authorities.  The  two  classes  do  not  mix. 

Persons  are  admitted  to  classes  1  and  2  as 
juniors  from  14  to  16  years  of  age,  and  as  adults 
from  18  to  30,  and  in  certain  cases  to  35  years  of 
age. 

The  Clerical  Staff.  The  clerical  staff 
is  open  to  all.  No  form  of  nomination  is 
required  ;  but  some  companies  make  it  a  rule 
to  reserve  a  quota  of  vacancies  for  sons  and 
near  relatives  of  past  and  present  officials. 
Again,  where  the  latter  practice  does  not  exist, 
it  is  only  natural  that  a  claim  of  the  above 
kind  should  cany  influence. 

Junior  candidates  for  railway  clerkships  must 
produce  good  references,  together  with  a  medical 
certificate  of  sound  health,  and  undergo  an 
entrance  examination  (which  is  often  competi- 
tive) in  writing,  spelling,  geography  of  lines  of 
communication,  arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  short- 
hand, et<\  As  to  what  department  a  successful 
candidate  is  posted  depends  upon  the  nature  of 
the  vacancies  at  the  time.  A  small  station  is  the 
best  place  for  a  lad-clerk,  as  there  he  will  learn 
parcels,  goods,  and  passenger  service  work, 
together  with  telegraphy,  etc.  ;  in  short,  pick  up 
a  bit  of  knowledge  about  everything.  The  young 
railway  clerk  may,  however,  find  himself  posted 


ARCHER 

to  any  one  of  the  departmental  offices — namely, 
that  of  the  general  manager,  goods  manager, 
superintendent  of  the  line,  or  secretary,  etc. 

Examinations.  When  18  or  19  years  of 
age,  he  is  called  upon  to  pass  the  senior  clerks' 
examination,  and  also  a  stiff  medical  examination 
by  the  company's  doctor,  the  latter  in  order  to 
qualify  for  admittance  to  the  company's  super- 
annuation fund,  membership  of  which  is  obliga- 
tory upon  every  salaried  servant. 

Adult  candidates  for  railway  clerkships  have 
to  pass  the  senior  clerks'  examination,  and  also 
the  above  medical  examination,  unless  they  be 
above  a  certain  age — the  usual  limit  being  28 — 
in  which  case  they  are  disqualified  from  enjoying 
the  benefits  of  the  superannuation  fund. 

"Weekly  Wages"  Staff.  Lads  are 
appointed  to  the  "  weekly  wages  "  staff,  pro- 
vided that  they  have  good  characters  and 
sound  health,  as  vacancies  occur.  No  formal 
educational  examination  is  demanded  of  them. 
As  a  rule,  a  divisional  inspector  examines 
the  lads  in  order  to  see  that  they  are  fairly 
intelligent  and  able  to  read  and  write.  The 
majority  of  youths  join  the  traffic  department  as 
lad  porters,  telegraph  boys,  van  boys,  and  other 
similar  appointments,  while  those  who  enter  the 
locomotive  department  begin  as  bar  boys  or 
cleaners.  On  arriving  at  the  age  of  18  every 
member  of  the  "  weekly  wages  "  staff  has 
to  undergo  a  searching  medical  examination, 
together  with  a  test  for  colour-blindness,  which 
is  a  fatal  defect  in  a  railway  servant.  Upon  a 
successful  issue  depends  his  continuance  in  the 
company's  service  and  admittance  to  the  provi- 
dent society,  membership  of  which  is  compulsory. 
A  large  number  of  railway  servants,  however,  join 
the  "weekly  wages  "  staff  as  adults,  between  the 
ages  of  18  and  30,  and  they,  too,  have  to  possess 
a  fair  education,  sound  health,  and  freedom 
from  colour-blindness. 

Mechanics.  In  the  Board  of  Trade 
return  for  railway  employees  "'  mechanics " 
constitute  the  largest  class  separately  enumer- 
ated. The  reason  of  there  being  so  many 
mechanics  employed  is  that  most  British  railway 
companies  build  and  repair  their  own  locomotives 
and  rolling  stock,  while  a  number  also  manufac- 
ture their  own  signalling  apparatus,  and  one,  at 
least — the  London  and  North-Western — rolls  its 
own  rails,  and  undertakes  nearly  all  the  steel 
and  iron  work  for  its  bridges,  warehouses,  etc. 
Therefore,  our  railway  companies  are  manufac- 
turers in  a  large  way  of  business.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  mechanics  employed  in  the 
erecting  shops  are  paid  pro  rata  a  daily  wage. 

The  "  daily  wages "  staff  also  comprises  a 
number  of  "  supernumeraries."  For  example,  at 
Christmas  time,  additional  hands  have  to  be 

4379 


TRANSIT 

engaged  as  passenger  porter-.      Further,  railway 
-  give  limited  employment  to  females. 
Till     ijuitr    recently,     female'  employees    were 
h  posts  as  laundry- maids,  ladio' 
cloak  room  attendant-,  and  barmaids  in  refresh- 
ment rooms.     Houcver.  female  clerks  are  now 
empli.yi-d    l.y   the   principal   railway  companies 
in  the  chief  p»<»ds  oflices.  and  the  employment 
of  women  in  this  branch  will  be  augmented  in 
the  future.     The  Great  Western  Railway  employs 
female  attendants  on  a  few  of  its  long-distance 
-es.     The  duties  of  these  "train 
:  e  t  he  care  of  t  he  toilet-rooms,  the  charge 
iildivn  while  their  parents  or  guardians  are  at 
meals  in  the  restaurant  cars,  and  the  chaperonage 
•  Hint:    without    an    escort.     The 
i  railways  have  some  female  booking  clerks. 
It  may  IK-  noted  that  the  Continental  railways 
irther  than  the  British  where  female  labour 
ned,  employing  women  as  gatekeepers 
at  level  crossings,  and  placing  them  in  charge  of 
signal  cabins  on  main  lines  even.     On  its  present 
comparatively  small  scale  in  the  goods  and  traffic 
departments,  female  labour  is  mainly  recruited 
by  M-leetion  from  among  the  daughters  of  the 

i  panics'  "  weekly  wages"  staffs. 
Premium     Apprentices.       Most    com- 
ics take  "gentlemen,"  "cadet,"  or  "superior 
apprentices"  into  their  locomotive  and  engineer- 
ing departments,  and   one  or  two  also   admit 
a  few  snch  premium  apprentices  to  the  clerical 
staff.    The  age  at  which  "  superior  apprentices  " 
are    accepted    is    generally    about     17    years. 
There  is  no  formal  examination  save  for  sound 
th    and    eyesight,    but   candidates   are   ex- 
">   have   what   is   known  as   "a  good 
public  sehonl  education. "     The  premium  payable 
•nth  th.-  dirterent    companies  from  £50 
tnd  is  partly  returned  in  wages  after  a 
tionary  period  has  been  served,  the  remain- 
f  the  money  being  devoted  to  the  mechanics' 
schools,  etc.,  organised  by 
tor  the  benefit  of  their  employees 
>""">. apprenn.vs  go  through  the  mill  in  the 
<""<>nve  uorks.  earriage  shops,  running  sheds, 
rawing  offices,  etc.,  just  like  the  sons  of  working 
U  «  ho  are  apprenticed  to  a  railway 
>mpany  u.thout   joying  any  premium.     As  a 
'  (1""'"<"  promise  of  future  employment 
the  apprentice  ,\}M  have  completed  his 
«  made.    Therearesofew  higher  posts  in 
he  railway  seme,  that  t  he  companies  are  flooded 
fully.tramed  p-m  !,.,„,.„   apprentices,  who 

2£±ESBjS 

m 


The  manual  contains  a  compendium  of  the  rules 
laid  down  for  signalling,  control  and  working 
of  stations,  working  of  trains  and  permanent 
way  and  works.  "  Every  servant  will  be  held 
responsible  for  a  knowledge  of,  and  compliance 
with,  the  whole  of  its  contents." 

Varieties   of  Occupation.     The  railway 
service  embraces  several  hundreds  of   distinct 
occupations  and  grades  of  particular  occupations. 
The    following    table   sets   forth    the    principal 
callings  of  railway  servants  as  distinct  from  the 
salaried  staff.     The   department  under  which 
each  occupation  falls  is  indicated  in  brackets. 
Labourers,  miscellaneous 
Lampmen  (traffic) 
Letter  sorters  (traffic) 


Artisans  (engineer's) 
Ballast  packers  (engineer's) 
Har  boys  (loco.) 
Boiler  smiths  (loco.) 
Boiler  washers  (loco.,) 
Book  carriers  (goods) 
Brakesmen   (goods) 
Callers-off  (goods) 
Canvassers  (goods) 
(  anvassers,  passenger 

(traffic) 

G'apstanmen  (goods) 
Carriage  cleaners  (carriage 

and  waggon) 
Carriage  examiners  (carriage 

and  waggon) 
Checkers  (goods) 
Clerks,  booking  (traffic) 
Clerks,  goods (goods) 
Clerks,  parcels  (traffic) 
Clerks,  lost  property  (traffic) 


Loaders  (goods) 
Number  takers  (goods) 
Omnibus  drivers  (horse) 
Platelayers  (engineer's) 
Porters,  platform  (traffic) 
Porters,  luggage  (traffic) 
Porters,  goods,  indoors 

(goods) 

Porters  (parcels  post  traffic) 
Porters,  signal  (traffic-signal 

engineer) 

Point  cleaners  (engineer's) 
Policemen  (traffic) 
i  Rail  motor-car  drivers  (loco.) 
;  Kail  motor-car  firemen  (loco.) 
Rail  motor-car  conductors 

(traffic) 
Road  motor-car  drivers  (loco. 


;"""°>  '"Dupiujjcii.j   iLiuimy      .„,   ^t  umcio  viuuu. 

C  erks,  telegraph  (engineer's)  |     or  special  automobile  dept.) 
Clerks,  female  (goods)  I  Road  motor-car  conductors 

Conductors  (traffic)  ;      (traffic) 


and  refreshment)            *''"  Sig™Lfitt€lrs  (Baffle-signal 

Electricians  (electrical 
engineer's) 

I'ngiimer; 
Signal  linemen  (traffic-signal 

Engine-drivers  (loco.) 
Engine-coalers  (loco.) 

engineer) 
Sleeping-car  attendants 

it  raflR/>\ 

Engine-cleaners  (loco.) 
Firemen  (loco.) 
Fire-droppers  (loco.) 
Fire-lighters  (loco.) 
Fitters  (loco.) 

(tramc) 
Stationmasters  (traffic) 
Smiths,    miscellaneous    (en- 
gineer's, works  manager's, 
chief     mechanical     engi- 

Foremen, platform  (traffic) 
Foremen,  parcels  (traffic) 
Foremen,  permanent  wav 

neer's) 
Surfacemen  (engineer's) 
Telegraphists  (traffic) 

(engineer's) 

Telegraph  messengers, 

Foremen,  shed  (loco.) 

juniors  (traffic) 

Foremen,  shunter  (traffic) 

Telegraph    linesmen    (elec- 

Gangers ^engineer's) 

trical  engineer  or  signal 

Gatekeepers  (traffic) 
Goods  agents 

engineer) 
Ticket  collectors  (traffic) 

Guards,  passenger  (traffic) 
Guards,  goods  (traffic) 

Ticket  inspectors  (traffic) 
Truck  markers  (goods) 

Guards,  relief  (traffic) 

Tube  cleaners  (loco.) 

Guards,  porter  (traffic) 
Guards,  pilot  (traffic) 

Van  boys  (traffic) 
Van  drivers  (traffic) 

Greasers  (carriage  and 

Van  mechanics  (carriage  and 

waggon) 

waggon) 

Horsekeepers  (horse) 

Van  washers  (horse) 

Horse  stablers  (horse) 
Inspectors,  district  (traffic) 
Inspectors,  district 

Waggon  examiners  (carriage 
and  waggon) 
Waiting-room  attendants 

(engineer's) 

(traffic) 

Inspectors,  platform  (traffic) 
Inspectors,  yard  (goods) 
Kitchen  porters,  dining-car 
(hotels  and  refreshment) 

Watchmen  (traffic) 
Wheel  tappers  (loco,  carriage 
and  waggon) 
Yardmen  (goods) 

Some  particulars  as  to  wages  are  included  in 
the  following  articles  of  the  series,  which  deal 
with  the  work  of  the  different  departments. 
The  companies  also  provide  the  uniforms  for  all 
members  of  the  uniformed  staff,  and  also  certain 
Jcles  of  the  working  clothes  worn  by  other  ser- 
vants.  For  instance,  enginemen  are  supplied  with 
t-coats  and  labourers  with  greatcoats     Then 

lodging  allowances  are  given  and  travelling  ex- 
penses defrayed  when  men  are  away  from  home. 

Advantages  and  Drawbacks  of  the 
Service.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  railway  service  may  be  enumerated. 

First  is  permanency  of  employment  and 
security  of  pay.  Once  on  the  regular  staff  a 
man  may  rely  upon  continuing  in  the  company's 
service  till  incapacitated  by  age,  provided  that 
his  habits  are  steady  and  diligent.  The  railway 
service  is  on  a  par  with  the  Post  Office  and  other 
Government  spheres  of  employment  in  that  its 
employees  have  nothing  to  fear  from  fluctuation 
of  trade.  The  only  exception  is  the  case  of  the 
mechanics  employed  at  railway  works,  who  are 
liable  to  be  placed  on  short  time,  but  not  dis- 
charged in  time  of  slackness. 

Secondly,  there  are  the  liberal  superannuation, 
.pension,  provident  funds,  etc.,  backed  up  by  well- 
organised  benevolent  societies  and  saving  banks. 

Thirdly,  the  man  has  a  fair  field  and  no 
favour  in  respect  to  promotion.  Sir  George 
Findlay  did  not  exaggerate  when  he  wrote : 
"  The  humblest  railway  servant,  if  he  does  not, 
like  one  of  Napoleon's  corporals,  carry  a  marshal's 
baton  in  his  knapsack,  may  at  least  contemplate 
a  field  of  possible  promotion  of  almost  as  wide  a 
scope."  It  would  surprise  the  public  to  hear 
of  the  humble  beginnings  of  many  of  the  fore- 
most railway  men  of  the  day. 

First  among  the  disadvantages  are  the  long 
hours,  and  secondly,  where  the  salaried  staff 
are  concerned,  the  emolument  cannot  be  de- 
scribed as  princely.  The  higher  posts  carry 
with  them  good  incomes,  but  the  number  of 
such  posts  is  proportionately  very  small,  work- 
ing out  to  about  only  one-tenth  per  cent, 
of  the  total  number  of  all'  grades  employed. 
Thirdly,  hard  and  unremitting  application  to 
work  is  demanded  of  all  railway  men.  There  is 
a  fourth  disadvantage,  which  concerns  only  the 
operating  staff — that  is,  enginemen,  shunters, 
guards,  etc.,  whose  duties  must  be  placed  in 
the  category  of  dangerous  employments. 

Superannuation.  Superannuation  fund 
associations  are  for  the  benefit  only  of  the 
salaried  officers,  and  membership  is  obligatory 
as  a  condition  of  service  for  all  who  join  under 
28  years  of  age.  Their  object  is  to  provide 
each  contributing  member  with  a  superannua- 
tion allowance  on  his  retirement  from  the 
service  between  60  and  65  years  of  age,  or  at 
any  earlier  period  should  his  health  perma- 
nently fail,  provided  that  he  has  been  at  the 
time  of  his  retirement  a  paying  member  for  ten 
years,  while  there  is  also  a  payment  to  a 
member's  next -of -kin  in  the  event  of  his  death 
before  superannuation. 

Each  of  the  larger  companies  has  its  own 
superannuation  fund,  managed  by  its  own  officers, 
while  the  Railway  Clearing  House  has— or, 
rather,  had— a  Superannuation  Fund  Corporation 
for  all  less  important  companies  who  chose  to 
join  it.  In  1905,  unfortunately,  on  a  valuation 
the  latter  fund  was  found  to  be  not  what  is  called 
"  actuarially  sound,"  and  the  scale  of  benefits  had 
to  undergo  drastic  revision.  The  Great  Central 


TRANSIT 

Company,  however,  withdrew  and  founded  one  of 
their  own.  They  did  it  on  terms  amicably  arranged, 
and  some  of  the  other  companies  affected  are 
now  seeking  powers  to  follow  their  example. 

The  members'  contributions  amount,  as  a  rule, 
to  2f  per  cent,  per  annum  of  their  salaries,  being 
deducted  monthly  from  their  pay,  and  the 
company  contributes  in  equal  proportion.  If  a 
member  elect  to  retire  from  the  service  of  a 
company  before  superannuation,  or  if  his  services 
be  dispensed  with  by  the  company  from  any 
caitf e  other  than  fraud  or  dishonesty,  he  receives 
back  the  whole  of  his  own  contributions.  If 
he  be  dismissed  for  fraud  or  dishonesty,  he  is 
liable  to  forfeit  the  whole  of  his  contributions.  If 
he  die  before  superannuation,  his  representatives 
receive  the  equivalent  of  half  a  year's  average 
salary,  calculated  over  the  whole  term  of  his 
contributions,  or  the  sum  of  his  own  contribu- 
tions and  those  of  the  company  in  his  behalf, 
whichever  be  the  greater. 

Provident  Societies.  The  "  wages  " 
staff,  both  weekly  and  daily,  have  the  benefits 
of  insurance,  provident,  and  pension  societies. 
The  object  of  the  insurance  society  is  to  provide 
an  allowance  for  the  first  two  weeks  of  dis- 
ablement arising  from  accident  incurred  while 
in  the  discharge  of  duty,  and  a  supplemental 
allowance  to  that  provided  by  the  Workmen's 
Compensation  Act,  1897,  in  cases  of  disablement 
extending  beyond  two  weeks,  and  an  allowance 
in  cases  of  death  or  permanent  disablement 
arising  from  accident  in  the  discharge  of  duty, 
in  those  cases  in  which  the  company  are  not 
liable  under  the  above  Act,  or  are  only  liable 
up  to  a  sum  of  £10  ;  also  an  allowance  in  cases 
of  death  arising  from  other  causes  than  accident 
on  duty.  Membership  of  the  insurance  society 
is  voluntary,  the  men  contributing  from  Id.  to 
3d.  per  week,  according  to  class. 

The  provident  and  pension  societies  are 
usually  merged  together,  and  membership  of 
both  is  obligatory. 

The  provident  society  insures  a  weekly 
allowance  in  cases  of  temporary  disablement 
for  work  arising  from  other  causes  than  accident 
on  duty ;  a  retiring  gratuity  for  old  or  disabled 
members  in  certain  cases,  with  the  same  restric- 
tion as  before  ;  a  death  allowance  to  the  repre- 
sentatives of  deceased  members,  provided  that 
death  was  not  incurred  through  an  accident 
on  duty ;  and  an  allowance  towards  the  funeral 
expenses  on  the  death  of  a  member's  wife. 

The  pension  fund  awards  pensions  to  old  or 
disabled  members  aged  between  sixty  and 
sixty-five,  subject  to  their  having  been  members 
for  a  period  of  twenty  years  ;  while  when  he 
has  arrived  at  sixty-five  any  member  can  claim 
his  pension  irrespective  of  the  state  of  his  health. 

The  weekly  premiums  to  the  joint  societies 
begin  at  2d.  for  third-class  members  under  18 
years  of  age,  or  receiving  less  than  12s.  per 
week  in  wages,  and  rise  to  Is.  2d.  in  the  case  of 
members  who  join  the  first-class  from  forty  to 
forty- four  years  of  age. 

Some  companies  have  distinct  benefit  societies 
for  the  locomotive  staff. 


Continued 


4381 


Group  10 

TELEGRAPHS 

t 


TELEGRAPHY 


By  D.  H.  KENNED* 


tuition    in 


telegraphy 


Polytechnic.     The  length  of  time  without  pay  i 


,„,,   of'  tli.- 


is  to  make  acquaint- 

ance  with  the   Morse  code  [1]  and  the  time  code 
1  21  and  for  this  purpose  he  is  provided  with  cards 

infor- 


all classes 

"f  "in  '  lld  of  work 

M  arc  found  in  every 
telegraph  station. 

Mthough  the  art  of  signal- 

ling     messages    was    known 

U-fon-    the    invention    of    tl"' 

graph  in  1837,  the 

,.Morm..u>  development  whieh 

ed    that   epoch-making 

Bd  the  provi- 

,f    large    numbers    of 

..nd  opened  a  new 

career  to  many  thousands  of 

iM.ih   MOM.      1"    parsing,  we 

may  mention  that  there  are 

limn-  •  "(-es  of  *-'" 

•taining    to    posi- 

of    world- wide     fame, 

•rthy   e\ample> 

,1    inventor. 
and   Carnegie,  the  millionaire 

Entering  the  Service. 

The  aspirant  mu>t  lirst  enter 
for  one  of  the  open  Competi- 

K\amination>    for    Tele- 
graph Learner-.     Full    infor- 
mation is  givrn  in  the   Civil 
2S07  , 
and  we  shall  assume  that  his 

to  th.-  Chril 

aminers  has  had  a  sati^fai  - 
lory  result,  ami  that  he  ha« 

the  inspection  of  the 


THE  MORSE  ALPHABET 


o —    u  — 

p V  — - 

a W 


T  - 


I--.T 


6 N 


Of  AT    TO    THC   RIGHT 

NUMERALS 
j 4 7 O 1 

2 5 a 

3 6 9 

OJtA  OF  DIVISION  (AS   //V  J-  )    —  -•  —  • 

OOL/QUC     STROKE  (AS  IN  2/3) 

SYMBOL    TO  BE  USED   BETWEEN _ 

WHOLE  NUMBERS  AND  FRACTIONS 

ABBREVIATED   NUMERALS 

(PO*  U3CONLY  IN  THE  REPETITION  OF  Fl6> 
WHICH  HVHIfOIATELY  FOLLOWS  THE.  SI6NAH 
OF  The  MESSAGE) 


7  — 
2-- 
3 


5- 

6— • 


PUNCTUATION  8,c 

FULL  srof>(.) 

BRfAK  SIGNAL  fBETHeEN    T HE 

ADDRESS  AhD  TH£   T£XT  gf  B£TW£fN  (__..._ 

3fND£R  .  IF  ANY) 

INTERROGATION  (?) • 

EXCLAMATION  ( .' ) 

HYPHEN  (-)—-.--  — 

Af»OS  TROPHE(  ') — 

FRESH  LINE 


be  \\ill 
remain  untr  -nth 

\|KTtnes«  to  deal  \sith  public  messages. 

-A  ill    praetisc  eight 
'luire    from    lo    to 

20  weeks  to  reach    tin-    n-ijuired    standard.      In 
most   cases    the    l.-arner    will,    on  entering  the 
*«•«•    for    t!ie    tir-t    tiiin-    a    telegraph    in- 
strument,    hut     many    energeti.-     youths    \\hile 


UNDERSTAND  OH  END  OF  MESSAGE   -  *  -  —~ 

RUB  ou T*-*-*****       &o  o/v  ^  —  - 

WAIT    —  ___._ 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT   .^.— .. 
CL EARED   OUT  — 


1    MMKSK  CODE 


•    th.-ir  "Civil   S,-i  vi. •«•  'Kxaminat  ion 


giving   the    necessary 
mation. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  are 
formed  by  combinations  of 
dots  and  dashes,  varying  in 
number  from  one  to  four, 
while  the  figures  in  each  case 
have  five.  In  determining 
the  proportionate  length  of 
the  various  signals  and  spaces, 
the  fundamental  unit  is  the 
dot.  A  dash  is  equal  in  dura- 
tion to  three  dots.  The  space 
between  the  elements  of  a 
letter  is  equal  in  length  to 
one  dot.  The  space  separ- 
ating the  letters  of  a  word  is 
equal  to  three  dots,  while 
the  space  between  Avords  is 
equal  to  six  dots. 

The  time  code  is  used  prin- 
cipally to  indicate  the  time 
at  which  a  telegram  was 
handed  in.  Each  figure  on 
the  clock  has  an  assigned 
letter,  so  that  A  stands  for 
1  o'clock,  C  for  3  o'clock,  AC 
for  1.15,  CA  for  3.5,  and  so 
on.  For  the  four  minutes 
which  intervene  between 
every  two  five -minute  points, 
the  letters  r,  s,  w,  and  x  are 
used,  so  that  CAr  means  3.6, 
and  ACw  means  1.18. 

The  Sounder  Instru= 
ment.  After  studying  this 
card  the  learner  will  take  his 
place  at  a  sounder  set  [5], 
consisting  of  a  single-current 
key  and  a  sounder.  They  are 
short-circuited— that  is,  ar- 
ranged so  that  the  key  control^  the  sounder. 
There  he  will  spend  many  hours  practising  the 
formation  of  the  letters,  and  familiarising  his 
ear  with  the  sounder. 

Much  care  and  patience  are  necessary,  for  a 
bad  style  once  formed  cannot  easily  be  improved. 
C  is  usually  found  to  be  the  most  difficult 
letter,  while  H  and  V  also  require  special 


7  -•- 

8  — 
9-- 


attention.  When  he  has  made  some  progress  the 
learner  is  allowed  access  to  the  inkwriter  [3]. 
Here,  in  addition  to  hearing  the  sounds,  he  has 
a  printed  record  of  his  efforts,  and  is  able  to 
see  from  the  inked  slip  which  letters  require 
most  attention  with  a  view  to  improvement. 

Before  introducing  any  other  instrument, 
it  will  be  well  to  explain  the  adjustments  of  those 
already  mentioned.  Further  details  of  the 
theory  and  construction  of  all  the  apparatus 
will  be  found  in  Telegraph  Engineering.  The 
telegraphist  is  concerned  only  with 
the  working  adjustments. 

Adjusting  the  Key.  The 
single -current  key  is  made  up  of  a 
brass  lever  which  is  mounted  on  an 
axle  so  that  it  oscillates  between 
two  contact  points.  At  the  front 
upper  side  of  the  lever  there  is  a 
horn  or  ebonite  knob  which  is 
shaped  so  as  to  be  conveniently 
held  by  the  thumb  and  first  two 
fingers  of  the  right  hand.  The 
brass  bridge  and  contact  points  are 
fixed  on  a  suitable  wooden  base. 
Normally  the  lever  is  held  in  connection  with 
the  rear  contact  point  by  the  tension  of  the 
spiral  spring. 

There  are  only  two  adjustments,  one  to 
determine  the  amplitude  of  the  oscillation — 
commonly  called  the  play  of  the  lever — and  the 
second  to  regulate  the  tension  of  the  spiral  spring. 
The  former  adjustment  is  made  by  means  of  the 
long  screw  which  passes  through  the  rear  end 
of  the  brass  lever.  The  screw  has  a  cylindrical 
head  containing  small  holes,  so  that  it  can  be 
turned  by  a  capstan  spike,  a  little  tool  better 
known  to  the  telegraphist  as  a  tommy.  It  will 
be  observed,  however,  that  the  end  of  the  brass 
lever  is  split,  and  on  one  side  of  the  lever  there 
is  a  blue  metal  screw  which  is  screwed  up  so  as 
to  tighten  up  the  split  portion,  and 
prevent  the  adjustable  con- 
tact screw  from  moving 
The  blue  screw  must  first  be 
opened  ;  the  contact  screw 
can  then  be  altered  to  any 
desired  position,  and  the  blue 
screw  again  tightened  up 
The  usual  amplitude  is 
about  ij^nd  of  an  inch. 
The  adjustment  of  the 
tension  is  made  by  raising 
or  lowering  the  screw 
nearest  the  axle.  For 
this  purpose  a  screwdriver 
is  necessary.  Oil  is  never 


TIME    CODE 


3.    INKWRITER 


TELEGRAPHS 

screw  to  a  bent  lever  of  brass,  the  latter  being 
provided  with  axle  pins,  and  mounted  in  a  brass 
bridge. 

The  bottom  end  of  the  armature  lever  is 
attached  to  a  spiral  spring.  The  other  end  of  this 
spring  is  connected  to  the  milled  adjusting  screw 
which  can  be  seen  in  front  of  the  cores,  and 
normally  the  spring  tends  to  hold  the  armature 
away  from  the  electromagnet. 

The  upper  end  of  the  armature  lever  carries 
an  adjustable  stop  which  passes  through  it,  and 
strikes  against  the  angular  bridge 
piece,  when  the  armature  is  at- 
tracted. The  uppermost  adjusting 
screw  forms  the  banking  stop  for 
the  lever  in  its  normal  or  upper 
position.  Both  of  these  adjusting 
stops,  and  the  two  axle  screws  are 
provided  with  check  nuts.  In  ad- 
justing a  sounder  it  is  first  necessary 
to  see  that  the  lever  is  properly 
centred,  and  the  axle  screws  neither 
too  tight  nor  too  loose.  The  lower 
adjusting  stop  should  then  be  fixed 
so  that  the  distance'  between  the 
armature,  when  depressed,  and  the  iron  cores  is 
about  ^oth  °f  an  mcn-  It  must  be  specially 
noted  that  if  the  armature  be  allowed  to  touch 
the  cores  it  will  not  work  properly.  The  upper 
stop  should  next  be  adjusted,  and,  finally,  the 
tension  of  the  spiral  spring. 

Adjusting  the  Inkwriter*  The  ink- 
writer  [3],  now  but  little  used  in  comparison 
with  the  large  number  of  sounders,  was,  in  this 
country,  the  predecessor  of  that  instrument. 
It  is  practically  the  same  instrument,  but  with 
the  armature  lever  lengthened  to  carry  an  ink- 
wheel  rotating  in  an  ink-well  and  arranged 
so  that  when  the  armature  is  attracted  the 
wheel  makes  a  record  on  a  paper  tape  which  is 
drawn  over  a  roller  by  clockwork.  The 
gradual  discovery  by  expert  operators, 
that  they  could  interpret  the  sounds 
made  by  the  armature,  led  to  the 
introduction  of  the  much  simpler 
and  cheaper  sounder  instrument. 
The  adjustment  of  the  ink- 
writer,  however,  differs  consider- 
ably in  detail  from  that  of  the 
sounder.  The  end  in  view 
is  the  same  in  each  case, 
but  whereas  with  the 
sounder  we  begin  from 
the  fixed  electromagnet 
and  bring  the  other  parts 
into  proper  relation,  in 
the  case  of  the  ink- 


necessary,  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  oil 
is  an  insulator,  and  that  its  presence  on  electrical 
apparatus  usually  leads  to  trouble. 

Adjusting  the  Sounder.  We  turn  now 
to  the  sounder.  It  is  a  little  more  complicated 
than  the  key.  It  consists  of  an  electromagnet 
and  a  movable  armature.  The  electromagnet — 
two  bobbins  of  insulated  wire,  having  iron  cores 
connected  at  the  lowrer  end  by  a  yoke  piece  of 
iron — is  fixed  to  the  brass  base.  The  armature — 
a  piece  of  blue  annealed  soft  iron — is  fixed  by  a 


writer  we  have  to  begin  with  the  ink-wheel, 
which  must  first  be  properly  arranged  for  marking 
the  paper  when  the  armature  is  attracted.  This 
is  achieved  by  regulating  the  bottom  banking  stop 
of  the  armature  lever.  The  upper  stop  limiting 
the  play  next  receives  attention,  and  finally  the 
electromagnet  is  brought  up  to  the  proper 
distance  from  the  armature  by  turning  the 
adjusting  screw  near  the  base  of  the  electro- 
magnet. The  tension  of  the  antagonistic  spring 
is  adjusted  in  the  same  way  as  for  the  sounder. 

4383 


TELEGRAPHS 

An.MU  .-..  A,,.  .11;;;;;;;f.-i;;;:'; 

"JWSSsSSS 

•  _j — «is,  and 


I  so  to  translate  the 

illt,,  tl,-   written  message.     It 
observed  that  the  mental  pro- 
to  whirh  tl,,n-.-ivin« tolegmphwt 
ngaped  i*  v-rv  >imilar  to  that  of 
shonl.uul  ,,,:,,  t,,  (    .--IMS  trans- 
nt,    iul,lil.l,.  Bound!    into    written 

lh,  writer  is  ,,t   th, 
ni(n.Vof  Borne  other  individual,  who 
Fornm^ly,  the  rate 
atwhiehit  ,s  possible  to  send  by  hand 
,   tele^i   Uey   is  about  tho 
M  that    which  «'an   be  mam-     . 
,1  by  an  expert  writer  of  long 
h.ui.i      The.   average  rate    niam- 
t  lined  l.v  good  operators  is  about 
85  woidi  (126  totters)  per  minute. 
In  ..e.Hs.onal  eases,  the  rate  goes 
„,,  above  :«»  words  per  minute, 
U1,l  m;iy  i-.-a.-h  '•>'>.  and  in  extra- 
40    words    per 

minute.'      learners    usually   find 

the    Kivat«->t     difficulty   at    the 

stage  from  15  to  20  words  per 

minute.     Not  only  have  they  at 

this  iHiint  to  mend  their  pace  in 

th-  matte,-  «.f  writing,  but  at  this  speed  it  is 

quite  impossible   to  set  down  letter  by  letter 

as  received,   and   difficulty  is  experienced   in 

following  up  iM-cause  th<-  writing  is  necessarily 

some   \\:iy    in  arrear  of 

.•nallinn.    All  these 

•  lirtieultie..         IK. \\.-vn-. 

.iv  iH-fun-  ai»])li<-a- 

.  nuicf, 

-in«l  it  is  marvellous  ho\v 
t     tlie   li-li-uraphiM 
ultiinat.-ly  l-'-coines. 

th.-N|,.M-iiil  virtui- 
c.t    tin-    >-«>iindiT 
lh.it.  a-  only    th- 
.  lii|ilny.-<l    in    th- 
tn.n  of   tin-   M^naU.   tin- 
are  left 

;UIIL'. 

In    miler     to    lighten 
and  di \> -r-ify  hi~ 
'd-  learner  w  also  mtio- 

i    to     ihf     A  1'.  C 

needle     and    punching 

•I,,  nts  at  an  early 

Htage,      and      ti 

ward  a  cerium  amount  of 

•     i-  i-    had 

.    lh«-    -oimdt-i'     it-. 


ABC  System,     lint  little  need  !><•  said  of 

il   instrument  \\as  one  of  the. 
many  ingenious  inventions  ,,t  Sn-  Charles  Wheat- 
stone.      The  ni'-thod  of   operating    is    simplicity 
Oi  two  instrument's 


On  an  inner  circle  the  numerals 
appear  twice,  once  from  A  toJ, 
and  again   from  P   to   Y.      The 
indicator  dial  is  marked  in  the 
same     way.      Normally,      both 
pointers  stand  at  the  zero  +.     In 
order  to  send,  the  little  crank  in 
the  front  side  of   the  communi- 
cator is  turned  at  a  uniform  and 
fairly  quick  rate,  and  the  letter 
keys    are    depressed    one    after 
another  in  the  order  required  to 
make  up  any  given  word.     The 
depression  of  each  key  automati- 
cally raises  the   key  which  had 
last     been     depressed,    and    the 
communicator     pointer     follows 
round.     The  end  of  each  word  is 
indicated  by  depressing  the  zero  + 
key.  If  any  figures  occur,  the  tele- 
graphist signals  "  ;".    The  signals 
which  succeed  this  are  read  from 
figures  on   the  inner  circle,   and 
the  finish  of  the  group  of  figures  is 
also  indicated  by  the  signal  '  ;    . 
In  recent  years,  however,  the 
Post  Office  has  found  it  necessary 
to  abandon  the  use  of  the  dial  numerals,  and  to 
substitute  a  system  of   spelling  out  figures   pre- 
facing the  group  of  figures  by  the  signal  FI,  and 
following  bv  the  signal  FF.    As  the  communicator 
needle  travels  from  point 
to  point,  the  indicator 
needles,    both    at    the 
home   and  the    distant 
station,  move  in   exact 
synchronism,  and  so  tho 
message  can  be  read  and 
set  down  letter  by  letter 
by  the  distant  operator. 
Usually    the    receiving 
clerk  acknowledges  the 
receipt  of  each  word  by 
sending  one  revolution. 
When   from  any    cause 
the  needles  get  out  of 
synchronism,   the   com- 
municator needle   must 
be  turned  to  the   zero, 
and  the  indicator  needle 
brought    to    the    same 
point  by  oscillating  the 
little       adjusting      key 
which  can  be  seen  just 
below    the    dial.       No 
other  adjustment  can  be 
made  without  the  aid  of 
Any  person  of  average 


THE    "A  BC"   MACHINE 


THE   SOUNDER  INSTRUMENT 


a  lineman  or  mechanic.      iiiv  t^^^^ 0 

intelligcnei;  can  send  and  receive  messages  on 
this  instrument  after  an  hour  or  two's  practice. 
The  rate  of  working  is,  however,  always  very 
slow.  Ten  words  per  minute  is  a  good  average 


speed,  20  is  quite  exceptional.  Its  use  is  now 
practically  restricted  to  village  offices  where 
messages  are  so  infrequent  as  to  render  the  re- 
tention of  a  skilled  operator  unremunerative. 

The  Single  Needle.  The  single  needle 
[6],  invented  at  the  very  birth 
of  telegraphy,  still  survives,  and 
possesses  features  which,  in 
special  circumstances,  render  it 
very  valuable.  In  England,  in 
addition  to  postal  telegraphy, 
it  is  very  largely  used  by  rail- 
way companies.  It  is  specially 
suitable  where  a  number  of 
stations  are  grouped  on  one  line. 

In  the  Post  Office  form,  the 
commutator — as  the  sending  por- 
tion of  the  instrument  is  called — 
consists  of  two  keys  or  tappers, 
which    project    forward   below 
the   writing   desk.     The   Morse 
code   is   used,  modified  to  the 
extent  of  substituting  right  and 
left  deflections  of  the  needle  for 
dashes  and  dots.    Thus,  to  send 
the  letter  A,  the  left  key  is 
depressed,  followed   imme- 
diately by  a  depression  of 
the  right  key.      Simultane- 
ously the  needles  at  all  sta- 
tions will  deflect  first  to  the 
left  stop,  and  then  to  the 

right.     The  spacing  between  letters  and  words 
is  similar  to  sounder  working  ;   but  as  the  time 
required  for  the  "  dash  "  element  of  a  signal  is 
the  same  as  for  the  "  dot,"  it  is  possible  to  send 
at  a  higher  rate  on  the  "  needle  "  than  on  the 
"  sounder."    The    signals   are    read 
from  the  needle  by  the  eye,  but  it  is 
now  usual  to   supplement  this   by 
providing  two  tin  sounders,  giving 
out  different  notes   against   which 
the  needle  beats,  so  making  sound 
reading  quite  possible,  and  relieving 
the    eye,  which  tires    much  sooner 
than  the  ear. 

For  railway  service  the  commu- 
tator is  usually  of  the  drop-handle 
form  [7].  The  instrument 
can  then  be  manipulated 
by  one  hand.  The 
handle  has  three  posi 
tions — centre  or  nor- 
mal, to  the  right  for  a 
dot,  and  to  the  left  for  a  dash. 
One  special  advantage  of  the 
single  needle,  due  to  its  simple 
construction,  is  the  fact  that 
adjustment  is  rarely  necessary. 
It  is  sometimes,  though  only 
rarely,  affected  by  earth  cur- 
rents, which  give  the  needle  a 
bias  to  one  side  or  the  other, 
emergencies  the  dial  is  arranged  so  that  it  can 
be  rotated  through  a  large  arc  of  a  circle.  It 
is  accordingly  turned  round  until  the  needle  is 
properly  centred  between  the  stops,  when 
working  can  be  resumed.  What  may  be  called 


TELEGRAPHS 

the  workshop  adjustments  of  the  single   needle 
will  be  dealt  with  in  the  Engineering  section. 

High  =  speed      Telegraphy.        Having 
earned  his  spurs  at  the  various  manual  systems, 
our  learner  will  be  allowed  to    approach  the 
marvellous  Wheatstone  automatic 
system.    When  wires  were  few  and 
exceedingly  expensive,  this  system 
was  invented  to  increase  the  mes- 
sage-carrying    capacity    of    long 
circuits.    Wheatstone  early  realised 
that  the  quickest  manual  signalling 
was  still    a    long  way    below  the 
carrying     capacity    of     telegraph 
wires,  and  he  sought  a  means  of 
greatly    increasing    it.      For    this 
purpose  he  designed  three  instru- 
ments— the  perforator,  the 
automatic        transmitter, 
and      the       Wheatstone 
receiver. 

By  means  of  the  perfor- 
ator   [8],     messages     are 
transferred  to  along  thin 
paper  ribbon.  Of  course,  several 
perforators    may    be  used  by 
different  operators  preparing  a 
batch  of  messages.     The  paper 
ribbons,       commonly       called 
punched    slips  [9],   are  passed 

6.  SINGLE- NEEDLE  TAPPER   FORM        through  the   automatic  trans- 
mitter.   Controlled  by  the  slips, 
the  transmitter  sends  signals  exactly  "similar  to 
the  human  operator,  but  with  the  accuracy  pro- 
verbial of  a  machine,  and  at  speeds  up  to  60.0 
words  per  minute.    At  the  distant  station  the 
messages  are  received  on  a  blue  ribbon,  which 
issues  from  the  receiver  in  a  fashion 
similar  to  the  printer,  but  with  the 
same    difference    as    to    accuracy 
and  speed  as  prevail  at  the  sending 
station. 

One  sees  at  a  glance  that  this 
system  deals  with  messages  on  the 
wholesale  principle,  and  enables 
the  labours  of  several  operators  at 
each  end  to  be  applied  to  one  wire. 
The  Perforator.  The  per- 
forator [8]  is  a  little  mechanical 
arrangement  in  which  three  keys 
are  arranged  so  that  when  de- 
pressed by  striking  them  with 
little  rubber-shod  iron  punching- 
sticks,  they  operate  levers  and 
cutters  which  make  certain  holes 
in  a  white  paper  ribbon.  The 


7.    SINCLE-NEEDLE  DROP-HANDLE 
FORM 

To  meet  such 


left  key  corresponds  to  dots, 
the  centre  key  is  the  spacing 
key,  and  the  right  key  makes 
the  dashes. 

In  the  operation  of  punch- 
ing both  hands  are  used,  but 
the  keys  corresponding  to  the  required  dots, 
dashes,  and  spaces  must  be  struck  in  proper 
order,  and  under  no  circumstances  simul- 
taneously. After  punching  the  dots  and  dashes 
to  form  a  letter,  the  centre  key  is  depressed 
once,  before  commencing  the  next  letter,  and 

4385 


TELEGRAPHS 

after  th.-  l^t   letter   oA   a   word,  the  space  key 

feitni.*  •  un.  ag I    beginning 

b  valuable.  The  badly -taught  "  puncher  dBM 
SIH  ,he  ,,,,,,„,'  wit*  hk  riL'l.t  hand,  and  get, 
ajj^,  rH  in  comparison  With  the  man 

whose  rtylehas  been  formed  on  riirht  BnM. 

,,|(|,n   nil.-    for   punchinu  is-sp, 
th,.  ,l;U1(|  ,„,,  recnired  for  th.-  la*t  stroke  of  each 

Thus  after  A  (•  -  ). 
u.rh    th,-     1,-ft     hand:      *ffr     X 
(_.)  space  with  tin-  right    hand. 

'Hie  word  shown  on  tin-  specimen 

Mow     [91     is     a      favourite    one 
•-ing    right     and 

nching.      In   punching  it, 

ill.-  hamiscome  down  alternately 

throughout,  except  where  thetWO 

come  together  in  the  letter 

L'Olld       puncher* 

tin-  alternating  use  of 

hands  a  stage  further 
by  ii-mi:  tin TII  on  our  key  for 
,h,.  fatten  M  II  "  and  "  O." 
The  average  rate  which  a 
good  "puncher"  can  main- 
tain is  about  -•">  \vonU  p.-r 
ininut.-.  Tlu-  work  is  not 
unpleasant,  and  good  oper- 
ators usua  r  it  a 
pleasant  change  from  their 


JH1,|  sundry  tliat  Uu-  room  is  strictly  private,  and 
,  rntered   onlv   bv   those   having   tin-  per- 
,i,h,s,,.,rta./  of  the  Post -Office.    Our 
that   he,  has 


8.   PERFORATOR 


'the  oath  "of  secrecy,  presses  forward  with  only  a 

slight  hesitation. 

the  middle  of  the  morning,  and  imme- 
diately  our  ears  are  assailed 
by  such  a  buzzing  and  click- 
ing and  humming  that  wo  at 
once  think  of  a  beehive. 
Across  the  room  run  long, 
narrow  tables  crowded  with 
apparatus.  Sitting  at  one 
side  only,  and  all  facing 
towards  the  centre-  of  the 
room,  we  see  rows  and  rows 
of  men  and  women  operat  ors. 
Many  youths  are  hurriedly 
carrying  messages  from  point 
to  point.  Older  men  art- 
dotted  about  the  room, 
evidently  each  in  charge  of 
two  or  three  ta.bles,  while 
new  the  middle  of  one  long 
wall  we  see  a  sort  of  ptilpit- 
desk,  where  sits  the  presiding 
bee,  keeping  watchful  eyes 
on  his  many  workers.  In  a 
telegraph  office  there  are  no 
drones. 


'he  slip  comes  from  the  receiver  marked 
in  th.-  dj*sh-and-dot  style,  which  our  learner  has 
already  nu-t  in  tin-  inkwriter.  Daily  practice 

Og  up  >lij»s  will  eoin])let(>  his  round  of 
seho(.l  duties.  The  beginning  of  the  slip  to  be 

•  M-d  is  held  in  the  left  hand.  The  next 
foot  or  so  is  laid  flat  on  the  desk  between  the 

nd  and  a  "slip  conductor,"  a  sort  of 
i^ht  with  a  little  upright  pillar.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  slip  usually  extends  to  the  floor. 
.id  nf  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the 

,.|.  the  slip  is  pulled  along  as  quickly  as 
the  eyes  can  read  and  the  hand  write.  Twenty- 
five  to  30  words  per  minute  is  the  usual  average 

Telegraph  Instrument  Room.     What 

.uf  our  learner  when  he  h;ts  been  judged 
ready  for  pnwtieal  work  will  depmd  on  the 

(]fl       "t      the 
Service       If   the   deiuaii'l 

...it   mi  prac- 
tical 

.My    In- 

employed    half  -time   mi 
nid 
time      eiiHeetillU  I 

fonnfl    from    point    to    point 

•   ..mi 

•  •ing  the  bent  •  .!.-«•  to  enal>le  us  to  take  a 

l.inl  M-.-V.  iiall   -ii|.po-e  that   we  follow 

him  into  a  la'L  '!  otlice.     ( )n  the  door 

in-  inMrutn-  -tiee  warning  all 


The  Test  Box.  Opposite  the  pulpit,  on  the 
other  long  wall,  our  eyes  are  entrapped  by  a 
projecting  wall  of  dark,  polished  wood,  about 
20  ft.  long  and  7  ft.  high,  with  a  yard- wide  Erieza 
of  brass  screws  along  the  eye  line  and  a  square 
check  pattern,  still  in  brass  screws,  further  down. 
This  is  the  test  box,  where  all  the  lines  from 
distant  towns  and  from  the  sets  of  apparatus  ir 
the  instrument  room  are  concentrated,  each  on 
its  proper  brass  screw,  numbered  and  labelled. 

Further  along  the;  same  wall,  made  conspicuous 
by  some  hundreds  of  small  pigeon-holes,  each 
containing  quantities  of  the  familiar  buff  enve- 
lopes, is  the  delivery  department,  where  young 
ladies  are  engaged  in  enveloping  telegrams. 

The  man  to  whom  a  telegram  rarely  comes 
learns  with  surprise  that  in  every  large  town 
there  are  firms  whose,  daily  average  of  telegrams 


ANA  D  A 

1  -I. Kl  MI:  vn.li   -Til'    WITH    rKKFORATIONS    FOR   THE!   WORD 


CANADA 


in    the    instrument 


runs  into  two,  and  sometimes  three;  figures.  For 
sin  h  folk  the  Post  Office  finds  it  economical  to 
have  supplies  of  envelopes  with  printed  addresses, 
hence  the  many  pigeon-holes.  Here;  one  also 
notices  the  ingenious  little  machines  employed 
for  numbering  the;  messages. 


Continued 


REST,  SLEEP,  AND  EXERCISE 

The  Proper  Place  of  Athletics.    Their  Danger  and  Abuse.     Exercise 
and   Health.      The  Value   of  Rest  to  Young  and  Old.      Holidays 


Group  25 

HEALTH 
13 

Continued  from 
page    4-.MS 


By  Dr.  A.  T.  SCHOFIELD 


IT  is  the  undoubted  duty  of  every  man  to  see 
1  h;it .  as  far  as  possible,  his  body  is  in  a  sound 
condition  ;  and  it  is  beginning  to  be  recognised 
that  not  only  is  one's  own  health  imperilled  by 
neglect,  but  that  a  stunted  physique  may  result 
in  a  degenerate  offspring.  Athletics  rightly 
pursued,  or  their  equivalent  in  exercise,  become, 
therefore,  a  duty,  binding  in  various  measures  on 
every  man,  woman,  and  child. 

Exercise  and  Physique.  In  the  manu- 
facturing districts,  the  general  physique  had 
6O  degenerated  a  few  years  ago  that  the 
average,  stature  of  a  man  was  but  5  ft.  1J  in., 
and  his  weight  106  Ib.  ;  whereas,  in  certain 
northern  counties,  in  country  districts,  where 
bodily  exercise  was  the  rule,  the  men  averaged 
5  ft.  11  in.,  and  weighed  199  It).  Possibly  other 
circumstances  favoured  the  difference.  We  may 
be  sure,  however,  it  did  not  end  with  the  physique, 
but  affected  every  part  of  the  mortal  being. 

The  development  of  athletics  is  of  recent 
date.  Thirty  or  forty  years  ago  our  daily  papers 
took  no  notice  of  any  sport  but  horse-racing, 
which  can  hardly  be  included  under  athletics  ; 
there,  were  no  crowds  at  boat-races,  or  at 
Lord's.  Though  it  seems  strange  to  say  so,  it 
is  only  an  insignificant  minority  that  actually 
engage  in  outdoor  games  ;  and,  so  far  from 
their  being  overdone,  the  pressing  need  of  the 
day  is  still  more  and  more  outdoor  exercise  for 
our  urban  population.  The  outcry  that  has 
arisen  against  athletics  is  rather  against  the 
betting,  the  gossiping,  the  reporting  and  general 
puffing,  than  the  actual  playing. 

"Sportsmen"  who  Never  Play.  We 
distinctly  say  now,  in  190(5,  as  Dr.  Warre 
so  well  pointed  out  at  the  Health  Congress  in 
1886,  that  the  value  of  outdoor  games  is  not  yet 
understood.  The  interest  in  sports  is  great, 
but  the  players  are  few,  and  the  value  of  the 
exercise  is  only  experienced  by  those  who  play — 
not  by  those  who  look  on.  At  Lord's,  out  of 
'J..'57-">  members,  only  118  played  on  the  ground 
in  one  year.  In  all  London  there  are  not 
probably  4,000  football  players  out  of  the 
population  of  800,000  men.  Probably  not  more 
than  1  per  cent,  of  men  between  twenty  and 
forty  play  games  at  all,  and  still  fewer  young 
\\oiiien,  whose  physique  is  of  such  national 
importance  to  our  race.  Their  chests  usually 
show  conspicuous  want  of  development  of  lung 
power,  solely  from  lack  of  physical  exercise. 
It  is  true  that  among  a  few  of  the  rich  the 
love  of  outdoor  exercise  is  carried  to  excess, 
but  these  are  small  exceptions.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  real  importance,  and  indeed  necessity, 
of  physical  culture  is  beginning  to  be  more 
realised.  Tn  children  especially  it  is  becoming 


better  understood,  and  they  are  getting  straighter 
backs  and  broader  chests.  Attitudes  in  school 
hours  are  studied,  and  gamec  and  drills  are 
fostered  ;  so  that  while  the  general  physique  of 
the  lower  classes  is  still  very  poor,  that  of  the 
educated  classes  is  greatly  improved.  Indeed, 
we  may  say  that  a  boy  at  Harrow  or  Eton  will 
average  &  in.  taller  and  a  stone  heavier  than  a 
boy  of  the  same  age  in  a  London  County 
Council  school. 

The  Average  Man's  Exercise.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  the  muscular  system  is  in 
good  condition  when  the  person  is  about  his 
right  weight,  and  takes  plenty  of  exercise. 
Games,  however  valuable,  have  certain  draw- 
backs in  over-developing  various  parts  of  the 
body,  which  regular  gymnastic  exercise  is  always* 
seeking  to  correct. 

A  remarkable  instance  of  this  is  seen  in  the 
connection  of  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  with 
the  attitude  of  writing.  A  very  large  proportion 
of  these  deformities  are  caused  during  school 
life  by  the  twisted  position  of  the  body  that  was 
in  vogue,  especially  in  girls'  schools,  in  the  days 
of  the  old  sloping,  angular  handwriting.  Ambi- 
dexterity in  school  life,  and  afterwards  in  some 
professions  and  trades,  tends  to  correct  this. 
When  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  that  meet  the 
eye  are  kept  in  condition,  we  know  that  those 
muscles  that  we  cannot  see,  and  on  which 
our  life  depends,  such  as  the  muscles  of  the 
heart  and  internal  organs,  are  also  strong. 
Exercise  is  therefore  essential  for  health,  and  the 
amount  required  by  the  average  human  being 
has  been  roughly  stated  as  a  mile  walk  a  day  for 
every  stone  weight.  In  this  is  included  all  exer- 
cise taken,  such  as  walking  upstairs  or  about  a 
room. 

Exercise,  the  Beautifier.  What  exer- 
cise can  do  in  the  way  of  beauty  has  been  so 
graphically  described  by  Sir  F.  Treves  that  it  may 
be  quoted  with  its  wealth  of  adjectives  entire  : 
"  Physical  exercise  is  capable  of  healthfully 
transforming  the  meaningless,  monotonous, 
purposeless  curves  of  the  physically  uneducated, 
who  are  mainly  muscular  paupers,  whose  limbe 
are  little  better  than  burlesques,  composed  as 
they  are  of  shapeless  masses  of  flabby,  doughy 
tissue,  covered  with  dull,  loose,  lustreless  skin, 
into  the  beautiful,  classical,  muscular  outline 
of  ancient  statuary,  clothed  with  the  polished, 
fresh,  elastic  skin  of  perfect  health."  Who  would 
not  take  exercise  after  this  V 

Kxercise  varies  with  age  and  sex.  In  child- 
hood, games  and  musical  drill  are  best ;  in 
boyhood  and  youth,  games  and  field  sports 
and  general  athletics,  always  avoiding  what 
leads  to  extreme  exhaustion  or  breathlessncss, 

4387 


HEALTH 

d    homuK" 

We  must  remember,  too,  th.it  these  sports  bring 

(,nlv    health    to   the    actual    ptyKS,    not    to    the 

„„.;,.  onlookers.     K.dm*.  walking,  rowing,  and 

,v,l,,  minently  of  value  to  all  classes. 

.md  younn  women  pmies  and  sports 

•OOd,   omitting   the   most    violent,  such  as 

.11.     Thex  conduce  to  -rn.wth.  ht-auty  and 

Looking  on   is  not  Athletics.     Men  of 

mam.-  yean  depend  ""  walking,  ridmg,  cycling, 

t,,r  ei  ,ket-but  never 

,11     .md  often.  and  increasingly,  golf.      Ot 

al  value  of  golf  for  maturity  and  old 

an    IK-   no  doubt  ;   but  we  question 

mud,    uhether  it-   solitary  nature  and  its 

character   does    not    often    develop 

unpleaMnL'  traii^  and  tend  to  selfishness. 

Ml   through    matin.    life.   ten   minutes  -brisk 
•NT  the  daily  morning  bath  is  good. 
day  should  be  spent  where 
,.  in  really  active  exercise. 
\  revolution  has  been  going  on  and  is  still 
progressing    in    the    medical     profession    with 
regard     to     exercise.       More    and     more    the 
uiis   of  exercise    and   rest,  of 
air  and  nuict.  are  coming  to  the  front. 

11  -onio  such  lines  is  indispensable  to 
•h,  and  is  far  too  little  thought  of  amongst 
1  1  d  sedentary  workers.     These  are 
mtly    getting   out   of   sorts   for    want   of 
exercise.   It  is  well  if,  at  least  once 


in  tin-  clay,  one  glows  all  over  with  active  exertion, 
.it  tin-  \vhole  stream  of  life  is  quickened  in 
p  organ—  and  this  can  never  be  achieved  by 
a  lazy  stroll  or  1>y  -watching  a  cricket  match. 

A   i  nation  into  the  physical  con- 

dition of  our  youth  and  manhood  has  shown  a 

lack  of  physical  culture,  and  has  dissipated 

hollow  fallacy  that  looking  on  at  sports  is 

Watching     games     has    largely 

:i   the  place   of    playing  them,   and  it  cer- 

tain iltour  ;    or,  rather,  it   substitutes 

unhealthy  brain  excitement  for  healthy  bodily 

The  whole  tendency  is  in  this  direc- 

.ind  Ixith  motor-ears  and  motor  cycles  con- 

tril'  io  it.     \e\-crthele».  we  must  not 

be  pessimists.   for.   in   spite  of   all.    the   race   is 

Thecivili-ed  portion,  as  judged  by  the 

i  armour  and  the  like,  is  said  roughly 

«-f  1J  inches  in  height 

in  »  \  '.ears. 

The  Finest  Exercise  for  Girls.      Our 

1  ilnly    In-netited    in    stature     and 

g«eral   phy-u|ue  |,y  the  increased  attention  to 

games  and    -port-;   and.   after  all.   the  body  of 

Aoman   is  ,,f   more   value   than    that  of'the 

1  ill--  mother-  of  the  race  a  tine  physique 

ore  dearly  teaches,  for 

we  *•  of    famine   more    lx.\ 

Urn  than  nirU  (m  ii  |>.in<  almlist   all 

M!C  in  times  4  if  plenty 
girls  pretjotnm 

•idoubtedly  one  of  the  <r,-e,,test 
'••weil  upon  our  jrirl  population. 
game  mean-  to  the  future  ot  the 


d  —  especially   if  we  could 


mm  widely  extended  amongst  our  sedentary 
"opulaTkH/of  work-girls,  dressmakers  govern- 
•sses  <  lerks.  etc.— we  can  never  know.  Iheie 
s  no  sight  that  speaks  more  for  the  future  welfare 
"f  England  than^a  group  of  well-made  Enghsh 
UirN  n-turning  from  a  tennis  lawn,  their  every 
movement  instinct  with  healthy  life  and  vigour. 
It  ,s  in  vain,  therefore,  to  set  against  this  a 
sprained  arm  or  ankle,  or  even  a  . 
heart,  as  occasionally  may  occur  among  the 
weak. 

But  the  mental  value  of  athletics  is  also 
very  well  marked  and  quite  undeniable, 
is  perhaps  largely  due  to  their  increasing  social 
character  in  the  present  day.  Social  athletics 
and  crowded  pleasure  grounds  and  matches  are 
no  doubt  largely  due  to  the  increase  of  town 
populations  and  the  facilities  of  travel.  Hence, 
clubs  and  recreation  grounds  and  parks  witl 
gymnasia,  and  cricket  grounds  are  multiplied 
everywhere. 

The  playing  of  games  together  in  friendly 
competition  tends  to  develop  self-control, 
firmness,  manliness,  unselfishness  and  general 
goodfellowship,  while  it  lessens  self -consciousness. 
It  also  develops  nerve  force,  on  the  one  hand, 
while  it  lessens  nerve  strain  and  nervousness, 
which  is  really  nerve  weakness,  on  the  other. 
Athletics,  rightly  used,  develop  patience,  per 
severance,  self-restraint,  friendship  and  humility, 
and  increased  will-power. 

Dangers  of  Athletics.  Lest,  however, 
we  should  be  accused  of  holding  a  brief  for 
one  side  only,  let  us  now  consider  what  evils 
are  connected  with  athletic  exercise.  These, 
like  the  advantages,  are  twofold— physical,  and 
mental  or  moral.  The  former  may  arise  from 
athletics  directly  or  indirectly.  Amongst  the 
direct  physical  dangers  are  sprains  and  strains 
of  the  muscles,  accidents  to  life  and  limb,  and 
internal  injuries. 

Sprains  and  strains  are  very  common,  and 
arise  from  overtaxing  one's  power,  as  in  severe 
competition ;  from  pure  accident ;  from  want 
of  training,  and  from  excessive  violence. 

Accidents  to  life  and  limb  are  still  more 
serious  ;  and  we  fear,  in  spite  of  what  its 
apologists  may  say  in  its  favour,  a  grave  case 
can  be  made  out  against  football,  and  particu- 
larly when  played  by  men's  clubs  according  to 
Rugby  rules. 

From  September,  1889,  to  the  third  week  in 
January,  1890,  the  direct  deaths  from  football 
were  13  ;  the  fractures  of  legs,  15  ;  of  arms,  4  ;  of 
collar-bones,  11  ;  and  severe  internal  injuries,  7. 
A  great  deal  might  be  made  out  of  the  fact 
that  the  mortality  from  football  in  three  months 
i*  nearly  double  that  of  hydrophobia  in  England 
for  three  years,  there  being  eight  deaths  from 
this  cause  'in  that  period. 

Internal  strain  and  injuries  may  arise  from 
over-exertion,  or  very  commonly  from  want  of 
training.  Clergymen  who  go  Alpine  climbing  in 
the  autumn,  and  young  schoolgirls  who  take 
exhausting  cycling  journeys,  often  suffer  in  this 
way.  The  heart,  lungs,  or  any  other  organ  may 
thus  be  severely  injured. 


Indirect  clangers  arise  mainly  from  improper 
clothing  or  carelessness.  The  safe  clothing  for 
all  athletics  is  flannel ;  and  yet  we  see  fashion 
requiring  some  of  our  public  schools  to  play 
in  linen  shirts  under  a  blazing  sun. 

Athletic  Training.  Turning  to  the  moral 
evils  of  athletics,  we  are  bound  to  say  they  are  all 
excrescences,  and  that  from  athletics  themselves, 
rightly  conducted,  no  moral  evil  can  ensue.  The 
betting  and  gambling  that  disgrace  so  many  of 
our  grounds  are  beginning  to  be  tabooed  at  some 
of  those  more  recently  opened,  notably  Padding  - 
ton  Recreation  Ground.  But  there  is  great 
mental  risk  whenever  men  give  themselves  up 
to  physical  exercise  and  nothing  else.  This  is 
especially  seen  in  the  case  of  prizefighters. 
Exclusive  training  of  any  one  part  of  a  man 
is  necessarily  very  injurious  to  the  rest.  It  is 
here,  perhaps,  in  the  devotion  of  every  spare 
hour  to  physical  exercise  that  to  many  young 
men  the  chief  danger  lies.  There  are  other  claims, 
associations  that  cannot  be  safely  ignored.  The 
most  healthful  life  gives  each  duty  its  place, 
and  looks  for  a  wise  proportion  in  all  things. 

The  present  system  of  training  is  the  most 
healthy  and  natural  imaginable.  All  the 
former  fads  of  raw  beefsteak  diet  and  other 
absurdities  have  disappeared,  and  given  place 
to  a  most  sensible  and  regular  mode  of  life. 
Without  going  into  regular  training,  it  would 
b'e  well  if  those  whose  lives  are  sedentary, 
and  who  contemplate  active  exercise  at  any 
time  or  during  the  holidays,  would  make  it  a 
rule'  always  to  give  themselves  a  little  pre- 
liminary canter.  For  instance,  in  football, 
if  a  man  is  going  to  play  who  has  not  played 
for  some  time,  it  is  astonishing  what  a  help  it 
is  to  take  a  little  preliminary  practice  at  kicking, 
stooping,  running,  and  tumbling  about. 

No  hard  exercise  should  be  taken  without 
preparation.  Before  going  to  Switzerland  the 
body  should  be  hardened  by  prolonged  walks 
and  climbs  at  home.  For  want  of  this  the 
holiday  often  does  more  harm  than  good. 

Cycling,  Walking,  and  Rowing. 
Cycling  is  such  an  admirable  and  delightful 
exercise  that  for  hygienic  reasons  it  is  a  great 
pity  it  has  been  invaded  by  the  nerve-destroying 
motor  cycle  and  the  motor-car.  Walking,  after 
all,  perhaps  next  to  riding,  remains  the  best  all- 
round  exercise,  while  rowing  has  a  very  special 
value  in  the  form  of  sculling,  and  is  especially 
good  for  young  women,  in  that  it  gives  the  arms 
and  chest  and  back  free  play  while  the  rest  of 
the  body  is  still,  and  also  because  it  is  one  of 
the  few  exercises  that  are  not  one-sided.  Nearly 
all  games  use  one  side  of  the  body  at  the  expense 
of  the  other,  hence  the  value  of  a  few  minutes' 
regular  gymnastics  each  day  to  restore  the 
balance. 

It  is  important  at  all  ages  in  exercise  to  stop 
short  of  exhaustion,  such  as,  in  the  case  of 
children,  long  walks,  such  games  as  hare  and 
hounds,  and  paper-chases  ;  in  the  case  of  young 
men,  severe  competitions.  In  old  age  excess  is 
common — in  running  to  catch  trains,  in  over- 
cycling,  etc.,  but  moderation  in  all  things  is  the 
golden  rule,  both  in  exercise  and  rest. 


HEALTH 

In  health  exercise  and  rest  go  hand  in  hand  ; 
but  of  the  two,  perhaps,  we  can  do  better 
without  exercise  than  without  rest,  though  no 
one  can  really  be  well  and  strong  who  does  not 
enjoy  both. 

Rest  During  Illness.  In  almost  every 
accident  and  disease  rest  is  not  only  an  instinct 
but  a  necessity,  and  it  is  well  to  remember 
this.  In  the  case  of  accidents,  for  instance, 
there  is  the  general  rest  required  after  shock, 
severe  internal  injuries,  and  great  operations. 
For  all  these  rest  in  bed  is  the  great  resource. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  in  such  cases 
rest  alone  is  worth  more  than  all  the  other 
remedies  put  together.  General  rest,  which  is 
always  best  secured  in  bed,  is  required  in  fevers, 
which  so  rapidly  exhaust  the  strength,  in 
wasting  diseases,  especially  consumption,  in 
fits  .and  faints,  in  painful  diseases,  such  as 
rheumatism,  heart  disease,  and  all  nervous 
breakdowns.  These  all  are  greatly  relieved  by 
simple  rest  and  by  the  more  elaborate  "  rest- 
cures." 

It  is  most  important  to  understand  the  value 
of  local  rest.  If  a  man  has  broken  his  leg,  it 
is  not  enough  to  put  him  to  bed ;  local  rest  must 
be  secured  for  the  two  fragments  of  bone,  other- 
wise they  will  never  knit.  Nearly  all  cases  of 
ununited  fracture  arise  from  want  of  complete 
local  rest.  Putting  it  in  position  is  indeed  all 
the  doctor  does  when  he  sets  the  bone,  for  the 
splints  and  bandages  are  used  simply  so  to 
fix  the  parts  as  to  give  them  absolute  rest. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  dislocation.  The 
joint  must  be  kept  at  perfect  rest  for  some 
time,  till  the  torn  ligaments  have  united. 

Bad  sprains  of  any  part  of  the  body  are  cured 
by  local  rest.  When  an  ankle  is  twisted,  not 
only  is  the  foot  kept  off  the  ground,  but  it  is 
fixed  on  a  splint.  In  all  bad  wounds  and  bruises, 
the  part  heals  better  and  more  rapidly  if  it  is 
kept  at  rest ;  otherwise  it  will  heal  more  slowly, 
or  not  at  all.  With  inflamed  joints,  rest  is  the 
one  thing  needful.  Knee  or  hip  joint  cases, 
which  get  little  relief  by  the  patient  being  put 
to  bed,  at  once  begin  to  improve  when  the 
inflamed  part  is  absolutely  at  rest  in  proper 
splints. 

"  Local  "  Rest.  Local  rest  is  also  re- 
quired in  all  diseases  of  the  internal  organs. 
If  there  is  an  ulcer  in  the  stomach,  the  only 
way  to  heal  it  is  to  give  the  stomach  com- 
plete rest  from  food.  If  there  are  ulcers  in 
the  bowels,  as  in  typhoid  fever,  the  only  way 
to  heal  them  is  to  keep  the  patient  at  perfect 
rest  in  bed,  and  the  bowels  at  rest  by  giving 
nothing  but  liquid  food.  In  brain  fever,  the 
head  is  kept  at  rest  by  the  avoidance  of  light, 
by  the  maintenance  of  quiet,  by  the  use  of  a 
soft  pillow,  and,  if  necessary,  by  sedative 
medicines.  When  the  pleura  or  covering  of  the 
lungs  is  inflamed,  as  in  pleurisy,  the  pain  is 
great  each  time  the  ribs  move  up  and  down  in 
breathing.  This  is  relieved  by  tightly  strapping 
the  ribs,  so  that  they  cannot  move  ;  thus  the 
pleura  gets  rest.  When  the  heart  is  diseased, 
although  it  cannot  be  put  to  rest  entirely,  its 
work  is  made  as  light  as  possible  by  the  patient 

4389 


HEALTH 

Ivinc  in  Unl  with  the  head  low,  and  by 

SM      -  -'lit  go  on  through  ail 

larieteof  dHM«*«d  **•  that  in  each  and 
•iu-iii  the  tirat  great  desideratum  is 

•  iM  jllnrss  i-o-o  important,  rest  after. lines- 
: ...    T»>.»  WMV  in  which  men,  atter  a 


resume  work/sho.s  how  little  this  point 
^understood.  Hardly  IM  important  than  tke 
hospitals  ar-  -the  .  oi.vale^cent  homes,  of  which 
there  are  now  some  hundreds  in  England. 

Rest  in  Health  and  Convalescence. 
In  this  case,  however.  the  rest  is  only  com- 
parative for  th«-  patient  is  no  longer  in  bed,  but 
','rolls  a'lM.ut  i«i  the  sun  and  open  air. 

•  Ml  to  lay  down  a  general  law  as  to  the 
,i,->.-r.nce  ;  perhaps  the  best  that 
£an  1*.  said  on  th«-  subject  is  that  only  after 
very  sl.d.t  illnesses  should  work  or  study 
IH-  '  ii  .mi.-.  liately  resumed,  and  that  after  all 
exhausting  illnesses  and  fevers,  a  period  of 
further  rent  should  be  allowed  of  not  less  than 
one  fortnight,  preferably  more.  In  still  more 
serious  cases,  when  life  has  been  in  danger,  the 
period  of  convalescence  should  equal  the  period 


h  is  usual  in  all  schools,  and  in  most  trades, 

to  allow  more  time  for  meals  than  is  absolutely 

1  ime  being  given  for  rest. 

nay  be  half  an  hour  or  an  hour  ;  whatever 

•  of  the  greatest   service,    and    those 

trades    and    pronouns    are  certainly  injurious 

ilth  where  it  is  not  allowed. 
Children  at  school  may  be  allowed  to  play  at 
this  time,  since  it  is  their  minds,  not  their  bodies, 
Ixvn  worked  at   school  ;    but  in  the 
caae  of  jfirls  growing  rapidly,  or  of  weak  health, 


r  better  to  insist  on  their  lying  down  during 
the  -pare  time.     For  young  children,  the  mid- 
day hour  in  lied  is  of  immense  value,  and  should 
pt  up  till  schooldays  l>egin.     The  mother's 
..-nerally  in  the  afternoon,  after 
the  children   have  returned  to  school  and  the 
house  is  tidied  up.    An  hour  or  two  then  on  the 
i    still,  if  possible,  in  the  quiet 
bed-room,  with  the  window  open,  gives  her  the 
•  ne,-(U  after  the  hard  work  of  the  morning, 
ice  her  up  for  the  remaining  duties  of  the 

How  Long  should  we  Sleep  ?  There 
are  some  trades  requiring  night  shifts,  and  occu- 
pations, like  nursing,  which  reverse  the  natural 
order,  and  require  the  work  at  night  and  the 
rest  by  day.  Such  callings  are  never  healthy, 
and  soonci  m-  thrir  maik.  WTe  must 

night   nurses  and  night  watchmen,  but  it 
is  well  to  know  that  the  le-.-  niirhi  work  there  is, 
for    health.      For    a    short    time    of 
•ervi.  •  k-.  night  work 

doe*  i  -1  i.  taken  in  the  day 

by  a  man  working  out  of  doors,  as  in  ploughing, 
!    the   like,   we  constantly   tind   it 
•pent  in  sleep,  for  then-  ,-an  IK-  no  doubt  that 
not!.  n  sleep  iM-tn-r  than  hard  work  in 

the   o|M-n    air      Slei-p.    indei-d.    is    always    more 
thaa  by  brain  'workers. 
•  -t  after  hard  brain  work  is.  not  -le<-p. 
4390 


,,,„    ..xereise    for    the    body,    which    acts    a*    * 
,,.,,    ,„•   restorative  to  the  mind. 

'With  regard  to  rest  at  night  in  sleep,  there 
are  several  points  to  be  noted.  The  importance 
of  sufficient  sleep  to  any  man  cannot  be  overrated ; 
when  he  gets  it,  he  should  rise  in  the  morning 
with  the  strength  and  vigour  of  a  veritable 
resurrection,  the  cares  as  well  as  the  fatigues  of 
the  past  day  being  gone,  and  the  body  well 
braced  for  the  toils  of  another  day.  But  what  is 
sufficient  sleep  ?  The  old  adage,  six  hours  for 
a  man,  seven  for  a  woman,  and  eight  for  a  fool, 
is  very  wrong.  Eight  for  a  man  nine  for  a 
woman  and  ten  for  a  child,  would  have  been 
nearer  the  mark.  Sleep  must  be  not  only  suffi- 
eient,  but  refreshing.  To  ensure  this,  the 
principal  ablutions  with  working  women  should 
take  place  at  night.  A  right  understanding  of 
the  extreme  importance  of  health,  of  periods  of 
relaxation,  alone  enables  a  hard-working  woman 
to  preserve  her  looks  and  spirits  to  a  green 
old  age.  The  right  time  for  the  father's  ablu- 
tions is  immediately  on  his  return  home  at 
night,  or,  at  any  rate,  after  his  evening  meal. 

When  and  How  to  Sleep.  In  close 
connection  with  the  daily  rest  is  the  nap  after 
meals.  Many  who  are  advancing  in  years  resist 
this  tendency  by  every  means  in  their  power, 
believing  that  it  is  a  bad  habit.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  a  good  one,  though  not  needed  by 
the  young.  The  perfect  rest  it  brings  greatly 
favours  digestion,  and  for  the  old  it  is  really 
needed. 

With  regard  to  the  rest  at  night,  the  bed-room 

should,  if  possible,  be  large  and  airy,  and  above 

the  ground  floor.     Separate  beds  are  healthier 

than  double  ones.     They  should  be  firm  and 

comfortable,  but  not  soft,  preferably  made  with 

spring  mattresses.      The  bed-clothes  should  be 

light  and  porous,  but  sufficiently  thick  to  keep  the 

•person  quite  warm  all  night.     The  pillow  should 

be  soft,  and  high  or  low,  as  wished.     But  all 

these  points  are  unimpoitant  for  giving  perfect 

refreshing   sleep    compared   with    the  question 

of  sufficient    fresh  air.       Unfortunately    there 

still  exists,  generally  without  the  slightest  reason 

to  support  it,  a  singular  prejudice  against  night 

air.     Except  in  a  few  cases,  where  houses  are 

built  in  low-lying  grounds  or  marshes,  or  near 

rivers  or  canals,  and  in  some  exceptional  cases 

of  storm,  wind,  and  rain,  the  window  may  be 

safely  left  open  at  night,  for  the  air  is  then 

healthier  and  purer  than  in  the  day;  and  this  is 

of  the  first  importance  to  health  while  sleeping. 

The  Bed=room  Windows.     Out  of  one 

hundred  parts  of  oxygen — the  breath  of  life — 

which  we  absorb  in  the  twenty-four  hours  to 

sup]>ort  existence,  only  one-third  is  taken  in 

during  the  day,  and  two-thirds  at  night.     No 

bed -room  ought,  therefore,  to  be  used  by  people 

in  health  that  has  not  a  direct  communication 

with   the   open   air.     The   top   of   the   window 

should  always  be  open,  in  summer  as  widely  as 

possible,  and  in  winter  in  such  a  way  that  a  direct 

draught  does  not  blow  down  upon  the  sleeper. 

The  air  should  be  directed  upwards  towards  the 

ceiling  by  one  of  the  many  simple  contrivances 

elsewhere  described.     [See  pages  4019-4020.] 


.For  children  to  sleep  in  pure  air  is,  if  possible, 
more  essential  still,  and  they  should  be  thoroughly 
accustomed  to  sleeping  with  the  window  well 
open.  It  is  only  the  habit  of  sleeping  in  close, 
stuffy  rooms  that  renders' a  person  liable  to  catch 
cold  from  an  open  window.  Children  should 
sleep  on  firm  (not  hard)  beds,  singly,  if  possible, 
with  light  but  sufficient  clothing.  They  should 
not  sleep  on  the  back  or  on  the  face.  If  a  child 
persistently  sleeps  on  its  back,  a  towel  should  be 
tied  in  a  knot  in  the  middle  and  then  fastened 
round  the  child's  waist  with  the  knot  exactly  on 
the  spine  ;  the  child  will  never  sleep  on  its  back 
then.  Children,  especially  when  at  school, 
require  at  night  more  fresh  air  than  others  do. 

The  Week=end.  The  custom  of  having 
no  school  tor  children  on  Saturday,  and  no 
work  after  two  or  three  o'clock  for  men,  is 
gaining  ground  everywhere,  to  the  great  advan- 
tage of  the  health  of  the  rising  generation.  To 
children  the  boon  is  inestimable,  and  parents 
should  make  the  most  of  it.  The  first  point 
to  remember  is  that  as  t  he  child  has  been  cooped 
up  indoors  all  the  week,  therefore  "  out  of  doors  " 
must  be  the  rule  on  Saturday.  This  is  the  way 
to  get  the  most  good  out  of  the  day's  rest. 
Children  in  town  should  spend  the  day  in  the 
nearest  park,  the  country  or  the  fields.  Let  no 
parent  consider  Saturday  as  a  lost  day  to  the 
child.  If  the  other  days  are  of  importance  for 
the  child's  mental  development,  Saturday  is  the 
day  for  the  development  and  health  of  the  body. 

And  what  about  men  ?  How  are  they  to  got 
the  most  good  out  of  their  hard-earned  half-holi  - 
day  ?  Not  certainly  by  spending  it  in  some 
close  room,  but  by  taking  that  amount  of  relaxa- 
tion that  gives  the  most  rest.  Some  are  so  hard- 
worked  that  a  couple  of  hours'  doze  is  essential 
before  they  are  fresh  and  vigorous  enough  for  a 
turn  out  of  doors  at  all.  Those  engaged  in 
much  bodily  labour  should  not  undertake  long 
and  wearisome  excursions  on  this  day,  but  should 
remember  that  the  watchword  for  the  day  is  rest, 
and  that  this  is  the  first  consideration.  Care 
should  be  taken,  therefore,  not  to  make  a  toil  ot  a 
pleasure.  Somehow  it  is  usually  the  mother 
who  gets  least  rest.  To  her  is  generally  com- 
mitted the  task  of  looking  after  the  children 
the  livelong  day,  which,  to  her,  is  no  change  of 
occupation,  and,  therefore,  anything  but  rest, 

When  the  Body  Rests.  In  all  things 
connected  with  man,  work  and  rest  alternate 
at  varying  intervals.  The  very  cells  of  the 
body  are  believed  to  have  their  time  of 
rest.  The  heart  itself  rests  four-fifths  of  every 
second  ;  the  lungs  are  at  rest  between  each  of 
the  seventeen  breaths  that  are  drawn  every 
minute,  the  stomach  during  the  intervals  between 
the  digestion  of  the  various^  meals,  the  brain 
between  the  intervals  of  study,  the  body  at 


HEALTH 

various  periods  during  the  day,  partially,  and 
completely  at  night  when  in  bed.  Some  have 
cycles  of  work  and  rest,  some  complete  in  a  single 
second,  others  in  a  minute,  others  in  an  hour  or  in 
a  day,  and  others  again  in  a  week  or  even  longer 
periods.  The  institution  of  the  Sabbath,  or  one 
day  of  rest  in  seven  is  as  old  as  man  himself, 
and  though  it  had  to  do  primarily  with  the  Ten 
Commandments,  it  is  not  necessarily  kept  from 
religious  reasons  alone,  but  also  on  hygienic 
grounds. 

What  Holidays  Should  Be.  Most 
people,  especially  in  towns,  look  forward  to  an 
annual  break  in  the  daily  routine,  by  going  away 
for  a  week  or  a  fortnight,  or  a  longer  time,  either 
to  some  seaside  resort  or  to  some  country  place. 
This  practice  is  a  good  one,  though  it  is  often 
attended  with  drawbacks.  Perhaps  the  railway 
journey  is  so  long  as  to  weary  everyone  both 
in  going  and  coming  ;  or  the  place  is  so  crowded 
that  there  is  no  proper  sleeping  accommodation, 
and  thus  health  is  injured.  The  principle,  how- 
ever, when  there  are  means  to  carry  it  out 
properly,  is  a  good  one,  and  infinitely  better  than 
that  terrible  rush  some  hundred  or  more  miles  on 
a  bank  holiday  that  is  supposed  to  be  "  rest."' 
When  pleasure  becomes  hard  work,  and  means 
rising  at  5  a.m.,  and' returning  at  11  p.m.,  there 
cannot  be  much  rest  in  it,  or  much  health 
derived  from  it. 

The  rest  obtained  by  living  away  from  one's 
work  in  the  country  is  somewhat  dearly  bought 
by  the  daily  run  to  business ;  and  when  this  means 
an  hour  by  rail,  the  price  is  too  high,  for  eventu- 
ally the  health  is  undermined. 

With  women  who  are  overworked  it  may  be 
remembered  that  twenty -four  hours'  rest  in  bed 
will  often  ward  off  an  illness,  and  save  a  doctor's 
bill ;  and  if  the  overwork  is  chronic,  the  mere 
fact  of  not  coming  down  till  after  breakfast  may 
make  all  the  difference. 

In  old  age,  too,  after  65,  there  should  be  a 
great  increase  of  rest,  and  life  should  be  taken 
more  leisurely.  Of  course,  the  wisest  maxims 
cannot  always  be  obeyed,  and  necessity  knows 
no  law.  Nevertheless,  it  is  well  to  impress  the 
therapeutic  value  of  rest  on  all  sections  of  the 
community,  for  not  the  least  hard  worked  are  the 
determined  votaries  of  pleasure. 

One  point  may  be  made  in  conclusion,  that 
only  those  who  work  can  rest  ;  those  who  never 
exert  themselves  do  not  know  the  true  meaning 
of  the  word.  • 

NOTE.  On  page  3719  the  table  in  the  paragraph 
headed   "Water  Vapour''   should  read: 
cub.  ft,  of  air  at  30°  Fahr.  can  contain  2  grains  of  water 

40° 


50° 
60° 
70° 
80° 
90° 
100° 


Continued 


Croup  2 

ART 
30 


ART  IN  MODERN  TIMES 


By    P. 


tune   whei- 

|  v,  hooU  of  painting, 
u  i,h  derivin-r  her  art  from  foreign  sources. 
Not  th.it  there  was  not  an 

. 
lieojnninir    of    the    eighteenth 

th     <M>      Ki'.tT   17ti»)    appeared   on   the 

threshold  of  a  brilliant  )H-riodof  artistic  activity, 

,IU1    f|,-    iMden  around   Mhom    these    painters 

,|.  ,nd  from  whom  they  took  their  style, 

.„»   l.lood  and  birth.     Holbein  was 

•   of  the  foreign  masters  who  worked  at 

.'li-li  Court  and   determined  the  manner 

tit m  of  j»ortniiti8tB, 
;lly  of  minia- 
ture    i 

lK-rk.          the 

|.aintor     of 
I  .      may, 

\\itl  non, 

.||c<!  the  father 

of      Knglish     figh- 

D  iv 

M'- 

inHiienn-  \v.i-  i  nor 

nunix   and     lasting, 

tliouirh     tuo    oth'-r 

ign         masters 

him 

and    <;ain-l>oroiigh 

y  and  Sir 

Klleller. 

•-in  More, 
Daniel  M  \- 1  e  n~. 
M  M 

gilliere, 

•     all 

and    had    their 

f<  ill  i  \\vrn  —  capable 

like  Dobson, 

Scott,     who     have 


KONODY 

—a  preacher  who  uses  his  art  as  a  weapon  in 
the  cause  of  virtue  and  righteousness  But 
these  inartistic  subjects  are  painted  with  con 
summate  artistry.  If  the  anecdotal  painter 
generally  fails,  it  is  because  a  commentary  is  so 


adding  a  single  n<  of  art. 

liam     Hogarth.       The      tir>t 

l.y  a   Biiti-h  art  ken  l,y 

Hogan!  •m<:    in     Kngland 

h.ul   lN-«-n    a!' 

.'I     h-ahhy    and    deino- 
nuich  of  the 

Engliah  puritanical  spirit  in  his  scathing  -.itii>-~ 

-e-<  and  immoralities  of 

hm  contemporaries     H  11.  a  moralist 


people's  ideas,  but  tells  his  own  stories  with 
unmistakable  directness  in  the  language  of  paint, 
He  conceives  them  as  pictures,  and,  if  one  has 
eyes  to  see,  one  needs  no  explanation  either  of 
trie  story  or  of  the  moral  to  be  drawn  from  such 
picture  cycles  as  the  "  Mariage  a  la  Mode,"  the. 
"  Rake's  Progress,"  "  The  Idle  Apprentice,"  and 
"The  Industrious  Apprentice."     At  the  same 
time,  Hogarth  never 
allows   his    literary 
intention    to    inter- 
fere with  the  purely 
artistic      considera- 
tion, never  sacrifices 
beauty  of    arrange- 
ment   and    harmo- 
nious colour  to  the 
clearer     telling     of 
the      stoiy.       The 
mastery       of       his 
brush  work  can  best 
be    judged   from    a 
picture       like      the 
"  Shrimp  Girl  "    at 
the    National    Gal 
lery,      where      the 
sheer      beauty     of 
paint    can    be    en- 
joyed  without    the 
distraction      of      a 
moral  sermon  [90 J. 
Gainsborough. 
The  second  half  of 
the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury witnessed   the 
rise    of     the    great 
school     of    British 
portraiture,   of 
which     Gains- 
borough,  Reynolds, 

90.     THK     SHRIMP     «;IRL.    BY     HOGARTH  Maxell     an(j      Raebum       are 

(National  Gallery,  London)  tfafi    brilliant     lumi. 

naries.  Of  th.3  two  first-named,  Gainsborough 
may  be  said  to  be  the  representative  of  the 
aristocratic  and  Reynolds  of  the  democratic 
tradition.  Gainsborough  is,  above  all,  the  painter 
of  the  graceful  elegance  of  contemporary 
society — his  ladies  are  beautiful,  distinguished, 
it-lined;  his  men  slightly  dandified;  and  his 
\eiy  technique,  his  deliciously  cool  colour 
schemes,  and  the  negligent  but  sure  elegance  of 
his  touch,  reflect  the  character  of  his  sitters. 


Van  Dyck  is  his  real  master,  and  his  affinity  with 
him  appears  clearly  in  such  a  picture  as  the 
famous  "  Blue  Boy,"  which  was  painted  in 
defiance  of  Sir  Joshua's  dic- 
tum that  blue  cannot  be  made 
the  dominating  colour  of  a 
successful  scheme  [91]. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 
Reynolds,  unlike  Gains- 
borough, who  had  never  left 
England  or  made  a  profound 
study  of  the  old  masters,  had 
steeped  himself  in  the  art  of 
the  past  and  based  his 
designs,  his  style,  and  his 
colour  on  the  Italian  masters. 
Ho  was  for  ever  proclaiming 
his  allegiance  to  the  "  grand 
style,"  and  his  more  am- 
bitious compositions  hold 
more  than  an  echo  of  Tinto- 
retto and  Titian,  of  Correggio 
and  Michelangelo,  and  even 
of  Guercino  and  the  later 
Bolognese.  But  not  on  these 
does  his  fame  depend.  With 
a  curious  perversity,  which 
we  find  to  an  even  greater 
degree  in  Romney,  he  set 


ART 

George  Romney.  George  Romney,  whom 
fashion  has  placed  beside  these  two  masters, 
scarcely  deserves  to  be  held  up  as  their  compeer. 
His  sense  of  beauty  and 
technical  skill  were  certainly 
second  to  none,  but  he  fell 
into  a  mannered  convention 
which,  while  searching  for 
prettiness — and  finding  it — 
lost  in  character  and  sincerity. 
The  vast  number  of  portraits 
left  by  his  brush  might  all 
have  been  painted  from 
members  of  the  same  family. 
Raeburn.  (A.D.  1756-1823), 
the  greatest  master  produced 
by  .  Scotland,  has,  unlike 
Romney,  met  with  com- 
parative neglect,  though  he 
is  now  rapidly  gaining  the 
recognition  which  is  his  due 
as  the  father  of  the  modern 
Scottish  school,  a  daring 
colourist  of  rare  strength  and 
virility.  As  regards  summary 
expressiveness  and  breadth 
of  brush  work  he  is  un 
approached  by  any  of  his 
contemporaries. 


With  broad 

little  store    by  his  portrai-   91    THE  BLIJE  BY  GA^SB'OROUGH   8wefePs  ?,f  <*?  brufh.  h?  sug; 

ture,    which     he    considered  gests    all    the    subtleties    of 

mere  drudgery,  and  pinned  his  faith  to  painting  modelling  and  drawing.    Hoppner,  Opie  and  Cotes 

;' histories"    in   the  grand  manner  of  the  later  must  be  mentioned  among  the  masters  of  these 

Italian  masters.    With  all  their  noble  qualities  of  halcyon  days  of  English  portraiture,  while  Sir 

colour  and  design,  they  would  to-day  not  suffice  to  Thomas  Lawrence  connects  these  days  with  the 


secure  Reynolds  the  emi 
nent  position  he  holds  in 
the  art  of  his  country. 
This  position  is  due  to 
his  powers  as  a  portrait 
painter.  And,  as  such, 
he  is  the  antithesis  of 
Gainsborough.  He  is  as 
intellectual  and  search- 
ing as  Gainsborough  is 
elegant  and  superficial, 
and  his  sitters  were  not  so 
much  the  society  beauties 
of  the  day,  but  the  aris- 
tocracy of  intellect — men 
of  letters,  politicians, 
actors,  philosophers,  and 
scientists.  In  the  place  of 
the  cool  musical  colour 
of  Gainsborough  applied 
in  loose,  thin  touches,  he 
prefers  a  hot,  sumptuous 
scheme  carried  out  with 
firmness  and  energy  in  a 
thick  impasto.  As  like- 
nesses, his  portraits  are 
far  more  convincing  than 
those  of  his  rival.  He 
particularly  excelled  in 
portraying  the  innocent 
charm  of  childhood,  and  may,  in  fact,  be  said  to  be 
the  first  artist  who  painted  children  as  children, 
and  not  as  miniature  men  and  women  [92]. 


92.  THE  INFANT  SAMUEL,  BY  REYNOLDS 

(National  Gallery,  London) 


period  of  academic  sloth 
from  which  English 
painting  was  only  liber- 
ated in  the  Forties  by  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  revolt. 

Landseer  and 
Wilkie.  Only  land- 
scape painting  [see  page 
4299 1  made  giant  strides 
in  this  period,  and  Con- 
stable and  Turner 
showed  the  way  to  the 
Barbizon  men  and  the 
impressionists,  while 
soapy  and  insipid  por- 
traiture, uninspired  re- 
lating of  anecdotes  in 
paint,  theatrical  scenes 
of  history,  and  such  like 
held  the  public,  and 
academic  painting  erred 
further  and  further  in 
the  path  of  bituminous 
gloom.  Even  where 
there  was  real  talent,  as 
in  the  case  of  the 
animal  painter,  Land- 
seer,  concessions  had  to 
be  made  to  the  public 
demand  for  humorous 
anecdote.  David  Wilkie  must  be  mentioned 
among  the  great  artists  of  that  period,  a  real 
master  in  the  handling  of  pigment  which  with 

4393 


Art  Under  ' 

hirh   we   have 


ART 

him 

in  M.itr  "f   th-    mini" 

If,.   SM    mtluenced  chiefly  by  tl 

n,l      hi>      Itall        &    '«"  reilWi««   -.7    - 

arrunpn,  poop  of  ^J^££g  ad-      The   laseivious 

.;,.     .I,,.,.      followed  by  tl 


•The  Empire. 

left   at    the    threshold   of   the 


^ trsJffl^.^SLfS 

,.,,untry,  the  politi        a»u    f  ^^.^.^  Avnintion. 


combing    an,!      ,"-.;;>.  -•     --—,-t,  Of  artistic  evolution 

in  massing  the      letle.ttci^Dy  immoral  Court  wa: 


art  of   an   immoral 


William 


leserves    111^    6'^- 

lilak--.       a      mv-tie      1^1086 


93.     LORENZO    AND    ISABELLA,    BY    SIB    J.    B.    MILLAIS,    BABT. 
(Walker  Art  Gallery.  Liverpool) 

weird,  fantastic  imagination  defied  all  laws  of 
Nature.  belong  to  this  time,  but  was  an  isolated 
appeal-line.-  in  tin-  history  of  art 

The     Pre-Raphaelite     Brotherhood. 

( in  the  \\hole.  English  painting  was  at  its  lowest 

,-!.li  in  1^ is.  \\lu-n  a  fe\v  ardent  young  spirits, 

led  by  D.  G.  Rossetti,  J.   E.  Millais,  and  W. 

Holman  Hunt,  revived  to  renounce  the  artificial 

acadnnie  formula  of  the  day,  and  to  follow  the 

example  of  the  Italian  primitives,  to  approach 

ra    in   a  humble,  naive  spirit,   and   to  do 

away  with    theatrical    posing  and  bituminous 

shadow*  and  ready-made  recipes   for    making 

pi.  tuie^     The  faniims  picture,   "LuxMundi," 

produced    in    colour    opposite    page   625, 

.•Unit  example  is  the  "  Lorni/o 

I...'     by   Milhis   |93J.      Every  detail, 

>  grass  blade   or  flower,   stone   or   furrow, 

was  made   the   object    of    careful    study   from 

ire — so     much    so,    that    at    times     the 

larger   truth   was  lost   sight  of   in   th     passion 

microscopic    truths.      As    regards  subject, 

romance  un«l    |»»ti-y   \\<-re  put   in   the  place  of 

.  liK-ii  then  had  the  applause  of 

ll.he. 

the    Brotherhood    aroused 

a   Htorm    of    indiL'iiaiit    al.use.    but    a    powerful 
M'li  r  of  tht-ir  .iim^  ap|»eared    in  Ruskin.  who 
v  hiniM-lf    heart   and  soul  into   the   move- 
ment.     The    Brotherhood,    as  such,    was    short - 
•i.  but    tli«-    influence    has   In-en   la-tinii     ;;nd 
is  Btill   to  U-  felt  in   the  art    of  to-day  in  spit.- 
of  '  .of    Flench  'ideas  and 

nique. 


Revolution,  who,  i 
constructions  of  Ancient 
history,  glorified  the  self- 
sacrificing  patriotism  ot 
the  Roman  Republic, 
and  then,  as  Court 
painter  to  Napoleon, 
became  the  originator  of 
the  Neo-Greek  "  Empire  " 
style.  With  Napoleon's 
victorious  campaigns 
arose  an  important 
school  of  battle  painters, 
of  which  Gros  and  Gerard 
were  the  leading  spirits. 
But  neither  art  nor 
literature  flourished 

during  the  first  Empire, 
and  only  after  the 
Restoration  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  France 
began  to  flow  again  in 
many  contending  cur- 
rents. The  first  great 
battle  was  waged  between 
Ingres,  the  head  of  the 

classicist  school,  who  based  his  art  on  the 
imitation  of  the  antique  and  perfect  draughts- 
manship, and  Delacroix,  the  leader  of  the 
Romanticists,  a  truly  inspired  artist,  with  a 
glowing  sense  of  colour  and  a  powerful  imagina- 
tion. Then  came  the  revolt  of  the  Barbizon 
men.  then  the  struggle  of  the  freelight  painters, 
and  finally  of  the  impressionists,  whose  aims 
have  already  been  set  forth  in  the  article  on 
"  Landscape  Art." 

Impressionism       in        France. 
impressionism  has   another  aspect  besides  that 
of  which  Claude  Monet  is  the  chief  exponent 
As   conceived  by  such  masters  as  Manet  and 
Degas,  it  substitutes  beauty  of  character  for 
beauty  of  form,  and  turns  the  -attention  of  the 
artists  to  scenes  of  contemporary  life.    Classicism 
and  academic  art  in  general  sail  in  lofty  regions 
far  removed  from  the  bustle  and  strife  of  every- 
day   life.     The    impressionists    maintain,    and 
frequently    prove    by    their    works,    that    the 
meanest  subject  is  worthy  of  pictorial  treatment 
if  it  is  seen  by  the  eye  of  an  artist.     As  the 
word  conveys,  impressionism  is  concerned  with 
tlu-  impression  of  a  scene,  which  can  only  be 
recorded    in    its    completeness    by    summary 
suppression  of  all  the  details  which  cannot  be 
grasped  at  a  rapid  glance.     The  academic  painter 
loses  the  freshness  of  an  impression  by  using  his 
knowledge  of  the  form  of  things  to  penetrate  the 
mysteries    of    distance    or    deep    shadow.     The 
impressionist  loses  outline  and  form  where  they 
nn-    lost   in  Nature,    and   thus   attains   greater 
verisimilitude.        The     academic      painter,     in 


treating  the  figure,  loses  the  sense  of  movement 
through  overcarefulness  in  drawing.  The  model 
is  turned  to  stone,  as  it  were,  in  the  act  of 
running,  or  wrestling,  or  dancing  ;  while  the 
impressionist,  sometimes  through  accentuation, 
which  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  correct,  or  through 
the  effacing  of  contours,  often  succeeds  in  con- 
veying an  extraordinary  suggestion  of  move- 
ment. Thus,  in  the  ballet  scenes  by  Degas,  the 
dancers  seem  to  be  actually  circling  and  pirouet- 
ting round  the  stage.  As  an  example  of  Manet's 
work  'a  reproduction  is  given  of  "A  Bull 
Fight"  [94]. 

Four  Great  Masters.  Like  the  Pre- 
Raphaelites  in  England,  the  French  impres- 
sionists had  to  fight  a  hard  struggle  before  their 
views  found  acceptance,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  extreme  manifestations  of  impres- 
sionism frequently  degenerate  into  absurdity  and 
ugly  caricature,  and  fully  deserve  the  ridicule 
that  has  been  heaped  upon  them.  Yet  it 
has  remained  one  of  the  leading  factors  in 
modern  art,  not  only  in  France  but  throughout 
Europe  and  America.  Its  influence  has  not 
always  been  beneficial,  for  the  incompetent 
frequently  sails  under  its  flag  to  conceal  lack  of 
training  and  deficient 
d  r  a  ughtsman- 
ship ;  but  on  the 
other  hand,  it  has 
enriched  the  world 
with  the  master- 
pieces of  a  Monet,  a 
Manet,  a  Degas,  and 
a  Whistler. 

Nineteenth 
Century  Art.  In 
the  rich  artistic  life 
of  nineteenth  cen- 
tury France,  impres- 
sionism was  only 
one,  though  the  most 
important,  phase. 
The  academic  school 
continued  to  flourish 
in  the  art  of 
accomplished  pain- 
ters like  Meissonier, 
Bouguereau,  Dela- 
roche,  Fleury,  and 
many  others ;  the 
Orientalists,  who 
found  their  subject- 
matter  in  the  sump- 
tuous picturesque- 
ness  of  the  East,  are 
chiefly  represented  by  Decamps,  Fromentin,  and 
Marilhat ;  decorative  wall  painting  attracted 
masters  like  Puvis  de  Chavannes  and,  more 
recently,  Besnard  ;  Bastien-Lepage  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  freelight  painters  ;.  while  the  most 
recent  group,  the  intimists,  include  Le  Sidaner, 
one  of  the  most  fascinating  artists  of  the  present 
time. 

Rodin  and  Stevens.  In  sculpture, 
France  took  an  uncontested  lead  during  the 
nineteenth  century.  Rude  (A.D.  1784-1855)  was 


ART 

the  fiist  to  return  to  the  national  tradition 
which  the  followers  of  Canova  had  forsaken 
for  cold  classicism.  Barye  (A.D.  1796  - 1875) 
stands  unapproached  as  a  sculptor  of  animals. 
Carpeaux,  Fremiet,  Dalou,  and  Falguiere 
must  all  be  reckoned  among  the  masters  of 
their  art.  They  all  went  to  Nature  for  their 
inspiration,  instead  of  continuing  the  imitation 
of  the  antique  that  was  so  prevalent  in  the  early 
part  of  the  century.  Rodin,  finally,  achieved 
the  introduction  of  something  like  impressionism 
in  sculpture.  Of  the  masters  of  the  past, 
Donatello  is  the  one  with  whom  he  shows  the 
greatest  affinity,  though  Rodin's  style  is  entirely 
original  and  personal.  Through  the  accentuation 
and  amplification  of  certain  planes,  he  not  only, 
succeeds  in  suggesting  movement,  but  a  curious 
softening  of  the  silhouettes,  which  makes  his 
statues  and  groups  appear  as  if  they  were  bathed 
in  atmosphere.  Rodin,  like  all  great  reformers, 
met  with  bitter  opposition,  but  to-day  his  pre- 
eminence in  the  field  of  sculpture  is  admitted  by 
those  who  are  most  competent  to  judge.  An 
example  of  his  work  is  to  be  found  on  page  1675. 
In  Belgium,  Constantin  Meunier  has  created,  in 
stone  and  bronze,  a  mighty  epos  of  Labour.  His 


A    BULL    FIGHT,    BY    MANET 


aims  and  achievements  in  sculpture  are  almost 
identical  with  Millet's  in  paint.  The  one  great 
sculptor  produced  by  England  in  the  middle  of 
last  century  was  Alfred  Stevens,  whose  Welling- 
ton Memorial  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  is  worthy 
to  be  placed  beside  the  masterpieces  of  the 
sculptors  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  The  last 
,  decades  of  the  century  witnessed  an  important 
advance  in  plastic  art,  and  English  sculptors  of 
to-day  have  little  to  fear  from  comparison  with 
their  Continental  contemporaries. 


HISTORY  OF  ART  concluded ;  followed  by  GLASS 


4395 


Croup  15 

HISTORY 
31 

i  -.  •  -- 


By  JUSTIN 

SPAIN 

\\v    has.-    already    t..l«l    how    the   Moorish 

(1(,mmlon  Ml  Spain  wa.s  >   brought  to  an  end  m 

thl.  ,,lLrll  of  lYnlmandll.,  and  how  Spam  t 

Uvame.  f,,r  the  filri  time,  one  united  sovereignty, 

:m(1(lMt.n;ltl()M:l|ny.    iM-nlinand  married  Isabella 

,,!,,  which  marriage  helped  effectually  to 

,    h      a,Hlllt    thl.  uni(m    ()f   the  two  kingdom^ 

la  was  the  sbter  of  Henry  IV  of  C^ 

,,  hia  death  most  of  the  Castilian  nobles 

,|   to  acknowledge  the  legitimacy  of  his 

daughter.    Juana,    and    proclaimed    Ferdinand 

Isabella   rulers   of   Castile.      A    civil    war 

fallowed   in  which  Ferdinand  was  successful. 

Thr  n-inn  of  Ferdinand   was  remarkable  for 

In.mv  e\  ents.     He  did  much  to  restore  peace  and 

to  the  country,  and  to  diminish  the  power  ot 

Obie&     In  his  reign  occurred  the  discovery 

jnerioa    by   Christopher  Columbus.     There 

many  W9XB  and  civil  struggles  during  his 

time,   and   throughout  his  reign   he   was  ably 

ted   by   thr  celebrated   Cardinal   Ximenes, 

mm,  'indeed,  practically  thr  ruler  of  Spain 

until  the  accession  of  Charles  V. 

The      Inquisition.        Ferdinand's      reign 

has,   however,    left   a  dark   memory   behind  it 

because  of  his  establishment  of  the  Inquisition 

and  the  cruel   persecution  of  the  Jews  and  of 

..rish   inhabitants   who   had  remained 

in    Spain,    led   to   remain   there   by   conditions 

pi«uiii.-ed  but   never  made  good  to  them.     Isa- 

dird  in    l."><>4.   and   in  the  following  year 

Ferdinand    married    a    niece    of    Louis    XII.    of 

llr  nilrd  a-  regent  for  his  daughter, 

Juana—  who  was  insane—  on  the  death   of  her 

husband.  M.not  the  King  of  the  Netherlands,  \vho 

iinand  died  in  1516. 

The  d.-tiny  of  Spain  \\as  for  a  time  greatly 

influenced  by  the  fact  that  Charles  V.,  Emperor 

•led  to  the  Spanish  crown. 

"i-'iird    t'rtim    his    father.    Philip,    the 

.    Burgundy,    and    the    Imperial 

thrum-  ;  while  from  hi>  mother,  the  daughter  of 

iniand  and  Isabella,  he  became  heir  to  the 

iuler>hip  of  Spain.  Naples,  and  Spanish  America. 

charl'^.  uho  was  born  in  1500,  went  to  Spam 

m    l.'dT  and    was  for  a    time    joint    ruler   of   the 

My    with    hi.-   mother,    who   afterwards   bc- 

ln  l.Vju  he  was  crowned  Emperor 

•  mi.  my.  and  soon  after  presided  at  the  Diet 

•  tin  Luther's  opinions  were 

16    he   married    Isabella, 

sister  of  .John  III.  of  I'nrtiiL'al. 

:he  European  Continent  SOOn 

became  a  scene    tor    the   display    of    the    rivalry 
Charle-,     and     Fian<i>     1.     of     France. 
i  th<-  I)  -H-hv  of  Bur^undv  and  that 
of  Milan,  while  the   KiitL'  maintained 


MEDIAEVAL    EUROPE 


that  lie  -ua>  th<  .'ions. 


MCCARTHY 

The  war  at  first  was  a  success  for  Charles.  He 
had  the  support  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and 
also  of  the  Constable  Bourbon,  one  of  the  most 
powerful  subjects  of  the  French  King.  Charles 
drove  the  French  out  of  Italy,  and  invaded 
Provence.  Soon  after,  the  King  of  France  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  as  already  related 
in  our  French  history.  No  sooner  was  this 
accomplished  than  the  alliance  which  was  called 
the  Holy  League  was  formed  against  Charles  by 
Pope  Clement  VII,  who  had  as  his  allies  Henry 
VUL,  King  Francis,  and  the  Venetians. 

Imprisonment  of  the  Pope.     One  event 
in  the  struggle  which  followed  was  that  in  1527 
an  army  of   Italians,  Spaniards,  and  Germans, 
led  by  Bourbon,  entered  and  occupied  Rome, 
and    imprisoned    the    Pope.     Bourbon    himself 
was  killed  in  the  attack  upon  the  city.     Charles 
disclaimed  all  part   in   the   movement  against 
Rome,  and  repudiated  any  sympathy  with  the 
imprisonment  of  the  Pope.     A  peace  was  finally 
made— the  Peace  of  Cambrai— in  1529,  by  the 
operation  of   which  Charles  became  practically 
the  ruler  of  Italy.     It  was  then   that,  for  the 
first  time,  he  went  to  see  and  study  Italy  for 
himself,   and   he   was  crowned   at  Bologna   a» 
Emperor  of  the  Romans  and  King  of  Lombardy. 
The  struggles  with  France  still  went  on,  until 
in  1538  the  new  Pope,  Paul  III.,  the  Sovereign 
of  France,  and  Charles  agreed  to  a  truce  for  ten 
years.    Among  his  other  military  and  naval  opera- 
tions,  Charles  found  time  to  head  in  person  a  mari- 
time expedition  against  the  celebrated  corsair 
Barbarossa — the  pirates  of  the  North  African 
ports  were  then  an  incessant  trouble  to  southern 
Europe.      He   completely  subdued   Barbarossa, 
and  captured  Tunis.     A  later  expedition  of  his 
against  other  Algerian  pirates  was  less  fortunate 
in  its  results,  for  the  fleet  which  he  conducted 
was  brought  to  complete  wreck  by  heavy  storms. 
The    Triumph     ot     the     Protestants. 
The  league  which  Charles  had  made  with  the 
Papal    Government     aroused    the    Protestants 
into  armed  resistance   of   his   power,   but  the 
two  campaigns  which  followed  proved  unfavour- 
able to  the  arms  of  the  Protestants,  and  a  truca 
was  agreed  upon.     But  Charles's  stern  main- 
tenance of  the  terms  he  had  imposed,  and  the 
severity    with   which   he   treated   his   prisoners, 
among  wrhom  were  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse,  turned  many  of  his  own 
supporters  against  him,  all  the  more  because  it 
was  now  clear  that  his  ambition  was  to  become 
absolute  ruler  of  Germany.     Maurice  of  Saxony, 
a  Protestant,  who  had  up  to  this  time  supported 
Charles,  now  turned  against  him,   and  proved 
himself  so  well  supported  that  Charles  was  com- 
pelled to  recognise  the  Protestant  claims,  and 
treaties  were  made  which  ended  in  the  Peace 


of  Augsburg  in  1555.  Charles  was  disappointed 
in  some  of  his  most  cherished  purposes  by  this 
and  by  other  events,  and  he  appears  to  have 
grown  weary  of  rulership.  He  was  breaking 
down  in  health,  and  suffering  much  pain,  and 
in  1555  he  resigned  his  position  both  as  Emperor 
and  as  King,  handing  over  the  crown  of  Spain  to 
his  son  Philip.  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  monastic  seclusion  at  Yuste,  where  he  died 
on  September  21st,  1558. 

Don  John  of  Austria,  who  afterwards  made  him- 
self famous  by  his  wars  against  the  Moors  and 
against  the  Turks,  was  a  natural  son  of  Charles. 
In  the  great  battle  of  Lepanto,  October  7th,  1571, 
he  conducted  the  combined  fleets  of  Spain, 
Venice,  Genoa,  Malta,  and  Rome,  defeated  the 
whole  arrayed  naval  power  of  the  Turks  near 
10  Corinth,  and  put,  for  the  time,  a  complete 
etop  to  the  aggressive  movements  of  Turkey. 

Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Charles  V.  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  a  sove- 
reign who  made  for  himself  a  deep  mark  on  the 
world's  history.  Philip  was  born  at  Valladolid  in 
1527.  In  1543  he  married  Mary  of  Portugal, 
who  died  three  years  after,  and  in  1554  he  became 
the  husband  of  Mary  Tudor,  Queen  of  England. 
The  abdication  of  his  father  consigned  to  him 
a  vast  dominion,  including  Spain,  the  two 
Sicilies,  Milan,  the  Low  Countries,  Mexico,  and 
Peru.  The  resources  of  the  State  had  been  much 
exhausted  by  previous  wars,  and  Philip  had  but 
little  opportunity  of  making  good  these  losses, 
even  if  he  had  been  a  sincere  and  capable  econo- 
mist. The  first  war  of  his  reign  was  made  against 
the  league  formed  by  Henry  II.  of  France  and 
Pope  Paul  IV.  Philip  won  two  decided  victories 
over  the  French,  and  Henry  of  France  was  com- 
pelled to  agree  to  a  peace.  On  the  death  of  his 
wife,  he  married  Isabella  of  France. 

"  Dictator  to  Europe."  Philip  was  a  man 
of  narrow  mind,  although  of  much  political 
capacity,  and  ambitious  of  extreme  power.  His 
resolute  aim  was  to  reign  as  a  despot  over  his 
own  dominions,  and  to  make  himself  a  dictator 
to  Europe  in  general.  He  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  Catholic  party,  and  worked  deliberately  for 
the  suppression  of  all  free  institutions  within  his 
own  states.  He  made  full  use  of  the  machinery 
established  by  the  Inquisition  for  the  purpose  of 
extinguishing  all  religious  sects  throughout  his 
territories ;  but  he  overdid  the  work.  In  the  Low 
Countries  his  tyrannical  policy  roused  the  whole 
people  of  the  Netherlands  to  a  revolt,  which  ended 
in  the  independence  of  that  country.  The  great 
failure  of  Philip's  life  came  from  his  extravagant 
attempt  to  conquer  England.  The  destruction 
of  the  Spanish  Armada  is  one  of  the  memorable 
events  of  European  history.  His  whole  reign  was, 
in  fact,  a  series  of  failures  which  greatly  increased 
his  financial  troubles  at  home,  and  his  persecu- 
tions brought  him  enemies  far  and  wide.  His 
later  years  were  a  period  of  utter  disappoint- 
ment, of  breakdown  in  health  and  hope.  He  died 
on  September  13th,  1598.  With  the  revolt  of 
the  Netherlands  and  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish 
Armada,  the  history  of  Spain  as  a  great,  and 
sometimes  a  domineering,  power  in  Europe  may 
be  said  to  have  come  to  an  end. 


HISTORY 

THE  NETHERLANDS 

The  struggle  for  independence  and  the  final 
success  of  the  Netherlands  gives  to  the  history 
of  Europe  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
important  of  its  chapters.  That  portion  of  the 
northern  Netherlands  known  as  Holland  was 
governed  for  some  centuries  by  a  line  of  counts 
under  the  over-rule  of  the  German  sovereigns. 
It  was  annexed  to  Austria,  and  finally  came  undei 
the  dominion  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 

The  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands. 
The  people  of  the  Netherlands  were  among  the 
earliest  and  the  most  resolute  to  join  the  Reform- 
ation, and  Philip  made  merciless  use  of  all  the. 
forces  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  futile  effort  to 
coerce  the  indomitable  Dutchmen  into  a  renuncia- 
tion of  their  new  faith.  It  is  said  that  about 
100,000  human  beings  must  have  lost  their  lives 
during  Philip's  campaigns  of  persecution.  The 
people  of  Holland  were  not,  however,  to  be 
persecuted  out  of  their  religion  or  their  nation- 
ality, and  as  Philip  was  evidently  determined  not 
to  mitigate  his  policy,  they  saw  that  there  was 
nothing  left  for  them  but  to  rise  in  rebellion. 
The  leading  men  among  the  Dutch  kept  fiimly 
in  their  minds  the  fact  that  they  had,  as  their 
last  resource,  an  ally  against  which  even  the 
power  of  Philip  II.  could  not  contend — the  sea, 
which  rose  above  the  level  of  their  shores,  and  had 
to  be  kept  from  washing  over  them  by  gigantic 
and  elaborate  dykes  and  other  such  artificial 
means  of  protection.  In  1566  the  Dutch  nobles 
formed  a  confederation  called  "  Les  Gueux " 
("The  Beggars"),  a  name  which  had  its  origin 
from  an  epithet  given  in  contempt  to  a  body 
of  300  deputies  from  the  Low  Countries,  headed 
by  two  nobles,  who  ventured  to  present  the 
petition  for  the  abolition  of  the  Inquisition  in 
Holland  and  Belgium.  This  name,  thrown  out 
in  scorn,  was  taken  up  by  the  deputies  and 
accepted  defiantly  as  their  title.  The  peaceful 
deputation  soon  changed  into  a  warrior  band 
and  made  the  name  of  the  "  Beggars  "  to  ring 
in  renown  throughout  Europe.  » 

William  the  Silent*  One  of  the  lead- 
ing men  of  that  era  was  William  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  succeeded  to  large '  estates  in 
Holland,  and  showed  even  in  his  earliest  years 
so  much  military  and  statesmanlike  capacity 
that  he  was  appointed  by  Charles  V.  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Netherlands  when  only  twenty- 
two.  William  is  kn.own  to  all  history  as  "Wil- 
liam the  Silent."  It  is,  however,  certain  that 
among  other  great  qualities  he  was  an  accom- 
plished orator,  who  never  failed  to  make  use 
of  his  powers  of  speech  when  any  great  object 
was  to  be  served. 

On  one  memorable  occasion,  in  1560,  William 
was  put  in  possession  of  a  State  secret  by 
Henry  II.  of  France,  at  a  time  when  he  was  a 
hostage  in  Henry's  dominions.  This  secret, 
which  was  a  project  concocted  by  France  and 
Spain  for  the  destruction  of  all  the  Protestants 
of  France  and  of  the  Netherlands,  was  confided 
to  him  while  hunting  in  the  forest  of  Vincennes 
by  the  King  of  France,  who  assumed  that  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  like  most  other  men  of  rank 
at  that  time,  had  no  sympathy  with  the 

4397 


HISTORY 

William  ot    0  thrn 

'"llad^v'llLu  entl .;•'•'. I  into  «y    contro- 

ss  «  a-  «»i'j.-«.  >"• k'"-  that  m';r; 

1  to  taken  to  prevent  l.mi  tr..in  

M  t(,  the  intended  policy  i 

are,    m   absoli 
j,.  t.i  forewarn  his  countrymen  am 

%£          >«»*^*^**£S£ 

,v   ,.  persecutions  started  by  Philip. 

J.,,1  all  his  offices  of  state  and 

A,(lhnM.r|famemberof  the  Protestant 

(  lhm,:h.  rhilip  of  Spain  sent  the  Duke  of  Alvato 
the  NYthe,  lands  at  t he  head  of  a  large =army ,and 
ul,h  unlimited  power  to  mam  tain  the  Govern- 
ment of  Spain  there.  The  Duke  of  Alva  did  his 
best  to  carry  out  the  Kin*  of  Spain  s  wishes  by 
merciless  bloodshed.  William  was  proclaimed 
a  traitor  by  Alva,  and  as  the  whole  country  was 
now  rising  in  revolt,  the  proclaimed  traitor  was 
at  on,,-  chosen  by  the  Hollanders  as  their 
commander  by  sea  and  by  land  and  under  his 
guidance  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  was  suc- 
cessfully carried  on.  Until  the  rising  of  the  Gueux, 
the  Spaniards  had  held  unchallenged  mastery 
over  the  N'ethe.  lands,  but  from  that  time  a  revolt 
went  on  gaining  in  strength  with  every  day. 

Union  of  the  Northern  Provinces. 
Tho  union  of  all  the  northern  provinces  was 
thoroughly  established  in  1579.  and  in  five  years 
more  the  whole  united  Netherlands  had  re- 
nounced for  ever  their  allegiance  to  the  power 
of  Spain.  Much  was  yet  to  be  accomplished 
before  the  absolute  independence  of  the  new 
state  could  be  forced  upon  the  recognition 
of  Spain.  The  Dutch  were  determined  to  fight 
on  to  the  last,  and  it  was  one  of  their  resolves 
that,  should  the  worst  come,  they  would  destroy 

dykes  which  kept  out  the  sea. 
Long  before  the  struggle  had  gone  so  far  as 
to  caU  for  such  a  policy  of  self-destruction,  the 
gall..  ten  had  suffered  a  heavy  loss  by 

the  death  of  their  illustrious  leader,  William  the 
Silent  The  Kiin,'  of  Spain,  through  the  Duke  of 
i,  proclaimed  William  of  Orange  a  traitor, 
and  set  a  price  upon  his  head — the  sum  of  25,000 
gold  CKW  i  a  result  of  this  measure  an 

named  Balthasar  Gerards  shot  William 


-tol  bought  with  money  the  Prince  had 

given  hi"  ..ml  killed  him  at  Delf,  on 

loth    Us-!.     Nothing  can  give  better  evi- 

nL'th  cf  the  national  cause  and  of 

-iasrn  \\ith  which  William  had  inspired 

bin  T  :i  than  th;-  fact  that  his  death 

only  seemed  to  n«M\.  thr  [follamlrr>t<>fteshelWt. 

••It   in  Knjzland  for  the 

\\hieli  they  were  carrying 

•"  men  \\eivM-nt  to  help 

•;i..ny  enemies  for  hei - 

throughout   Kun.jM-.  and  Queen  Kli/.al>eth  of 

v  to  lend  a  helping  Imnd 

h  policy,  although  the 

rivalry  Ix-tu  -en  the  two  great  powers 

had  in  of  i.p.-n  war  it 

WM  goon  to  AHHUIII*-.      The  I  hitch  knew  well  h<m 

'nij^le.    and    how    to    avail 

FeottTe  mannrr  ,,f  any 

h-|p   oJT.-p-d    t..    tin-ill.      It    ln-eaini-  evident  that 


there  wan  no  possible  moans  of 
,)ut,h  once  again  to  servitude 
of  Spain.  The  northern  provinc 
knds  achieved  their  independence  and  thus 
became  a  new  self-ruling  European  state.  Those 
provinces  of  the  Netherlands  which  we  now 
know  as  Belgium  remained  for  a  time,  under 
the  dominion  of  Spain  or  of  Austria. 

GERMANY 

The  German  populations  were,  about  the 
tenth  century,  forming  themselves  into  some- 
thing like  cohesive  and  powerful  states,  although 
many  of  them  yet  remained  in  a  condition  which 
show-ed  uncertainty  as  to  whether  they  were 
destined  ultimately  to  form  part  of  a  people 
subject  to  a  foreign  power,  or  to  lose  their  nation- 
ality by  becoming  absorbed  into  the  dominions 
of  some  larger  state.  Austria,  the  name  of  which 
signifies  "Eastern  Kingdom,"  had  undergone 
many  invasions  and  occupations  since  the  days 
when  it  was  part  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Charle- 
magne, in  re-establishing  the  various  states  over 
which  he  had  acquired  dominion,  made  Austria 
a  margraviate,  ruled  over  by  a  margrave.  Later 
on  the  margraviate  was  raised  to  a  duchy,  and 
still  later  to  an  archduchy. 

Frederick  II.,  who  reigned  over  the  Empire  of 
Germany  from  1212  to  1250,  was  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  sovereigns  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Witl 
his  son  Conrad,  who  reigned  for  four  years,  ended 
the  Hohenstaufen  line,  and  he  was  succeeded  by 
many  princes  who  ruled — sometimes  contem- 
poraneously— during  a  period  known  as  the  Great 
Interregnum,  which  lasted  till  1273,  when 
Rudolf  I.  of  the  Austrian  House  of  Hapsburg, 
came  to  the  throne.  For  nearly  two  centuries 
from  this  time  the  history  of  the  German  Empire 
is  but  the  record  of  a  succession  of  rulers. 

Maximilian  I.  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick 
IV.,  in  1493,  and  his  marriage  with  Mary, 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy, 
involved  Maximilian  in  European  politics.  He 
made  many  improvements  in  the  laws  and  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  Empire— originating  the 
Imperial  Chamber  and  the  Aulic  Council. 

The  Reformation.  In  his  reign  began 
the  Reformation  movement,  to  which  he  was 
opposed,  and  the  success  of  Luther's  preaching, 
but  the  establishment  of  the  Protestant  religion 
in  Germany  did  not  take  place  until  the  reign 
of  his  grandson,  Charles  V,  grandson  also  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  who  reigned 
from  1519  to  1556. 

For  a  long  time  the  Emperors  of  Germany  re- 
tained also  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Rome,  by 
which  Charlemagne  was  crowned  in  800,  by 
Pope  Leo  III.  Otho  the  Great,  who  was  crowned 
by  Pope  John  XII.,  in  Rome,  in  962,  was  the 
first  who  was  called  Sovereign  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire.  The  Empire,  under  its  various  denom- 
inations, was  made  up  of  all  manner  of  European 
states  enclosing  within  the  one  ruling  system 
several  different  nationalities.  Nor  did  these 
populations  seem  to  be  held  together  by  any 
influence  more  successfully  assimilating  them 
than  the  strength  of  the  German  ruling  power. 
For  some  time  the  Netherlands  became  part  of 
the  Empire  of  Austria  by  the  marriage  of  the 


Austrian  Prince  Maximilian  with  the  daughter 
of  Charles  the  Bold,  and  not  long  after  Spain 
became  a  dominion  attached  to  Austria  by  th<; 
marriage  of  Philip  of  Spain  with  the  heiress  of 
Aragon  and  Castile. 

SWITZERLAND 

Helvetia,  or  Switzerland,  after  the  rule  of  the 
Roman  Empire  had  ended,  was  ravaged  by  the 
Huns,  and  in  450  was  invaded  by  the  Burgun- 
dians  and  the  Alemanni.  In  the  fifth  century  it 
was  ruled  by  the  Franks  of  the  Merovingian  line, 
and  somewhere  about  this  period  many  of  the 
famous  monasteries  were  founded.  Much  of 
what  is  now  Switzerland  was,  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
part  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  and  was  there- 
fore, in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  the  rule  of 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  the  Sovereign  of  Austria, 

The  men  of  some  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  Uri, 
Schwyz  and  Unterwalden,  early  in  the  fourteenth 
century  formed  a  league  and  covenant  against 
the  rule  of  Austria — more,  indeed,  against  the 
rule  of  the  subordinates  of  the  Emperor  than 
against  the  Emperor  himself — and  other  cantons 
quickly  joined  the  Eidgenossen  (the  confederates), 
as  they  were  called.  In  1307  three  of  the  leaders 
of  the  confederates  met  by  the  Lake  of  Lucerne, 
and  swore  to  free  their  country  from  the  tyranny 
of  Austria,  and  in  the  following  years  many  other 
cantons  joined  the  confederation.  In  1315  they 
put  to  rout  the  army  of  Leopold  of  Austria. 
By  the  middle  of  the  century  most  of  the  cantons 
had  joined  the  confederates,  and  the  Austrians 
were  defeated  in  1386  at  Sempach,  in  1388  at 
Nafels,  and  in  1393  the  Swiss  drew  up  the  famous 
Convention  of  Sempach. 

In  1476  the  Swiss  encountered  Charles  the 
Bold  on  the  French  frontier.  They  defeated 
him  at  Grandson,  and  again  at  Morat,  and  in 
the  following  year,  before  the  walls  of  Nancy, 
in  which  engagement  Charles  the  Bold  was  slain. 

The  Story  of  William  Tell.  The 
story  of  the  Swiss  uprising  is  so  much  associated 
with  the  name  of  William  Tell  that  we  will 
mention  the  legend  here  in  passing.  The  story 
tells  how  Gessler,  the  representative  of  Albert  II. 
of  Austria,  tried  to  compel  the  Swiss  to  do  homage 
to  the  hat  of  the  prince  set  up  on  a  pole  in  Altorf ; 
how  William  Tell,  refusing  to  offer  this  homage, 
was  ordered  to  shoot  an  apple  off  the  head  of  his 
son.  Tell  accomplished  this  feat  without  injur- 
ing his  boy,  but  avenged  himself  by  putting  the 
village  tyrant  to  death.  Then  broke  out  the 
movement  which  ended  in  securing  the  entire 
independence  of  Switzerland. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Protestant 
Reformation,  led  by  Zwingli,  arose  in  Zurich,  and 
quickly  spread  over  many  of  the  northern  or 
German  cantons  of  Switzerland.  Some  of 
them,  however,  remained  Catholic,  and  in  1531 
war  broke  out  between  the  followers  of  the  two 
faiths.  Zwingli  was  killed,  and  the  Zurichers  were 
defeated  at  the  Battle  of  Kappel.  Four  years 
later  Geneva  became  a  Republic  with  new  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  laws,  under  Calvin,  and  after 
this  Protestantism  spread  into  the  west  of  the 


HISTORY 

country.  During  the  Thirty  Years  War  Zurich 
and  Berne  helped  to  maintain  the  neutrality  of 
Switzerland,  which  was  recognised  as  an  in- 
dependent state  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia 
in  1648.  This  independence  Switzerland  has 
ever  since  maintained. 

HUNGARY 

Hungary  was  first  formed  into  a  kingdom  by 
Stephen  in  1000.  The  title  of  "  Apostolic  King  " 
was  conferred  on  him  by  Pope  Sylvester  II.  for 
his  work  in  the  spread  of  Christianity,  and  the 
crown  he  then  received  was  worn  by  all  kings 
of  Hungary  since.  After  his  death  in  1038, 
unsuccessful  efforts  were  made  to  re-establish 
paganism.  Stephen  founded  many  religious  and 
civil  institutions — the  Ecclesiastical  Organisation, 
the  Municipal  Councils,  and  the  National  Council 
— afterwards  the  Diet  of  the  State. 

In  1222,  during  the  reign  of  Andrew  II.,  the 
"  Golden  Bull,"  the  Magna  Charta  of  Hungary, 
was  granted,  and  nine  years  later  its  privileges 
were  much  extended.  Hungary  was  invaded  by 
the  Mongols  in  the  reign  of  Bela  IV.,  and  German 
colonists  were  introduced  by  him,  as  the  country 
had  been  much  depopulated  by  the  Mongol 
massacre.  Andrew  III.,  who  died  in  1301,  was 
the  last  sovereign  of  the  House  of  Arpad,  and  on 
his  death  the  succession  was  contested.  Seven 
years  later,  Charles  Robert  of  Anjou  became  king, 
and  reigned  until  1342.  He  did  much  to  improve 
the  condition  of  his  adopted  country,  and  under 
his  rule  and  that  of  his  son,  Louis  the  Great, 
Hungary  took  a  high  place  among  the  nations. 

Matthias  of  Hungary.  When  Ladislaus 
Posthumus  died,  in  1457,  he  was  succeeded  by 
Matthias,  the  son  of  the  great  Hunyady — the 
famous  general  whose  life  was  one  long  crusade 
against  the  Turks.  The  reign  of  Matthias  saw 
the  greatest  era  in  the  history  of  Hungary. 
He  went  to  war  with  Bohemia,  and  became 
king  of  it  and  of  Moravia.  He  made  war  with 
Turkey,  and  regained  the  Southern  Provinces 
which  Turkey  had  held.  In  1485,  he  made 
Vienna  the  capital  of  Hungary. 

Matthias  was  also  renowned  for  his  statesman- 
ship, his  justice,  and  his  encouragement  of  arts 
and  letters.  On  his  death  the  country  was 
given  over  to  internecine  strife,  and  rapidly 
declined  in  prosperity.  It  was  invaded  by  the 
Turks  in  the  reign  of  Louis  II.,  and  Louis 
himself  was  killed.  The  crown  was  then  con- 
tended for  by  John  Zapolya  and  Ferdinand  II. 
of  Austria.  As  Ferdinand  had  the  support  of 
the  Hungarian  nobles,  Zapolya  had  to  renounce 
his  claim,  and  Hungary  thus  came  under  the 
sway  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  Since  that  date 
the  history  of  Hungary  is  connected  with  that 
of  Austria.  Under  a  succession  of  Austrian 
sovereigns  there  were  many  wars  with  Turkey, 
and  much  strife  between  the  Catholic  kings 
and  their  Protestant  subjects.  There  were 
many  risings,  also,  against  Austrian  rule,  and 
these  conditions  lasted  until  1825,  when  the 
National  Diet,  which  was  convoked  by  Francis  I., 
opened  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Hungary. 


Continued. 


4399 


Group  6 

ARMY& 
NAVY 

5 


THE   NAVAL   OFFICER 


as 


.,"  ssx 


vv/K  li  iv.-   >hown   how 


seaman  may  rise  in 
rom  a  second-class  boy  to  com- 
minioned  rank  ;    u«-  shall  now  proceed  t 

how  a  boy  more  favoured  with  fortune  s 
Knp  rises  from  midshipman  to  Admiral  of 
the  Fleet.  It  will  be  observed  that  we  deal 
m  this  nection  only 
of  the  Service,  the  Paymaster 
dealt  with  in  the  Civil  Servu 

TfftcLcy    of    the    Naval     Officer. 

To-day  the  cry  of 


By  C.    DUNCAN   CROSS 

before  a  committee,  not  for  an  examination  of  his 
book   knowledge,   but  so   that   the   committee 


may  have  an  opportunity  of  judging  from  his 
conversation  and  manner  what  sort  of  a  boy 
he  is,  and  whether  he  is  likely  to  make  a  good 
officer  when  he  is  grown  up.  The  candidate  11 
required  to  produce  a  certificate  of :  birth ,  or  its 


,,{  ma« -hiurrv  that  to  know  even  a  part 

,  a  Hf.-  study.     For  a  man  who  is  to  lead 

Mu-n.  His,.,  the  teaming  in  the  habit  of  obedience 

dM-ipliw  cannot  begin  too  early.     In  the 

-vices,  charges  are  sometimes 

.I  that  the  training  methods  are  inefficient, 

ili-    living    is    extravagant.     This, 

annot  be  said  of  the  Navy,  where  the 

ote    of    naval    education    is  thoroughness, 

\vhere  economy  of  living  is  the  watchword. 

,  th-  moment  j-  I >oy  joins  the  training  college 

he  is  Uught  that  itricl  ;ittrntion  to  work  is  the 

M  to  promotion,  and   his  allowance 

moony  would  compare  badly  with  that 

of  a  |»u»>li<-  sriiool  boy  of  his  own  age.     After 

In-  rank  of  lieutenant,  a  young  man 

>iy  n.infortuhly  <>n  1  vis  pay. 

It    must    Tx'  understood  that  at  present  the 

i>f  two  systems  of  education  are 

in  the  Navy.     Under  the 

-v-i.-ui   buy-  .utrird   for  whatever  branch 

of    -  tli.y  fancied— executive,  Engi- 

Mn'inrs.     The  result  was  a  race 

man  excellent    in  his  own 

:it.  but   knowing  very  little  about  the 

>.-rvice.      To 

remedy  tl  '  tilings  a  new  system  has 

1   to   produce  a  type  of  officer 

i|nvhen>ive    knowledge    and 

r    >ytnpathif>.     The  nye  of  entry  has  hr-n 
a   boy   must   decide 
ML'    In-    pi-cparatory    school 
that  he  desirai  to  enter  the  N'.i\y. 

The  Preliminary   Examination.     The 

(Ul.nl  in-      Collruc.         To      he 
•     pure     Klirop  •an 

de*  •  -he   >on   of    natural    born    British 

•  ii.ih-rd  in  the  I'nited 

An  application  for  nomination  should 

--eel    to    the    prr,  MV    of    the 

!i-l  -h.mid  not  be 

is  old.    On 

:i«»in    t'he    First    Lord, 

•  ..niivd    to    present    himself 


the  master  of  the  school  or  schools  at  which  he 
has  been  educated  for  the  two  previous  years, 
and  proofs  of  good  health  and  freedom  from 
constitutional  disease  or  hereditary  taint  of  any 
kind  A  severe  medical  inquiry  has  to  be  faced, 
and  then  the  qualifying  examination,  which 
embraces  the  following  subjects : 

ENGLISH:  Dictation,  simple  composition  and 
reproduction  of  the  gist  of  a  passage  read  twice 
by  the  examiner. 

HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY:  The  whole  outline, 
with  special  reference  to  the  British  Empire. 

MATHEMATICS:  Arithmetic  (simple),  including 
decimals,  fractions,  mensuration  of  area  and 
capacity,  money,  proportion,  etc.  Algebra,  up 
to  simple  and  simultaneous  equations.  Practical 
geometry  (angles  and  constructon  of  angles, 
squares,  parallelograms,  and  division  of  straight 
lines  into  equal  parts).  Theoretical  geometry 
(definitions,  the  substance  of  theories  contained 
in  Euclid  Book  I,  propositions  4—6,  8,  13—16, 
18, 19, 26—30, 32 — 34,  and  very  simple  deductions 
from  these). 

FRENCH  OR  GERMAN:  Simple  examination, 
with  great  stress  on  the  viva  voce  part. 

LATIN  :  Easy  passages  for  translation,  English- 
Latin  and  Latin-English,  and  simple  grammatical 
questions. 

Specimen  examination  papers  can  be  obtained. 
Cost  of  Training.  This  examination 
successfully  passed,  the  lads  have  to  present 
themselves  in  uniform  at  Portsmouth  Dock- 
yard on  the  appointed  day,  and  are  taken 
across  to  Osborne  by  a  Government  launch. 
Here  the  foundation  of  the  life-work  is  laid. 

Beyond  the  cost  of  the  kit,  which  consists  of 
bed-linen  and  towels  as  well  as  clothes,  the  cost 
to  the  parent  is  at  the  rate  of  £75  per  annum  in 
three  (advance)  instalments  of  £25.  Over  and 
above  this,  to  cover  the  miscellaneous  expenses, 
such  as  washing,  instruments,  books,  sports,  and 
pocket-money,  another  £8  per  term  should  be 
expended.  In  a  few  cases  the  Admiralty  allow 
the  sons  of  officers  in  the  Army,  Navy,  or  civil 
servants  under  the  Admiralty  to  enter  at  a 
i educed  payment  of  £25. 

Osborne  College.  The  Naval  School  at 
Osborne  is  organised  on  the  lines  of  the  best 
]iul)lic  schools,  special  attention  being  directed 
to  tit  the  cadet  for  his  eareer,  not  only  as  a  skilful 


seaman,  but  also  as  an  officer  and  a  gentleman. 
Examinations  are  held  at  the  end  of  every  term, 
and  should  a  cadet  fail  to  satisfy  the  Lords  of 
the  Admiralty  his  parents  may  be  asked  to 
withdraw  him  at  any  time.  A  declaration  of 
willingness  to  do  this  has  to  be  signed  at  the  time 
of  the  boy's  joining,  together  with  a  declaration 
of  willingness  that  the  boy  shall  enter  that  branch 
of  the  Service  for  which  he  may  seem  to  be  best 
fitted,  whether  engineering,  marine  or  general 
executive.  At  Osborne,  a  splendid  workshop  has 
been  fitted  up,  and  the  cadets  spend  quite  half 
of  their  time  hi  practical  and  theoretical  work 
connected  with  engineering  or  in  studies  closely 
bearing  upon  it.  There  is  a  ship  attached  to 
Osborne  in  which  the  cadets  go  for  cruises 
lasting  six  weeks  for  practical  instruction  in 
seamanship.  Physical  education  also  is  well 
looked  after. 

Dartmouth  College.  After  two  years, 
the  cadet  passes  on  to  Dartmouth  College  for 
another  two  years,  to  complete  his  preliminary 
studies.  The  course  of  this  four  years'  training 
has  included  the  study  of  mathematics,  mechanics, 
heat  and  electricity,  the  theory  and  practice  of 
engineering  ;  English  and  French  composition 
and  literature,  together  with  some  German ; 
history  and  geography,  navigation,  and  the 
elements  of  seamanship  ;  religious  knowledge  ; 
physical  education.  The  cadet  at  Osborne  has 
already  had  a  course  lasting  some  six  weeks, 
and,  leaving  Dartmouth,  he  goes  to  a  training 
cruiser  for  more  practical  instruction  in  naviga- 
tion, seamanship,  and  engineering  than  can  be 
obtained  ashore.  Until  he  reaches  the  rank  of 
sub-lieutenant  his  parents  are  required  to  make 
him  an  allowance  of  £50  a  year. 

Midshipman.  At  the  end  of  two  terms  on 
the  training  cruiser  he  is  drafted  with  a  batch  of 
youngsters  of  his  own  seniority  to  a  sea-going 
ship  as  midshipman.  This,  however,  does  not 
mean  that  his  education  is  complete.  True,  he 
is  no  longer  under  a  civilian  instructor  but  he 
devotes  his  whole  time  to  learning  his  professional 
duties  under  one  or  other  of  the  officers,  about 
one-third  of  his  days  being  spent  in  the  engineer- 
ing section.  On  completing  three  years'  service 
as  a  midshipman,  a  serious  examination  has  to 
be  passed  for  acting  sub-lieutenant  in  seaman- 
ship and  practical  engineering  ;  he  attends  the 
next  examination  in  navigation  and  general 
subjects,  and  he  attends  short  courses  of  gunnery, 
torpedo  work,  and  pilotage  at  the  depots,  each 
of  which  is  followed  by  an  examination  on  the 
work  studied  in  the  course.  Those  who  show 
aptitude  and  special  ability  are  then  allowed  to 
go  through  a  further  and  more  comprehensive 
course,  lasting  six  months,  at  Greenwich  Naval 
College,  which  fits  them  for  specialising  in  any 
particular  branch. 

The  sub-lieutenants  who  do  not  qualify  for 
the  extra  course  are  immediately  sent  to  sea, 
and  are  joined  by  the  Greenwich  students  at 
the  completion  of  their  course.  Sub-lieutenants 
must  serve  at  sea  for  at  least  one  year  before 
being  promoted  to  lieutenant,  and  must  obtain 
from  their  captain  a  certificate  that  they  are 
efficient  in  the  duties  of  officers  of  the  watch. 


ARMY    AND     NAVY 

Under  the  new  scheme  of  education  the  lads 
who  have  all  been  trained  under  the  same  system 
are  now  apportioned  to  the  branch  for  which 
they  are  most  fitted,  and  they  become  specialists 
in  engineering,  in  gunnery,  torpedo,  or  naviga- 
tion, being  denoted  by  the  letters  E,  G,  T 
and  N,  while  some  go  to  the  Marines,  whom  we 
shall  call  M.  The  rest  become  general  service 
lieutenants,  available  specially  for  watch-keep- 
ing, discipline,  and  seamanship. 

Lieutenant.  On  promotion  to  lieutenant, 
the  dividing  line  comes.  Officers  for  gunnery  go 
to  Portsmouth  for  a  year ;  for  torpedo  work,  to 
the  Vernon  Torpedo  School  ;  for  navigation  to 
Greenwich  ;  for  engineering  to  Keyham,  to 
increase  their  practical  knowledge  and  to  study 
dockyard  work  and  repairs.  Lieutenants  (M) 
go  to  one  of  the  Marine  divisions  to  learn  their 
special  military  duties. 

Of  these  specialists  a  few  of  the  best  are 
allowed  a  further  course  of  instruction  to  fit  them 
for  the  higher  grade  of  lieutenant,  which,  for 
the  sake  of  clearness,  will  be  called  G  2,  T  2. 
For  these  the  higher  course  lasts  for  one  year 
while  for  E  2  the  course  is  two  years.  Of  the 
general  service  lieutenants  a  few  are  selected 
for  instructional  purposes  and  undergo  a  short 
course  to  fit  them  for  their  work. 

Branches  of  the  Service.     Now  it  has 

been  explained  how  the  lads  trained  together 
in  the  same  system  as  far  as  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  have  been  broken  up  into  three 
main  divisions — engineers,  Marines,  and  what 
we  shall  call,  for  want  of  a  better  term, 
general  executive  officers,  which  divisions  have 
been  subdivided  into  specialists  and  non- 
specialists.  It  remains  to  be  shown  what  these 
young  men  will  do  with  their  careers.  Will 
the  specialists  continue  as  specialists  to  the 
end  of  their  days,  or  do  they  foster  the  hope  of 
one  day  commanding  a  fleet  ? — for  it  is  still  open 
to  the  engineer  to  revert  to  the  main  channel 
and  go  through  the  ordinary  course  of  promo- 
tion. 

In  exceptional  cases,  it  is  possible  for  the 
lieutenant  (E2)  to  revert,  but  it  is  most  un- 
usual, and  indeed,  undesirable,  for  he  is  throwing 
away  his  special  education  and  his  chance  of 


PAY  OF  OFFICERS  IX  THE  ROYAL  MARINES 

One  Year. 

One  Day. 

£      s.    d. 

£    s.    d. 

Colonel  Commandant  .  . 

730     0     0 

200 

Major     

293  16     1 

0  16     1 

to 

to 

337  12     6 

0  18     6 

Captain          

220   10     5 

0  12     1 

to 

to 

266     2  11 

0  14     7 

Lieutenant    .  . 

115   11     8 

064 

to 

to 

135     7     1 

075 

Second  Lieutenant 

95   16     3 

053 

Quartermaster 

173     7     6 

0     9     0 

to 

to 

282   17     6 

0   15     6 

quicker  promotion.  He  will,  therefore,  look 
to  the  engineer  branch  to  provide  his  fortune, 
and  he  will  rise  in  the  ordinary  course  to  com- 
mander (E2),  captain  (E2).  And  although  he 

4401 


ARMY     AND     NAVY 


KU.,      p,      ,,,v     01      V"      "AN**    OF    01T1CKKS     IN     Tin,     N  A\  Y 



.     illlUI. 

,1  of  the  Ftort 

.1     

.iinr.il     ..       • 

,iif  ttteftMl 
Captain      ....      | 

£      - 
«»     0 
0    ii 
0    n 

0      o 

.1   II 

10W    o    o 

410  12     6 
to 
602     &     0 

8.    d. 

0    0 
0     0 
0     0 
0     0 

d     d 
0     0 

1       2      0 

to 
1  13    0 

With    Table    moiu-y    vjiryiiiK 
|  betw*                     :>»(1  x  •l)4'- 

ai-conliiiK    to    s  at  ion    ami    t 
1  an.  ..nut     of     entertaining     re- 

}   quired. 

(With  command  money  vary- 
iMH  fr.                            '   annum  to 
ms..    according   to   rank, 
•uui  circunot  u 

(  o.mnan.l  money  when  com- 

•under      .. 

366     0     0 

100 

1  mainline   a   *liip.   or   on   M''''^'1 

I 

'  Command  money.  <L4f>  12*.  int. 
t,,  'tis  ss.  -.'.I.     Senior  Lieinen- 

Ueutrnant.  n 

1-2    1"      o 

0    lU      0 
to 

:,ut    of  a   sliip.   £27    7s.    M.    to 
i.nnnery  or  Tor- 

.re      [ 

310 

0    17     d 

pedo    Lieutenants.    £30    10s.    to 
£73.       X:i\iiMitini:      Lieutenant. 

n.-.  ik.  r.,i.  to  vn. 

pro-  | 

QlOtlHt    trdll  ''Hi'- 

91     5     0 

.1    l.i     n 

0   15     0 
050 

\       .\,v,.nliim  to  seniority.    Kxtra 

i  allowances  tor  ipeetalote, 
Command  money  £36  10s.  per 

M  lii*lil  Mil  III 

31    18     0 

019 

Lannum- 

18     6     0 

0     1     0 

ki.kMii.-.r    K«-ar    Ad- 

mml 

1095     0     0 

S     0     0 

/ 

638  15     0 

1   15     0 

Engineer  Captain     | 

to 
730     0     0 

to 
200 

438     0     0 

1     4     0 

^ 

..      c..miir.mdiT  j 

to 

602 

to 
1    13     0 

Extra    pay 

| 

1-2    10     0 
to 
365     0     D 

0    10      0 
to 

1    .1   (1 

i     AccurdiiiR            if    in    charge 
to                   of    engines. 
1     M-nioritv.              t!8      5s.      to 

Hnh-lleuteuAnt 

17     6 

0     7      I) 

£91    5s. 

*MM|-lM  in  *  n.  mi 
pro-  j 
moted  from  war-  1 
rant  rank              I 

12     6 
to 
301 

0  14     6 
to 
0  16     6 

^    According 

to 

1     seniority.        ; 

Chaplain      or      In-  / 

2l'.»     0     0 
to 

0    12     0 
to 

i 

4»'l    1"      ii 

1      2     0 

IitMwrtor-Ueneral  of 

1300     0    0 

f 

492  15     0 

170 

urgron  ..      < 

to 

to 

657     0     0 

1   16     0 

f 

365     0     0 

1     0     0 

to 

to 

\ 

.1      0 

140 

( 

to   o 

0   14     0 

siirgmn       .      .  . 

to 

to 

310     5     0 

0    17      0 

will  go  to  sea  from  tim<>  to  tiim-  to  ktvp  in  tourh 
.  ti(-;il  rnniiUH'ring.  tlio  Admiralty 

Mill  !H'  nl.  u  I  to  make  use  of  his  sorvuvs  :\slunv 
•  ranks  of  th<-  ilorky.ini  ;ul\ 
>tnr  ca««os,  will     - 


tivt-  and  U-  amM/mtrd  rotn- 

nirn  :    for  hr  \>  to-ilay  not 

>it  hr  i;vn  also  take  his 

lal   dutuvs 

<  >n  tin-  "tlin  h.itul.  li--  may  qualify 

for  commander  (M)  and  tlx-n  n-\«  it   to  >  aptain 

\   third   |M>ssil>ility.  of 

thrn\M-l\(-s.  iv  t«>  <  ontinno 

dbcharpng  the  duties  of   M  um<-   <'.>!nmand<>r, 

and  look  lor  promotion  it\  tin-   Marim^  to  tlu> 

hifber  rank   •••  •.  ij,.i-   (M),  and 

•:•••.'' 

The    Ladder  of    Promotion.      For    tin 

^eaerml   nervi..    lu-utcnants.  there    i- 
a  long,  weary  wait    t..i  thru    n.  |  \\\,-\ 


five   years'    srrviiv    in   the 
rank     the     officer    has    to 
in     examination    in 

naval  law.  court-martial, 
naval  history,  strategy  and 
tactics,  besides  the  examin- 
ation in  the  general  pro- 
fessional subjects.  In  due 
course  his  turn  for  pro- 
motion comes  and  he  i.- 
promoted  to  commander, 
probably  in  ten  or  twelve 
years,  ft  must  not  be  sup 
posed  that  the  time  has 
been  monotonously  spent. 
He  has  been  changing  from 
ship  to  ship,  has  been  in 
torpedo  boats,  destroyers, 
cruisers  and  battleships,  and 
has  served  at  home  and 
abroad.  He  has  attended 
qualifying  and  requalifying 
courses  and  has  every  year 
been  learning  something  of 
the  management  of  ships,  of 
guns  and  of  men.  So  that 
at  about  the  age  of  thirty- 
tive  he  is  a  man  of  wide 
knowledge  and  experience 
besides  having  passed  about 
twenty  severe  examinations. 
Another  four  to  six  yearn 
as  commander  should  see 
him  promoted  to  captain, 
though  still  he  has  not 
completed  his  education, 
but  must  go  to  Greenwich 
to  learn  the  higher  teach- 
ings of  strategy.  In  the 
end  he  is  promoted  at  last 
to  admiral  after  eleven  to 
fifteen  years  in  command 
of  ships. 

AYe  have  not  yet  touched 
upon  two  i  m  por  t  ant 
branches  of  the  Service— the  medical  and  the 
clerical.  They  are.  however,  of  purely  technical 
interest,  and  are  open  only  to  men  who  have 
already  received  a  special  education.  It  suffices, 
therefore,  to  say  that  a  proof  of  professional 
knowledge  must  be  produced  in  the  form  of 
a  degree,  and  that  promotion  is  gained  by 
seniority  tempered  by  a  certain  amount  of 
selection.  l>ocior>  enter  as  surgeons  and  rise 
through  staff-surgeon  to  fleet  -surgeon  :  and 
there  are  one  or  two  good  appointments  for 
the  fortunate  lx>th  at  home  and  abroad. 

For  chaplains  there  is  little  promotion  in  the 
ordinary  sense,  but  their  pay  increases  by 
length  of  service  :  and  there  are  a  few  livings 
a>hore  Monging  to  the  Admiralty  which  are 
given  to  men  who  have  been  naval  chaplains 
as  a  reward  for  good  service.  The  pay  of  a 
chaplain  or  naval  instructor  ranges  between 
t'Jl'.i  and  UtM  IDs.  prr  annum. 


Army  n 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS 

Apparatus  used  in  Chemical  Analysis.     Qualitative  and  Quanti- 
tative    Analysis.         Examinations     and      Confirmatory    Tests 

Group  5 

APPLIED 
CHEMISTRY 
2 

Continued  from 
page  431!» 

By  CLAYTON  BEADLE  and  HENRY  P.  STEVENS 


TTHE  word  analysis  is  derived  from  t he  (J  reek 
•  dvaXvu  (analuo),  to  loosen  ;  and,  like  so 
many  general  terms  of  this  description,  can  be 
used  in  several  different  senses. 

In  a  chemical  sense  we  refer  to  the  loosening 
or  breaking  down  of  a  substance,  or  mixture  of 
substances,  into  their  ultimate  constituents  ;  just 
the  reverse  of  what  is  understood  by  synthesis, 
which  means  the  building  up  of  a  substance  from 
simpler  constituents.  The  meaning  which  we 
shall  attach  to  the  words  Chemical  Analysis  in 
this  article  is  somewhat  narrower.  We  shall 
break  down  or  resolve  substances  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  of  what  they  consist 
and  in  what  proportions  the  constituents  are 
present.  Put  shortly,  the  objects  of  a  chemical 
analysis  are  ( 1 )  the  identification  of  a  substance, 
(2)  the  detection  of  the  components  in  a  mixture 
of  substances.  (,'>)  the  determination  (estimation) 
of  the  amounts  in  which  they  are  present. 

Qualitative  and  Quantitative  Work. 
Thus,  supposing  we  are  analysing  a  silver  coin, 
we  might  be  required  to  identify  the  metal  of 
\vhich  the  coin  is  made,  in  this  case  silver ; 
secondly,  to  detect  the  presence  of  other  sub- 
stances, such  as  copper  ;  and  thirdly,  to  estimate 
the  quantities  of  silver  and  copper  alloyed 
together  in  the  com.  The  identification  and 
detection  of  substances  and  mixtures  are  opera- 
tions which  naturally  precede  the  estimations  of 
the  proportions  in  which  they  are  present.  We 
may,  therefore,  regard  analysis  as  comprising  two 
branches,  qualitative,  and  quantitative.  We  shall 
start,  with  the  qualitative  analysis,  in  which  we 
"convert  the  unknown  constituents  of  a  body 
into  certain  known  forms  of  combinations  ;  and 
we  are  thus  enabled  to  draw  correct  inferences 
respecting  the  nature  of  these  unknown  con- 
stituents "  (Frcsenius). 

In  what  follows,  the  student  will  find  given  an 
outline  of  some  of  the  more  important  methods 
of  analysis,  which  will  enable  him  to  form  a 

reral  idea  of  how  such  analyses  are  performed, 
some  cases,  methods  of  analysis  are  fully 
described,  but  in  most  cases  it  has  been  found 
impossible  to  do  this.  For  full  details  the 
student  may  consult  the  "  Qualitative  and 
Quantitative  Analysis"  of  Fresenius,  and  the 
"  Volumetric  Analysis  "  of  Sutton.  These  are  the 
standard  works  on  the  subject,  and  on  them 
most  of  the  smaller  treatises  are  based.  The 
student  may  also  consult  Clowes  and  Coleman, 
who  have  compiled  useful  textbooks  on  both 
qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis.  The 
latter,  with  which  we  are  well  acquainted,  is  a 
particularly  useful  book  for  the  student.  The 
theoretical  side  of  analysis  is  beautifully  worked 
out  in  Ostwald's  wi  Analytical  Chemistry."  No 


amount  of  reading  can,  however,  replace  practical 
work  in  the  laboratory ;  and,  in  doing  accurate 
work,  there  are  numerous  precautions  to  be 
taken  and  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  which  will 
not  be  realised  merely  by  reading  these  articles, 
and  which  are  met  with  only  in  actual  practice. 
We  have,  however,  where  possible,  drawn  the 
student's  attention  to  the  more  obvious  pitfalls, 
and  with  some  personal  instruction  he  should, 
without  much  difficulty,  be  capable  of  carrying 
out  those  analyses  where  full  details  are  given. 

Theoretical  Considerations.  Sub- 
stances are  identified  by  their  properties  which 
appeal  to  our  senses.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible 
to  take  all  these  properties  into  consideration, 
but  if  we  prove  that  two  substances  agree 
completely  in  a  few  instances,  it  is  usually 
sufficient.  Thus,  a  black  solid  giving  purple 
vapours  when  heated  and  a  blue  colour  with 
starch  paste  is  almost  certainly  iodine.  Wo. 
know  of  no  other  substance  coinciding  in  all  these 
three  properties  with  iodine,  and  may  therefore 
take  these  coincidences  as  sufficient  proof  of 
identification.  On  the  other  hand,  we  are 
acquainted  with  several  white  solids  which  give 
colourless  vapours,  and  to  distinguish  between 
them  we  must  note  other  of  their  properties. 
By  taking  as  wide  a  range  as  possible,  we  reduce 
the  possibility  of  error.  The  properties  we  make 
use  of  are  of  two  kinds :  first,  the  inherent 
properties — those  peculiar  to  the  substance 
itself,  such  as  colour,  odour,  density  (mass  per 
unit  volume) ;  secondly,  what  for  want  of  a 
better  word,  we  may  term  reactions — that  is,  those 
changes  brought  about  by  treating  with  other 
substances,  as  well  as  those  due  to  changed 
environment. 

Reactions.  The  second  class  is  the  more 
important  for  our  purpose  and  includes  a  wider 
and  more  varied  range  of  phenomena,  among 
which  is  included  the  chemical  and  physical 
reactions.  By  these  we  understand  changes 
brought  about  by  altering  the  conditions  under 
which  the  body  exists.  Thus,  in  identifying 
iodine,  we  obtained  it  in  the  form  of  a  purple 
vapour  by  changing  one  condition — namely, 
temperature.  By  varying  the  temperature  and 
noting  the  behaviour  of  the  substance  under 
examination,  a  great  deal  of  information  may  be 
gained,  and  the  applicability  of  this  method  is 
further  extended  by  using  instruments  (ther- 
mometers) for  accurately  measuring  temperatures. 
In  addition  to  observing  a  change  in  the  state  of 
aggregation — say,  from  solid  to  liquid — on  raising 
the  temperature,  we  may  note  the  exact  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  change  takes  place  (melting 
point).  This  principle  is  one  of  those  most 
commonly  used  in  identifying  organic  substances. 

4403 


•  PPLItO    CM«MI»TRY 

Num.-,  .......  (tohrt  .....  -  m,.J,.  '•••  .-ii,.!.;.."!  .  W 

dtaolviii*  thn.i 

water,     on    £•«** 

precipitate 

,,     | 
J./n.v 

m,oluble      ...      Watef     l«l"'      prcc.p.a.e.     wfc 
'   m  a  lincly  divided 


mta 

will 

on    one 


Precipitates,  and  What  They  Teach. 

W8     reuuire      .  .  e 


k| 
for 


appa,,ni, 
anals.s 


beyond 

«,'       of 

iV  test-tube 
stand  [I]  to 
hold  them, 
some  \\atch- 

i;!a>Mls         [2] 

ii.d  Mining  n-ds.  a  platinum  \\ire  and    Bunsen 

burner   |3]    and    a   >.-t    of    reagenta    that  fe, 

!    M.lManccs    usually   in    solution,  which 
bring   abOttl     characteristic  re- 
with     the     substances 
which  we  are  toting.    In  addi- 
tion, a  funnel  and  tiller  paper 
will     IK>    ivquired.      Fig.   4   shows    the  ditTerent 
shapes   in   folding   a    filter  paper  ami  fitting  it 
tunnel      Tin- most  common  method,  and 
ner.tlly   applicable.    i>   to    add   the 
reagent  to  a  solution  of  the  substance  to  be  toted. 
it  uh<  th.-r  or  not  a  pivipitate  is  formed. 

:  ut  ion  of  hydrochloric  a--id  added 

\ersalt.  produces  a  white  precipitate 

!\er    chloride.       \->.    however,    hydro- 

a    white    precipitate  ' 

with  other  >ul»ta'i.  M  I  c-idr-  >ilver  salt-    - 
>alt>  of  mercury  (mercur- 

ous)  und  I.  .id      it  is  usually  neco^ary  to  examine 

further    in    order  to  make  cor- 

•ib-tanec    is    what     \\e    imagine 

Ahitf    piecipitates    formed  from 

.  ditVcr  in  their 

il.NtniLiui-h    lietwecn 

il.e     lead     compound    known    as 

Itad    chlt>i  'uble     m     hot      water,    sepa- 

1     jisjam    on    eonling.    in     tiny    needlc- 

\  -t.iU      Th<-   lead   ehl.)nd<-   precipitate 

i-  -~»n  in  7       I'.   .ii_    heavy,  it    rapidly   settles   to 

l-'iU.  8  Allows  the 

nn.-d   by  (ii^s,.l\  ing  in 

land.      It    is  n..t 

Idin^  ammonia  to  it. 

"I'1  inrivuioii-  chloride  i^ 

nt.     and     -ilvcr 
W  i»->ible.    tl,. 

.ipplynii:    111.- 
u  -olutioii  miL'ht 

them. 

by  tillm-  thr  t.-t  tnl-r  with 
Ml,-    to    the 

bottom  !i-  ,,n  the 


""some   saKstoncea    vehen    heated   with   acids 

,.v,  Ive  gaieB,   and    this    property    -nay    be  ntatl.- 

3T5!!    analvheal    WOlk.      Thus     carbona  es. 

, eh  H  Sialk,  U-  Off  carbon  dioxide  gafl  when 

n,.  ted  with  h^roohlorio  acid     Here  also,  itfa 

1V  ,0  go  a  step  further  and  to  ulent.tv 
'„'-  „  happens  that  sulphides  also  give  o,T 
,  t,£  when  treated  with  hydroehlorie  acul  :  but 
thegaseshavcdilTerent  properties.  1  h us.  carl  on 
aioxide  uas  may  be  poured  oil  ,nto  a,  test  tube 
ooataining  lime  water,  when  a  prec.pHate  of 
calcium  carbonato  will  bo  formed  on  shaking  the 
lu.uid  up  with  the  gas.  It  is,  moreover,  odourless 
On  the  other  hand,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  has  a 
p.-cnliar  olTensive  odour,  and  producee  a  inetallu 
stain  on  a  piece  of  filtered  paper  saturated  with 
a  .solution  of  the  silver  or  lead  salt. 

Insoluble      Substances       and       Pre- 
liminary   Work.       Sometimes      substances 
are  insoluble  in  water  and    acids,    and    appear 
to   be   very   inert.     The    identification   of   these 
M.bstanees'   is   ditlicult.     However,   as   there   is 
only  a  limited  numlwr  of  them,  their  individual 
properties  can  be  learnt,  and  they  must  be  tested 
for  separately.     Of  course,  the  identification  of 
simple  substances  such    as    simple    salts  is  a 
much  easier  operation  than  the  detection  and 
identification  of  a  number  of  substances  mixed 
together.     As,    however,    in    technical    work 
pure  substances  are  seldom  met  with,  a  tech- 
nical chemist   has  to  deal  with  mixtures  even 
though  some  of  the  constituents 
are  present  in    small   quantities 
as  impurities.     The   reactions  of 
ditTerent  substances  with  reagents 
ha\e   been   carefully  studied  and 
tabulated,   so    that' a  systematic 
examination  may  be  made,      it  is 
usual,  however,  'before  proceeding 
with    the   systematic    examination,    to    make    a 
preliminary     examination,      which      often     fur- 
nishes valuable     clues    to    the    nature    of    the 
substance.       .V-    we    have    already    shown,   any 
property   of    a  substance,   and  any  reaction   in 
which   'it     is    capable    of    taking    part     may    be 
made    u>e     of     for     its    detection     and     identi- 
fication,   so     that     a     knowledge     of     analysis, 
and  a  knowledge  of  general  chemistry  go  hand 
in    hand,   and    it    is    therefore  impossible  to   be 
an  expert  analyst  without    a   wide  knowledge  of 
chemical  reaction^. 

Group  Reagents.  In  the  course  of 
>v>tcmatie  analysis  it  will  be  fount  I  that  hydro- 
chloric acid  produces  a  white  precipitate  with 
silver,  mercury  or  lead,  owing  to  the  formation 
of  the  chlorides  of  these  metals,  and  as  they 
In-have  alike  in  this  respect,  and  ditier  from  the 


H-iia\e  aiu\e  in  inis  respecu  ami  tinier  iiom  ui 
salts  of  all  other  metals,  they  are  classed  together 
in  Croup  1.  of  \\hich  hydrochloric  acid  is  the 
tup  reagent."  If  no  precipitate  is  obtained, 
the  student  passes  on  to  (Iron})  'J,  of  which 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  the  group  reagent. 
This  form-  a  precipitate  with  the  salts  of  all 


.actals  iu  (Jroup  2;  the  other  groups  have  their 
ixirresponding  group  reagents. 

Observation    and    Experiment.      It  is 

not  possible  lo  proceed  mechanically  in  making 
;iii  analysis,  as  (lie  general  rules  which  we  shall 
give  are  modified  by  varying  conditions.  Even 
in  the  detection  of  simple  salts  the  student 
may  make  serious  errors  unless  he  reason  out 
his  methods  carefully,  and  take  the  trouble 
to  understand  thoroughly  what  he  is  doing. 

We  remember  that  on  one  occasion  a  student 
was  given  a  yellow-coloured  solution  to  test  smell- 
ing somewhat  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Taking 
no  notice  of  these 
data,  he  proceeded 
Mindly  to  test  for 
metals  of  the  first 
group  by  adding 
hydrochloric  acid, 
and,  obtaining  a 
whitish  precipi- 
tate, immediately 
concluded  that  a 
salt  of  silver,  mer- 
cury, or  lead  was 
present.  If  he  had 
thought  a  moment,  and  taken  trouble  to 
examine  the  precipitate,  he  would  have  seen 
that  it  differed  totally  in  appearance  from 
the  chlorides  of  any  of  these  metals.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  lie  had  been  given  a  solution  of 
an  alkaline  sulphide  to  identify,  and  the  hydro- 
chloric acid  added  neutralised  the  alkali,  precipi- 
tating sulphur,  which  he  mistook  for  the  chloride 
of  a  metal  of  ( iroup  1.  The  sulphur  precipitate  is 
seen  in  5  ;  its  appearance  may  be  contrasted  with 
6  and  7.  The  incident  mentioned  was  a  very 
obvious  case  of  want  of  care  in  observation  and 
lack  of  knowledge  or  forethought  ;  but  similar 


GLASS  FUNNEL 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

the  reagent  if  a  precipitate  be  not  immediately 
apparent.  Some  precipitates,  such  as  sulphate 
of  calcium  or  strontium  form  slowly.  Others,  as 
aluminium  hydroxide,  are  very  transparent  and 
gelatinous  in  appearance,  and  may  easily  be 
missed.  The  precipitate  of  aluminium  hydroxide 
becomes  denser  and  settles  on  boiling  [9].  When 
a  precipitate  is  formed,  its  appearance  should 
be  noted  before  throwing  it  away.  Thus,  it 
is  advisable  to  replace  the  test  tubes  in  the 
stand  until  the  condition  of  the  precipitate  is 
properly  understood  and  carefully  noted.  The 
appearance  of  precipitates  varies  very  much. 
Thus,  a  flocculent, 
or  "clotty"  pre- 
cipitate of  silver 
chloride  [6]  is  very 
characteristic,  and 
easily  distinguish- 
able from  a  fine, 
granular  one,  such 
as  sulphate  of 
barium  [12J.  After 
boiling,  the  preci- 

AND  FILTER  PAPER  pitate  settles  more 

readily  [11J.  When 

heating  the  contents  of  a  test  tube  in  a  Bunsen 
flame,  the  tube  should  be  held  with  the  mouth 
pointing  away  from  the  operator,  and  the  tube 
constantly  shaken ;  there  will  then  be  less  likeli- 
hood of  cracking  the  tube,  and  if  the  contents 
boil  suddenly  and  spurt  out,  as  they  sometimes 
do,  there  is  less  danger  of  them  striking  the  face. 
With  these  remarks,  we  proceed  with  the 
preliminary  examination. 

Preliminary  Examination.  The  sub- 
stance is  assumed  to  be  in  a  solid  state.  Note 
the  colour  and  general  appearance.  Many 
metals  have  coloured  ions  and  form  characteris- 


TYPICAL    PRECIPITATES 

5.  sulphur  6.  Silver  chloride  precipitate  washed  7.  Lead  chloride  freshly  precipitated  8.  Lead  chloride 

it-crystallised        9.  Aluminium  hydroxide        10.  Silver  chloride  freshly  precipitated         11.  Barium  sulphate  after  boiling 

12.  Barium  sulphate  before  boilin.u 

tically  coloured  salts — for  instance,  copper,  blue 
and  green  ;  cobalt,  blue  and  pink  ;  ferrous  iron. 
green  ;  ferric  iron,  red  to  brown  ;  chromium, 
yellow  to  red.  Mercury,  lead  and  some  other 
metals  give  characteristically  coloured  com- 
pounds, while  those  formed  from  others,  such  as 
aluminium,  barium,  etc.,  are  generally  white. 

Heat  a  little  in  a  dry  tube,  preferably  a  narrow 
hard-glass  tube,  but  a  test  tube  will  do,  and  note 
what  happens. 

The  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn: 
(1)  If  it  changes  colour — to  black  (carbonisa- 
tion),    organic     matter ;      to    brown,    cadmium 

4405 


things  can  happen,  and  happen  more  easily  in 
dillicult  analyses,  if  the  student  does  not  under- 
stand thoroughly  what  he  is  doing. 

Hints  lor  Practical  "Work.  When 
working  in  the  laboratory  only  small  quantities 
need  he  used,  both  of  the  substance  to  be  ter-ted 
and  of  the  reagent.  ]f  a  quantity  of  the  liquid 
to  be  tested  sufficient  to  fill  the  test  tube  to  a 
depth  of  £  in.  or  so  be  taken,  that  will  be  ample. 
Compare  5  to  12.  The  reagent  should  be 
added  gradually,  especially  in  the  case  of  strong 
acids.  The  contents  of  a  test  tube  should  not 
be  thrown  down  the  sink  directly  after  adding 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

carbonate;   to  yellow  (while  hot),  zinc  u.nde  or 


If  it  >ublimes,  note  colour  and  appear- 
ance of  sublimat.-  that  is  the  substance  that 
condenses  from  the  fumes.  The  .sublimate  may 
be  white,  ammonium  wits,  mercury,  untimony 
or  argenic;  metallic-  mirror  or  globules,  menmry, 
ar»eni<  :  yellow  or  n-ddish  globules  of  molten 
sulphur,  .•<"'/•'""'.  xiiljthides. 

'  off  a  gas,  these  conclusions  may 

i\vn: 

Oxygen,    chlorates,    nitrates,    and    peroxides ; 
n     monoxide,     nxalates;   carbon    dioxide, 
nntr*;     nitrogen    peroxide,     nitrnli*  ;     am- 
1:1, ,IH  '<m  sails;    sulphur  dioxide,  sul- 

phite*, thiosulphates ;  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  sul- 
phides :  hydrocyanic  acid  <•//,/  // idt* ; chlorine,  hypo- 
chlorite*  ;  chlorine  peroxide,  chlorate*.    The  gases 
identified  by  their  projx-rties  and  reactions. 
Warm  a  little  of  the  substance  in  a  dry  test 
tube   with   strong  sulphuric  acid,   and  note  if 
a  gas  be  given  off.  The  following  conclusions  can 
l>e  drawn  according  to  the  nature  of  the  gas  : 

Sulphur  dioxide,  sulphites,  thiosulphites ;  sul- 
phuretted   hydrogen,    sulphides ;    hydrocyanic 
>des ;     oxygen,   chromates,    peroxides, 
permanganates ;     carbon     dioxide,    carbonates ; 
carbon   monoxide,   oxalates,   formates,   ferrocya- 
-.  < -hlorine,  hypochlorites ;  chlorine  peroxide, 
chlorates  ;    hydrochloric  acid,  chlorides. 

It  is  often  stated  that  sulphuric  acid  acts 
in  this  manner  in  virtue  of  its  strength.  Being 
i  ronger  acid  "  than,  sny,  sulphurous  acid, 
said  to  be  capable  of  turning  this  latter 
acid  out  of  its  combination  with  a  metal 
nuch  AS  .sodium,  forming  sodium  sulphate, 
and  liberating  sulphur  dioxide  gas.  This 
is  not  correct.  Sulphuric  acid  is  certainly 
one  of  the  "  strongest "  acids,  but  it  is  not  in 
\irtue  of  its  "strength"  that  it  acts  in  the 
manner  above  described,  but  Una  us.  it  is  more 
stable,  and  less  volatile  than  sulphurous  acid. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  itself  turned  out  of  combination 
by  the  "weaker  but  less  volatile  phosphoric 
acid. 

Flame  Tests.     A  number  of  metallic  salts 

impart  to  a  colourless  Bunsen  flame  a  character- 

•i'>n.     It    is  necessary  that  the   salts 

should  be  volatile,  and  the  reaction  is  usually 

d    out    by    Mu.iMciiint:   a    little   of   the   solid 

Kubrtancc  with   hydrochloric   acid   on    a    watch- 

gUww,  dipping  a  platinum  wire  into  it,  and  holding 

D  the  llame.     The  platinum  u  ire  must 

•  roughly  cleansed  Mo  re  use  by  repeatedly 

dipping  int..  pure  hydrochloric  acid  and  holding 

i'    until  it  no  longei  shows  a  reaction^ 

I  he  toUowinf  is  a  list  of  the  more  characteristic 

• 

-alts,   violet; 

*0fMMI1  >s  "tin m  salts,  bright 

rriniHun  ;    ™/n,/w      '* 


In  addition  t.,  these  ;i  y,Vi-ii  colour  is  obtained 
xvlt'' H  'ind  manganttemtot. 

»f    theM-    mbffcancei    may    l.e   de- 

ng  .-•,  Bpectroecope,  which'  reeolrea 

Of  ((.loured   l,.,n.U     tl,r 

•  fi  intensity  of  each  being  characteristic 
.  th.-suhst.un.  under  examination. 


The  Blowpipe.  For  blowpipe  analysis 
the  student  should  be  provided  with  an  ordinary 
mouth  blowpipe  [13],  in  the  use  of  which  he  will 
]•(•(, uirc  some  little  practice  before  he  is  able  to 
handle  it  properly.  The  airholes  of  the  burner 
should  be  closed,  so  that  a  small  luminous  flame 
is  obtained.  The  nozzle  of  the  blowpipe  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  flame,  resting  on  the  top  of 
the  burner,  and,  on  blowing  steadily,  a  long, 
pointed,  non-luminous,  very  hot  flame  will  be 
produced.  The  flame  consists  of  two  zones — an 
outer,  almost  colourless  at  the  tip,  termed  the 
oxidising  flame,  and  an  inner,  or  blue  zone,  termed 
the  reducing  flame.  For  an  explanation  of  the 
terms  oxidation  and  reduction,  see  page 
1295.  A  little  of  the  substance  to  be  tested 
is  mixed  with  carbonate  of  soda,  and  placed  in  a 
..mall  hollow  in  a  lump  of  charcoal.  The  reducing 
flame  of  the  blowpipe  is  then  directed  on  to  it, 
with  the  result  that  if  silver,  lead,  bismuth,  or 
antimony  be  present,  tiny  globules,  or  beads,  of 
these  metals  will  be  produced.  If  a  little 
potassium  cyanide  be  mixed  with  the  potassium 
carbonate,  tin  and  copper  salts  will  also  be  reduced 
to  metallic  beads.  Iron  is  also  reduced .  to  a 
metal  by  this  treatment,  but  the  temperature  is 
not  high  enough  to  fuse  it.  The  resulting  metal- 
lic powder  is  magnetic.  The  same  applies  to 
nickel  and  cobalt.  The  salts  of  zinc  and  cadmium 
yield  in  each  case  the  corresponding  oxide,  which 
is  white  in  the  case  of  zinc,  and  brown  in  the  case 
of  cadmium.  If  compounds  of  zinc,  aluminium, 
and  magnesium  be  first  heated  on  charcoal  in 
the  blowpipe  flame,  and  then  moistened  with 
a  solution  of  cobalt  chloride,  and  finally  re- 
heated, -the  mass  turns  green  in  the  case  of  zinc 
compounds,  blue  with  aluminium,  and  pale  pink 
with  magnesium.  Certain  phosphates  also  give 
a  blue  colour. 

Borax  Beads.  If  the  end  of  a  piece 
of  platinum  wire  be  bent  into  a  small  loop, 
heated  in  the  flame,  and  dipped  into  powdered 
borax,  a  little  of  the  latter  will  adhere  to  the 
wire,  and  may  be  fused  to  a  colourless  bead  in 
the  blowpipe  flame.  Small  quantities  of  metallic 
salts  impart  the  following  characteristic  colours 
to  these  beads  when  reheated  : 

Blue,  cobalt  and  copper  ;  green,  chromium ; 
yellow,  iron  ;  amethyst  colour,  manganese. 

Theory  of  Solution.  Most  of  the  tests 
we  have  so  far  considered  belong  to  the  class 
of  "dry  reactions."  In  the  systematic  examina- 
tions we  depend  on  "wet.  reactions" — that 
is  to  say,  tests  made  with  solutions  both  of 
the  "  reagent "  and  the  substance  to  be  tested. 
It  will  be  as  well  before  proceeding  with  the 
systematic  examination  to  consider  the  form 
in  which  substances  exist  in  solution,  and  the 
chemical  mechanism  involving  the  formation  of 
a  precipitate,  in  order  that  what  follows  may  be 
better  understood.  All  substances  belong  to 
one  of  two  classes — they  are  either  crystalloids 
or  colloids,  although  a  substance  can  appear 
in  both  forms.  [See  PHYSICS.]  The  wet 
•  (•actions  we  are  about  to  consider  apply 
only  to  crystalloids.  If  a  substance  appear  in 
a  colloided  form  (silica,  some  metallic  sulphides, 
hydroxides  of  iron  and  alumina,  and  other 


bodies  have  this  tendency)  we  must  treat  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  alter  its  condition  [see 
Analysis  of  Silicates],  because  only  crystalloids 
form  true  solutions. 

Acids,  bases,  and  metallic  salts,  when  dis- 
solved in  water,  are  more  or  less  split  up  (disso- 
ciated) into  their  components  (ions),  and  it  is  by 
an  interchange  of  ions  that  precipitates  are 
formed.  Berzelius,  the  Swedish  chemist,  origi- 
nated a  dual  theory  of  the  constitution  of 
chemical  substances ;  but  since  his  day  the  dual 
theory  has  been  considerably  modified,  and 
the  modern  theory  of  electrolytic  dissociation 
explains  in  a  truly  marvellous  manner  the 
numerous  chemical  reactions  with  which  we  have 
to  deal.  It  will  suffice  if  we  confine  ourselves  to 
the  following  essentials,  leaving  out  all  reference 
to  electrolysis  and  kindred  subjects. 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  kation  hydrogen  is 
characteristic  of  the  acids,  and  the  anion  hydroxyl 
of  the  bases.  On  mixing  together  an  acid  and 
a  base  in  solution  the  hydrogen  of  the  acid  com- 
bines with  the  hydroxyl  of  the  base  to  form  water 
H  4-  OH  — >-  H20,  which  is  not  dissociated 
(or  so  slightly  so  that  we  can  leave  it  out  of 
account).  There  is  left  the  anion  of  the  acid  and 
the  kation  of  the  base.  In  other  words,  we  have 
now  in  solution  a  salt,  thus  : 

HC1  and  KOH  yield  H2O  and  KC1. 
Possibly  the  salt  is  only  slightly  soluble  in 
water  (no  substances  are  absolutely  insoluble  in 
water)  in  which  case  it  separates  out — that  is,  a 
precipitate  is  formed.  What  happens  is  that 
the  ions  composing  the  insoluble  salt  cannot 
exist  together  in  the  free  state,  or  only  in  very 


20 


22 


23 


24 


APPARATUS    USED    IN    CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS 

13.  Mouth  blowpipe       14.  Weighing  bottle       15.   Brass  weights      16.  Platinum  weights      17.  Beaker    18.  Wash  bottle 
19.  Tripod  20.  Platinum  crucible  and  cover  21.  Pipeclay  triangle  22.  Crucible  tongs  23.  Desiccator  24.  Porcelain  crucible 

dilute  solution ;  most  of  them  combine,  and,  as 
the  combination  happens  to  be  insoluble  in 
water,  the  substance  is  precipitated.  Such  an 
occurrence  is,  however,  much  more  commonly 
met  with  in  mixing  solutions  of  two  salts  together. 
In  the  mixed  solutions  we  shall  have  four  ions, 
and  if  by  combination  of  two  of  them  an  insoluble 
substance  is  possible,  it  will  be  promptly  formed, 
and  a  precipitate  will  appear.  We  may  represent 
the  two  cases  graphically  as  follows  : 

+  -       4-     -  4-   - 

HC1  &  AgNO,  give  AgCl  (precipitate)  &  HNO... 

4--       4-     -  +    - 

KC1  &  AgNO3  give  AgCl  (precipitate)  &  KNO3. 
ivtixtures    of    Soluble     Sa  ts.       If   on 
mixing  solutions  of  two    salts,    say,  potassium 
chloride     and     sodium     sulphate — all     possible 

4407 


Acids,    Bases,    and    Salts.        For    our 

purpose  we  may  regard  these  three  types  as 
composed  of  two  ions,  a  positive  or  kation 
(metals  including  hydrogen  and  metal-like 
radicals,  such  as  ammonium,  NH4),  and  a  nega- 
tive ion  or  anion  (non-metals  including  the 
hydroxyl  OH,  the  halogens  and  the  acid  radicals 
S04,  N03,  CO3,  etc.).  Using  the  signs  4  (plus) 
for  kation,  and  -  (minus)  for  anion,  the  state  of 
some  of  the  commoner  salts,  acids,  and  bases  in 
solution  may  be  written  graphically  as  follows  : 

H  -  Cl,  H  -  NO.,,  HH  -  S04,  HH  -  CO3. 
4-4-  4-  -  - 

K  -  OH,  NH4-  OH,     Ca   -  OHOH. 

4-4  4-  -        4- 

K  -  Cl,     KK  -  S04,   NH4-  N03,    Ca-  SO4. 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

,  l)mhin,ailin,  ;l,v  soluble   in  water-no  preeipi- 

,ut,l;    l.ut  if   «e  concentrate  lh" 

it  ions  by  evaporating  oft  the  water,  a 

i|  In-  reached  when  one  of  thr  ualta  will 

„  to  separate  out.     This  m,-y  be  any  one 

„.     f(.ur     following:      Potassium     chloride. 

xndiutn  Milnhaie.  M.dium  chloride,  or  [>otassium 

,,,H  depeml  entirely  on  which  i- 

the  moat  insoluble  in  thr  solution  at   the  t 

m  (lf  th,  ii(,ui.t.  77,1-  most  ifUohMe 
Mlt  will  separate  „„(.  whether  it  be  one  of  Uioee 
originally  added  or  not. 

•  that  there  is  no  object  to  be  gained 
by  asking  which  of  the  four  salts  were  originally 
in  solution.     They  were  all  there  potentially. 
Dege-   of  Dissociation.     A  salt  is  not, 
rcr,  wholly  dissociated,   except   in  an  in- 
linitelv  dilute  solution,  so  that  both  molecules  of 
tin-  salts  as  well  as  ions  are  present  in  the  mixed 
•ohrti 

Strong  acid-,  bases,  and  the   salts  prepared 
from  them,  are  the  most  completely  dissociated  of 
.inces  in  solution.     Indeed,  the  strength  of 
and  bases  will  be  proportional  to  the  number 
ydrogen    and   hydroxyl   ions    respec- 
tively.    Thus,   solutions  of  acids  of  strengths 
.rtional  to  their  molecular  weights  will  con- 
tain  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  hydrogen  ions 
to  the  strength  of  the  acid,  and  any- 
thing  that   tends  to  reduce   the  proportion  of 
ogen  ions  will  reduce  the  strength  of  the 
acid.     So,  for  instance,  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
gives  no  precipitate  with  zinc  chloride  in  the 
presence  of  hydrochloric  acid ;  but,  if  an  excess  of 
sodium  acetate  be  added,  a  precipitate  is  formed, 
because  the  concentration  of  the  hydrogen  ion, 
or  hydrion,  is  reduced.     First,  acetic  acid  re- 
places hydrochloric  acid,  and,  being  a  weaker 
.  there  is  a  smaller  proportion  of  hydrogen 
:idly,  the  excess  of  sodium  acetate 
still   further  reduces  the  degree  of  the  dissocia- 
1  ic  acid,  and  a  liquid  is  obtained, 
which  for  all  practical  purposes  is  neutral.     Yet. 
.  this  result  has  been  obtained,  not  by  adding 
a  base  to  neutralise  the  acid,  but  by  merely  add- 
ing an  excess  of  a  neutral  salt — sodium  acetate. 

The    All-important    Ion.     It    is   of   the 

great* -t  import  ;m<e  for  the  student  to  realise  that 

the  pn.jM-rtiesof  "electrolytes"  (acids,  salts,  and 

bases)  are  the  properties  of  the  ions.     It  is  the 

ion*  that  react:    consequently,   the   behaviour 

Instance  depends  upon  the  nature  and 

the  number   present.     This  fact  simplifies  very 

much  the  problems  of  analysis.     \\ V  have  not 

to  learn  th  •  |u*  .-;llts  but  merely  of 

hlorine  will  always  combine 

'!"•  -"'vet  a  precipitate  of  sil\-«  r 

chloride,  whetl  brooa  hydro,  hloric  acid, 

poUuwium  ehloride.  or    any    other  roluble  salt. 

the  other  hand,   no  precipitate   of  .silver 
chloride  ..IV     with     potassium 

chlorate  (K<'ln  ),  In-cause    it  does   not  contain 
B,    but    the   elilorate    ion    (ClO  ). 
•l«ii  of  this  sort   could  be  multiplied  in- 
definitely,     h  was  formerly  the  cu-tom  toi 
}>      '-'111111    |il.itin.M-hltirid.  ipiute    ob- 

*        •  "u   c-L.lon.;  rlnuble 


stlt  (-7K('l  PtCl,),  yet  it  contains  no  chlorine 
'ion.  and  does  not  vMd  silver  chloride  with  silver 
nitn-te  solution,  but  rather  the  silver  salt  of 
chloroplatinic  acid  (H.-PtCl,),  dissociated  thus 

HH  PtC'l,. 

Our  syctejnatie  examination  will  therefore 
comprise  the  reactions  of  the  ions.  As  the- 
old  nomenclature  is  that  still  generally 
used,  we  shall  still  adhere  to  it;  thus,  for 
instance,  we  shall  speak  of  tests  for  cMoridee 
instead  of  chlorine  ions,  for  chlorates  and  not 
(CIO,)  ions,  and  for  salts  of  silver,  mercury, 
and  lead,  and  not  silver,  mercury,  and  lead  ions. 
Professor  Ostwald  has  written  a  treatise  on 
analytical  chemistry,  mostly  from  the  theoretical 
standpoint,  in  which  the  theory  of  electrolytic 
dissociation  is  employed  systematically  through- 
out. The  student  is  referred  to  this  for  fu-U 
information  on  the  subject.  He  will  find  it  mosc 
interesting  reading. 

SYSTEMATIC     EXAMINATION 

The  metals  are  conveniently  divided  into  five 
groups.  We  give  below  the  group  reagent  and 
a  confirmatory  test  for  each  metal. 

Group  1.  Silver,  mercury  (mercurous)  and 
lead  salts.  All  these  metals  give  white  precipi- 
tates of  the  chlorides  with  hydrochloric  acid. 
We  have  already  noted  the  properties  of  these 
precipitates.  As  confirmatory  tests :  silver — 
sodium  hydroxide  produces  a  light  brown  pre- 
cipitate of  silver  oxide  (Ag.,0) ;  mercury — 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  produces  a  black  pre- 
cipitate of  mercury  and  mercurous  sulphide  ; 
lead — potassium  iodide  produces  a  bright 
yellow  precipitate  of  lead  iodide  (PbI2). 

Group  2.  Where  no  precipitate  was  formed 
on  adding  hydrochloric  acid,  or  the  precipitate, 
if  formed,  has  been  filtered  off,  the  addition  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen .  to  the  clear  solution 
precipitates  as  sulphides  : 

Mercury  (mercuric],  lead,  bismuth,  cadmium, 
arsenic,  antimony,  and  tin.  As  the  sulphides  of 
these  metals  are  differently  coloured,  the  pre- 
cipitate formed  will  help  the  student  to  dis- 
tinguish between  them.  If  the  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  be  added  very  gradually,  the  precipitate 
with  mercuric  salts  is  at  first  whitish,  then  changes 
rapidly  from  red  and  browTi  to  black.  Lead, 
bismuth,  and  copper  form  black  precipitates 
(PbS,  BIS(,  CuS)  ;  cidmium,  bright  yellow 
(CdS) ;  tin  (stannous),  dark  brown  (SnS) ; 
stannic,  yellow  (SnS,)  ;  antimony,  orange 
(Sb  S.j)  ;  arsenic,  yellow  (As.2S;!).  Sulphide* 
of  the  last  three  nietals  differ  from  the  preceding 
ones,  as  they  are  soluble  on  warming  gently  in 
ammonium  sulphide  solution.  If  lead  has  been 
present  in  quantity  it  will  already  have  been 
detected  in  Group  1. 

Confirmatory  Tests.  Mercury  (Mer- 
<-iirir):  pota-sium  iodide  produces  a  bright  red 
precipitate  of  mercuric  iodide  (HgL).  Strong 
solutions  of  bismuth  salts,  when  diluted 
with  much  water,  produce  white  precipitates, 
owing  to  the  formation  of  basic  salts.  Thus, 
bismuth  chloride  yields  bismuth  oxychlorido 
(BiCl3->BiOCl).  ' 


This  reaction  may  be  thus  represented : 
BiCl3  +  K,O  ~£  BiOCl  4  2HC1. 

The  double  arrows  are  intended  to  show  that 
the  reaction  may  take  place  in  either  direction. 
The  proportion  of  BiCl3  (soluble)  to  BiOCl  (pre- 
cipitate) will  depend  entirely  on  the  proportions 
of  hydrochloric  acid  and  water. 

The  group  BiO  plays  the  part  of  a  metal, 
and  the  chloride  may  be  contrasted  with  silver 
chloride,  thus:  (BiO)Cl  and  AgCl. 

Copper  :  a  piece  of  iron,  such  as  the  blade  of 
a  penknife,  dipped  into  a  solution  of  copper 
salt  becomes  coated  with  a  red  deposit  of 
metallic  copper. 

Tin  (stannous) :  a  solution  of  mercuric  chloride, 
produces  at  first  a  white  precipitate  of  mer- 
curous  chloride  (Hg,CL),  which,  on  warming 
with  an  excess  of  tin  salt,  turns  grey,  owing  to 
the  formation  of  metallic  mercury.  The  reao 
tions  are  thus  represented : 

2HgCL,  +  SnCL,  =  Hg,CL  +  SnCl4 
Hg.2Cl2  +  SnCl^  =  1^  +"SnCl4 

Antimony  and  arsenic :  very  minute  traces 
of  these  metals  may  be  detected  by  means  of 
Marsh's  test.  A  current  of  hydrogen  gas  is 
produced  by  allowing  a  dilute  solution  of  sul- 
phuric acid  to  act  on  pure  zinc,  to  which 
a  drop  or  two  of  platinum  chloride  has 
been  added,  to  promote  by  galvanic  action 
the  evolution  of  the  gas,  which  is  led  through 
a  narrow  glass  tube.  When  the  hydrogen  has 
expelled  all  the  air  from  the  apparatus,  the  gas  is 
lit  at  the  end  of  the  tube,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  the  test  solution  is  then  added  to  the  flask. 
The  flame  becomes  coloured,  as  it  carries  with  it 
the  gases  AsH3  or  SbH3,  and,  on  holding  a  cold 
porcelain  basin  to  it,  a  metallic  deposit  of  arsenic 
or  antimony  will  be  formed.  A  black  stain  in- 
dicates the  presence  of  antimony,  and  a  brownish 
and  shiny  mirror,  arsenic.  If  this  deposit  be 
treated  with  a  little  sodium  hypochlorite  solution 
the  arsenic  stain  will  be  rapidly  dissolved, 
whereas  the  antimony  stain  will  be  unaffected. 
By  heating  the  tube  through  which  the  gases 
pass  with  a  flame,  a  metallic  deposit  is  formed 
•on  the  walls,  and  is  further  from  the  flame 
in  the  case  of  arsenic  than  with  antimony. 

The  hydrogen  gas  should  always  be  tested 
before  starting  the  experiment  to  see  that  it  is 
pure  and  free  from  arsenuretted  hydrogen 
(AsH3),  as  arsenic  is  a  common  impurity  in 
zinc.  Marsh's  test  can  also  be  applied  to  organic 
substances  suspected  to  contain  arsenic,  and 
thousands  of  these  tests  were  made  after  the 
cases  of  arsenic  poisoning  from  beer  a  few 
years  ago.  This  test  is  also  one  commonly 
employed  in  detecting  minute  traces  of  arsenic 
or  antimony  in  the  viscera  in  post-mortem 
examinations  of  persons  suspected  of  having 
been  poisoned. 

Group  3 .  This  group  may  be  separated  into 
two  subdivisions.  The  first  of  these  comprises 
the  metals  iron,  aluminium,  and  chromium, 
which  are  precipitated  on  adding  to  a  fresh  solu- 
tion of  the  substance  to  be  examined  an  excess 
of  ammonium  chloride  followed  by  ammonia. 

In  the  case  of  iron  (ferrou*  -  //'s),  the  precipitate 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

is  whitish  to  dark  green  (Fe(OH).,).  In  the  case 
of  ferric  salts,  foxy  red  in  colour  (Fe.,(OH),.) ; 
aluminium  is  precipitated  white  as  aluminium 
hydroxide  (Al,(OH)f!)  Chromium  is  only  parti- 
ally precipitated.  All  these  precipitates  consist 
of  hydroxides  of  the  metals.  If  no  precipitate 
is  formed,  add  a  little  ammonium  sulphide, 
when  precipitates  will  be  formed  of  zinc  sulphide 
(ZnS)  (white)  ;  manganese  sulphide  (MriS), 
(flesh  coloured);  chromium  hydroxide  (Cr.,(OH)(i) 
— not  the  sulphide — (bluish  green),  nicJcel  and 
cobalt  sulphides  (MS  and  CoS)  (black). 

Confirmatory  Tests.  Iron  (ferrous): 
potassium  ferro-cyanide  produces  a  white  pre- 
cipitate (K-jFe^CN),}),  which  turns  blue  on 
shaking  in  the  air  through  oxidation  to  Prussian 
blue. 

Iron  (ferric)  salts ;  potassium  ferrocyanide 
produces  a  dark  blue  precipitate,  Prussian  blue. 
At  first,  the  idea  of  testing  for  an  iron  salt  with 
another  compound  of  iron  may  seem  strange  ; 
but  it  is  easily  explained  when  we  remember  that 
the  iron  salts  in  question  contain  ferric  ions, 
while  potassium  ferrocyanide  contains  another 
and  more  complex  ion  (Fe(CN)(i),  which,  of  course, 
reacts  as  a  whole,  and  has  different  properties  to 
the  ferric  ion. 

Aluminium :  ammonium  sulphide  produces 
a  white  flocculent  precipitate  of  aluminium 
hydroxide  (AL,(OH),.),  the  sulphide  possibly  first 
formed  being  decomposed. 

Zinc :  sodium  hydroxide  produces  a  white  pre- 
cipitate (Zn(OH),),  soluble  in  excess.  Some 
of  the  best  confirmatory  tests  for  metals  of  this 
group  have  been  given  under  Blowpipe  Analysis. 

Group  4.  This  comprises  three  metals — 
barium,  strontium,  and  calcium — all  of. which  are 
precipitated  as  carbonates  on  adding  ammonium 
carbonate  solution  to  the  liquid  to  which 
ammonia  and  ammonium  chloride  have  already 
been  added.  In  all  cases  the  carbonates  are 
white  precipitates.  (BaCO3,  SrCO3,  and  CaCO3) 

Confirmatory  Tests.  Barium :  potas- 
sium chromate  produces  a  yellow  precipitate  of 
barium  chromate  (BaCr04),  while  calcium 
sulphate  (CaS04)  produces  a  white  precipitate  of 
barium  sulphate  (BaS04).  Strontium:  potassium 
chromate  produces  a  yellow  precipitate  in  con- 
centrated solutions  only,  while  calcium  sulphate 
produces  a  white  precipitate  of  strontium 
sulphate  (SrS04)  on  standing  (the  strontium 
sulphate  is  formed  in  solution  immediately  on 
adding  a  soluble  sulphate,  but  does  not  begin  to 
separate  out  at  once  from  dilute  solutions  owing 
to  the  phenomena  of  "  supersaturation  "). 
Calcium :  ammonium  oxalate  produces  a  white- 
precipitate  of  calcium  oxalate  (CaC2O4),  insoluble 
in  acetic  acid. 

Group  5.  We  now  come  to  the  metals  which 
are  not  precipitated  by  any  of  the  foregoing 
reagents.  They  differ  from  those  already  con- 
sidered hi  that  most  of  their  salts  (including 
carbonates)  are  soluble  in  water.  Metals  of  this 
group  comprise  magnesium,  potassium,  ammo- 
nium, and  sodium.  Magnesium  differs  from 
the  others  in  that  it  forms  an  insoluble  phosphate. 
A  solution  of  magnesia  salt,  containing  ammonia 

4409 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

•m.l  ammonium  chloride  gives  a  white  crystalline 
pitate  «itl»  Bodiom  phosphate.     Ihis  pre- 
.  I  paeraim.ainmoorom^; 

(liat,  (M.XII.m,).  and  as  it  is  slight  y  soluble 
,|,,,,nn,  -pa rate  very  rapidly  from 
,l,lute  solutions  <super,t,urat,on).    '1  ho  contents 
,f  tht.  ,,st  tuU.  should  be  shaken  vigorously,  or 
the  ted  tube  rubbed  with  a  glass  rod 
to  induce,  formation  of  the  precipitate. 

Con.irmatory    Tests.    To  a   solution  of 
„  salt  add  one  of  platmic  chloride  and 
,11  with  a  glass  rod  ;   a  yellow  precipitate 
«  1  )  separates  out,     All   ammonium  salts 
Muell  ,,f  ammonia  gas  when  warmed  with  alka- 
lies   Sodium :  there  is  hardly  a  sodium  salt  which 
is  not  readily  soluble  in  water,  so  that  for  all 
practical  purposes  we  may  say  that  sodium  salts 
give  no  precipitates  with  reagents. 

The  flame  tests  already  mentioned  will  be 
found  useful  in  testing  for  the  metals  of  this 
I .  and  tin-  preceding  one. 

EXAMINATION     FOR     ACIDS 

Besides  the  preliminary  tests  already  described 
there  are  a  number  of  wet  reactions  for  acids  of 
which  we  give  below  the  more  important.  These 
teetfl  apply  to  salts  of  the  acids  in  question,  and 
generally  to  the  free  acids  as  well.  We  can  sub- 
divide them  into  groups  as  in  the  case  of  the 
metals. 

Group  1.  This  group  comprises  sulphuric 
acid  and  hydrofluosilicic  acid.  The  latter  is  very 
seldom  met  with.  These  acids  and  their  salts,  with 
1,, uium  chloride  solution,  give  white  precipitates 
(such  as  barium  sulphate,  BaS04),  which  are 
in-. iluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  so  that  the  pre- 
•  •ipitate  may  be  formed  in  the  presence  of  hydro- 
.•hloric  acid,  or  it  may  be  added  subsequently, 
wh-n  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  precipitate  will 
not  dissolve. 

Group  2.  This  group  comprises  acids  which 
are  precipitated  by  barium  chloride,  but  these 
pitates  are  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  so 
tint  arid  added  to  the  precipitate  rapidly  dis- 
solves it.  Tin-  group  includes  the  acids  carbonic, 
oxalic,  boric,  phosphoric,  hydrofluoric,  arsenious, 
arstnir,  sulphurous,  thiosulphuric,  chromic,  and 
iodic. 

Con  f irmatory  Tests.    The  student  should 

that    when    he    applies    a    reagent    and 

in-ikc-    him-e|f    acquainted    with    a    test,    he    is 

iiin^  at  tin-  same  time  a  test  for  the  reagent. 

It,  we  have  explained  how  calcium  salts  can 

be  tested  for  l»\  means  of  a  solution  of  ammonium 

oxalate.    Ozalates  can  equally  well  be  tested  for 

with  a  solution  of  calcium  salt.    Thus  in  testing 

for    an  oxalate   it   is  necessary  merely  to  add 

Mini  «  hloridc  to  a  neutral  solution,  when  we 

:n  a   pr. •< -ipitate  of  calcium  oxalate  whose 

pn.|M-rtie-  \v.-  havr  jilre.-.dy  d.-M-rihed. 

m  i'i :   a  piece  of  tumcric,  paper  is  dipped 

into   ;i   solution    of  a  borate,  such  as  common 

idified    with    hydrochloric    acid,    and 

dried     Boric  acid  is  indicated  by  a 

red-l.ioun  i-ulour. 

a   solution    of   ammonium 
molvKd.ite  in  t '•  ,f  nitric  acid 

-  a  yellow  preeipitat i  wanning  gently. 

1410 


Very  little  of  the  substance  and  an t  excess  .of 
ammonium  molybdate  solution  should  be  taken. 
The  test  is  a  delicate  one. 

Hydrofluoric  acid:  heat  a  little  of  the  dry 
substance  in  strong  sulphuric  acid,  when  hydro- 
fluoric acid  (HF)  is  evolved.  The  liquid  in  the 
test  tube  shows  a  characteristic  oily  appearance. 
If  the  reaction  be  carried  on  m  a  platinum 
crucible  covered  with  a  piece  of  glass  the  glass 
will  be  etched  by  the  action  of  the  acid  vapours 

Arsenious  and  arsenic  acids:  solutions 
acids  must  be  first  carefully  neutralised  with 
a  little  ammonia,  when,  on  adding  silver  nitrate, 
a  yellow  precipitate  of  silver  arsemte  (Ag^Asty 
will  be  formed  with  the  former,  and  a  brown 
with  the  latter  acid  (silver  arsemte,  Ag3As04). 

Sulphurous  acid :  nothing  is  more  charac- 
teristic than  the  smell  of  the  gas  when  driven 
off  on  warming  the  solution  with  a  little  mineral 
acid.  It  has,  moreover,  the  p(  wer  of  turning  a 
red  solution  of  potassium  bichromate  green 
(reduction  to  a  chromium  salt).  The  test  may  be 
performed  by  lowering  a  glass  rod  with  a  drop 
of  the  bichromate  solution  on  the  end  into  the 
test  tube,  avoiding  touching  the  sides.  On  re- 
moving the  rod  a  little  later,  the  drop  hanging 
from  the  rod  will  be  seen  to  have  turned  green. 

Thiosulphuric  acid:  mineral  acids  precipi- 
tate finely  divided  sulphur,  while  at  the  same 
time  sulphur  dioxide  gas  is  given  off. 

Chromic  acid :  salts  of  this  acid  are  well 
coloured.  The  precipitate  with  barium  chloride 
is  yellow.  We  may  reverse  the  test  for  sulphurous 
acid,  a  little  of  which  turns  the  yellow  or  red 
solution  of  the  chromates  green. 

Iodic  acid:  .iodates  are  decomposed  on  heat- 
ing. The  residue  readily  yields  vapours  of  iodine 
on  warming  with  strong  sulphuric  acid.  These 
violet  vapours  are  very  characteristic  of  the 
element. 

Group  3.  Acids  of  Group  3  are  precipitated 
by  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate.  We  shall  consider 
only  those  which  are  not  precipitated  by  barium 
chloride.  These  comprise  hydrochloric,  hydro- 
bromic,  hydr iodic,  hydrocyanic,  and  hydrosulphuric 
acid.  The  precipitates,  consisting  of  the  silver 
salts,  are  white  or  yellow,  with  the  exception  of 
silver  sulphide,  which  is  black.  Silver  chloride 
we  have  noticed  when  testing  for  silver.  The 
precipitate  is  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  soluble 
in  ammonia  solution. 

Silver  bromide  is  yellowish  in  colour.  It  is 
almost  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  dissolves  in 
strong  ammonia  solution. 

Silver  iodide  is  yellow,  and  differs  from  bromide 
in  that  it  is  very  sparingly  soluble  in  ammonia 
solution. 

Nilver  cyanide,  which  is  white,  behaves  almost 
exactly  like  silver  chloride,  but  does  not  dissolve 
so  readily  in  ammonia.  It  dissolves  in  excess  of 
potassium  cyanide  giving  KAg(CN),. 

Confirmatory  Tests.  Hydrochloric,  hydro- 
bromic,  and  hydriodic  acids  may  be  identi- 
fied by  the  liberation  of  the  corresponding  ele- 
m<  nts — chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine — by  heat- 
ing with  sulphuric  acid  and  a  little  powdered 
oxide  of  manganese.  For  the  appearance  and 
properties  of  these  elements  see  page  1444. 


Cyanides  are  decomposed  by  hydrochloric 
acid,  with  the  liberation  of  hydrocyanic  acid 
(HCN),  which  has  a  peculiar  odour,  said  to 
resemble  bitter  almonds,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
its  smell  is  characteristic  and  not  exactly  like 
anything  else.  As  it  is  extremely  poisonous,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  inhale  too  much  of  it. 

Group  4.  This  group  comprises  a  few  acids 
which  are  not  precipitated  by  barium  chloride  or 
silver  nitrate.  They  include  nitric,  chloric,  and 
perchloric  acids.  Nitric  acid  is  easily  detected 
by  its  action  on  copper.  Copper  shavings  are 
readily  dissolved  either  by  the  free  acid  or  by  a 
mixture  of  a  salt  and  a  little  sulphuric  acid, 
with  the  evolution  of  brown  vapours  (oxides  of 
nitrogen)  and  the  formation  of  a  blue  solution 
(copper  nitrate).  Another  very  characteristic 
test  is  to  mix  the  solution  to  be  tested  with  a 
solution  of  ferrous  sulphate.  A  little  strong 
sulphuric  acid  is  carefully  poured  down  the  side 
of  the  tube,  so  that  it  sinks  and  forms  a  layer 
underneath  the  aqueous  solution.  The  test  tube 
is  held  under  the  tap  to  cool  it  thoroughly,  and 
on  holding  it  up  to  the  light  a  brown  ring  will 
be  seen  at  the  juncture  of  the  two  liquids.  The 
action  of  the  sulphuric  acid  on  the  nitric  acid 
is  to  liberate  oxides  of  nitrogen,  which  give  a 
dark  brown  or  black  colour  with  ferrous  salts. 

Insoluble  Substances.  There  are  a 
number  of  insoluble  substances  which  are  very 
inert  and  require  to  be  tested  for  carefully. 

Although  insoluble  in  water  and  acids,  silica 
is  dissolved  to  a  certain  extent  on  boiling 
with  strong  alkali  solutions,  or  better  still  by 
fusing  it  with  a  mixture  of  equal  weights  of  the 
carbonates  of  soda  and  potash  (fusion  mixture). 
The  fused  mass  is  dissolved  in  water  and  acidified, 
when  gelatinous  silica  separates  out  either  at 
once  or  on  concentration  of  the  solution. 

We  have  omitted  to  mention  all  rare  elements 
— some  of  which,  however,  are  of  considerable  and 
increasing  importance — as  by  doing  so  we  should 
be  introducing  too  many  complications.  For 
these  the  student  must  refer  to  larger  works, 
specially  devoted  to  the  subject. 

Tests  for  Organic  Substances.  There 
are  a  number  of  organic  substances  to  which 
routine  tests  are  applicable.  One  or  two  of  the 
more  important  may  be  mentioned  here. 

Tartaric,  citric,  and  malic  acids:  these  acids, 
like  oxalic  acid,  yield  precipitates  of  the  cal- 
cium salts — for  instance,  with  calcium  chloride 
in  neutral  solution. 

Tartaric  acid  can  be  further  identified  by  the 
fact  that  a  strong  solution  shaken  with  potassium 
chloride  gives  a  white  crystalline  precipitate  of 
acid  potassium  tartrate. 

Benzoic  acid  gives  a  yellow- brown  precipitate 
with  ferric  chloride.  The  acid  volatilised  by 
heating  in  a  tube  emits  a  vapour  of  character- 
istic odour,  which  condenses  again  in  the  cooler 
parts  of  the  tube. 

Carbolic  acid.  Ferric  chloride  produces  a  violet 
colouration,  but  a  similar  colour  is  obtained  with 
salicylic  acid.  These  two  substances  are  related, 
and  a  smell  of  carbolic  acid  is  evolved  on  heating 
salicylic  acid  with  lime. 


QUANTITATIVE     ANALYSIS 

In  our  discussion  of  qualitative  analysis 
we  have  given  an  outline  of  the  methods  of 
ascertaining  the  nature  of  a  substance ;  in  this 
section  we  shall  show  how  to  determine  the 
amount  in  which  it  is  present,  whether  by  itself 
or  in  admixture  with  other  substances. 

This  portion  of  our  subject  is  divisible  into  two 
sections — analysis  by  weight,  or  gravimetric 
analysis,  and  by  volume,  or  volumetric  analysis. 
Volumes  are  also  measured  in  the  analysis  of 
gases,  but  this  is  usually  treated  under  gas 
analysis. 

Gravimetric  Analysis.  "  Gravimetric 
analysis  has  for  its  object  to  convert  the 
known  constituents  of  a  substance  into 
forms  or  combinations  which  will  admit  of 
the  most  exact  determination  of  their  weight, 
and  of  which,  moreover,  the  composition  is 
accurately  known  "  (Fresenius).  Thus,  we  shall 
suppose  that  one  of  the  known  constituents 
of  a  substance  we  are  dealing  with  is  sulphuric 
acid  or  a  soluble  sulphate,  and  that  we  require 
to  determine  (or  estimate)  its  amount.  We 
proceed  to  convert  it  into  a  substance  of  known 
composition,  say  the  barium  salt  or  barium 
sulphate,  which  can  be  separated  and  accurately 
weighed.  As  one  equivalent  of  sulphuric  acid 
will  produce  one  equivalent  of  barium  sulphate, 
we  can  calculate  the  amount  of  sulphuric  acid 
present  from  the  weight  of  the  barium  sulphate 
found.  We  have  special  reasons  for  choosing 
the  barium  and  not  some  other  salt  such  as  the 
calcium  salt.  We  have  seen  in  our  study  of 
qualitative  analysis  that  barium  sulphate  is  very 
insoluble  in  water.  It  is,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  one 
of  the  most  insoluble  substances  known,  and 
consequently  well  adapted  for  our  purpose. 

Sulphuric  Acid  Estimation.  We  shall 
proceed  to  make  an  estimation  of  sulphuric 
acid.  We  may  suppose  that  a  careful  qualitative 
analysis  has  already  been  carried  through,  and 
that  the  precipitate  obtained  with  barium 
chloride  solution  in  the  presence  of  hydrochloric 
acid  was  fairly  copious,  pointing  to  a  considerable 
proportion  of  sulphuric  acid  or  sulphate  present. 

About  one  gramme  of  the  substance  is  accu- 
rately weighed  off  on  a  chemical  balance  [see 
page  61].  Substances  to  be  weighed  must  never 
be  put  directly  on  to  the  scale-pan,  but  are 
weighed  on  a  watchglass  [2]  or  in  a  weighing 
bottle  [14],  whose  weights  must  first  be  deter- 
mined and  deducted  from  the  total  weight  found. 

Enter  the  weights  in  your  book  thus  : 
Weight  of  watchglass  -f  substance    =  1-9472  gr. 
Weight  of  watchglass  .    =    -8315    „ 

.'.Weight  of  substance  taken  for 

analysis  —  1-1157    „ 

The  weights  down  to  one  gramme  are  made 
of  brass  [15] ;  below  one  gramme  usually  of  plat- 
inum [16].  For  weights  less  than  a  centigramme, 
the  rider  attachment  situated  over  the  beam  of 
the  balance  is  used. 

A  weighing  bottle  should  be  employed  if  the 
substance  to  be  tested  is  "  hygroscopic  " — that 
is  to  say,  has  the  power  of  absorbing  moisture 
from  the  air ;  otherwise  a  watchglass  will  usually 
be  preferred. 

44il 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

Removal  of  Insoluble  Matter.     Having 

,Vi.iuii,.,l  out    the  mtatance,  .t    •  £•»*"** 

(that    i<    distilled)  water  m  a  beaker  [17 J. 
*•«  the  ,ater  should  be  heated  to  get 
substance    dissolved    more    quickly.    We 
aume    h^e    that     it    is    soluble    in    water 
oTat  any   rate   that    we  are  estimating  only 
,1,  sulphuric   acid  in  the  soluble .portion  .If 
!„,,.  to  an  insoluble  portion,  it  should  first  be 
,,,.,,  ,,,T      Kor  this  purpose  a  circular  filter 
paSs  folded  in  four  in  the  form  of  a  quadrant 
41  the  flap  opened  and  fitted  into  a  glass  funnel. 
Tl  o    aperl  then  moistened  with  distilled  water 
fromPa  wash  bot*  ( 18]  and  fitted  evenly  against 
the  sides  of  the  funnel.    The  liquid  is  then  poured 
down  a  glass  rod  into  the  funnel,  which  should 
not  be  filled  above  three-quarters  the  height  of 
The  filter  paper.    When  the  whole  has  run  through, 
e  beakTr  Swashed  out  three  times  with  water, 
e  Wshings  being  poured  through  the  filter 
pape7TthTt  the  whole  of  the  soluble  matter 
Ls  collected  in  a  vessel,  such  as  a  beaker,  placed 
under  the  funnel. 

Precipitation    as    Barium    Sulphate. 
Hydrochloric  acid  is  added  to  the  torrid,  which 
should  not  more  than  half  fill  the  beaker.     It 
is  heated  to  boiling  on  a  tripod  [19],  and  suih- 
it  barium  chloride  solution  added  to  precipi- 
tate the  whole  of  the  sulphuric  acid  as  barium 
sulphate.     For    this    purpose    more    than  'the 
theoretical  quantity  of   BaCl.2  will  be  required. 
The  liquid  is  kept  boiling  for  a  minute  or  two 
and  the  precipitate   allowed  to  settle.     When 
precipitated    from  a   boiling    solution,    barium 
Milphate  settles  more  rapidly  and  is  easier  to 
fitter.    Compare  11  and  12  ;    both  are  barium 
sulphate  precipitates  which  have  been  standing 
•lu-r  :    11  has  been  boiled  and  has  rapidly 
^ttlcd,  while  12,  precipitated  in  the  cold,  only 
begins  to  show  signs  of  settling.    The  clear, 
"supernatant"    liquid   is   poured   off   through 
a  close-grained  filter  paper.     The  "  filtrate  "—the 
liipiid  which  passes  through— should  be  boiled 
fi.r  a  few  minutes  after  adding  two  or  three 
drops  more  barium  chloride  solution  to  make  sure 
that  the  whole  of  the  sulphuric  acid  has  been 

pitated.  With  the  aid  of  a  jet  of  hot  water  . 
from  a  wash  bottle  [18]  the  precipitate  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  beaker  to  the  filter  paper  and 
washed  further  by  means  of  a  hot-water  jet 
from  the  wash  bottle  until  the  filtrate  is  free  from 
chloride  (a  few  drops  should  give  no  cloudiness 
with  silver  nitrate  solution). 

Ij-.nitin  •.     the     Precipitate.      The    filter 
.     paper  is  allowed  to  drain  and  is  tln-n  transferred 
bodily    with    the    precipitate  to    a    previously- 
weighed  platinum  crucible  f*0j  lying  on  a  pipe- 
clay triangle  [21 1  on  a  tripod  [19J.     Care  must 
be  taken  not  to  tear  the  paper  or  lose  any  of 
the     pneipit.ite.      The     lid     is     placed     on     the 
ible,  .ind  a  liunsen  burner  |3]  with  full  flame 
i in  1. 1  neat h.     There  is  just  a  little  spluttering 
•he  lid  is  then  removed,  the  crucible 
tilted  a  little  to  one  side,  and  the  paper  charred 
and  .-\.  ntiully  burnt  of!  to  a  white  ash.     After 
heat  mem  for  a  short  time,  nothing  but 

aamall  (piantity  of  \\hite  substance  -sulphate  of 
barium    and   filter    p  u-main-    at    the, 

1419 


of  the  crucible.    Any  dark  portions  left 


;  Purposes  the  weight  of  the  ash  may  be 
refected  or  allowed  for  and  deducted  from  the 
weight  of  the  precipitate  if  great  accuracy  be 
nsisted  on.  Packets  of  pure  filter  paper  for 
quantitative  work  generally  have  marked  on  them 
the  average  weight  of  the  ash.  The  crucible 
is  lifted  off  the  triangle  by  means  of  a  pair  o 
crucible  tongs  [22],  best  made  of  nickel,  and 
deposited  in  a  desiccator  [23]  to  cool 
desiccator  consists  of  a  glass  jar  with  cover 
having  strong  sulphuric  acid  or  calcium  chloride 
at  the  bottom  so  that,  the  air  above  being  dry, 


the  crucible  and  contents  cool  without  absorbing 
moisture  and  increasing  in  weight.  The  crucible 
and  contents  are  then  weighed. 

Enter  the  results  in  your  notebook  thus  : 
Weight  of  crucible  +  barium  sul- 
phate =  19-4377  gr. 
Weight  of  crucible  =  18'4312    „ 
.'.Weight  of  barium  sulphate         —    1'0065    ,, 
This  quantity  of  barium  sulphate  is  equivalent 

to  1-0065  x  ®      =  -3456  gm.  (S0:!) ; 

233 
or,  expressed  in  percentages : 

'—. fr,    X    10°    =  30 '9  Pel>  Cellt}- 

1'1157 

In  the  foregoing  we  chose  the  estimation  or 
sulphuric  acid,  and  have  given  a  full  description 
of  the  chemical  manipulations,  as  it  is  a  deter- 
mination which  has  to  be  made  in  the  technical 
laboratory  as  often  as  any  other.  Moreover,  it 


is  the  universal  method  for  the  determination 
of  sulphates.  No  satisfactory  volumetric  method 
has  been  devised.  Of  course,  this  does  not 
apply  to  solutions  of  the  free  acid. 

Analyses  of  Other  Substances. 
We  are  unable  in  the  short  space  at  our  dis- 
posal to  give  specific  instructions  as  to  the  carry- 
ing out  of  other  gravimetric  estimations,  and 
must  content  ourselves  with  mentioning  a  few 
points  in  which  modifications  of  the  above 
method  are  necessary  or  convenient.  Platinum 
crucibles  [20]  cannot  always  be  used,  as  some 
substances,  such  as  compounds  of  lead,  attack 
and  alloy  with  the  platinum.  In  these  cases 
a  porcelain  crucible  [24]  should  be  taken.  As 
instances  where  this  is  necessary,  we  may  men- 
tion :  lead,  as  lead  carbonate  (PbC03)  precipi- 
tated from  solutions  of  lead  salts  by  ammonium 
carbonate  in  presence  of  a  small  quantity  of 
ammonia ;  zinc,  as  zinc  carbonate  (ZnC03) 
precipitated  with  sodium  carbonate  ;  silver, 
as  silver  chloride  (AgCl)  precipitated  with 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  precipitates  in  such 
cases  as  these  cannot  be  put  wet  into  the  crucible, 
but  must  first  be  dried  in  a  steam  oven  [25] 
and  the  dry  precipitate  separated  as 
much  as  possible  from  the  filter  paper 
and  ignited  apart  from  the  latter  in 
the  crucible.  This  operation  should  be 
performed  with  the  crucible  standing 
on  a  piece  of  glazed  paper.  The  pre- 
cipitate may  be  detached  by  the  aid  of 
the  clean  blade  of  a  penknife,  and  any 
substance  spilt  on  the  paper  may  be 
afterwards  swept  into  the  crucible  with 
a  camelhair  brush.  The  filter  paper 
is  folded  up  and  securely  held  by  wrap- 
ping a  long  piece  of  platinum  wire 
round  it ;  the  end  of  the  wire  is  fused 
into  a  glass  handle.  The  paper  is 
burnt  in  the  cage  of  wire  formed  in 
this  manner  and  the  ash  is  allowed  to 
drop  into  the  crucible  containing  the  already 
ignited  precipitate,  so  that  all  are  weighed 
together. 

The  Gooch  Crucible.  The  method  just 
described  is  somewhat  tedious,  and  unless  the 
greatest  care  be  taken,  some  of  the  precipitate 
is  sure  to  be  lost.  Such  determinations  as  those 
of  silver  and  chlorine  are  rapidly  made  in  a  Gooch 
crucible  [26].  It  consists  of  a  platinum  crucible 
the  base  of  which  is  perforated  with  numerous 
11  holes  ;  it  fits  into  a  filtering  flask  similar 

that  shown  [27].  Some  short-fibred  asbestos 
thoroughly  extracted  with  acids  is  poured  into 
the  crucible,  and  as  the  water  drains  away  it 
leaves  a  plug  of  fibre  on  the  bottom.  This  is 
then  covered  with  the  perforated  plate  seen  on 
the  right  of  the  illustration  [26],  and  on  connecting 
the  flask  with  an  exhaust  pump,  most  of  the 
water  is  sucked  out  and  fresh  water  may  be 
drawn  through,  so  that  the  asbestos  is  thoroughly 
washed.  The  crucible  is  then  detached,  dried 
in  an  air  oven  at  110°  C.,  and  weighed.  The 
silver  chloride  is  precipitated  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  and  the  liquid  poured  into  the  crucible. 
The  aqueous  liquor  is  sucked  through  into  the 
filtering  flask  and  the  precipitate  left  entangled 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

in  the  asbestos.  It  is  washed  with  distilled 
water  in  the  usual  manner,  after  which  the  cru- 
cible is  removed  to  the  oven,  dried  and  weighed. 
The  difference  in  weight  represents  silver  chloride. 
Results  just  as  accurate  are  got  by  drying  at 
110°  C.  as  when  silver  chloride  i^  heated  to  fusing 
point.  There  is  no  need  to  put  in  fresh  asbestos 
each  time  a  determination  is  made,  as  the  crucible 
can  be  used  several  times  before  the  accumula- 
tion of  precipitates  necessitates  cleaning  it  out. 
More  Important  Estimations.  We 
will  indicate  briefly  the  method  of  analysis  in 
some  instances  not  already  treated  of. 

Iron  and  aluminium,  :  precipitate  as  hydroxides 
with  slight  excess  of  ammonia  and  ignite  wet. 

Copper  :  precipitates  as  oxide  with  caustic 
potash  or  soda.  If  the  liquid  contain  any 
organic  matter  it  must  be  destroyed  by  con- 
centrating in  an  open  dish  or  basin  [28],  with 
the  addition  of  soda  and  nitre,  and  then  fusing, 
redissolving,  and  precipitating. 

Sulpur,  whether  present  as  sulphides  or 
free  or  contained  in  organic  matter,  must  be 
oxidised  with  nitric  acid  to  convert  it  into  sul- 
phuric acid  which  can  then  be  estimated  aa 
barium  sulphate  in  the  manner  already 
described.  Sulphides  are  readily  oxidised 
by  warming  with  strong  nitric  acid  in  a 
flask  or  beaker  covered  with  a  clock- 
glass,  but  many  organic  substances  re- 
quire more  drastic  treatment.  They 
must  be  heated  with  nitric  acid  to  a  high 
temperature—  200°  C.  to 
300°  C.—  and  this  can  be 
accomplished  only  by  seal- 
ing them  up  with  nitric  acid 
in  a  strong  glass  tube  [29] 
(Carius  method)  and  placing 
the  tube  in  a  special  oven  or 
furnace  [34].  The  latter 
illustration  showrs  the  ends 


GOOCH    CRUCIBLE 


Qf 


iron  tubes  in  which  the  glass  ones  are  placed, 
so  that  no  damage  will  be  done  should  they 
burst  —  a  thing  which  not  infrequently  hap- 
pens, when  they  go  off  with  a  report,  leav- 
ing nothing  but  a  little  powdered  glass  behind. 
In  sealing  the  glass  tubes  care  is  taken  to 
leave  a  fine  capillary  at  the  end  [29]  so  that 
after  a  couple  of  hours,  when  the  reaction  is 
complete,  the  tubes  are  opened  and  the  accumu- 
lated pressure  released  by  fusing  the  end  of  the 
capillary  without  taking  the  glass  tube  out  of 
the  iron  one.  All  danger  is  thus  avoided.  The 
pressure  released,  the  tube  is  cut  into  halves  and 
the  contents  washed  out  into  a  beaker  and  precipi- 
tated with  barium  chloride  hi  the  usual  manner. 

Chlorine  in  soluble  salts  may  be  precipitated 
directly  with  silver  nitrate,  but  when  contained 
in  organic  substances  it  must  first  be  liberated 
in  the  form  of  chloride  by  heating  with  nitric 
acid  in  a  sealed  tube  in  the  manner  just  described. 
A  crystal  or  two  of  silver  nitrate  is  put  into  the 
tube,  so  that  on  opening,  the  silver  chloride  has 
only  to  be  washed  out  into  a  Gooch  crucible  and 
weighed. 

Magnesium.  Soluble  salts  are  heated  with 
ammonium  chloride,  and  made  very  slightly 

4413 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

ulkalinr  with  ammo.ua.  An  excess  of  sodium 
t  "phate  m  ,<M,-d.  and  the  liquid  is  stirred  for  * 
Lmn-ort*,..  When  the  pre-Mprtatehas  formed 
add  more  stronu  ammonia  and  put  aadetO 
•tad  till  the  next  day.  Filter  off,  wash  with 
ammonia  solution  (1  in  l->),  and  ignite.  The  pre- 
maL'ti'-ium  ammonium  (MgJNtt4ru4 
«;H  0)  •  •  onverte<l  by  ignition  into  magnesium 

p%n.ph">|>  m  »hlch,f°rmJ' 

wriL-h.-d.   all   the   volatile   water  and  ammor 

i Iriven  off.  ,          , 

be  estimated  by  the  above 


cool    showing   that  practically   all   the   gas    is 


iystimated  by  predating 
it  from  an  acid  solution  as  the  sulphide  (bb,b3) 
l.v  saturating  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas. 
solutions  of  antimony  chloride  are  pre 
eipftftted  on  dilution  with  water ;  tartaric  acid 
M&ed  to  the  liquid  prevents  this  There  are 

,m  dithrulties  in  the  way  of  weighing  sulphide 

mony,  as  it  decomposes  when  heated  i 
air       It  must  either   be  dried    by    heating  in 
hydrogen  gas  (which  can  be  conveniently  c^ied 

or  else  oxidised 
with  nitric  acid, 
which  converts 
it  into  the  oxide 
(Sb203).  This  is 
then  ignited 
28.  PORCELAIN  BASIN  and  weighed. 

Arsenic  is  precipitated  as  sulphide  (As.2S3), 
collected  in  a  Gooch,  and  dried  at  100°  C. 

Tin  is  also  precipitated  as  sulphide,  and  on 
igniting  is  converted  into  the  oxide  (Sn02),  in 
uhieh  form  it  is  weighed. 

iry  is  precipitated  as  sulphide  (HgS),  col- 
'i-.  t.d  in  a  Gooch,  dried  at  100°  C.,  and  weighed. 

Carbonates.      As  carbonic  acid  is  widely 

distributed  l>oth  as  a  constituent  of  the  atmo- 

-ph.-re  and   as  a  component  of   minerals,   its 

.•stimation  is  a  matter  of  con- 

''.!(•  im|M)rtance.  Besides 

th.-    in. -thuds   already   given, 

ih.-r.-  are  others  depending  on 

ill.-  d.-eomp.sition  of  carbon- 

atcs  and  th<-  measurement  of 

is    evolved   either    by 

•  •I- l>y  volume.    The determin- 

y    weight    is  carried  out  by 

I -la- -inn   a   weighed  amount  of   the 

~iil.-t.ini.'  m  a  flask  |  A,  30]  provided 

with  a  ninl  .-rcurk  pi.-n-ed  \\ith  two 

Through  one  hole  passes  a 

losed    \vith    a    piece   of 

i  nil  line  and  a  pineh  coi-k.    This 

ll.-d  with  acid  before  the  experiment. 

Through     tli<-     oth.r     hole    passes    an    outlet 

I     with    two   or   more   U- tubes, 

tilled  with  an  absorbent  for  carbon  dioxide 

-u.  h    .is    s., da    Inn.-.     Thoe  tubes  ;u-<-  weighed 

In-fore    Martini:    th«-    experiment.      By    opening 

th-    pin.h    ei«k.    the    ji-id     from    the    pipette 

"I"  -I       Iinll-Vnlatilr     aeid      such      as 

-ulphunr)  is  alloued  to  ent.-r  the  »la>k  in  small 

•  lu.intiti.-  n\   a  tiim-.  so  that   the  earl.on  dioxide 

"IT  "i  a  Bll  .nd   is  al.sorl,4-d   l,y 

t1"'  •  •  "iid  I'-tnl.e  should  remain 

Hit 


flask   should   be   freed    from 
carbon   dioxide  by  passing  it 
through  the  soda  lime  tube, 
E,  and  a  wash  bottle,  F, 
containing    strong    sul- 
phuric   acid    to    retain 
moisture,  should  be  in- 
terposed between  A  and 
C.    The  U-tubes,  C  C,  are  re- 
weighed,  and  the  increase  in 
weight      represents      carbon 
dioxide. 

If  the  flask  A  be  removed 
so  that  the  soda  lime  tube  be 
27.  FLASK  FOR     Q         to  the  atmosphere,  and 
FILTERING  UNDER  ft   definite  voiume  of  air  be 
PRESSURE         sucked  through  the  tubes  by 
running  out  and  measuring  the  water  from  D, 
we  have  an  apparatus  for  estimating  the  amount 
of  carbon  dioxide  gas  in  the  atmosphere. 

Measuring  Moisture.  Moisture  has  fre- 
quently to  be  measured,  as  substances  which  have 
been  exposed  to  the  air  are  never  dry.  The 
simplest  method  is  to  place  a  weighed  quantity 
of  the  substance  in  an  open  dish,  watch  or  clock 
glass,  also  previously  weighed.  Then  heat  in  an 
oven  [25]  at  100°  C.,  or  a  little  higher,  till  the 
substance  ceases  to  lose  weight.  The  loss  of 
weight  will  give  the  moisture  or  water  con- 
tained in  the  substance. 

This  method  is  simple  and  accurate,  provided, 


29.    CARIUS    TUBE 

first,  that  the  substance  contains  no  other  volatile 
matter,  which  would  be  driven  off  and  lost  with 
the  water  ;  and,  secondly,  that  it  does  not  take 
up  oxygen  (oxidise)  during  the  heating.  Most 
mineral  substances,  but  few  organic  ones,  comply 
strictly  with  these  conditions.  Some  bodies  (such 
as  iodine  and  naphthalene)  are  far  too  volatile 
to  admit  of  treat- 
ment in  this  man- 
ner, while  others, 
such  as  rosin,  are 
only  slightly  vola- 
tile, so  that  the 
results  are  good 
enough  for  most 
purposes,  although 
not  strictly  accur- 
ate. Oils  oxidise 
and  increase  in 
weight,  as  also  do 
substances  such  as 
wood  pulp,  but  the 
action  is  slow,  and  seldom  leads  to  serious  error. 
Sometimes  the  moisture  in  mineral  substances 
is  held  very  firmly  (water  of  constitution), 
and  a  much  higher  temperature  than  100°  C. 
is  required  to  drive  it  off.  The  same  prin- 
ciple can  be  made  use  of  as  already  described, 


30.  APPARATUS 
FOR     ESTIMAT- 
ING   CARBONIC 
ACID 


but  the  watchglass  must  be  replaced  by  a 
crucible,  and  the  temperature,  if  necessary, 
rafeed  to  a  red  heat.  Unfortunately,  the  sub- 
stance frequently  suffers  other  chemical  changes 
at  these  high  temperatures,  so  that  in  many 
cases  the  water  cannot  be  estimated  by  difference. 
In  such  cases  the  substance  is  heated  in  a 
hard-glass  tube,  and  the  moisture  drawn  over 
weighed  U-tubes  containing  calcium  chloride, 
the  water  being  directly  estimated,  as  in  the 
case  of  carbon  dioxide  absorbed  in  soda  lime. 

Silicious  Materials.  The  analyst  is 
frequently  called  upon  to  examine  substances 
such  as  cement,  clay,  fireclay,  and  firebrick, 
silicious  limestones  and  dolomites,  sand,  iron 
ores,  slags,  and  numerous  other  substances 
containing  silica,  and  we  shall  now  consider  the 
best  methods  in  such  cases. 

Some  substances,  such  as  iron  ores,  limestone, 
lime,  magnesite,  dolomites,  and  cement  are  de- 
composed on  repeated  treatment  with  strong 
hydrochloric  acid  to  which  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid  have  been  added,  leaving  a  residue  con- 
sisting of  silica.  A  portion  of  this  tends  to  re- 
main in  solution,  owing  to  the  persistency  of  the 
colloidal  state,  and  is  rendered  insoluble  only  by 


33.    GLASS    BLOWPIPE 


evaporating  down  the  mixture  in  a  porcelain  dish 
and  heating  the  dry  residue  for  half  an  hour  at 
about  150°  C.  The  "baked"  mass  is  then 
treated  with  a  small  quantity  of  strong  hydro- 
chloric acid,  stirred  up  with  a  glass  rod,  and  the 
insoluble  silica  filtered  off  and  washed  with  hot 
water.  The  residue  may  be  ignited  straight 
away  and  weighed  as  described  for  barium 
sulphate.  The  solution  contains  iron,  aluminium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  etc.,  as  chlorides,  which 
may  be  estimated  by  methods  already  described. 
Of  course,  the  iron  and  alumina  must  be  first 
precipitated,  and  the  filtrate  carefully  preserved, 
as  this  will  contain  calcium  and  magnesium. 
The  calcium  is  precipitated  as  oxalate,  and  the 
magnesium  estimated  in  the  filtrate. 

Analysis  by  Fusion  with  Alkali.  In 
the  case  of  many  silicious  substances  the  decom- 
position with  acids  is  not  sufficiently  complete  for 
analytical  purposes.  This  applies  to  some  of  the 
substances  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph 
— cement,  for  instance — although  for  many 
purposes  the  acid  treatment  gives  good  enough 
results,  and  is,  besides,  a  rapid  method.  It 
cannot,  however,  be  used  where  an  exact  analysis 
is  required.  In  either  case,  the  substance  to  be 


APPLIED   CHEMISTRY 

analysed  must  be  very  finely  powdered,  not 
always  an  easy  matter.  Some  substances  when 
they  come  to  hand  are  already  in  a  finely  divided 
state,  as  clay  and  cement  ;  but  a  portion  from 

which  the  sam- 
ple for  analysis 
is  to  be  taken 
should    always 
be  reground  in 
anagate  mortar 
[31]    to 
reduce 
larger 
p   a   r- 
tic  les 
which 


31.    AGATE    MORTAR 


are  always  present.  Iron  ores  are  often  very  hard, 
and  must  first  be  crushed  in  a  steel  mortar  [32],  and 
then  powdered  in  the  agate  mortar.  Weigh  out 
accurately  about  one  gramme  of  the  material  into 
a  capacious  platinum  crucible  [20],  and  add  about 
eight  grammes  of  the  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
pure  dry  carbonates  of  sodium  and  potassium — 
"  fusion  mixture  " — which  has  a  lower  melting 
point  than  either  carbonate  by  itself.  Mix 
thoroughly  with  a  glass  rod,  cover  with  the  lid, 
and  heat  on  a  clay  triangle,  first  with  a  small 
flame,  and  then  gradually  increasing  its  size 
until  the  gas  is  full  on,  finally  heating  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  over  a  blowpipe  flame.  The 
mouth  blowpipe  will  not  do  ;  you  will  want  a 
gas  blowpipe  [33]  fitted  with  foot  blowers  [37]. 
The  contents  of  the  crucible  should  be  at  a  bright 
red  heat  and  in  a  state  of  gentle  fusion.  Take 
the  crucible  firmly  in  a  pair  of  tongs,  and  while 
still  red  hot  plunge  it  to  about  half  its  height  into 
a  basin  of  cold  water.  This  cools  the  "  melt  " 
rapidly,  so  that  on  solidifying  it  usually  cracks 
away  from  the  sides,  and  is  easily  removed. 
Place  the  crucible  on  its  side  in  a  deep  porcelain 
dish,  cover  with  water,  and  gently  warm  on 
a  water  bath  [35]  till  the  contents  .come  away, 
when  the  crucible  is  removed,  and  rinsed  with 
a  jet  of  water  so  as  to  retain  everything  in  the 
dish.  Cover  the  dish  with  a  clock-glass  and  run 


34.  CARIUS 

FURNACE 


in  hydrochloric  acid  very  carefully  down  the  lip 
of  the  dish.  The  addition  of  acid  is  continued, 
keeping  the  dish  covered  with  the  clock-glass 
all  the  while  until  effervescence  ceases.  In  this 

4415 


APPLIED   CHEMISTRY 

manner,  particle,  <.f  li«|iii<!  spray  are  caught  on 

tli"  undei    surface   of   th<-    clork-glass  and  drip 

into    the     dish.     The 

clock  ^'lassshould.  of  course. 

l>e  placed  convex  side  down- 
Kemove     it,     and 

wash    any    drippings    back 

into  the  ili^h.  and  continue 
ILT  on  the   water  bath 

till    the   contents    are    dry, 

then  place    in  the  air  oven 

and  heat  to  150°  C.  for  half 

an  hour,  to  render  the  silica 

in  oluble,  and  continue  the 

analysis  exactly  as  before. 
Sampling.      We    have 
mied  that  the  portion   of  material  selected 

for  analysis   is  a  representative  sample  of   the 

whole.    To  ensure  this,    special  precautions 
have  to  be  taken,   as   most    materials  for 
analysis  are  by  no  means  uniform  through- 
out.    Take,  for  instance,  a  delivery  of  several 
truckloads  of  coal.    It  will  probably  include 
material  from  different  parts  of  the  seam,  and 
even  if  we  analyse   different  portions  of  a 
single   lump,   it  will  not   be   found    to  be 
uniform  throughout.      In   the  case  of  coal, 
ores,  clay,  and  numerous  other  substances, 
it  is  at  least  as  important  to  procure  a  fair 
sample   as  to  make   an   accurate  analysis. 
Supposing  the  trucks  are  being  unloaded  at 
the  works,  the  chemist  removes  small  quan- 
titie.,  say  a  pound  or  two  at  a  time,  with 
i-hovel  or    other    suitable  instrument, 
every   now  and  again  at  some  con- 
venient   point— say,   where    the  ma- 
terial is  being  taken  by  an    elevator 
to  storing  bins.      These  samples  are 
thrown     out    on    to    an     impervious 
Hoor  and  thorougly  mixed  and  divided 
into  four  quarters  or  heaps.     Two  of 


WATER    BATH 


36.    CALCIMETER 


The  Calcimeter.  In  the  cement  industry 
and  some  others,  rapid  estimations  of  carbonates 
have  to  be  frequently  made, 
and  for  this  purpose  some 
form  of  calcimeter  is 
generally  used.  In  cement 
works  it  is  necessary  to 
make  regular  tests  of  the 
slurry  [see  page  1580]  to 
ascertain  the  proportion  of 
chalk  it  contains. 

A  small  quantity   of  the 
slurry  is  dried,  weighed,  and 
introduced   into    the    bottle 
shown  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  illustration  [36].     This 
bottle  is  provided  with  a  short  tube,  which  rests 
against   the  side  and    holds   rather  more  than 
sufficient  acid  to  decompose  the  chalk  con- 
tained in  the  slurry.    On  inclining  the  bottle, 
the  acid  flows  out  of  the  tube,  and,  com- 
ing into  contact  with  the  slurry,  liberates 
carbon  dioxide  gas.     This  gas  finds  its  way 
into   the    middle   vessel,   which    stands    in 
connection  with  a   long   graduated   U-tube 
containing  water.      Before  starting  the  ex- 
periment the  levels  of  water  in  this  tube  are 
adjusted  by  means  of  the  bottle  and  rubber 
ball  seen  on  the  left.    The  air  driven  out  of 
the  middle  flask  by  the  carbon  dioxide  gas 
displaces  water  in  the  graduated  limb  of  the 
U-tube,  and  on  adjusting   the  levels  again 
the  volume  of  carbon  dioxide  may  be  directly 
read  off.        A  correction  has  to  be 
made  for  the  amount  of  gas  absorbed 
by  the  acid  in  the  bottle.     Of  course, 
this  method  is  suitable  only  where 
rapid  estimations  are  required,  as  the 
results  are  probably  not  correct   to 
more    than    half    of    one  per   cent. 
It  is  hopt  d  that  this  short  account 


the  diagonally  opposite  heaps  are  removed,  and  of  some  of  the  more'important  analytical  opera- 
the  remaining  two  remixed,  and  again  divided  into  tions  will  give  the  reader  an  insight  into  the 
four,  and  the  process  re- 


peated. At  a  certain  stage 
large  lumps  must  be  broken 
up.  and  the  division  repeated, 
until  we  are  left  with  only  a 
feu  pound,  of  lumps  and 
powder,  not  hir^-r,  Mly.  than 
walnu  ue  taken 

t<>  the  laboratorv.  cni>hed 
further  in  a  mortar,  and 
dividing  operations  repeated, 
with  further  grinding  at 
miUbl  .  until  we 

M     with    only     a    few 
m«  "f  the  finely  pow- 
uiaterial    for   an 

'f        lMl'        i'lo.  e    s        J,a>        lieen 

r\y      •  •niidui-i.-il.      the 

•    amounting    to  onlv 

.     will     I,',. 

1    several 
rW    v.luch    W(,   itartod    to 


37. 

toil         of 

examine 


principles  on  which  the  science 
is  based.  He  will,  however, 
find  a  number  of  analytical 
processes  described  in  the 
subse quent  sections  of  Applied 
Chemistry,  Kjedahl's  nitrogen 
estimation  under  Glues  and 
Adhesives,  the  analysis  of 
nitrates  and  phosphates  undei 
Manures,  and  food  and  water 
analysis  under  the  various 
food  sections.  The  subject  of 
volumetric  analysis  has  been 
omitted  as  it  could  not  be  ade- 
quately dealt  with  in  the  space 
at  our  disposal.  For  further 
study  we  recommend  the  text- 
book of  Clowes  &  Coleman,  or 
the  standard  work  on  volu- 
metric analysis  by  Button. 
Most  of  the  illustrations  in  this  article  are  from 
apparatus  supplied  by  Messrs.  Baird  &  Tat  lock 

Continued 


FOOT   BELLOWS 


1416 


CYCLOPAEDIA  OF  SHOPKEEPING 

PHOTOGRAPHERS.      The  Studio  and  its  Equipment.      Finance  of  the 
Business.    Varieties  of  Work.    Copyright.    Departments  to  Cultivate 


PHOTOGRAPHIC    DEALERS. 

Chemicals.     The  Dark-room. 


The     £100 
Side  Lines. 


Stock.       Apparatus   and 
Prices  and  Profits 


Group   26 

SHOPKEEPING 
31 

Continued  froin 
page  4=550 


PHOTOGRAPHERS 

For  those  who  have  an  artistic  taste,  combined 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  photography, 
professional  photography  offers  good  prospects. 
It  is  usual  to  decry  photography  as  a  business 
on  account  of  the  enormous  number  of  amateur 
photographers  which,  it  is  imagined,  spoils  the 
field  for  the  professional.  Curiously  enough, 
the  number  of  persons  who  seriously  practise 
photography  as  amateurs  is  comparatively  small. 
The  average  amateur  who  possesses  a  camera 
does  not  turn  out  presentable  work  His  friends 
gaze  at  his  attempts  and  say,  "  Very  well  for  an 
amateur,"  which  is  only  another  way  of  saying 
that  the  professional  is  not  seriously  rivalled  by 
the  amateur.  If  anything,  the  public  learn,  from 
seeing  the  productions  of  an  amateur,  that  photo- 
graphy is  not  the  simple  art  it  appears  to  be  at 
first  sight.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  amateur  photo- 
graphers invariably  patronise  the  professional 
when  they  require  presentable  photographs  of 
themselves  or  their  relatives. 

Apprenticeship.  A  boy  with  the  proper 
aspirations  should  be  apprenticed  to  a  good 
country  business  when  he  has  reached  the  age 
of  sixteen.  In  some  cases  a  premium  of  £20 
to  £30  is  asked ;  in  others  no  premium  is  paid ; 
and,  again,  small  salaries  are  not  unusual.  A 
boy  learns  just  as  much  at  places  where  he 
receives  a  salary  as  where  a  premium  is 
paid.  The  young  beginner  is  taught  printing, 
toning,  developing,  and  mixing  up  solutions  for 
a  year  or  so,  and  is  then  introduced  to  the  studio, 
where  he  helps  in  the  operating,  until  he  is 
competent  to  operate  himself.  Retouching  is  the 
last  department  taught.  During  these  three 
years  the  young  man  should  attend  evening 
classes  at  the  local  science  and  art  school.  In 
London  the  excellent  courses  in  photography  at 
such  institutions  as  the  Polytechnic  cannot  be 
too  highly  recommended.  The  country  lad 
should  not,  however,  be  discouraged  by  the  lack 
of  classes  on  photography  in  his  town,  but  should 
occupy  his  evenings  at  the  art  classes,  and  go 
through  a  course  of  elementary  chemistry,  light, 
and  heat  in  a  science  school. 

Remuneration.  The  salaries  paid  in  the 
business  of  a  photographer  are  from  30s.  to  45s. 
a  week,  the  amount  depending  on  the  experience 
of  the  assistant,  and  on  his  ability  as  an  operator. 
Many  women  are  engaged  in  certain  departments 
of  the  photographer's  business,  and  they  are 
quite  successful  as  reception-room  attendants, 
retouchers,  printers,  and  mounters.  The  salaries 
paid  to  women  range  from  15s.  to  80s  a  week, 
according  to  experience. 

D  27  G 


The  Professional  Photographers'  Association 
has  devised  a  "  registration  certificate  "  scheme  for 
assistants.  There  has  not  yet  been  time  to  judge 
whether  the  scheme  will  be  successful,  but  it  may 
be  added  that  it  does  not  involve  examination — 
merely  a  consideration  of  experience  in  the 
various  departments  of  the  business. 

Starting  in  Business.  To  begin  business 
is  the  aim  of  most  assistants,  but  this  step 
should  not  be  taken  until  experience  has  been 
obtained  in  three  different  studios.  Whether 
the  photographer  decides  to  buy  an  existing 
business  or  to  .start  a  fresh  one  is  a  question 
which  circumstances  must  decide.  As  a  rule,  it 
costs  the  same  in  the  long  ruri,  because,  although 
the  established  business  has  a  certain  amount 
of  goodwill  attached  to  it,  there  is  sometimes  an 
undesirable  reputation  which  neutralises  the 
advantages.  A  photographer  who  starts  a  new 
business  can  soon  make  a  reputation  if  he 
delivers  his  work  promptly.  The  writer  remem- 
bers a  case  in  which  the  photographer  built  up 
a  lasting  reputation  by  delivering  the  finished 
photographs  within  three  days  of  the  sitting. 
It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  a  beginner  has  often 
to  make  his  name  chiefly  by  work  outside  his 
studio.  He  will  need  to  cater  for  work  by  taking 
local  views,  but  should  make  a  point  of  always 
being  in  his  studio  at  certain  times  of  the  day, 
or  he  will  never  be  able  to  build  up  a  home 
business.  As  soon  as  the  business  is  large  enough 
to  support  an  experienced  assistant,  most  of 
the  difficulties  outlined  above  disappear. 

Capital  Required.  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
state  an  exact  sum  as  necessary  for  one  starting 
the  business  of  a  photographer.  Many  have 
started  on  £20  or  £50,  but  to  start  in  a  fairly 
comprehensive  manner  needs  from  £200  to  £300. 
A  studio,  for  instance,  may  cost  £50  to  £100,  and 
the  camera  from  £10  to  £30. .  In  the  following 
estimate,  a  medium  class  of  business  has  been 
taken  as  a  basis  of  calculation : 

Portable  studio      

Furniture  and  carpets  

Backgrounds  and  accessories 

Camera,  lens,  and  stand        

Dark-room  fittings        

Apparatus  (printing  frames,  retouching  desk,  washer, 
trimmer,  rolling  press,  etc.) . . 

Mounts  and  stationery         

Plates,  paper,  and  chemicals 
Miscellaneous  (including  advertising) 
Working  capital 


£60 
20 
20 
25 
10 

10 
10 
10 
15 
20 

£200 


Premises.  The  above  estimate  provides  for  a 
portable  studio,  but  it  may  be  that  waiting-rooms 
and  dark-room  will  also  have  to  be  provided. 
Usually  these  last-named  are  the  ground-floor 

4417 


•  HOPKECPINQ 

'rooms  cf  .1  II..HM-.  and  lead  to  the  garden,  \vhnv 
tin-  -tudi<>  i-*  Mtuuted.  Rents  are  higher  in 
town,  luit  a  business  is  built  up  sooner  th.m  in 
tin-  Milmrlis.  Many  town  business  premi> 
h.-indie.ipped  .  l»y  having  no  shop  window,  the 
show-ea-e-  in  a  doorway  being  a  poor  substitute. 
It  p.  •-.- i  Me.  have  a  shop  window  at  disposal.^ 
Tin-  outside  should  be  painted  in  a  quiet  colour 
m  or  plum  colour  are  favourites — while  for 
th«-  inside  of  the  \vindn\\  brown  is  to  be  recom- 
m.-nded.  as  it  shows  up  carbon  and  platinotype 
IK '!•:  The  floor  of  the  shop  or  reception 

room  should  be  linoleum  (self-colour),  and  the 
walls  look  nice  if  papered  olive  green,  with  white 
p.iint.    The  rule  should  be  to  avoid  a  pronounced 
colour.     The  furniture  must  be  in  good  taste  if 
a  good-class  business  is  to  be  cultivated  ;    an 
tide    and  antique  chairs  help    to 
an  air  of  culture,  which  educated  people 
,'ppreriate.     Conventional  furniture  is  not  to  be 
despised,  and  as  customers  have  to  wait  some 
tini",  care  should  be  taken  to  have  comfortable 
\djoining  the  studio  a  dressing-room 
should  he  provided. 

The  Studio.  The  studio  is  the  most  im- 
portant consideration.  It  must  be  disposed  so 
that  the  light  is  received  from  the  north,  or 
preferably  from  a  north-easterly  direction.  The 
length  of  the  studio  should  be  not  less  than  24  ft. 
;;nd  the  width  12ft.,  although  it  is  better,  if  space 
jH-rmit,  to  make  it  35  ft.  long  by  18  ft.  wide. 
The  piteh  of  the  roof  is  usually  35  to  45  deg-ees, 
tin-  height  to  ridge  being  about  14  ft. 

As  regards  the  studio  camera  equipment,  an 

average  specification  would  be  a  12  x  10  set,  to 

complete,  £25.  The  camera  is  fitted  with  a 

(lark  slide  to  take  one  12  x  10,  one  10  x  8,  one  8£  x 

• »  boudoirs,  two  promenades,  two  cabinets, 

two  «  arte-de-visite  pictures.    A  good  portrait 

nd  massive  stand  is  also  included.     Many 

k'raphers  start  studio  work  with  an  ordinary 

•:•  outfit .    with  rapid  rectilinear  lens,  and 

pm.  h.<«-    proper    studio    apparatus    as  means 

enmt.    The  other  contents  of  the  studio  will  be 

t  Im-,.  bMton  ninds— a  reversible  neutral-coloured 

ackground,  and  one  outdoor  and  one  indoor 

eene-a  head-rest,  rugs,  palms  and    grasses, 

and  a  few  pictures  for  the  walls. 

ing  of  the  studio  is  best  managed  by 

sans  of  a  "  syphon  "  gas-stove  or  by  hot- water 

"d  .t  is  essential  that  the  studio  be 

Jtoblj  warm  in  winter,  or  successful  results 

t  be  expected     The  method  of  fitting  up 

-I   rk.room    ii    , -xplained    in    the    article    on 

l"(    Idlers,  which  follows. 
Mounts.    The  ti,,ts  of  mounts  are  numerous, 

ous   mounts   in   use    ,y  photo- 
'W^««Pplc 
1418 


VAIMKTIKS    OF    PHOTOGRAPH    MOUNTS. 

Bin. 

Approximate  Price. 

Mid-rj-t 

2±    by     l^y 

3s.  6d.  1,000 

Victoria  Midget 

2t      „       1\ 

4s.  6d.  1,000 

Cabinet  Midget     .. 

~\  i;   "       JJ 

4s.  6d.  1,000 

Promenade  Midget 

3J  '  ,,       If 

4s.  6d.  1,000 

Boudoir  Midget 
Panel  Midget 
Carte-de-Visite     .  . 

3s      „       2 
4J      „       If 
4*      „       2J 

5s.  6d.  1,000 
6s.  6d.  1,000 
6s.  6d.  to  15s.  1,000 

Cabinet 

6|      „       4^ 

16s.  to  30s.  1.000 

Promenade   . 

8J      ,,      4        5s.  9d.  to  7s.  6d.  100 

Boudoir.. 

8k     „      bk 

7s.  to  9s.  100 

Imperial 

10               6J 

13s.  to  16s.  100 

l'ani-1      ... 

13        „      7k 

4s.  to  4s.  9d.  100 

Large  Panel  . 

17        „    lOJ 

6s.  to  7s.  6d.  100 

Grand  Panel 

23        „     13J 

10s.  to  13s.   100 

VIEW    AND  GROUP  MOUNTS 

J  Plate          ....        4*    by     3i 

9s.  6d.  to  20s.  1,000 

....         5        ,,4 

15s.  to  30s.  1,000 

J  Plate          ....        6i     „      4J 
Stereoscopic         .  .        7     ,,      Sy7^ 
»»                             7J      ,,      5 
..is}      „      6J 

22s.  to  50s.  1,000 
[•  2s.  to  10s.  100 

10        ,,8           6s.  3d.  to  12s.  100 

12        „    10              9s.  to  25s.  100 

Tissue  paper  covers  for  photographs,  pro- 
tector bags,  and  postal  wrappers  will  be  needed 
as  well  as  memorandum  forms  and  bill-heads. 

A  registration  system  for  negatives  must  be 
inaugurated,  a  ruled  book  being  provided  in 
which  the  name  and  address  of  each  sitter  is 
entered  with  date  and  other  particulars.  The 
stock  of  negatives  ought  to  be  stored  in  a  dry 
place  and  be  put  in  order  so  that  there  will 
be  no  difficulty  in  rinding  a  particular  negative. 
Selling  Prices.  Vary  according  to  the 
class  of  trade.  The  following  are  average  prices  : 
midgets,  4s.  6d.  to  6s.  dozen  silver  prints,  7s.  6d. 
platino  ;  carte-de-visite,  7s.  to  8s.  6d.  dozen  silver 
prints,  10s.  6d.  to  12s.  platino  ;  cabinet,  15s. 
to  24s.  dozen ;  boudoir,  18s.  to  20s.  dozen 
to  35s.  dozen  ;  panels,  10s.  6d.  to  15s.  each  ; 
wedding  groups,  whole  plate,  one  to  two  guineas, 
including  three  to  six  copies. 

Copyright.  In  the  case  of  ordinary  photo- 
graphs the  copyright  belongs  to  the  person 
who  pays  for  the  sitting  unless  it  is  expressly 
reserved  by  the  photographer.  A  book  of  forms 
should  be  provided  for  the  latter  purpose  if  the 
extent  of  the  business  allows  it.  The  wording 
of  the  form  is  usually  something  like  this  : 

"  In  consideration  of  your  allowing  me  a 
reduction  from  your  usual  terms  for  taking 
photographs  of  me  or  on  my  behalf  this  day, 
hereby  agree  that  the  copyright  in  such 
photographs  shall  be  reserved  to  you,  and  that 
1  will  not  deal  in  any  way  with  the  photographs 
to  prejudice  your  interest  in  the  copyright." 

1  he  reduction  should  be  stated,  and  the  agree- 
ment stamped  with  a  sixpenny  stamp,  dated, 
nlled  m  with  the  names  of  the  parties,  and 
witnessed. 

Copyright  in  artistic  property  can  be  registered 

at  Stationers'  Hall,  Ludgate  Hill,  London,  E.G., 

fee    being    Is.     Registration    is    necessary 

'fore  a  legal  action  can  be  taken  against  anyone 

intrmgmg  a  copyright  photograph.    The  Photo- 

graphic    Copyright    Union,    23,    Soho    Square, 

London,  W.,  and  the  Professional  Photographers' 

Association,  51,  Baker  Street,  Londonf  W.    are 


useful  societies  for  professionals ;  the  sub- 
scription in  each  case  is  small.  The  Copyright 
Union  recommends  the  adoption  of  a  minimum 
reproduction  fee  of  10s.  6d.  to  a  guinea  according 
to  the  size.  This  is  for  newspaper  work.  For 
advertisement  purposes  the  charges  are  higher ; 
for  postcards  10s.  6d.  per  1,000  is  a  usual  charge. 

Class  of  Work.  Photographer's  work  is 
very  varied.  It  includes  copying  old  photo- 
graphs, enlarging  pictures  by  bromide,  carbon, 
or  platinum  processes,  architectural  work, 
photographic  enamels,  flashlight  groups  of 
dinners,  lantern  slides,  transparencies,  and 
photographs  for  the  Press.  In  the  old  days, 
unmounted  and  mounted  views  had  a  large  sale, 
but  this  has  all  disappeared  before  the  ubiquitous 
picture  postcard.  Picture  postcards  are  either 
direct  photographs  or  collotypes.  Collotype  post- 
cards cost  16s.  6d.  per  1,000  if  six  subjects  are 
taken,  while  for  a  set  of  50  subjects  the  charge 
is  9s.  6d.  per  1,000  if  10,000  are  taken.  Bromide 
postcards  cost  from  7s.  to  12s.  per  100,  according 
to  quantity  and  number  of  subjects.  In  the  case 
of  photographs  for  the  Press,  half-plate  prints 
full  of  detail  are  preferred.  A  country  photo- 
grapher should  arrange  with  an  agent  in  London 
who  sells  photographs  on  commission  to  the 
various  newspapers.  The  work  needs  to  be 
done  quickly.  For  dinner  and  ball-room  groups 
a  good  flashlight  apparatus  is  needed.  Some 
photographers  make  a  speciality  of  machinery 
photographs,  and  now  that  photographs  are  so 
much  used  for  illustrating  catalogues,  this 
branch  should  by  no  means  be  neglected. 
For  this  class  of  work  an  air-brush,  costing 
about  seven  guineas,  is  almost  a  necessity,  as 
large  spaces  have  often  to  be  stopped  out  or 
retouched  before  the  picture  is  fit  for  repro- 
duction. Enlargements,  miniatures,  and  fancy 
printing  on  opal,  etc.,  are  at  first  best  left  to 
trade  printers,  but  the  first-mentioned  branch 
can  easily  be  undertaken  by  the  photographer, 
and  it  pays  well  if  a  special  line  be  made  of 
framed  enlargements. 

A  side  line  neglected  by  professional  photo- 
graphers is  the  supply  of  plates,  papers,  and 
apparatus  to  amateurs.  The  article  on  Photo- 
graphic Dealers  should  be  consulted  for  details 
of  this  trade. 

Frames  and  Framing.  A  valuable  ad- 
junct to  the  photographer's  business  is  the  sale 
of  photograph  frames.  It  is  no  use  going  in  for 
this  department  unless  the  photographer  has  a 
really  fine  selection  of  frames  and  in  all  sizes — 
round,  square,  landscape  and  midgets.  There 
are  several  styles  which  allow  the  frames  to  be 
used  either  upright  or  lengthways — for  views  or 
portraits.  Midgets  with  round  or  oblong  open- 
ings cost  3s.  6d.  per  dozen  and  sell  at  6d.  each. 
Carte-de-visites  with  round  or  oblong  openings 
cost  5s.  per  dozen,  and  sell  at  9d.  each.  Cabinets 
with  round  or  oblong  openings  average  7s.  6d. 
per  dozen,  and  sell  at  Is.  each.  The  panel  cabinet 
size  frame  either  round  or  oblong  costs  15s.  per 
dozen,  and  sells  at  2s.,  while  the  boudoir  frame 
costs  17s.  per  dozen  and  sells  at  2s.  6d.  Picture 
framing  [see  Picture  Framers]  should  also  be  a 
department  of  a  photographer's  business. 


SHOPKEEPING 

Advertising.  Advertising  is  much  neg- 
lected by  photographers.  If  more  price  lists 
were  distributed  more  people  would  be  led 
to  have  their  pictures  taken.  Make  a  special 
offer  of  a  certain  style  of  photograph  or 
enlargement,  but  in  so  doing  do  not  make 
a  mistake  of  cutting  prices ;  rather,  make 
the  quality  and  style  better  than  charge  a 
cheap-jack  price.  When  sending  home  proofs 
enclose  a  price  list  of  various  styles  in  which  the 
photographs  can  be  printed,  even  though  the 
customer  has  paid  for  the  sitting.  In  many 
cases  a  few  additional  prints  are  ordered 
because  some  variation  in  style  is  fancied.  The 
proofs  sent  should  be  from  retouched  negatives, 
and  are  best  on  printing-out  paper.  They 
should  be  stamped  "to  be  returned,"  and,  in 
case  of  neglect,  should  be  charged  for  in  the 
number  ordered. 

Profits.  The  photographer  should  obtain 
good  profits,  as  his  business  is  not  on  a  par  with 
one  where  goods  are  simply  handed  over  the 
counter.  Each  customer  has  to  be  studied  so  as 
to  get  the  best  results  in  a  photograph,  and  con- 
siderable artistic  ability  is  required  to  retouch 
a  negative  and  finish  a  photograph.  These 
must  be  paid  for  as  they  involve  an  expenditure 
of  time.  The  writer,  endeavouring  to  work 
out  the  cost  of  carte-de-visites  and  cabinets 
on  printing-out  paper  arrived  at  the  figures 
3s.  and  5s  ;  on  platinum,  the  cost  would  be 
4s.  and  6s.  6d.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is 
not  possible  to  arrive  at  the  exact  cost  as 
it  varies  according  to  the  extent  of  the  busi- 
ness, but  it  may  be  taken  that  the  gross  profit 
is  50  per  cent,  on  the  turnover.  A  source  of  much 
loss  with  many  photographers  is  the  waste  of 
material  that  goes  on.  Spoilt  plates  and  paper, 
and  wasted  solutions,  especially  if  the  last- 
named  contain  the  precious  metals,  account  for 
a  respectable  leakage  in  profits.  The  leakage 
can  be  stopped  by  proper  supervision  and 
systematic  working. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  DEALERS 

Photography  is  essentially  a  summer  pursuit, 
and  a  business  which  has  only  a  few  months 
of  activity  is  not  a  desirable  one.  Steps  have 
been  taken  to  educate  the  public  to  winter 
photography  and  magic -Ian tern  work ;  but  it  is 
only  the  enthusiast  who  can  dabble  in  ice-cold 
water  and  pretend  that  he  likes  it.  Lantern 
work  tends  also  to  make  the  hobby  expensive. 

Qualifications.  The  photographic  dealer 
should  have  a  taste  for  scientific  pursuits  and, 
above  all,  should  practise  photography  himself. 

There  is  no  apprenticeship  in  the  business  ; 
the  embryo  dealer  starts  as  a  junior  assistant, 
and  works  his  way  up.  Wages  are  not  on  a 
liberal  scale ;  30s.  to  45s.  a  week  are  fair  averages 
for  junior  and  senior  assistants  of  experience, 
and  it  is  not  astonishing  that  any  young  man  of 
enterprise  and  small  capital  soon  looks  about 
for  a  neighbourhood  where  he  can  set  up  in 
business  for  himself. 

The  best  neighbourhood  is  obviously  the  busy 
residential  suburbs  of  great  towns  or  seaside 
resorts.  Near  public  schools  a  photographic 
dealer  can  generally  make  a  living  as  successive 

4419 


SHOPKEEPING 

generations   of    schoolboys  take  up  the    fasei- 

_•    :„„!    ed.ieative    art.      It     is   true   that 

up  for  only  a  few  months    tral 

thii    BWIUM   M   considerable  expenditure 

in  outfits.     Tin-    boy's    parents  probably   start 

tli.-    youth    with    a    camera,  as    a    birthday  or 

season    pift.    unmindful    of    the    fact   that   ttie 

the  1,-ast   expenahre  part— compara- 

.1  king— of  an  energetic  photographers 

outfit 

The  DarK-room.      In  connection  with  a 
phot. .,_'i a], In.   dealer's  business,  provision  should 
I*-  made  for  a  dark-room  for  the  use  of  amateurs. 
In  mid  be  lighted  by  sliding  shutters  on 
t),,.  v  !   tin-  source  of  light  for  the  ruby 

lamp  should  be  gas  or  electric  light.    Means  must 
,!  ,,pt.d  for  obtaining  white  light  at  will,  as 
printing  processes  require  a  white  light  for 
seconds  at  a  time.     A  by -pass  is  a  useful 
addition    to   the  gas  burner,  but  with  electric 
a  separate  lamp  for  white  light  is  readily 
;  dongside  the  ruby  lamp.    The  walls  should 
ut.  d  a  dull  lead  colour,  the  same  treatment 
.ipplied  to  the  ceiling.   Water  should  be  laid 
.1  beneath  the  tap  should  be  a  porcelain  or 
le.ul-lini  d  sink.    The  tap  to  the  water-pipe  should 
I*-  tittul  with  a  reducing  nozzlo,  and  a  rose  cap 
i  advantage.     The  developing  space  should 
I*-  on  one  side  of  the  sink,  and  arranged  so  that 
splashes  of  developer  and  water  drain  away  to 
tlif  sink.     Shelves  underneath  the  sink  and  the 
developing   bench   should  be  fitted  up  for   the 
di>hes.   \\hile  on    the  Avails  shelves    are  placed 
for    the    developing    solutions    and    measures. 
Another     table    should    be    provided    for    the 
dark    slides    while    filling    them   or   while  the 
plates  they  have  contained  are  being  developed. 
table  should  be  arranged  at  the  opposite 
f  the  room  from  the  sink,  so  that  it  is  not 
likely  to  get    splashed.     Ft  is  an  advantage  to 
it  away  from  the  light,  as  plates  should  not 
I-   . -\po~.  d  .  v.-n  to  red  light  unnecessarily.  The 
•should  U-  well  ventilated.     Any  carpenter 
will   understand  when   it    is  explained  to  him 
that   In-  must   make  the  ventilators  light  traps. 
of  the  door  also  must  be  trapped 
round  th«-  •  dge<.  but  this  may  be  rendered  un- 
necessary by  the  provision  of  a  curtain  on  the 
Tin-  door   should   loek  on   the  inside 
so  an  to  pi, -vent    the  possibility  of  disturbance 
i    of  plate  changing  or  developing. 
A  refinem'-nt    in   dark-room   doors    is   to   Lave 
two  doors  ,y  a  lobby  so  that  a  person 

i    th«-    room    without    admitting   light. 
photographk   bu  \eraldark- 

'     'i         To    rasual     eustomers     ;i 

•mall  Charge     minimum,  lid.— is  made  for  the 

the  dark  room  for  plate  changing,  but  if 

piire|,as,-r  of  goods  at  the 

mwiseto  p,e<s  the  charge.     When  the 

'•loping  plates  a  charge  of 

•"K  covering  the  use  of  the 

boor. 

Capital     Required.       The      amount     of 

required  [or  starting  the  bUsm, 
I'1";'"-1'1!'1'"    ''•  da  upon  whether  it   is 

<"  ^mother  business,  or  to  IM- 
••I'hie  requisites.     When  started 
1420 


in  connection  with  a  drug  business,  a  ten-pound 
note  would  suffice  to  stock  the  most  frequently 
required  apparatus  and  plates,  the  chemicals 
being  already  articles  of  stock.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  lay  in  a  stock  of  plates  and  papers 
that  will  last  beyond  the  season,  as  these 
goods  do  not  keep  well  It  is  better  to  replace  the 
stock  of  perishable  goods  entirely  each  season, 
selling  off  the  remains  of  last  season's  goods  at  sale 
prices  to  clear.  When  a  new  business  is  being 
started,  the  amount  of  capital  will  depend,  in  a 
measure,  on  the  neighbourhood,  but  for  the  pur- 
pose of  this  article  £100  is  taken  as  a  medium  figure. 
It  will  be  noted  that  no  special  brands  of  goods 
are  mentioned,  this  being  a  matter  which  depends 
upon  the  wholesale  house  with  whom  the  order 
is  placed.  It  is  also  understood  that  the  beginner 
desires  scope  for  his  energies  in  selecting  the 
goods  his  experience  suggests,  and  most  suited 
for  the  requirements  of  the  neighbourhood. 
There  are  new  papers  and  plates  being  introduced 
every  year,  and  fashion  in  cameras  changes 
from  season  to  season.  This  is  especially  the 
case  with  hand  cameras,  where  last  season's 
goods  are  looked  upon  as  old-fashioned.  This 
is  a  reason  for  caution  in  buying. 

Estimate  for  a  £100  Stock.  The 
following  is  an  approximate  estimate  of  the 
manner  £100  would  be  laid  out  in  stock  for  a 
photographic  dealer.  The  list  was  originally 
printed  in  the  "  Photographic  Dealer's  Annual." 


Two  J-plate  stand  camera  sets 

One  J-plate  stand  camera  set    . . 

One  i-plate  high-class  camera  set,  with  3  dark 

slides 

Three  daylight  spool  cameras,  1,  2,  and  5  guineas 

One  flat  film  hand  camera 

Two  magazine  i-plate  hand  cameras 

Two  each  camera  cases,  i-plate  and  i-plate  . . 

One   each    camera   case,   solid   leather,  i-plate 

and  i-plate 

Three  camera  levels          

Three  carriers,  i-plate  to  i-plate 

O.ie  exposure  meter 

Three  focussing  cloths 

Three  each  focussing  screens,  i-plate  and  i-plate 

Two  focussing  glasses 

Two  each  R.R.  lenses,  i-plate  and  i-plate      . . 
One  anastigmat  lens,  i-plate 

One  W.A.  lens,  i-plate 1 

Two  each  roller  blind  shutters,  T.  and  I.,  i-p"ate 

and  i-plate 
Two  each  S.S.  shutters,  i-plate  and  i-plate    . . 

Two  cheap  drop  shutters  

Two  tripod  stands  and  tops,  3-fold 

Two  tripod  stands,  2-fold  

Two  tripod  stands,  aluminium  telescopic 

Oae  brilliant  view  finder.. 

T\\o  hand  camera  view  finders    . 

12  albums,  assorted,  for  C.D.V.,  i-plate  •    cab 

and  i-plate     . .         . .          . 
Three  camelhair  brushes,  2  in. 
Six   Is.  handbooks  on  photography 
Three  each,  cutting  shapes,  C.D.V.,  i-plate    cab 

and  i-plate 

Three  boxes  dark-room  pins 

Six  bottles  6d.  mountant 

12  each  deep  porcelain  developing  dishes,  i-plate 

and   J-plate 

Six  ditto,  10  in.  by  8  in. 
Three  ditto,  12  in.  by  10  in.     . 
12  each  composite  celluloid  dishes,  i-plate  and 

i-plate 

Tiirec  metal  racks  and  tanks     '. 

Three  i-ach  folding  racks,  J-plate  and  i-plate 

'•«>  dox.   J-plates,  assorted  brands 

."•4  do*.   J-phite  ditto 

12  doz.   5  in.   by  4   in.   ditto 

'.'  iio/.    whole-plate  ditto 
If  doz    hint  ITU  plates      ..          '.'. 
lliree  yards  ruby  and  orange  fabric 
Six  Is.  ruby  lamps 


£ 

s. 

d. 

2 

2 

0 

3 

10 

0 

6 

0 

0 

8 

8 

0 

a 

0 

0 

2 

2 

0 

0 

'.) 

0 

1 

6 

6 

0 

3 

0 

0 

2 

fi 

0 

7 

0 

0 

4 

6 

0 

1 

0 

0 

8 

0 

:5 

10 

0 

8 

0 

0 

1 

16 

0 

8 

18 

0 

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14 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

16 

0 

f) 

8 

0 

1 

1 

0 

0 

8 

8 

0 

2 

G 

0 

is 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

6 

0 

0 

6 

3 

0 

1 

8 

0 

3 

0 

0 

17 

0 

0 

8 

8 

0 

6 

9 

0 

13 

0 

0 

4 

6 

0 

5 

8 

4 

10 

0 

6 

1 

a 

0 

19 

0 

1 

18 

3 

0 

12 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

6 

0 

SHOPKEEPINQ 


Three  4s  6d.  ruby  lamps 

Six  ruby  lamps,  assorted,  for  candle,  gas,  and  oil 

Three  hock  bottle  lamps . .         . .          .... 

Assortment  G.B.E.  mounts  for  C.D.V.,  J-plate, 

cabinet,  and  J-plate 

Assortment  slip-in  mounts  for  J-plate  and  J-plate 
Assortment    paste-down     mounts    for    J-plate, 

i-plate,  wlK>le  plate,  10  in.  by  8  in.,  12  in. 

by  10  in.  prints 
Assortment  fancy  mounts 
36    packets     J-plate     gelatine-chloride    paper, 

assorted  brands 
45  packets  cabinet  ditto 
18  packets  i-plate  ditto 
12  packets  whole-plate  ditto 
12  packets  J-plate  bromide  paper 
12  packets  i-plate  ditto 
Six  packets  whole-plate  ditto     .. 
Three  packets  each,  10  in.  by  8  in.,  and  12  in.  by 

10  in.,  bromide  paper 
One  packet  15  in.  by  12  in.  ditto 
Six  J-plate  wood  negative  boxes  for  50 
Four  j-plate  ditto 
Two  japanned  negative  boxes,  J-plate  and  i-plate, 

for  12 

Two  plate  and  print  washers 

12  each  J-plate  and  i-plate  printing  frames    . . 

Six  each,  5  in.  by  4  in.,  ditto  . . 

Three  whole-plate  ditto 

Six  print  trimmers 

One  blade  print  trimmer 

Three  zigzag  print  trimmers 

One  retouching  desk 

Three  retouching  sets 

Three  sets  hand  scales,  glass  pans 

Three  sets  pillar  scales,  ditto     . . 

Six  roller  squeegees,  4  in. 

Three  ditto,  6  in 

Three  each  J-plate  and   i-plate  glass  vignettes 
Assortment  of  plain  and  stoppered  bottles     . . 
Three  dropping  bottles 
Three  packets  each,  J-plate  and  i-plate,  backing 

Six  ferrotype  plates 


£    s.   d. 

0  13     6 
100 
030 

1  10     0 
100 


1   10     0 

0  15     0 

1  16     0 
250 
0  18     0 
0  11     6 
060 
0  13     0 
0  11     6 

100 
066 
090 
070 


Three  packets  masks  and  discs 

Six  assorted  lens  caps 

Two  each  J-plate  and    i-plate  cloud  negatives 

Two  rose  sprays 

Three  each  2  dr,  2  oz.,  and  20  oz.  measures    . . 

One  developing  sink 

Small  sundries 


5     5 

2  10 


0 
Q 
0 

0 

030 

086 

030 

060 

0  16  6 

060 

046 

070 


4  0 

5  3 
3  0 
7  6 


0  15     0 

010 


030 
020 


£100     0     0 

The  discount  on  this  estimate  would  amount  to 
between  £25  and  £30,  which  should  be  spent  in  the 
purchase  of  chemicals  from  the  list  which  follows. 

Photographic  Chemicals.  The  list 
below  shows  the  approximate  cost  and  retail 
price  of  the  chief  chemicals  used  in  photo- 
graphy, and  also  their  uses.  The  prices  do  not, 
as  a  rule,  include  the  bottles  in  which  the 
chemicals  are  sold.  Wholesale  photographic 
warehouses  supply  most  of  the  chemicals  bottled 
in  small  quantities  (1  ounce,  2  ounces,  and  4 
ounces),  which  is  a  convenience  to  dealers,  but  it 
is  cheaper  to  purchase  in  bulk  and  to  re-bottle 
into  smaller  containers  if  required.  There 
are  chemicals  used  in  photography  other  than 
those  given  in  the  list,  but  all  chemicals  have 
been  included  which  have  a  regular  sale  among 
amateurs  and  photographers.  The  chemicals 
should  be  kept  in  large  bottles  distinctly 
labelled,  so  that  no  mistakes  can  be  made.  The 
names  printed  in  italics  in  the  following  list  are 
alternate  designations. 

Put=up  Goods.  The  photographic  dealer 
will  require  to  keep  ready-made  developers  and 


NAMES,      COST      AND      USES      OF      THE      CHIEF      PHOTOGRAPHIC      CHEMICALS 

Name  of  chemical. 

Wholesale  price. 

Reta    price. 

Uses. 

Acetone 

Is.  6d.  Ib. 

3d.  oz. 

Instead  of  alkali  in  developer. 

Adurol             

Is.  8d.  oz. 

2s.  6d.  oz. 

Developer. 

Aluminium  powder  .. 

7s.  3d.  Ib. 

Is.  oz. 

For  flashlight. 

Alum,  powder 
Amidol 

Is.  for  7  Ib. 
Is.  8d.  oz. 

4d.  Ib. 
2s.  6d.  oz. 

Hardener  for  plates  and  paper. 
Developer. 

Ammonia,  880°          .  .           .  .     ... 

6d.  Ib. 

2d.  oz. 

As   alkali  in  developer. 

Ammonium  bromido 

3s.  Ib. 

6d.  oz. 

As  restrainer  in  developer. 

Ammonium  sulphoeyanida  .  .          .  .                   2s.  Ib. 

3d.  oz. 

Constituent  of  toning  bath. 

Benzol              1           Is.  6d.  pint 

2d.  oz. 

Solvent  for  wax. 

Borax 

5d.  Ib. 

Id.  oz. 

In  toning  bath. 

Calcium  chloride 

lOd.  Ib. 

3d.  oz. 

Siccative  for  platinum  paper. 

Cotton  wool 

Is.  4d.  Ib. 

2d.  oz. 

For  filtering. 

Eikonogen       .  .          .  .           't  . 

12s.  Ib. 

Is.  2d.  oz. 

Developer. 

Formaldehyde 

Is.  6d.  Ib. 

3d.  oz. 

Hardening  gelatine  films. 

French  chalk 

6d.  Ib. 

Id.  oz. 

Cleaning  glass  plates. 

Gelatine 

3s.  Ib. 

3d.  oz. 

As  mountaut. 

Glycin              

Is.  8d.  oz. 

2s.  6d.  oz. 

Developer. 

Gold  chloride 
Hydrochloric  acid  (Spirit  of  salt)      .  . 

Is.  8d.  for  15  gr.  tube 
6d.  Ib. 

2s.  tube. 
2d.  oz. 

Toning  sensitised  paper. 
Clearing   platinotypes. 

Hydroquinone  (Quinol) 
Iron  sulphate  (Green  vitriol) 

4s.  6d.  Ib. 
Is.    6d.    for    7   Ib. 

8d.  oz. 
Id.  oz. 

Developer. 
Platinotype  developer. 

Litmus  paper 

Is.  3d.  doz.  books 

2d.  a  book- 

Testing  for  acids  and  alkalies. 

Magnesium  ribbon    .  . 
*  Mercuric  chloride  (Corrosive  sublimate) 

21s.  Ib. 
3s.  6d.  Ib. 

Is,  i-oz.  coil 
4d.  oz. 

Flashlight  photography. 
Intensifying  solution. 

t  Methylated  spirit  (Alcohol)  .. 

2s.  8d.  gaL 

6d.  pint 

Drying  plates. 

Metol 

2s.  oz. 

3s.  oz. 

Developer. 

Ortol    .  . 

2s.  oz. 

3s    oz. 

Developer. 

Potassium  bichromate 

8d.  Ib. 

Id',  oz. 

In  carbon  process. 

Potassium  bromide 

2s.  4d.  Ib. 

3d.  oz. 

Restrainer  in  developer. 

Potassium  ferricyanide  (Red  prussiate 

Is.  lOd.  Ib. 

2d.  oz. 

Reducer. 

of  potash) 

Potassium  hydrate  (Caustic  potash) 

Is.  3d.  Ib. 

2d.  oz. 

As  alkali  in  developer. 

Potassium  metasulphite 

Is.  6d.  Ib. 

3d.  oz. 

Preserver  for  developer. 

Potassium  oxalate 

7d.  Ib. 

Id.  oz. 

Platinotype  developer. 

Pyrogallic  acid  (Pyro) 

9d.  oz.  (bottles  free) 

Is.  oz. 

As  developer. 

Pyrocatechin  (Catechol) 

30s.  Ib. 

2s.  6d.  oz. 

As  developer. 

Rodinal           .  .               Is.  3d.  oz. 

Is.  9d.  oz. 

Developer. 

Sodium  carbonate     .  .          .            .  .                  3d.  Ib. 

8d.  Ib. 

As  alkali  in  developer. 

Sodium  hyposulphite  (Hypo) 
Sodium  sulphite 
Sulphuric  acid  (Oil  of  vitriol) 
Water,  distilled         

9s.  6d.  cwt, 
5d.  Ib. 
6d.  Ib. 
3d.  gal. 

2d.  and  3d.  Ib. 
lOd.  Ib. 
Id.  oz.  (by  weight) 
6d.  gal. 

Fixing  plates  and  paper. 
Preservative  for  developer. 
Preserving  platinum  developer. 
Making  uo  developers. 

White  wax  (White  beeswax) 

2s.  6d.  Ib. 

3d.  oz.               i  In  encaustic  paste. 

*  Can  be  sold  only  by  chemists            t  Vendor  must  hold  a  licence 

4421 


8HOPKEEPING 

other  solutions  for  his  ouatomers.     Thrsi-  ™n  J>e 

bought  from  a  wholesale  dealer,  but  if  made  by 

th.-  retailer  y..-l«l  better  profits.      In  making  up 

dM.l'ed   water  should  be  used,  as 

lhl,  „,  eolation*     Good  corks  musl 

,  ,1.  and.  1  ,-f..rr  putting  them  into  the  bottles, 

.lu.ul.l  be  dipped  into  melted  paraffin  wax 

t,,  U.-.-P  il.nii  from  contact  with  the  solutions. 

The  bottles  should  be  preferably  of  some  dietanc- 

.-ind  if  nf  amber  colour  the  contents 

OJ  lik.-ly  to  be  miM.-krn  for  medicine.    Many 

photographic  solutions  are  poisonous,  but  it  is 

well  to  avoid  giving  the  impression  to  customers. 

k    ..f   printed    labels  should   be  bought, 

in-on   which  are  given  the  directions   and   the 

Dame  of  the  dealer.     These  cost  about  5s.  for 

md  are  cheaper  still  in  lots  of  -1,000. 

It    i*   fashionable  to  have   developer   in   the 

form    of    tabletH,    and    they    are   a  great   con- 

\rni.nee  when  travelling.    Most  of  the  whole- 

-npply  these,  and  will  put  the  dealer  s 

name   on   tlie    pa-ket    when   a   fair  quantity  is 

bought.     Branded  kinds  are   made  by  Powell, 

i       1 ),  velopoids,"  and  Burroughs  Wellcome 

.  all  theirs  "Tabloids."   To  use  these  tablets, 

tin  y  are  « rushed  to  pwder  in  a  little  water,  and 

the  necessary  quantity  of  water  added. 

Side  Lines.  It  is  becoming  increasingly 
popular  for  amateurs  to  hand  over  their  exposed 
plates,  or  films,  to  the  photographic  dealer  for 
development  and  subsequent  printing.  Some 
amateurs  do  their  own  development,  and  hand 
the  negatives  over  for  printing.  The  profits  are 
from  20  to  25  per  cent  on  fhis  class  of  work, 

Repairs  to  cameras  and  apparatus  should 
be  undertaken,  and  arrangements  made  with  a 
manuf}',' turer  for  promptness  in  carrying  out 
tlu^  \\oik.  Often  a  customer  needs  some  adap- 
tation. It  is  quite  usual  to  have  to  fit  film- 
holders  to  cameras  originally  made  only  for 
plates. 

The  hire  of  cameras  is  another  branch  of  the 
er*l   business.     A   few  good  cameras  accu- 
mulate   through    being   shop-soiled,  or  possibly 
by  ex<-hanp-  with  a  customer  requiring  a  new 
m -num. -nt.     The  cameras  should  be  in  perfect 
'•r«l.  r.  and  if  the  customer  is  unknown,  a  deposit 
up  t..  the  value  of  the  apparatus  should  te  in- 
I  upon.     The  charge  for  apparatus  is  5  per 
••  of  the  camera  per  week,  with 
a  minimum  of  5s.     The  charge  for  the  hire  of  a 
-ingle  day  should  depend  on  the 
i-  :  but  a' minimum  should  always 
I  <•  tixi-d.  ;>.-  the  eonvenienee  of  hiring  is  one  for 

"I'  mer  should  expect  to  pay. 

•M  >lides  an   let    nut   on   hire  at  many 
•'^n-phie  dealers,  «!•••  <  harge   for  the 
-lid.--*  I  «ing  from  Is.  to  2s.  per 
MI.  r  paying  carriage. 

I'i'-tun-  p"-t  ,  ,,t  by  many 

the    photographers;     biit- 

;v  I1'  my  in  high-clan 

*  -    e.-.ii    I,.    vUn.    ,,f    the    lest    class    of 

In  !• 

ming  N  suitable  f..r  this  business,  as 
photographic  enlargement  rally  incom- 

ritfioot  a  fi    •  •      •     I     •  ir    I  :.,mers]. 

Con 


Advertising.  The  photographic  business 
lends  itself  in  a  peculiar  manner  to  advertising. 
The  makers  of  plates  and  papers  supply  specimen 
photographs  taken  on  the  articles  of  their  manu- 
facture, and  very  beautiful  some  of  these  prints 
are  It  is,  however,  preferable  that  the  dis- 
played pictures  should  be  of  local  interest,  and 
if  the  photographic  dealer  be  a  practical  man— 
and  he  should  be— he  will  have  no  difficulty  m 
making  suitable  prints  for  display  in  window 
and  shop.  The  public  will  always  stop  and 
look  at  a  picture,  and '  they  are  much  more 
interested  if  it  is  of  a  familiar  scene,  or  of 
a  curious  out-of-the-way  subject.  A  label, 
"  Taken  with  our  two-guinea  camera,"  should 
be  affixed  to  suitable  specimens.  An  additional 
attraction  is  to  be  found  in  having  an  enlarge- 
ment of  unusual  size  in  the  shop.  Such  a 
specimen  could  be  designed  to  show  the  degree 
of  enlargement  that  photographs  taken  with 
a  certain  lens  will  bear,  or  it  may  be  A  specimen 
of  the  work  that  can  be  done  from  customers'  own 
negatives.  In  dressing  the  window  care  must 
te  taken  to  use  only  dummy  packets  of  plates 
and  paper,  which  can  be  obtained  from  the  manu- 
facturer. The  window  must  be  shaded  from  the 
sun,  as  the  coloured  leather  of  camera  bellows 
bleaches  if  exposed  to  bright  light  for  long. 

A  stereoscope  on  the  counter,  with  a  plentiful 
snpply  of  stereographs,  is  good  for  amusiug 
customers  who  are  kept  waiting,  and  a  selection 
of  the  newest  books  and  journals  on  photography 
should  be  placed  within  reach  of  the  amateurs 
who  frequent  the  shop.  Several  publications 
contain  lists  of  photographic  dealers  and  dark- 
rooms, and,  as  names  are  inserted  free  of  charge, 
there  is  no  reason  why  the  dealer  should  be  back- 
ward in  supplying  the  information.  "  Photo- 
gram"  supplies  an  outside  sign  for  dealers'  use, 
which  is  useful  in  places  where  tourists  are  found. 
If  there  be  a  local  photographic  society,  the 
secretary  should  be  asked  for  a  list  of  members, 
and  the  dealer  should  be  unceasing  in  sending 
each  member  price  lists  and  catalogues  of 
novelties.  Very  nicely  produced  catalogues, 
which  the  dealer  can  adapt  for  his  own  use,  are 
supplied  by  the  wholesale  houses,  and  bills  and 
folders  are  sold  by  those  who  specialise  in 
photographic  printing. 

Profits.  The  profits  are  good,  but  this 
should  be  qualified  by  the  statement  that  much 
soiled  stock  is  likely  to  accumulate  if  business  is 
not  brisk.  The  sale  of  such  stock  is,  perforce, 
done  at  reduced  rates,  and,  consequently,  is 
profitless  in  some  senses.  The  question  of 
branded  goods  is  one  which  troubles  the  photo- 
graphic dealer.  It  is  necessary  in  the  case  of 
plates  and  papers ;  but  the  extension  of  branded 
goods  to  the  details  of  the  business  should  be 
discouraged  as  much  as  possible,  as  branded 
goods  may  be  cut  in  price,  and  injure  the  profits 
considerably.  Price  protection  is  in  vogue  in 
many  photographic  articles,  and  the  profits  are 
thus  maintained.  On  apparatus  and  accessories 
33  J  per  cent,  profit  is  allowed,  varying  with  the 
kind  of  goods,  but  some  proprietary  articles 
allow  a  profit  of  only  10  to  15  per  cent. 
inved 


DRAWINGS  OF  ENGINE  DETAILS 

Cylinders.      Pistons.      Crossheads.      Connecting    Rods. 

Group  8 

DRAWING 
31 

Crankshafts.     Flywheels.     Eccentrics.     Valves.     Pumps 

continued  from 
page  4329 

By  JOSEPH   W.    HORNER 


Cylinders.  One  of  the  principal  detail 
drawings  of  an  engine  is  that  which  represents 
the  cylinder  or  cylinders.  Fig.  152  shows  a 
drawing  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder  of  a  com- 
pound engine  ;  the  bore  is  16  in.  and  the  stroke 
of  the  piston  is  36  in.  The  liner,  A,  is  cast  of 
harder  metal  than  the  cylinder  body,  and  is 
forced  into  place  by  hydraulic  pressure  ;  the 
space,  B,  between  the  liner  and  the  body  is 
frequently  used  as  a  steam  jacket — that  is,  live 
steam  is  admitted  to  the  space  in  order  to  keep 
the  temperature  of  the  liner  as  uniform  as 
possible.  Small  engines  are  not  usually  so  made, 


cylinder,  and  P  =  steam  pressure  in  pounds  per 
square  inch.  It  would  not  do  to  simply  calcu- 
late the  thickness  necessary  to  withstand  the 
bursting  effort  of  the  steam  pressure  ;  there 
must  be  sufficient  metal  to  ensure  rigidity  and 
to  stand  reboring  after  wear  has  taken  place. 

The  cylinder  ends  and  covers,  C  and  D,  are 
slightly  thicker  than  the  cylinder  walls  ;  the 
size  and  pitch  of  the  studs  or  bolts  which  secure 
the  cover  affect  its  thickness  to  some  extent. 
A  good  rule  is  to  make  the  cover  and  the  flange 
of  the  cylinder  1J  times  as  thick  as  the  cylinder 
itself,  then  the  studs  may  be  pitched  4^  diameters 


152.    ENGINE    CYLINDER 

but  the  cylinder  body  is  simply  bored  out  for  the 
passage  of  the  piston.  The  thickness  of  cylinder 
walls  and  liners  is  largely  determined  by  practice  ; 
it  is  seldom  less  than  f  in.  for  cylinders  up  to 
10  in.  bore  ;  above  10  in.  the  following  formula 
may  be  used : 

T  =  P— x  ?. 
3,000" 

where  T  =  thickness  required,  T)   -  diameter  of 


apart  for  steam  pressure  up  to  100  Ib. 
per  square  inch,  and  3£  diameters  apart 
up  to  160  Ib. 

The  diameter  of  the  cover-studs  is 
determined  by  calculating  the  load  upon 
the  cylinder  cover,  and  apportioning 
sufficient  area  in  the  studs  to  meet  the 
load ;  a  safe  stress  is  3,000  Ib.  per 
square  inch  of  stud  area.  Care  must 
be  used  in  taking  the  area  at  the  bottom 
of  the  thread  [see  Table  on  page  3005]. 
Studs  smaller  than  f  in.  diameter  are  not 
to  be  recommended  for  covers,  as  they  are 
liable  to  damage  in  tightening  up  with  an 
ordinary  spanner.  The  covers  of  small 
cylinders  are  made  with  a  single  sheet 
of  metal ;  for  medium  cylinders  this  sheet  is 
strengthened  with  ribs,  while  for  large  cylinders 
the  covers  are  made  hollow  with  internal  ribs. 

The  front  cover,  C,  is  cast  with  the  cylinder, 
and  has  a  stuffing-box,  or  gland,  fitted  for  the 
piston-rod  to  work  through. 

The  Valve=chest.  The  valve-chest  forms 
part  of  the  cylinder  casting,  is  of  sufficient 
size  to  accommodate  the  valves,  and  is  provided 
with  a  cover,  F,  and  stuffing-boxes,  G  and  H  ; 
the  box  G  is  for  the  main-valve  spindle,  and  the 

4423 


DRAWING 

II    for   th'1 

valve  spindle.  S  team  -ports, 

U  ami  K.  in  ai  ranged  from 

,-n.l   of   the   cylinder 

heat;     the 

ports  L  and  M  are  for  the 
The   area 

,>f  tin-  steam-ports  should 
be  such  that  the  steam 
does  not  flow  at  a  greater 
velocity  than  6,000  ft.  per 
minute,  while  the 
,.f  the  exhaust 
port  should  allow  a 
v  of  4,800  ft. 
per  minute  ;  the  cal- 
culation is  then  : 

Steam-port  area 
=  area  of  piston 
x  piston  speed  . 


153.  PISTON,  WITH  RAMS- 
BOTTOM  RINGS 


154.  PISTON 
BUILT  UP 


exhaust  port  area 

=  area  of  piston 

x  piston  speed 
4.so<) 

The  length  of  the  port 
—that  is,  the  dimension 
measured  at  right  angles 
to  the  length  of  the 
cylinder  —  is  usually 
three  -  quarters  of  .the 
cylinder  diameter,  and 
this  being  settled,  the 
width  of  the  port  is  easily 
calculated  from  the  area. 
The  wider  the  port  the 
greater  the  travel  of  the 
valve,  and  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  make 
t.he  port  as  long  as  the 
.Blinder  d;ameter  in 
order  to  restrict  the 
travel  of  the  valve. 

Steam  is  admitted  to 
the  valve-chest  by  the 
<>|x-ning  N,  and  exhaust 
leaves  by  the 
<«P«  mng  0,  both  of  these 
ajH-rtures  having  facings 
to  which  pipe  -  flanges 

ieCt. 

Mont    end   of   the 

'  i-  rapported  by 

d     of     the     main 

frame    casting  ;    a    foot 

takes    the 

Wi-iyht    of    U 

to  founda- 

• 

•f    tli«'   cyln 
Irain-eoek  for  the 
and     an 

inductor   >,,<  k    at 
nd. 

MM 


155.  SINGLE  SLIPPER 
CROSSHEAD 


156.  DOUBLE  SLIPPER 
CROSSHEAD 


159.  LARGE  END  OF 

oomn*  TWO  ROD 


160.  SMALL  END  OF 
(ONNECTING  ROD 


161.   FOR,. ED   DOT-KI.K  (  HANK 


162.    CRANK  DISC 


The  whole  cylinder  is 
lagged  and  finished  off 
neatly  with  sheet  steel,  a 
dished  casting  being  fitted 
over  the  back  cover. 

Clearance.  The  length 
of  a  cylinder  is  always 
slightly  greater  than  the 
stroke  plus  the  thickness 
of  the  piston  —  that  is, 
there  is  a  small  space 
allowed  at  each  end 
of  the  stroke.  This 
space  is  termed  clear- 
anc.e,  and  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to 
prevent  the  piston 
coming  into  contact 
with  the  cylinder 
covers  ;  it  should 
be  kept  as  small  as 
possible,  and  may 
range  from  ^  in. 
in  small  engines  to 
^  in.  in  large  ones. 
This  space  must  be  taken 
into  account  when  cal- 
culating the  amount  of 
steam  used  in  an  engine  ; 
the  same  remark  applies 
to  the  capacity  of  the 
steam  -  ports,  as  these 
have  also  to  be  filled  and 
emptied  at  each  stroke. 
The  total  clearance  space 
in  an  ordinary  engine  is 
usually  from  3  per  cent, 
to  6  per  cent,  of  the 
actual  volume  swept  by 
the  piston  in  its  stroke. 
Piston.  A  piston 
is  not  quite  such  a 
simple  article  as  would 
appear  at  first  sight,  and, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  there 
are  scores  of  different 
types  in  existence.  The 
simplest  form  is  shown 
in  153,  and  consists  of 
a  cast-iron  body  having 
three  rings  let  into  re- 
cesses ;  these  rings  are 
made  slightly  larger  than 
the  piston  body,  and  are 
then  cut  through  dia- 
gonally in  one  place  ; 
they  are  sprung  into 
position  on  the 
piston  and 
squeezed  into  the 
cylinder.  The 
effort  of  the  com- 
pressed rings  is 
to  expand  con- 
stantly, and  the 
resulting  pressure 
on  the  walls  of 
the  cylinder  makes 


the  piston  steam-tight.  These  are  known  as 
Ramsbottom  rings,  and  are  made  of  steel, 
but  cast  iron  wears  better.  When  made  of  the 
latter  metal  they  should  not  be  less  than  f  in. 
wide.  Another  form  is  shown  in  154,  which 
presents  a  larger  wearing  surface  than  153. 
There  are  two  rings,  toth  of  which  are  cut 
through  diagonally ;  a  large  spiral  spring  forces 
them  outward  to  make  them  steam-tight  against, 
the  cylinder.  Such  rings  cannot  be  sprung  into 
place,  so  the  piston  is  made  in  two  parts.  The 
body,  A,  is  a  hollowed  casting,  as  shown  in  154, 
and  a  loose  ring,  B,  termed  a  junk  ring,  is  secured 
to  the  piston  body  and  serves  to  keep  the  rings 
in  place.  The  depth  of  a  piston  may  be  from 
a  quarter  to  half  of  the  diameter  of  the  piston. 


DRAWING 

frame  135,  page  4203.  The  end  of  the  piston-rod 
is  swelled  up  to  receive  a  half  brass,  and  to 
accommodate  the  cap-bolts  of  the  other  half 
brass ;  provision  is  also  made  for  bolting  on  the 
cast-iron  slipper  which  runs  between  the  guide- 
bars.  The  cap  and  rod  are  of  mild  steel,  and  the 
slipper  is  easily  renewed  when  worn.  Fig.  156 
illustrates  a  heavier  type  of  crosshead  made  with 
double  slippers,  to  bear  on  double  guide-bars  ; 
reversing  engines  should  have  double  guides. 
Looking  at  the  diagram  [157],  and  considering  the 
engine  to  be  running  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow  A,  it  is  evident  that  both  the  piston-rod 
and  connecting  rod  are  in  a  state  of  compression 
during  the  outward  stroke  ;  there  is  consequently 
a  downward  force  acting  on  the  crosshead,  which 


163.    MAIN    BEARING 

The  diameter  of  the  piston-rod  may  be  calcu- 
lated by  the  use  of  the  formula: 


where       d  —  diameter  of  rod, 

D  —  diameter  of  cylinder, 

L  —  length  of  rod  in  inches, 

P  =  steam  pressure  in  pound?  per  sq.  in. 

The  attachment  of  the  piston  to  the  rod  is  usually 
made  with  a  taper  end  and  nut,  as  shown  in  153, 
but  the  taper  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  for  a 
parallel  neck  could  be  used  and  a  shoulder  or 
collar  provided  at  the  front  end.  A  good  taper 
is  \\  in.  of  diameter  to  12  in.  of  length. 

Crossheads.  Crossheads  are  made  in 
great  variety  ;  155  shows  a  single  slipper  cross- 
head,  such  as  might  be  applied  to  the  engine 


is  supported  by  the  guide-bar. 
Now  consider  the  return  stroke, 
as  shown  in  dotted  lines.  Here 
the  piston-rod  and  connecting 
rod  are  in  a  state  of  tension, 
and  consequently  there  is  again 
a  downward  force  on  the  cross- 
head.  In  fact,  so  long  as  an 
engine  runs  in  one  direction, 
the  pressure  on  the  guide-bar 
is  always  in  the  same  sense. 
If  the  engine  be  reversed,  then  the  direction 
of  the  force  on  the  crosshead  is  reversed, 
and  means  must  be  provided  to  support  it. 
The  example  given  [156]  is  in  general  the 
same  as  155,  but  the  slippers  are  larger,  and 
are  secured  to  the  forging  by  studs  and  square 
keys  as  shown. 

Adjustment  for  wear  is  made  by  means  of 
wedges  let  through  the  keys;  these  wedges 
are  moved  by  the  nuts  on  their  screwed  ends  ; 
the  main  bolts  have  lock  nuts  similar  to  those  in 
37  on  page  3007.  Crossheads  are  also  made  to 
work  in  circular  bored  guides,  the  slippers  being 
turned  to  suit. 

Connecting  Rods.  Fig.  158  shows  a  con- 
necting rod  of  marine  type  suitable  for  work- 
ing with  the  crosshead  illustrated  in  155.  The  end 

4425 


DRAWING 


164.   ENC1NE   FLYWHEEL 

is  forked  to  embrace  the  crosshead,  and  the  pin 
is  kept  from  turning  by  means  of  a  small  stop-pin, 
as  shown  ;  the  rod 
i-  circular,  and  is 
forged  with  a  head- 
piece to  take  the 
uun  metal  wearing- 
blocks.  These 
blocks  are  divided 
at  the  centre,  and 
are  held  together 
with  two  bolts 
passing  through 
them.  An  outer 
steel  cap  takes 
the  bending  move- 
ment due  to  the 
pull  on  tin-  rod. 
The  nuts  on  the 
bolts  are  similar 
to  37,  page  3007, 
but  the  steel  cap 


and  bottom  on  one  side  so  that  the 
*±M  brasses  may  be  put  in  place  sideways. 
'*$t\  The  example  160  is  used  for  the  cross- 
head  end  of  the  rod,  in  which  case  i 
enters  a  socket  in  the  crosshead  ;  it  is 
adjustable  by  means  of  a  wedge-block 
and  nuts,  as  shown.  The  crankshaft 
end  of  a  connecting  rod  is  termed 
the  large  end,  and  the  crosshead  end  is 
termed  the  small  end. 

Crankshafts.  The  Board  of  Trade 
rules  for  marine  crankshafts  are  as 
follows : 

Let  S  =  diameter  of  shaft  hi  inches. 
P  =  absolute  boiler  pressure. 
C  =  length  of  crank  in  inches. 
D  =  diameter  of  low-pressure  cylin- 
der. 

d  =  diameter  of   high-pressure  cy- 
linder. 
/  =  a  factor  depending  upon  angle 

of  crank. 

For    compound     condensing     engines     with 
cranks  not  overhung, 


PUMP  FLYWHEEL 


receives  the  locking  screw 
in  place  of  a  separate  collar  ;  in  small  engine  work 

isual  to  use  ordinary  double  nuts.  Connect- 
ing rods,  like  pieton-rods,  are  subjected  to  alter- 
nate tensile  and  compressive  loads.  As  they  are 
\\caki--t  in  completion,  they  are  designed  as 
-tint-  or  columns,  but  allowance  must  be  made 
tor  the  inertia  of  the  rod  itself,  and  this  factor — 

;.illy  in  high-speed  engines — makes  the  cal- 
culation quite  a  complicatt-d  one.  The  follow - 

•apirical  rule  due  to  Seaton  agrees  closely 
with  modern  practice  : 

I  I 
Diameter  ot   « -..nneet ing  rod  in  middle  =- 

where  I,       length  of  connecting  rod  in  inches 
and       K=  -03  x   N' load  on  piston  in  pounds. 
The  length  of  a  connecting  rod  is  usually  two  and 
a   half  to  three  times  the    stroke  of  the   piston. 
159  and    160  show    two    other    types    of 
connect  inu  rod    ends,  both  of    which   have  solid 
and   adju-tahle     hra--c-.      The     former     is 
adju-tahle  by  cottar,  and   ha-    a    I'abbitt    lining; 
the  flanges  of  the  brasses  are  left    oil   on  the  top 
4420 


The    valves    for  / 
may  be  taken  from 
-     the    table    on    the 
_  next  page. 
0         Ordinary    crank- 
^•j— «    shafts    with    over- 
hung   cranks    may 
be    calculated    for 
combined    bending 
and  twisting    in   a 
similar  manner   to 
the  example  given 
in  49  on  page  3135. 

166.  ECCENTRIC  Sadr'in^order^o 

save  weight  of    material ;    the    least    effective 
portion  of  a  shaft  is  the  central  part,  and  by 


VALVE    FULL   OPEN 
FOR    STEAM 


VALVE   CLOSED   FOR 
STEAM 


170.    VALVE   CLOSED  FOR 
EXHAUST 


removing  it  the  weight  of  the   shaft   is  dimin- 
ished in  a  greater  proportion  than  the  strength. 


Angle  be-    ") 
twcen  cranks  f 

90" 

110° 

i          ! 
120°    140°    160°  ,  180° 

I                     i  • 

Valve  for/   .. 

1047 

904 

1           '           i 
855     788     751      740 

1 

The  modulus  of  a  hollow  circular  section  is 
found  by  subtracting  the  moment  of  inertia 
of  the  inner  diameter  from  the  moment  of  inertia 
of  the  outer  diameter  and  dividing  by  the  radius 


DRAWING 

and  pin  may  be  separate  pieces,  in  which  case 
the  cranks  are  swelled  out  to  fit  over  the 
shaft  and  over  the  pin;  the  thickness  of 
metal  allowed  in  the  swelled  parts  should  not 
be  less  than  -4  of  the  shaft  diameter. 

Cast-iron  crank  discs  are  made  as  162,  the 
crank-pin  is  fitted  in  tightly,  and  the  end 
riveted  over  ;  the  metal  is  thickened  up  at 
the  side  opposite  the  pin  for  the  purpose  of 
balancing  the  connecting-rod  head. 

Main  Bearings.  An  example  of  an  en- 
gine main  bearing  is  given  in  163.  The  brass 
is  in  four  parts  so  as  to  permit  adjustm  nt 
all  round  the  shaft.  The  top  and  bottom 
parts  are  adjusted  in  the  usual  way,  but  the 
side  portions  are  set  up  by  means  of  a  taper 


FOOT  VALVE 


%  STUDS 


171.    AIR  AND   BILGE   PUMPS 


of  the  outer  diameter.     A  table  of  moments  of 
inertia  is  given  on  page  3134. 

Cranks  may  be  forged  with  the  crankshaft,  or 
they  may  be  separate  pieces  keyed  on  the  shaft. 
A  forged  cra-nk  is  shown  in  161  ;  it  is  generally 
machined  all  over,  and  the  ends  turned  in  the 
lathe  about  the  centre,  A.  The  diameter  of  the 
pin,  B,  is  usually  the  same  diameter  as  the 
shaft ;  the  width,  C,  is  one  and  a  quarter  times 
the  shaft  diameter,  and  the  thickness,  D,  is  three- 
quarter  times  the  shaft  diameter.  The  cranks 


block    and    screws,    as    shoAvn  ;    the    drawing 
explains  itself. 

Flywheels,  The  theory  of  flywheels  is  dis- 
cussed on  page  2018  in  Mechanical  Engineering. 
Fig.  164  shows  an  ordinary  flywheel ;  the  rim  is 
solid  and  is  arranged  with  pockets  round  the 
periphery ;  these  pockets  are  used  for  starting  the 
wheel  from  rest  when  the  engine  is  on  dead  points. 
The  appliance  which  effects  the  starting  is  termed 
a  barring  gear,  and  may  range  from  a  simple 
lever  to  a  separate  small  engine.  The  arms  of  the 

4427 


DRAWING 


thr 


run.     The 
on 


boss    has     wro 
vr  it   increased  strength. 


.—  areusedtogiverecip- 
ru«-itin"  motion  to  thr  valve-rods  on  an  engine; 
a  comm,n  —pie,  shown  in  166.  The  inner 
part.  or  Ibwve,  A.  is  keyed  to  the  shaft  t 
!,.„„,.  ,,f  tin-  sheave  does  not  coincide  with  the 
,,,,„,.  ,,f  thr  shaft  :  the  distance  apart,  B  ;o  !  the 
ts  half  a  stroke  of  the  strap  G, 
and  thr  re,  •,-ntricrod  is  bolted  up  to  the  end,  U. 
Hoth  strap  and  sheave  are  in  halves  for  con- 
venience of  rmrwal.  Imt  the  sheave  is  not  always 
in  halves;  thr  straps  must  be  made  so  on 
account  of  getting  over  the  register,  which 
keeps  it  sideways. 

Valves.  A  simple  D  valve  is  shown  in 
various  positions  of  stroke  in  167  to  170  ;  the 
stroke  of  the  valve  is  due  to  the  eccentric,  in 
167  thr  valve  is  just  open  to  steam,  the  piston 
is  at  the  beginning  of  its  stroke,  and  the  connect- 
ing rod  and  crank  are  in  a  horizontal  line—  that 
,  dead  centres.  The  exhaust  port  is  nearly 
full  open.  In  168  the  valve  is  full  open  to  both 
.  \haust  and  steam,  the  piston  is  travelling 
along  the  cylinder,  and  the  crank  is  at  45  deg. 

In  169  the  valvr  is  reversed  by  the  eccentric, 
and  has  closed  thr  steam-port,  the  piston  is 
moving  forward  under  the  influence  of  the 
expanding  steam,  and  the  exhaust  is  partially 
i  ;  the  crank  is  well  over  90  deg.  In  170 
th«-  .-xhau-t  i-  closed  and  thr  valve  is  moving 
to  open  steam  for  the  n  -verbal  of  the  piston 
Chore  an-  many  ty{>cs  of  valves  inruse, 
luit  their  duties  are  '  all  identical—  namely, 
to  regulate  the  flow  of  steam  and  exhaust  to 
and  from  the  cylinder  economically. 

Pumps.     An    air-pump    together    with    two 

pump*  are  shown  in    171.     The  air-pump 

l.ra-s.  though  not  necessarily  so,  and  the 

thiekne^s  of  its  walls  is  kept  down  to  a  minimum, 

The  piston  is  termed 

iiid  is  tilted  with  non-return  valves  for 

lift  'i  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  pump 

;   \\iih  separate  plates  carrying  similar 

valv>      The  l>ilt_'e-pumps  an-  of  heavier  metal, 

,\e  to  pump  against  a  head  ;   they  are 

Med  for  pumping  the  i>il<_'e-wat«T  from  steamships. 

plunder  displaces  a    volum'-  of   water  equal 

to  its    l.uik    -it   ea.-h  stroke.       Roth    bihie-pumps 

the    air-pump    are    driven    from     a    single 

crossl..  -ad.  op,  -rat.  •<!  by  the  air-pump  levers.      The 

pump  valv.-s  aie  simple  in  construction,  and 

.11  the  piping  connected  to  the  pumps. 
In    an    engine    litted    with   a   jet   condenser, 
•iiovc  the  condensed  steam, 

tl"  '  "  «  ond'-n-in-j  the  steam,  and  the 

;  I  with  the  water.     In  a  surface 

1  ""  "' 


tin-    aii -pump    mix- 
MOdeOMd    lU*m    ami  any  air  which  may  enter 

'"' <  '"'/"/ ;  followed  by  DRAWING  FOE  SHEET-METAL  WORKERS 


the  engine;  the  condensing  water  in  such 
cases  is  dealt  with  by  separate  pumps,  termed 
circulating  pumps. 

Size  of  Air=pump.     The  size  of  the  air- 
pump  for  a  condensing  engine  may  be  dete 
mined  by  the  following  rule  : 

Indicated  H.P. 
Volume  of  air-pump  =  -reys  per  min     - 

where  C=  700    for    single-acting  and    jet    con- 
denser, 
C  =  300     for    single-acting     and    surtace 

condenser, 
C  =  470     for      double-acting     horizontal 

pump  and  jet  condenser. 

Another  rule  is  to  make  the  capacity  of  the 
air-pump  one-twelfth  of  the  capacity  of  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder.  There  are  so  many  contin- 
gencies to  be  allowed  for  in  the  working  of  an 
air-pump  that  pure  theory  cannot  be  relied 
upon  in  the  design.  The  action  of  the  pump 
is  not  perfect  inasmuch  as  it  does  not  remove 
at  each  stroke  an  amount  of  water,  etc.,  equal 
to  its  capacity.  Ordinary  pumps  are  defective 
enough  in  this  respect,  but  air-pumps,  and 
particularly  vertical  ones,  are  very  inefficient. 
The  speed  of  the  pump  affects  its  efficiency  to  a 
great  extent ;  the  best  results  are  obtained  at 
a  bucket-speed  not  exceeding  200  ft.  per  minute  ; 
many  examples  are,  however,  to  be  found 
running  at  as  high  a  speed  as  450  ft.  per  minute 
at  a  lower  efficiency. 

The  limit  of  speed  is  that  at  which  the  water 
can  follow  the  bucket  and  so  provide  a  full 
barrel  for  the  next  stroke,  and  this  in  turn  depends 
upon  the  vacuum  maintained.  The  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  is  14-7  Ib.  per  square  inch,  and 
a  good  vacuum  is  2  Ib.  per  square  inch  ;  it  is 
not  possible  to  maintain  a  perfect  vacuum  in 
practice.  The  theoretical  velocity  of  water 
under  a  pressure  of  2  Ib.  per  square  inch  is 
1,025  ft.  per  minute,  but  it  would  not  do  to 
speed  the  pump  bucket  accordingly.  Allowance 
must  be  made  for  friction,  for  the  inertia  of  the 
water,  and  for  the  presence  of  air  and  gases  in 
the  water  ;  this  can  only  be  determined  by  prac- 
tice, and  the  speed  range  of  200  ft.  to  450  ft.  per 
minute  as  given  above  is  deduced  therefrom. 

Fouls.  It  will  be  noticed  upon  examination 
of  the  sectional  elevation  of  171  that  one  bucket 
valve  is  shown  dotted  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
stroke,  while  the  bucket  itself  is  shown  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  stroke ;  there  is  an  object 
in  doing  this,  and  one  which  must  be  ever  present 
with  the  designer  of  moving  machinery. 

Wherever  one  part  of  a  machine  moves  rela- 
tively to  another  part  it  must  be  drawn  in  its 
extreme,  and  sometimes  intermediate,  positions 
in  order  to  avoid  fouls.  All  the  various  move- 
ments must  be  carefully  plotted  on  paper 
beforehand  in  such  a  way  as  to  ensure  the 
complete  and  smooth  working  of  the  whole 
machine.  It  sometimes  happens  during  manu- 
facture that  through  an  oversight  in  the  drawing 
office  a  machine  cannot  complete  a  cycle  of 
movements  without  a  foul  of  some  nature. 


THE  EDITOR  &  HIS  PAPER 

The  Editor  of  a  Great  Newspaper.       Functions  and  Ideals  of 
Editing.    The  Editor's  Duties  to  His  Readers.   Office  Journalism 


Group  19 

JOURNALISM 


By  ARTHUR   MEE 


HTO  be  the  editor  of  a  great  newspaper  is  an 
achievement  of  which  any  man  may  well  be 
proud.  To  help  to  shape  the  opinion  of  a  nation 
or  to  entertain  it  in  its  leisure  hours  is  a  function 
which,  if  it  is  honourably  fulfilled,  rightly 
brings  a  man  esteem  and  fame.  There  is  not 
a  journalist  with  the  essence  of  journalism  in 
his  soul  who  would  not  rather  be  an  editor 
in  deed  than  a  prince  in  name. 

The  Ideal  Editor.  It  is  a  compelling 
theme,  the  business  of  the  man  whose  pen 
Napoleon  feared  more  than  30,000  bayonets. 
Nothing  could  be  much  more  interesting,  if 
we  had  space,  than  to  consider  it  in  its 
relation  to  life  and  affairs.  Nothing  could  be 
more  interesting,  and  nothing  could  be  more 
comprehensive.  For  the  editor  is  a  many- 
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wrong.  He  must  have  some  of  the  foresight 
and  something  of  the  delicate  craft  of  statesman- 
ship. He  must  have  the  ingenuity  of  the 
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and  he  must  weigh  great  problems  in  all  their 
bearings  as  if  he  were  a  jury.  He  must  be  able 
to  exercise  the  grave  care  of  a  doctor  who  hides 
the  truth  from  his  patient  for  his  patient's 
good  ;  he  must  know  exactly  what  to  say  and 
when  to  say  it.  He  must  have  the  soul  of  the 
artist  for  interpreting  and  revealing  the  meaning 
of  things  ;  he  must  be  moved  by  the  spirit 
rather  than  by  the  letter.  He  must  have  the 
imagination  of  the  poet  with  the  veracity  of 
the  scientist.  He  must  have  the  astuteness 
and  caution  of  the  diplomatist  when  a  crisis 
is  looming,  the  calmness  of  the  philosopher 
and  the  dignity  of  a  king  when  the  crisis  has 
come.  He  must  be  a  patriot  in  the  highest 
sense  of  patriotism,  with  a  love  for  his  own 
country  the  more  profound  because  he  loves  the 
human  race.  He  must  have,  all  this  is  to  say, 
far  more  than  an  average  share  of  the  qualities 
of  the  ideal  man. 

The  Ideal  Paper.  Somewhere,  far  away 
from  Fleet  Street,  is  such  an  editor ;  somewhere, 
farther  from  Fleet  Street  still,  is  his  ideal  paper. 

The  ideal  paper  is  the  story  of  men  and 
women.  That,  after  all,  is  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  papers.  It  is  the  business  of  a  paper 
to  compel  a  great  public  to  read  it,  and  the  ideal 
paper  comes  with  such  compelling  force  as  it 


can  find  in   the   simple,   human   story   of   the 
world. 

It  finds  its  interest  in  no  narrower  field  ; 
it  draws  its  drama  from  no  narrower  stage  than 
the  world  in  which  all  the  men  and  women  are 
actors.  It  tells  us,  week  by  week,  the  wonder- 
ful story  of  the  world  we  live  in — such  a  story 
as  bewilders  the  writer  of  fiction,  stranger  in 
its  truth  than  dreams,  more  startling  in  its 
reality  than  all  imaginings,  more  beautiful  in 
its  unfolding  than  all  the  poet's  thought.  It 
tells  the  story  of  men  and  women,  the  story  of 
a  man  and  a  maid.  "  It  cometh  unto  us  with 
a  tale  which  holdeth  children  from  play,  and 
old  men  from  the  chimney  corner." 

The  Editor's  Raw  Material.  So 
entrancing,  could  it  be  brought  before  us,  is 
the  history  of  our  own  times.  There  died  not 
long  ago,  unnoticed  in  our  papers,  an  old  woman 
in  a  country  poor-house,  lifting  the  veil  in  her  last 
moment  from  the  tragic  mystery  of  a  Royal  Court. 
There  was  carried  from  a  lowly  house,  not  many 
years  ago,  the  dead  body  of  the  president  of  a 
great  republic  which  has  never  known  the  truth 
of  his  strange  end.  There  passed  away  by  fire 
a  year  or  two  ago  a  beautiful  woman,  a  sister 
of  two  queens,  who  would  have  been  a  queen 
herself  had  not  a  king  broken  his  word  ;  there 
lives  still  a  woman  whom  the  same  king  loved, 
who  might  have  left  a  village  inn  for  a  German 
throne,  but  who,  instead,  came  in  a  boat  upon 
a  lake  one  day  to  see  her  young  king  drown. 
Almost  in  the  shadow  of  our  own  King's  castle 
lives  a  widow  who  sat  upon  the  throne  of  France. 
Not  an  hour's  journey  from  her  there  lay,  the 
other  day,  broken  in  fortune  and  at  the  door  of 
death,  a  widow  whose  winsomeness  split 
parties  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  dashed 
a  nation's  hope.  The  greatest  of  all  human 
stories  is  written  by  the  hand  of  Fate. 

The  Scope  of  the  Paper.  That,  as 
far  as  it  can  be  stated  in  a  word,  is  the 
keynote  of  the  ideal  paper.  It  is  human. 
It  is  true.  It  is  interesting  because  it  is  life. 
It  takes  account,  not  of  names,  but  of  things. 
It  is  planned  on  no  arbitrary  lines,  but  is 
fashioned  by  affairs  as  they  occur.  It  picks 
up  the  threads  of  romance  wherever  they  may 
be  found.  It»knows  neither  time  nor  place  ;  it 
gathers  its  story  from  the  ends  of  the  earth 
and  from  all  ages.  It  is  universal  in  its  scope. 
It  appeals  to  the  man  who  has  read  everything 
and  to  the  man  who  has  read  nothing.  It  is 
conducted  on  the  principle  that  nothing  interest- 
ing is  ever  old,  and  that  everything  human  is 
interestirg. 

It  believes  that  men  and  women  are  interested 
in  themselves  and  in  the  race.  It  realises  that 
the  most  wonderful  thing  in  the  world  is  the 

4429 


JOURNALISM 

world    itself  :   that    the    tin.**   we   know   least 
ahout  an-  the  tiling  of  which  we  wish  to  know 
most.     It    tinds   romance   in   the  sky  and 
bottom   of  the  M*.     It  does  what  in  a  paper 
lies  to  make  men  and  women  know  themselves 
It  tells  th-  rtory  of  all  the  great  discoveries  and 
inventions  that  an-  .-hanging  the  face  of  the  earth. 
\\V    l.vr    in    an    .-«#'   «'f    miracles         1   never 
han.ll,-   th,-   telephone  without  realising  that 
am  handling  a  mystery,"  Sir  William  Crookes 
has  told  us,  and  he  puts  well  the  truth  that, 
so  far  and  so  fast  has  the  world  moved,  that 
-eatest  mysteries  in  the  universe  are  almost 
mmmonplace.     We    lay   our   sixpence   on   t 
post-office  counter  and    think  nothing  of 

wires  which  will  convey  our  message 
Kdinburgh  to  St.  Ives  before  we  are  at 
th.-  bottom  of  the  street.  We  open  our  papers 
in  the  morning  as  carelessly  as  if  it  were  not  a 
min.rle  which  has  brought  to  our  breakfast- 
table  the  history  of  the  last  twenty-four  hours 
from  every  part  of  the  earth.  We  strike  a  match 
without  thinking  that  the  light  that  comes  is 
nothing  less  than  a  bit  of  sunlight  imprisoned 
in  the  earth  for  thousands  of  years.  We  switch 
on  the  electric  light  without  fear  and  trembling, 
playing  like  children  with  the  appalling  power 
of  which  science  knows  almost  nothing.  We 
pluck  a  rose  without  a  thought  of  the  unseen  and 
.silent  forces  which  have  wrought  so  beautiful 
a  thing. 

A    Human     Picture    of    the     World. 

The  romance  of  the  world  can  never  be  written, 

run  hardly  be  conceived.     But  such  threads  as 

ran  t>e  caught  the  ideal  paper  takes,  weaving 

th»-m  into  the  picture  of  our  day.    It  has  all  the 

faults  of  a  paper  made  in  haste  and  read  at 

leisure,  all  the  evidences  that  a  penny,  after  all, 

cannot  buy  everything.     But  it  is  an  enthusiastic 

make  up  the   best  magazine  of 

helpful  and  interesting  journalism  that  can  be 

secured    for    its    price.     It    makes   its    appeal 

to    all — from    the   smallest    child   who    would 

hear  a  story,   to  the  man  who  would   know 

what  new  thought  has  been  spoken,  what  new 

height   in  science   has   been    reached,   what   is 

happening    in    any  part  of  the  world  that  will 

its  mark  on  history.    Nor  does  it  ignore  the 

prohl.-nis  of   life.      Every  issue  of  it   discusses 

some  serial  .subject  of  interest  to  the  individual 

'he    home.     It   strives   to   bring  the  best 

thoughts  to  bear  on  the  best  topics  of  the  day; 

1  t  he  1 1  ut  h  as  well  as  the  romance  from 

iffaire  of  the  world  ;  to  keep  itself  abreast 

of  all  that  hapjK-ns  that  an  intelligent  man  or 

\\oman  should  know,  to  be,  from  beginning  to 

ui'l  helpful  and  true. 

'I'll"  '"  i  human  pit  tine  of  the  world, 

beating  with  the  lives  and  thr  hearts  of  men. 

It  i-  the  paper  of  a  dream,  the  dream  of  every 

ik,-.    How  near  sometimes  we  get 

lime*  we  are,  is  a  good 

or  ill  fortune  d.  -pendent  on  many  things  within 

without    the    editor's    control.      It    is    not 

•I'd    in    tin.    OOOfM,    ner, -^arily    brief    and 

.    and   in   no   sense   exhaustive,   to  go 

into  nil   the  que-tions  that   eonir  to  the  mind 

tth-n    we    meditat.-    up  m    editors    and    papers. 

uao 


Those  who  have  read  so  far  will  have  formed 
some  conception  of  what  we  hold  journalism  to 
be  •  those  who  have  reached  this  stage  in  actual 
journalism  will  need  no  advice  here  as  to  how 
to  advance  still  further.  All  that  we  need  attempt 
is  a  brief  consideration  of  one  or  two  practical 
matters  concerning  the  editor  and  his  staff. 

Good  Copy  and  Bad.  The  editor  must 
not  succumb  to  the  temptation,  so  strong  in 
these  days,  to  think  more  of  the  machinery  of 
his  paper  than  of  its  readers.  The  story  of 
how  he  obtained  a  piece  of  news  may  be 
interesting,  and  in  some  cases  it  may  be  quite 
legitimate  to  tell  it ;  but  the  chief  matter  is  the 
news  itself,  and  not  the  getting  of  it.  It  is,  of 
course,  important  sometimes  to  know  the  source 
from  which  news  comes,  but  the  talk  about  these 
things  has  come  to  be  more  of  a  desire  to  advertise 
the  paper's  machinery  than  to  satisfy  the  public 
as  to  the  authority  of  the  news,  and  in  so  far  as 
this  is  its  object,  all  display  is  to  be  condemned. 
Waste  of  space  is  one  of  the  unpardonable  sins. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  popular  delusions 
is  that  editors  are  gasping  for  something  to  put  in 
their  papers.  The  difficulty  at  the  last  moment 
is  always,  "  What  can  we  leave  out  ?  " 

That  question  must  be  decided  by  the  editor, 
who  knows  his  readers.  He  will  probably  decide 
to  leave  out  the  thing  that  interests  the  least 
number,  although  this  may  not  always  be 
so.  He  will,  at  any  rate,  leave  out  the  non- 
essentials  first.  His  whole  purpose  in  leaving  out 
news  will  be  to  sacrifice  as  little  of  the  general 
interest  of  his  paper  as  possible.  Only  long 
experience  of  editing  can  help  him  here,  but  he 
should  have  no  difficulty  in  deciding  what  copy 
is  good,  and  what  copy  is  bad.  An  editor  con- 
fesses his  own  weakness  when  he  publishes  long 
accounts  of  trivial  things,  or  allows  anybody  who 
has  nothing  better  to  do  to  occupy  his  space  by 
writing  silly  letters.  The  standard  of  letter- 
writing  in  papers  is  much  too  low,  and  it  is  simply 
bad  journalism  which  enables  a  man  to  become 
notorious  by  writing  letters  about  gravestones 
when  he  has  nothing  to  say  about  them  that 
matters  to  anybody. 

The  Chief  Figure  in  the  Editor's  World. 
The  editor  is  safe  from  these  temptations  if  he 
remembers  that  the  most  important  person  in  all 
the  world  to  him  is  the  reader  of  his  paper — not 
the  advertiser,  not  the  proprietor,  not  the  man 
with  a  log  to  roll  or  an  axe  to  grind,  but  the  man 
who  buys  his  paper  to  read  it. 

One  of  the  worst  enemies  of  journalism  is  the 
proprietor  or  commercial  manager  of  a  paper, 
usually  calling  himself  the  managing-editor,  who, 
knowing  nothing  about  a  paper  save  that  it 
prints  advertisements,  dictates  to  the  editor 
how  he  shall  edit.  The  last  person  in  such  a  man's 
mind  is  the  reader  of  the  paper.  One  of  the  best 
of  these  managing-editors  that  we  have  known 
once  refused  to  order  the  report  of  a  speech  by 
Mr.  John  Morley,  owing  to  a  dispute  between  his 
paper  and  a  certain  press  agency.  It  was  nothing 
to  him  that  he  was  withholding  from  his  readers 
something  it  was  his  duty  to  give  them,  some- 
thing the  great  majority  of  them  expected  to  see 
when  they  opened  the  paper ;  it  was  everything 


to  him  that  he  should  spite  the  face  of  the  press 
agency — even  by  cutting  off  his  own  nose. 

The  Morality  of  Editing.  Somebody 
will  write  a  book  some  day,  perhaps,  on  the 
morality  of  editing,  and  it  will  contain  many 
examples  of  this  kind.  It  will  also  publish  a 
copy  of  an  announcement  in  a  provincial  morn- 
ing paper  that  "  in  attending  meetings,  etc., 
preference  will  be  given  to  those  fixtures  adver- 
tised in  our  business  columns."  It  will  print 
such  letters  as  that  written  by  the  manager 
of  a  well-known  evening  paper  in  reply  to  a 
publisher  who  had  sent  him  books  for  years, 
and  had  had  no  reviews.  The  publisher  wrote  to 
ask  if  the  paper  wished  him  to  continue  sending 
the  books,  and  the  manager  replied  that  his  news- 
paper believed  in  the  old-fashioned  principle 
of  quid  pro  quo,  and  as  the  publishers  did  not 
advertise  in  it  they  got  no  reviews."  These  are 
the  things  which  distress  the  journalist  who 
conceives  it  his  duty  to  be  a  faithful  recorder 
of  news,  and  to  keep  his  readers  well  informed 
about  literature  ;  but  they  are  done,  let  us 
remember,  not  by  journalists,  but  by  men  to 
whom  a  newspaper  is  a  thing  for  advertising  pills. 

The  good  editor  knows  every  man  on  his  staff, 
He  knows  where  to  turn  when,  late  at  night,  he 
wants  a  leading  article  quickly,  a  special  intro- 
duction to  some  important  event,  or  a  sketch  of 
somebody's  career.  He  knows  the  man  on  whom 
he  can  rely  for  initiative,  for  descriptive  power, 
for  getting  hold  of  people,  for  evolving  theories, 
and  following  them  up.  And  if  the  good  editor 
knows  his  man,  the  good  journalist  knows  his 
editor.  He  knows  his  editor's  point  of  view,  under- 
stands his  purpose,  and  responds  to  it. 

The  Men  an  Editor  Likes.  The  news 
editor  of  a  newspaper  with  a  reputation  for 
enterprise  throughout  the  world  has  written  for 
the  SELF-EDUCATOR  his  conception  of  the  kind  of 
men  an  editor  likes  to  have  about  him.  He  says  : 

"  The  sub-editor  needs  a  good  education,  and 
especially  a  sound  knowledge  of  spelling ;  a 
catholic  and  quick  judgment  as  regards  the 
value  of  neAvs,  and  a  clear  conception  as  to  the 
most  interesting  form  in  which  the  news  is  to 
be  printed  in  his  paper.  He  should  be  well 
informed  generally — an  ordinary  school  or 
college  education  is  adequate,  coupled  with  a 
close  study  of  newspapers,  whereby  he  assimilates 
the  events  of  the  day  He  should  have  a  keen 
recollection  of  occurrences  in  the  past,  immediate 
and  more  remote,  an  unfailing  memory  for 
names,  a  sound  judgment  as  to  '  possibilities  ' 
in  the  reports  which  reach  him.  Shorthand  is 
useful,  but  not  vital 

"  The  older  sub-editing  is,  for  the  most  part, 
the  abbreviation,  the  punctuation,  and  the  check- 
ing of  reports  sent  to  the  office,  either  telegraphed 
or  written  ;  the  newer  sub-editing — for  instance, 
of  the  ultra-modern  papers — requires  extensive 
rewriting  and  constructive  reproduction.  All 
this  can  be  acquired  by  practice.  Patience, 
however,  is  necessary,  method  essential,  and 
discretion  vital.  Only  by  the  possession  of 
these  qualities  by  its  sub-editorial  staff  can  a 
paper  attain  a  high  standard. 


JOURNALISM 

"  While  a  sub-editor  should  have  a  general 
knowledge  of  newspaper  work  and  an  all-round 
education,  he  should  at  least  know  one  modern 
language,  preferably  French,  and  should 
specialise  on  one  subject — for  instance,  medicine. 
Finally,  he  should  never  be  above  verifying  a 
reference  or  checking  a  quotation.  And" in  his 
spare  time,  if  he  has  any,  let  him  make  himself 
familiar  with  events  outside  his  office.  The  best 
sub-editor  is  always  a  '  man  of  the  world.'  He 
knows  the  public  pulse  and  the  public  taste,  and 
can  better  estimate  thereby  the  specific  value 
to  be  attached  to  specific  news. 

"No  one  unless  possessed  of  strong  physique 
should  become  a  sub-editor.  The  work  is 
sedentary,  and  the  strain  on  the  nervous  system 
severe.  There  are  always  openings  for  good 
men.  But  it  is  essentially  routine  newspaper 
work,  which  only  needs  ordinary  intelligence, 
rightly  trained ;  and  few  persons  of  special 
genius  ever  devote  themselves  to  it  for  long, 
for  it  offers  no  opportunities  for  ambition,  and 
exercises  a  numbing  influence  on  its  votaries." 

Office  Journalism.  We  can  now  leave 
office  journalism.  We  have  considered  all  too 
briefly  the  work  of  a  newspaper  journalist, 
from  the  moment  he  makes  up  his  mind  to 
become  a  journalist  to  the  time  he  becomes  an 
editor  ;  and  we  have  now  to  consider  that  wider 
field  in  which  journalism  ceases  to  be  a  profession 
and  is  open  to  all  the  world.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  discuss  the  thousand  and  one  duties  of  an 
editor,  which  the  journalist  must  learn  for  him- 
self. We  have  said  nothing  of  the  salaries  paid 
in  a  newspaper  office,  because  it  is  impossible  to 
give  any  figures  which  would  not  be  misleading 
in  some  cases.  The  apprentice  who  enters  the 
reporters'  room  may  begin  with  a  few  shillings  a 
week,  and  rise  until  at  the  end  of  his  apprentice- 
ship he  receives,  perhaps,  16s.  or  £1  per  week. 
In  an  ordinary  town  he  may  then  receive  a  salary 
of  £2  or  £3  a  week  as  either  reporter  or  sub- 
editor ;  or  in  a  large  town,  such  as  Manchester  or 
Birmingham,  a  salary  of  £5  or  £6  a  week.  The 
custom  is  growing  of  paying  reporters  according 
to  the  work  they  do  instead  of  a  fixed  salary, 
and  this  custom,  often  adopted  in  London,  is 
preferred  by  some  reporters.  In  this  way  a 
reporter  may  earn  as  much  as  £10  or  £15  in  a 
week  if  he  is  fortunate.  In  any  case,  if  he  is 
a  good,  reliable  man  he  can  always  be  sure  cf 
a  living  income  in  London.  Necessary  expenses 
are  always  allowed.  A  sub-editor's  salary  is,  of 
course,  fixed,  and  may  be  anything  in  London 
from  £4  to  £10  a  week. 

Whether  as  reporter,  sub-editor,  leader  writer, 
musical  or  dramatic  critic,  special  correspondent, 
or  in  any  other  capacity,  the  journalist  will  find 
opportunities  for  distinction  inside  the  news- 
paper office.  Office  journalism  has  its  drawbacks. 
It  involves  long  hours,  and  leaves  a  man  little 
freedom  of  movement.  But  it  has  abundant 
compensations,  and  he  may  look  forward,  if  he 
is  strong  and  willing  and  enthusiastic,  with  the 
certainty  that  he  will  have  plenty  of  opportunity 
of  putting  into  his  work  the  best  that  is  in  him. 
Continued 


4431 


Group  20 

LEATHER 

12 

noon  *»D  »M"H» 


TOP -MAKING 

The  Machines  and  Processes  in  Factory  Practice.     Click- 
ing,   Machining",     Skiving,     Buttonholing    and    Finishing 


By  W.  S.  MURPHY 


Cutting  Tops.  Machinery  is  not  much 
us.-d  in  tin-  cutting-rooms  of  factories  producing 
•  -lass  boots.  The  matter  has  often  been 
debated  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  because  on 
tin-  otlu-r  side  cutting  machines  are  largely  used. 
American  methods,  however,  differ  largely  from 
Kor  our  own  trade  the  subject  may  be 
lered  in  this  way.  Leather  is  not  like  a 
wdi  of  doth,  the  uniform  quality  of  which  can 
be  depended  on.  A  web  of  cloth  is  the  same 
breadth  and  thickness  throughout,  and  one  web 
is  exactly  like  another.  On  the  other  hand,  no 
tuo  hide's  of  leather  are  similar  in  every  respect, 
and  qualities  vary  indefinitely,  even  in  the 
same  class  of  stuff.  In  cutting  up  leather,  the 
selective  eye  cannot  be  dispensed  with. 

Cutting   by    Machinery.      If   a  man  is 
prepared  to  risk  defects  and  incur  a  large  per- 
-ije  of  waste,  he  may  go  in  for  cutting  by 
machinery.     Under  special  circumstances,  per- 
haps, the  loss  in  waste  is  balanced  by  the  saving 
in  wages,  for  machines  in  this  department  do 
effect  enormous  savings  in  labour.  Working  with 
cheap  leathci,  for  a  coarse  trade,  the  manufac- 
turer may  find  cutting  by  machinery  a  paying 
Business  ;  but  with  leather  costing  about  3s.  per 
II).  all  over,  and  buyers  scanning  every  fibre  for 
damage,  hand-cutting  is  the  safest  and  the  best. 
The  Clicker.     The  dicker,  as  we  name  the 
utter,  has  a  bench  space  all  to  himself,  and 
iai  floss  of  boot  to  cut.    In  a  factory  pro- 
'»U'  for  an  all-round  trade,  clickers  are  ranged 
in  i -lasses  or  sections,  one  section  cutting  for  the 
dc|,irtm<-nt,  another   for  the  girls', 
•  t  for  tin-  women's,  for  the  boys',  for  the 
t<  >r  t  he  fancy  departments.   Some  large 
ive  over  ;v  hundred  clickers  working, 
divided   into  sections  varying  in  number  from 
••••rdiML'  to'  t'n.-  class  of  trade  or 
system  of  management.    When  it  i>  mm -inhered 
•li-  tops  of  a  pair  of  hatf-gcloahed  Balmoral 
••:••  pieces,  including  linings,  the 
of    division    and    subdivision    are 
ol>\  i 

ClicKing  a   SKilled   Craft.     Clicking  in 

th-    factory   differs    little    from    top-cutting   for 

boot.     The  clicker  is  a  handi- 

'ii"d  to  sho\v  special  skill 

within   v.-ry   n.,rrow   timite.      He  should  be  able 

the  different  --la^so.  kinds,  and 

His  duty  in  to  detect  <|. 

">d  plan  to  cut  out  of  the 

in   the   moM    economical    manner   po-iUe 

'•'"•k"'  vh"  thet  i-  certain  to  be 

unemployed   more   fr.-.|1n.M,|v   than 

We  have  already  shown  a 

t    the  kinds  and  patterns  of  leathers 

•i  for  th.-  hoot    trade   in  this 


country,  illustrating  the  distinguishing  qualities 
of  each  [see  Plate  facing  page  3217]. 

The  ClicKer  at  Work.  Now,  let  us  get  to 
work.  Knives  [29,  page  3875]  are  the  clickers' 
tools,  and  he  must  keep  them  in  good  condition. 
The  slightest  roughness  on  the  blade  may  mean  a 
ragged  edge  on  the  leather  just  at  that  point 
where  it  has  been  cut  neat.  A  properly  organised 
factory  gives  out  work  cards,  with  the  details 
of  the  particular  job  specified.  Suppose  that  our 
work  card  contains  the  order  for  a  dozen  of 
half-goloshed  Balmoral  boots,  of  first-class 
quality.  The  quarters  are  to  be  the  best  calf -kid, 
the  golosh  and  vamps  French  calf,  and  the 
facing*  and  toecaps  patent  or  enamel  leather. 
Having  selected  the  pieces,  we  next  go  to  the 
pattern  file,  and  take  off  the  set  of  patterns 
proper  to  the  size  of  boot.  Before  beginning  to 
cut,  plan  out  the  stuff ;  a  little  forethought  may 
save  the  leather  of  a  pair  of  tops.  When 
assured  that  the  most  has  been  made  of  the 
material,  take  the  patterns  and  carefully  cut 
cleanly  and  swiftly.  Mind  the  corners.  If  the 
points  have  been  well  cut,  every  piece  will  come 
away  as  cleanly  as  if  it  had  been  struck  by  a  die. 
Ragged  ends  give  you  more  work,  or  somebody 
else  has  to  lose  time  in  rectifying  the  defect. 

Linings.  The  linings  and  other  accessories 
are  similarly  gathered.  For  light  boots  of  the 
best  quality  fine  leathers  are  sometimes  used  ; 
but  good  drill  serves  the  purpose  quite  well. 

Small  Machines.  We  have  said  that 
machinery  is  not  wholly  debarred  from  the 
clicking-room.  Tongues,  toecaps,  and  the  other 
small  additions  are  generally  cut  by  machines 
worked  by  boys.  Neat  little  things  those 
machines  are.  Here  is  one,  looking  very  like  a 
sewing  machine,  and  it  is  used  for  cutting  out 
and  perforating  toecaps,  cutting  and  scolloping 
button-flaps,  and  such  purposes  [47].  Another 
little  machine,  equally  interesting  and  efficient,  is 
the  tongue  and  backstrap  cutter.  The  knives  can 
be  adjusted  to  any  angle,  and  scraps  of  leather 
pas^-d  through  come  out  well-shaped  tongues. 
The  backstraps,  of  course,  are  of  good  leather  ; 
but  the  pieces  may  be  useless  otherwise,  and  the 
machine  makes  them  into  fine  straps  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye.  As  there  is  nothing  to 
learn  in  these  machines,  elaborate  study  of  them 
i>  needless.  Any  lad  brought  in  from  the  street 
•  an  be  taught  to  work  them  in  a  very  short  time. 

\Ve  iratlii-r  together  our  stuff,  and  bundle  it 
up,  each  part  separately,  and  hand  along  to  the 
inspecting  department.  Thence  the  tops  pass 
into  the  machine-room,  and  begin  the  journey 
towards  the  destined  end. 

The  conditions  under  which  clickers  work 
are  usually  very  good  and  healthy,  light  and 


LEATHER 


ventilation  being  p 
purely  economic  mo 
but  not  very  well  pi 
Patterns  and  M 
material  is  elaborat 
patterns.     The  patl 
trouble,  and  materu 
rests  the  efficiency 
He  it  is  who  gives 
which  he  must  cut  s 
Thousands    o 
piece  of  stiff  paper 
[see  30,  page  4015]. 
For  every  part  of 
every  size  and  class 
of  boot  there  is  a 
pattern.      In    this 
way    the   pattern- 
maker    seems     to 
have      plenty      of 
work  before  him  ; 
but    that     is    not 
all.      New    shapes 
are  being   devised 
every  week,  and  a 
factory    producing 
for    a    high  -  class 
shop  trade   has    a 
thousand    or    two 
special      measures 
coming     in    every 
week.     No  decent- 
sized    factory   can 
get  along  with  less 
than  ten  thousand 
different  patterns, 
and    these    dupli- 
cated  as  required 
by  the  number  of 
clickers    employed 
on    each    class    of 
work. 
Wh  e  n  .  a    new 

rovided  by  employers  from 
tives.     The  work  is  pleasant, 
kid 
Measurements.   Wherever; 
ely  cut  out,  there  must  be 
,ern  everywhere  saves  time, 
1.1.     Upon  the  pattern-maker 
of  the  whole  boot  factory. 
5  the  clicker  the  shapes  to 
ill  the  parts  of  the  boot-top. 
Shapes.     A  shape  is  a 
cut  to  a  given  form  and  size 

a  common  standard  almos 
bility.    In  the  course  of  exp 
approximation  has  been  at 
ready-made  boot  has  a  cha 
Factory  managers  assert 
boot  fits  the  average  foo 
average  hand-made  boot, 
misfit,  the  margin  of  erro 
reduced  to  a  minimum  by 
of  sizes. 
Measurements.    Th< 
of  measurements  and  note 

t  a  matter  of  impossi- 
?rience,  however,  a  fair 
rived  at,  and  now  the 
ace  of  being  a  good  fit. 
that   the  ready-made 
t  just  as  well  as  the 
and  does  not  so  often 
r  in  the  former  being 
the  scientific  grading 

5  tables  [see  pago  4435] 
^s  have  been  compiled 
from  the  experience 
1   of  one  of  the  largest, 
1    if  not  the  largest, 
J!   boot    factories    on 
U   this    side    of    the 
Atlantic.    Based  on 
a  long  and  wide  ex- 
perience, we  think 
they    are    reliable 
and,  in  some  ways, 
unique. 
Machining 
the   Boot  =  tops. 
This  department  of 
the    boot    factory 
has      been      taken 
possession    of 
almost   wholly    by 
the  fair  sex.     Nor 
can  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  in- 
dustry be  said  to 
have    suffered    on 
that    account.     It 
has      been     calcu- 
lated, from  every- 
day      experience, 
that,    in    a    well  - 
equipped    factory, 
the  girls  employed 
in  top-making  turn 
out,  on  the  average, 
iorty  pairs  of  tops 
per      head      every 
week.     Machines 
driven  at  enormous 
speed  perform  the 
work.      For    every 
little  detail  there  is 
a  machine  or  group 
of  machines.     Yet 
skill      and       keen 
attention    are    de- 
manded   from    the 
women  workers. 
Skill     Re  = 
quired.      The 
machines    are    not 
automatic.  A  fairly 
good   idea    of    the 
ability    required 
may    be    gathered 
from  the  domestic 
sewing  machine.  It 
is    a   curious   fact, 
and  worth  noting, 
4433 

*  ¥  ¥  *  ¥  * 

•  •  ,x-  »  .\'  • 

M:-:  *:•:*_:;: 

>:>:•:•:  *:•:•:•'« 

X  •  X  •  X  •  X  *  X  •  X  • 

. 
,  •'•  '"                                                          '     •' 

.       ...+.+ 

;;•;••;••;•:•;• 

A  A  A  A  A  A  A  A  J 

,A    A    A    A    A    A    A    ' 

or  a  new  style  of 

+  1  +  1  +  1  +  I  + 

the  pattern-maker 
has     to     calculate 
how  much  of  the 
total  area  of  sur- 
face     represented 
by  these  measure- 

*»   *  '*•»   *«<*••*  ^   *  «  ' 

•••*•••••« 

portioned  to  each 
part  of   the  boot. 
These  proportions 
are  determined  by 
the  design   of  the 
boot. 
The     Fit      of 
Factory  Boots. 
Measurements     in 
the    boot    factory 
have  been  a  source 
of    great    trouble. 

the  proportions  of                     47    STYLES  OF  LEATHER  PERFORATIONS 
feet  making  fit   by                                       (B.  u.  Shoe  Machine  Co.,  Leicester 

15                          *7                                                                                                C, 

LEATHER 

,hat  all  our  Loot-top  machinery  has  been 
:i,-il  ..i»  the  principle  of  the  sewing  machine. 
ttUnerOOfl  ami  dainty  details  of  boot-top 
makiiu.'  lend  themselves  to  that  particular 
nu-thod  of  treatment.  At  the  present  time  the 
•  probably  unique  in  this  respect.  Instead 
:,inir  th«-  tools  and  forming  them  into  an 
automatic  group  scarcely  recognisable,  as  he  has 
done  in  other  industries,  the  inventor  simply 
took  the  tools  of  the  boot-top  maker  and  put 
thrm  into  machinery,  so  that  they  might  be 
mcc  hank-ally  driven  at  more  than  human  speed. 
Variety  of  Machines.  This  fact  has  lent 
itself  to  another  development  which  may  be 
confusing  to  the  student  of  the  trade.  Because 
the  needle,  the  awl,  the  punch,  the  knife,  and  the 
ha  miner  are  the  common  property  of  the  human 
race,  it  is  open  to  anyone  to  gear  them  on  to 
driving  inventions,  with  the  result  that  there  are 
many  different  machines  for  every  conceivable 
detail  of  boot  making,  and  for  some  parts  the 
number  runs  into  high  figures.  After  having 
mastered  one  machine  in  a  factory,  the  worker 
may  find  herself  confronted  by  a  form  of  machine 
utterly  unfamiliar.  This  need  cause  no  dismay. 
The  difference  is  more  apparent  than  real,  and 
in  a  few  hours,  or  at  most  days,  the  new  machine 
will  have  become  as  familiar  and  easily  worked 
as  the  old. 

Skiving.  When  making  boots  by  hand,  we 
saw  how  carefully  the  pieces  to  be  joined  were 
thinned  off,  so  as  to  make  the  point  of  contact  as 
unobtrusive  as  possible.  In  the  factory,  skiving 
is  even  more  imperatively  required,  because  neat- 
ness is  one  of  the  special  merits  of  machine  pro- 
duction. The  skiving  blade  [see  31,  page  4017], 
which  is  all  that  we  need  attend  to,  is  a  flat  piece 
of  sharp  steel  set  horizontally  on  a  spindle  work- 
ing above  an  automatic  feed.  Lay  in  the  vamp, 
and  immediately  the  edged  disc  begins  to  shave 
away  the  leather.  Almost  while  you  look  the 
work  w  done.  The  circular  blade  runs  at  the 
rate  of  J.OOO  revolutions  a  minute.  One  thing 
is  noteworthy  in  this  skiver.  No  matter  how 
fine  the  workmanship  of  the  hand  worker,  some 
little  difference  is  apt  to  come  in  between  one 
hkiving  and  another  on  the  boot-top  ;  but  this 
line  automatically  gives  the  same  breadth 
-ive  at  all  limes.  Every  part  of  the  upper 
i\.  d  ..like.  This  part  of  the  work  done, 
the  stuff  is  parsed  »\\  to  the  sewers. 

Sewing.   The  up-to-date  factory  has  nothing 

but    tin-  ii'-w.  >witt    model  of    sewing  machine. 

. -ionally,  however,  the  worker  may  be  called 

"I""  >ld.  i  kinds.   Those  old-fashioned 

marh  i.uilt  under  a  mistaken  idea  ;   it 

was  supposed  that  heavy  machines  only  could 

do  hea\y  work,     Clumsy  things  they  are,  with 

arms  like  th.i-.i-  of  hydraulic  riveters,  and  a  grip 

to  hold   down  the  plate  of  an 

When    working   one   of   these 

the  tearion  of  the  ihi,-k  thread  should 

•  ndeii  to.  beoaoM  th.-  stitch  may 
'  l»  -left  slack,  and  the  whole  mechanism 

•  jump  if  the  tension  be  too  tight. 

•d.-   in   imitation  of  hand- 

'"•l'i  'I  machines  are  still  useful.     For 

the  modern  ma.'hines  mostly  u^-d,  direction  is 
MM 


hardly  needed.  The  worker  lays  in  the  work  and 
the  machine  does  the  rest.  This  machine,  on 
which  a  pile  of  plain  uppers  are  being  sewn,  has 
one  needle,  and  makes  a  single  row  of  stitching 
forward,  and  doubles  the  row  by  bringing  back 
the  seam.  Another  group  of  machines  do  double 
rows  at  once  with  two  needles  working  at  the 
same  time,  locking  the  two  threads  within  the 
cords  from  two  shuttles. 

Difference  in  Ability.  No  one  ought 
to  imagine  that  machining  boot-tops  is  easy 
work.  The  mechanical  appliances  are  wonderfully 
perfect,  but  the  human  factor  can  never  be 
eliminated.  Side  by  side,  working  the  same  kind 
of  machine,  driven  by  the  same  motive  power, 
the  output  of  workers  differs  widely.  Of  two 
girls,  both  equally  conscientious,  the  abler  will 
take  20  per  cent,  more  work  out  of  a  machine 
than  her  less  expert  neighbour.  Where  simple 
processes  are  constantly  repeated,  little  delays 
amount  to  large  losses  in  the  aggregate.  Delays 
arise  from  inattention  to  the  setting  of  the  seam, 
careless  management  of  the  spools  and  threads, 
and  too  frequent  changes  of  work.  The  last  cause 
of  delay  is  a  matter  of  management,  but  the 
others,  and  many  too  small  for  special  mention, 
lie  in  the  power  of  the  worker. 

Seam  Finishing.  When  the  bootmaker 
has  sewn  a  seam,  he  taps  it  down  level  with  his 
hammer.  Machine-sewn  seams  are  also  rough  and 
obtrusive,  and  inventive  genius  has  given  us 
quite  a  number  of  seam  finishers.  One  form  is 
directly  imitative  of  the  hand  hammer,  with  a 
hammer  head  set  on  the  end  of  an  arm  driven 
by  power  ;  another  is  a  wheel  under  a  spring 
block,  which  presses  the  seams  with  a  rubbing 
motion  ;  and  others  combine  the  two  principles, 
with  varying  degrees  of  success.  All  the  models 
are  simple  and  easy  to  work,  and  three  or  four 
kinds  may  be  used,  the  one  being  regarded  as 
specially  good  for  one  purpose,  and  the  others  for 
work  of  differing  classes.  Most  generally  applic- 
able, and  most  favoured,  is  the  mechanical 
hammer.  Vibrating  at  the  rate  of  1,200  beats  a 
minute,  the  hammer  does  the  work  rapidly  and 
prettily.  Lay  the  seam  neatly  on  the  block,  and 
let  the  hammer  play  upon  it  while  drawing  it 
round.  We  need  hardly  say  that  the  operator's 
intelligence  is  called  upon  to  some  extent  in 
working  this  machine.  Stitches  tightly  drawn, 
or  hard  threads,  may  be  pulled  asunder  if  pro- 
vision is  not  made  for  vibration  ;  but  the  differ- 
ences can  be  readily  adjusted  by  the  exercise  of 
a  little  common-sense. 

Seam  Rubbers.  For  light  tops,  ladies'1  kid 
and  fancy  boots,  the  seam  rubbers  are  probably 
the  safest.  These  contrivances  are  certainly  very 
finely  adjusted,  and  work  prettily.  One  of  the 
l>cst  seam-rubber  machines  has  a  solid  wheel 
running  under  a  fixed  disc,  dependent  on  springs 
adjustable  to  any  pressure,  and  therefore  fitted  to 
meet  the  variations  in  the  thickness  of  the 
leathers.  All  the  working  parts  are  in  sight,  and 
can  l>c  operated  upon  by  a  young  worker. 

Bagging.  Another  small  auxiliary  of  the 
sewer  is  the  bagging  machine.  When  the  linings 
have  been  joined  to  the  tops  the  joints  are  round 
and  slack.  Flaps  of  button  boots  are  simply 


TABLES  OF  MEASUREMENTS  FOR  ALL  SIZES  OF  BOOTS 

4-FITTING,  MEN'S. 

4-FITTING,   LADIES'. 

1 

ti 

o.S 
_e  00 

l.s 
5 

*§ 

« 

•^M 

lc.s 

1 

£ 
3 

on 

«    03 

' 

3 

1-5 

Q, 

B 

1 

ID 

w 

o5 

3 

a 

< 

43 

ll 

4=«2 
&£ 

S 

J 

§ 

^8 

"of 

•SM 

5>d 

C  .3 
Q 
J 

g 

§* 

s  g 
«  a 

c 
"o 

>-> 

1 

eg 

C 

1 

0>    " 

4sj 

«j 

4 

>d 

0 

bo 

a 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

10 
10^ 

jog 

11A 

8* 

8* 

s 

»i 

4 
»i 

10 

81 

9J- 

»t 

9f 

»l 
101 

lOg- 

12f 
12| 
13J 
13| 
13f 
131 
14f 

st 

8| 
8| 

»i 

9f 

9f 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

9 
»$ 
9ft 

10 

lOy4^ 

10A 

f 

H 

8| 
8|- 
9 

8 

» 

Si 

8| 
9 

»i 

n| 

12 

12i 
12£ 
12| 
13 

7| 

71 

8 

81 
8J 
8| 

84 

8| 
9 
9i 

9£ 
9| 

Remarks  as  No.  1. 

NOTES.  The  sizes  range  from  5  up  to  11.  We  give 
length  of  foot  in  sizes  and  the  length  of  foot  in 
inches.  We  then  follow  on  giving  joints  measure- 
ments, instep  and  heel  and  ankle  measurements. 

(A)  A  siz^e  equals  yrr  in.  in  length. 

(B)  A  fitting  equals  £  in.  small  and  large. 

(C)  Girth  measure  from  size  to  size  equals  J  in. 

(D)  Width   of   bottom   of    last   from   size   to   size 
and  fitting  to  fitting,  yV  in. 

(E)  Extension    of    last    over   the    length    of    foot  : 
Square    toes,    2   size   equals   $r  in.  ;     medium   toes, 
2J    size    equals   y^   in.  ;     spike   toes,    3    size   equals 

in. 


4-FITTING,  BOYS'. 

1 

•4$ 

i 

8  . 

"o.H 

•s-g 

G  +» 

^-  02 

x  c 

<H  cB 

2  £ 

t 

_. 

£ 

J 

I's 

c 

1-5 

"S 

0 

K 

1 

7 

BI> 

6 

6ft 

9ft 

5TV 

8 
9 

et 

eS 

9{4 

5j| 

10 

7j*.7 

6ft 

6y^ 

10 

6 

11 

7-*f- 

6| 

7 

10| 

6* 

12 

812 

7 

n 

6| 

13 

8ft 

7J 

7* 

io| 

6f 

1 

gJL 

7^ 

7f 

11} 

C) 

9  '" 

71 

8 

111 

7* 

3 

9y47 

8 

8| 

111 

71 

4 

5 

Q  s" 

W 

8$ 

si 

8| 

m 

7f 

8 

(A)  A  size  equals  y4.r  in.  in  length. 

(B)  Girth   measurement  from   size   to   size,    f {j-  in. 
for  7  to  19  ;    girth   measurement   from  size   to  size, 
y4,-  in.  for  11  to  1;    girth  measurement  from  size  to 
size,  -yg-  in.  for  2  to  5. 

(C)  Width  of  bottom  of  last  from  size  to  size,  ^  in. 
for  7  to  10;   width  of  bottom  of  last  from  size  to  size, 
yV  in.  for  11  to  1;  width  of  bottom  of  last  from  size 
to  size,  yV  in.  for  2  to  5. 

(D)  Extension  of  last over  the  length  of  foot:  Square 
toes,  1£  size  equals  ylj  in. ;   medium  toes,  2  size  equals 
ytrin.  ;  spike  toes,  2 i  size  equals  y?  in. 


Same  notes  apply  as  on  No.  1 — A  to  D. 

(E)  Extension  of  last  over  the  length  of 
Square  toe,  1 J  size  equals  yij  in- '  medium  toe, 
equals  y^r  in.  ;  spike  toe,  2£  size  equals  yr!  in. 


foot  : 
2  size 


4-FITTING,   GIRLS'. 


;* 


8y% 

8ft 


14 


.2  2 

a 

o 


6 

6^ 

$ 

7* 

7! 


7i 


t 

1 


(A)  A  size  equals  y4.?  in.  in  length. 

(B)  Girth  measurements   from  size  to  size,  fy  in. 
for  7  to   10  ;    girth  measurements  from  size  to  size, 
ft  in.  for  11  to  1. 

(C)  Width  of  bottom  from  size  to  size,  ft  in-   for 
7  to   10  ;    width  of  bottom  from  size  to  size,  ft  in. 
for  11  to  1. 

(D)  Extension  of    last    over    the    length  of    foot  : 
Square  toes,  1£  size  equals  -fir  in.;    medium  toes,  2 
size  equals  y^r  in.  ;   spike  toes,  2f  size  equals  yf  in. 


4-FITTING,  CHILDREN'S. 


6 


8 


6ft 
6ft 
6ft 


(A)  A  size  equals  y4.r  in.  in  length. 

(B)  Girth  measurement  from  size  to  size,  f  <y  in. 

(C)  Width  of  bottom  from  sizejto  size,  ft  in. 

(D)  Extension    of    last    over    the  length   of    foot  : 
Square  toes,   1  size  equals  y4^   in.;    medium  toes,   If 
size  equals  y'g  in. 

4435 


LEATHER 

b*gs  sewn  on  the  inside  and  turned  out.  To 
MI  ike  thr  Haps  solid  and  flat,  the  seams  must 
i>.  pressed  somehow.  Here  we  have  a  machine 
i-i(ii.tl  t«»  tli.-  nc«-d.  It  is  double-jawed.  On  the 
under  j;iw  is  a  long  finger  of  electroplated  metal, 
i  solid  round  disc  sits  in  thr  upper  jaw.  Place 
the  ll.ip  on  tli"  top  of  the  finger,  and  bring  the 
upp'-r  j.tu  do\\n  The  finger  vibrates  on  the  seam 
in-idc.  and  tin-  disc  rolls  on  the  outside,  the  pair 
!x-t  ween  them  reducing  the  bag  to  an  apparently 
solid  piece  of  leather  with  a  fine  edge. 

Buttonholing.  Button  boots  are  pro- 
d  in  large  quantities,  of  all  sizes,  by  the 
In  fact,  the  popularity  of  that  class  of 
boot  is  almost  wholly  due  to  the  cheapening 
effect  of  machinery.  Anyone  who  looks  at  a 
Imttonhole  can  readily  realise  how  laborious  and 
costly  the  making  of  buttonholes  in  leather 
must  be.  Our  problem  was  to  find  a  machine 
which  could  make  buttonholes  in  a  satisfactory 
way.  For  a  long  time  the  machines  offered  to  us, 
in  uc>od  faith  no  doubt,  proved  miserable  failures, 
p--o.  lucing  botched  work.  At  last,  however,  the 
problem  was  solved,  and  now  we  have  machines 
which  both  cut  and  sew  buttonholes  in  very  fine 
style.  The  machine  with  which  we  are  most 
familiar  is  the  "  Reece  "  [48].  A  die  knife  cuts 
cut  the  hole.  From  spools  set  on  the  head  of  the 
in  •«  liinc  the  two  threads  come  down  into  the 
o-cillating  needles  which  work  round  the  hole. 
When  the  end  of  the  hole  is  reached,  the  machine 
automatically  stops  sewing,  and  fixes  in  the  ends 
of  the  threads.  On  the  head  of  the  machine  the 
t  ension  regulator  is  fixed.  The 
production  of  this  machine  in 
the  hands  of  a  good  worker  is 
about  6,000  complete  button- 

h'.l,-..    t  d  IV. 

Finishing  Button- 
holes.  (  )ne  special  difficulty 
in  inikiii.'  buttonholes  by 
m.-iehinery  was  the  fixing  of 

I-    lifter   the 


were 

-•wn.      As  . 

-.    tin- 

machine 


I-   Jit    the,  -ml 

of    a    seam.    ;md 

be  ti.-d 

any,    Th.- 

was  to  run  a  bar 

of     sew  mi:     ,ilori» 
ih«-     Hip    at     ih«- 

'       tin- 
l.iitt,.; 

i!.   I       \.  ....   i.  .,,. 

'!"•  "  w  «.f  machine  have  over- 

;  '-„.,,,,  ,„..  „,,.„,„„  ,„,„„.. 

Jtom.    AM  fagenioua  man  conceived  and 

;   'k   m 

i 


to  fix  the  ends  of  buttonholes  can  be  made  on 
the  underside  of  the  flap  and  out  of  sight. 

Sewing  on  Buttons.  Men  not  very  old 
in  the  trade  can  remember  well  the  many  vigorous 
attempts  made  to  devise  a  mechanical  fastening 
for  buttons.  Rivets,  flat  discs,  long  wires  like 
miniature  hairpins,  and  many  other  devices  were 
tried  ;  but  the  public  unmistakably  showed  a 
constant  preference  for  the  hand-sewn  button. 
No  wonder,  for  the  flap  of  a  buttoned  boot  with 
one  of  those  sets  of  fasteners  on  felt  like  the  sole 
of  a  heavily-hobbed  boot.  But  our  machinists 
were  not  to  be  beaten.  Small  as  the  matter  may 
seem,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  money  in  it. 
The  happy  idea  of  using  the  form  of  the  sewing 
machine  for  the  button  fastener  was  struck,  and 
then  the  problem  was  solved,  not  all  at  once,  but 
by  successive  attempts,  each  one  improving  on 
the  last.  What  improvements  may  yet  be  made 
we  do  not  undertake  to  predict,  but  the  present 
form  of  machine  serves  our  purpose  fairly  well. 
The  plan  of  this  machine  is  an  arm  and  stand 
extending  at  right  angles  from  the  operator  [49]. 
On  the  top  of  the  arm  is  a  hopper  from  which  a 
channel  leads  down  in  front  of  the  needle.  Rest- 
ing on  the  stand  is  the  gripper,  which  keeps  the 
work  in  place  and  guides  it  automatically  from 
button  to  button. 

A  Perfect  Machine.  The  inventor  has 
done  his  work  well.  So  far  as  the  worker  is  con- 
cerned, the  machine  is  simple.  We  put  a  few 
gross  of  buttons  into  the  hopper,  and  clamp  the 
work  upon  the  stand.  Bring  the  driving  belt  on 
to  the  driving  wheel,  and  watch 
that  the  machine  does  its  work. 
Down  comes  a  button  ;  needle 
and  shuttle  play  over  the  eye  of 
the  button,  linking  it  firmly  in 
with  the  thread  ;  they  retreat 
and  the  boot-top  moves  on; 
another  button  comes  in  place, 
and  the  process  is  repeated  till 
10  or  12  buttons  have  been  fixed. 
The  tension  adjusts  itself  auto- 
matically to  any  grade  of  work, 
from  French  kid 
to  heavy  grain 
leather,  and  each 
button  is  se- 
cured indepen- 
dently. With  the 
button-  sewing 
machine  a  thou- 
sand boot-tops  can 
easily  be  disposed 
of  in  a  day.  We 
have  heard  objec- 
tion made  to  the 
single  thread,  and 
the  criticism  has 
some  reason  in  it. 
We  will  gladly 

•a-n  another  and  better  machine,  if  the  invention 
comes  ;iiong. 

Punching  and   Eyeletting.      The  staple 

f   our    trade    is    the    lacing    boot.      Fashions 

""»<•  ;md  go;    but  for  the  past   fifty  years  the 

r  has  been  the  stand-by.      In  the  average 


-MACHINE 

i-*'i«-«-sici-) 


boot  there  are  16  holes  ;  in  boots  of  the  better 
class  six  of  these  holes  are  filled  with  eyelet 
hooks  and  ten  with  eyelets.  For  a  man  working 
by  himself,  making  three  pairs  a  week,  this  does 
not  mean  very 'much  ;  he  can  punch  them  in  a 
short  time,  and  think  little  about  it.  But  when 
you  have  charge  of  a  large  factory  sending  out 
from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  pairs  a  week, 
two-thirds  of  them  lacing  boots,  then  the  punch- 
ing and  eyeletting  becomes  a  very  serious  item. 
It  means  the  employment  of  twenty  men  for 
that  small  matter  only,  and  smart  men,  too. 
But  the  genius  that  solved  the  button  question 
was  quite  equal  to  helping  us  out  of  this  little 
trouble.  First  we  had  the  mechanical  punch, 
then  its  companion  the  eyeletter,  self-feeding 
and  capable  of  being  driven 
by  power ;  next  came  a  com- 
bination of  the  two,  and  lastly 
the  automatic  punching  and 
eyeletting  machine.  All  four 
kinds  are  still  on  the  market, 
made  by  various  firms.  Fac- 
tories of  small  dimensions,  or 
factories  chiefly  engaged  in  pro- 
ducing ladies'  and  childrens' 
boots,  can  very  well  get  along 
with  the  smaller  machines, 
because  eyeletting  is  never  a 
large  business  with  them. 

Small  Machines.  The 
small  punches  and  eyeletters  are 
simply  die-stamping  machines 
with,  in  the  one  case,  a  punch, 
and  in  the  other  an  eyelet 
holder  instead  of  the  die.  With  these  machines 
two  operators  can  produce  between  them  from 
3,000  to  4,000  finished  eyelets  in  an  hour, 
though  the  speed  on  the  working  day  may  be  a 
little  less. 

Factory  Eyeletting.  The  automatic  eye- 
letter  is  the  contrivance  with  which  the 
work  of  the  factory  is  done.  Here,  again,  the 
sewing-machine  idea  is  seen  in  operation,  with 
additions.  A  small  box  tray  on  the  top  holds 
the  eyelets,  and  from  it  a  channel  runs  to  the 
nose  of  the  punch.  As  the  punch  comes  down 
and  retreats,  the  eyelet  setter  follows  its  action 
as  quickly  as  lightning,  and  the  eyelet  is  done. 
By  an  automatic  motion,  the  top  is  moved  the 
space,  \  or  \  in.,  between  the  holes,  and  the  next 
hole  is  made  and  eyeletted.  The  operator's 
duty  is  to  put  the  top  in  position,  lift  it  away 
when  finished,  and  guide  the  work,  while  keeping 
his  foot  on  the  foot  lever  for  emergencies.  By 


STANDARD  BUTTON-FASTENING 
MACHINE 


LEATHER 

mastering  this  machine,  the  worker  can  punch 
and  eyelet  10,000  holes  per  hour. 

Eyelet=hooKs.  Rather  more  difficult  is 
the  hook-setting  machine,  and  it  works  more 
slowly,  though  on  the  same  principle  as  that 
just  described.  We  have  seen  several  kinds  of 
these  at  work,  and  they  perform  very  well, 
considering  the  difficulty  to  be  overcome.  A 
hook  is  an  eyalet  with  a  fixed  hook  lying  over 
it ;  the  drive  home  differs,  therefore,  from  that 
of  an  open  eyelet ;  but  the  difference  has  been 
negotiated  by  a  change  in  the  punches. 

Linings.  We  have  left  lin- 
ings out  for  the  moment.  It 
depends  on  the  kind  of  boot 
when  the  linings  are  brought  in. 
Say  that  it  is  a  batch  of  ladies' 
boots  we  are  doing.  Sometimes 
these  are  lined  with  fine  morocco, 
but  the  kind  most  commonly  in 
demand  are  lined  with  good 
cotton  drill,  edged  with  chamois, 
morocco,  or  other  fine  leather. 

The  linings  are  cut  with  the 
uppers,  and  sent  into  the 
machine-room  at  the  same  time  ; 
but  they  are  put  together  in  a 
different  way  on  a  separate  set 
of  machines.  On  the  folders,  neat 
little  fingers  working  under  a 
machine  arm  turn  over  and 
press  down  the  edges  of  facings 
and  heads  of  the  linings.  Next 
the  parts  are  joined  together 
on  ordinary  sewing  machines, 
fronts  and  backs  being  lightly  seamed  into 
unity.  Now  the  upper  or  top,  without  the 
vamp  or  front,  comes  round  and  meets  the 
lining.  They  are  put  edge  to  edge,  the 
insides  coinciding,  and  sewn  round.  When 
finished  and  turned  right-side  out,  the  top  and 
lining  are  joined,  and  not  the  vestige  of  a  seam 
appears. 

An  economy  is  effected  in  this  way,  for  you 
can  attach  the  vamp  to  the  lining  at  the  same 
time  as  you  are  attaching  the  vamp  to  the  rest 
of  the  upper.  If  it  be  desired  to  put  several 
rows  of  stitching  on  the  vamp,  the  upper  lining 
can  be  turned  back  after  being  joined. 

The  edgings  of  the  linings  are  beaded  and 
bagged  in  the  same  way  as  the  button  flap, 
before  described. 

When  the  top  is  completed,  it  is  prepared  for 
the  lasting,  and  sent  in  batches  to  the  bottoming 
department. 


Continued 


4437 


Group  7 

BANKING 
4 


THE  BANK'S  BOOKKEEPING 


The  Balance-sheet 
Bills 


Contingent  Liabilities  and  Assets 

and    ?ts     Items.       General    Ledger    Accounts. 


By  R.   LAING 


Bullion  Reserve  and  Note  Issue.   The 

car?  of   the  bullion  reserve  and  note  issue  will 
also  be 


e  and  note  issue  wH      ^.dlt^  nts  come  to  by  the  contractmg 

ial  officials.  ultitude  of  was, 


U  kn^n  S "course  of  time),  the  main 
object of  the  officials  concerned  being  to  curtail 
as  much  as  possible  the  expense  of  the  transfer  of 
i  oin  from  one  office  to  another. 

The  note  issue  claims  more  attention.     Great 
care  must  be  taken  in  the  first  place  to  prevent 
forgery,  the  principal  checks  against  and  means 
of  discovery  of  which  are  the  watermark,  colour 
printing,  designs  on  the  back  of  the  note,  secret 
murks,  and  the  use  of,  say,  alternate  numbers 
only.    The  number  of  notes  printed  is  agreed 
with  that  of  the  blank  sheets  delivered,  and,  as 
an  additional  check  against  fraud,  they  may  be 
signed  before  issue  by  some  official  below  the 
lithographed  signature,  although  such  a  practice 
is  not  universal.    The  custom  with  regard  to 
re-issue  also  varies.    The  notes  of  the  Bank  of 
England  are  never  re-issued,  but  those  of  the 
Scotch  banks  are  paid  out  again  and  again. 
The  records  of  the  issue  and  destruction  (usually 
by  fire)  of  the  notes  are  kept  by  this  department. 
The  destruction  or  loss  of  a  bank-note  by  the 
holder  is  equivalent  to  the  cancelling,  without 
payment,  of   a  liability  of  the  bank,  and  the 
profits  accruing  in  this  connection  to  banks  issu- 
ing small  notes  are— there  is  reason  to  believe — 
.nil-unit.     The  amount  of  a  par- 
tiiilly.  or  wholly.  destroyed  note  may,  however, 
be  paid  upon  a  declaration  being  made,  and  a 

!\-  indemnity  given. 

Tli.  w  i  >rk  of  the  head  office,  and  more  especially 

undertaken    by    the    managers    and   chief 

iin-luili-s.  of  euurse.  the  arrangement  of 

gene  s  decisions  on  questions  of  policy, 

and.  generally,  the  oversight  of  all  large  trans- 

:,  conjunction  \\ith  the  board  of  direc- 


in  a  multitude  of  ways, 
,„  will  be  determined  by 

their  relative  needs.  For  example,  a  London 
bank  acting  as  correspondent  to  a  small  country 
or  foreign  bank  confers  on  it  a  much  greater 
benefit  than  it  receives,  a  fact  that  will  influence 
the  terms  of  their  contract.  The  consideration 
may  take  either  the  form  of  a  stipulation  to  keep 
a  certain  balance,  or  of  a  commission  on  the 
whole,  or  on  certain  of  the  transactions.  An 
account  with  a  foreign  bank  requires  to  be 
kept  in  two  currencies,  one  in  sterling  to  balance 
with  the  bank  books,  and  the  other  in  foreign 
currency  to  agree  with  the  accounts  of  the  foreign 
bank. 

If  the  trade  of  any  small  town  does  not  warrant 
the  establishment  of  a  separate  office,  a  branch 
may  be  opened  (doing  business  during  the  whole 
or  a  part  of  the  week)  under  the  charge  of  some 
subordinate  official  of  a  neighbouring  office, 
the  manager  of  which  is  responsible  to  the 
head  office  for  the  transactions  of  both  branches. 
The  Balance=sheet.  The  balance-sheet 
is  invariably  drawn  out  in  a  form  similar  to 
that  adopted  for  all  commercial  undertakings. 
For  the  sake  of  clearness,  an  abbreviated  example 
is  given  below.  The  special  entries  requisite 
for  its  completion  are  dealt  with  in  the  course  on 
Bookkeeping. 

The  first  two  items  on  the  liabilities  side  repre- 
sent the  capital  and  the  reserve  fund  of  undivided 
profits,  forming  the  total  due  to  the  sha"e- 
holders.  As  this  amount  forms  the  last  charge 
on  the  bank's  assets,  it  is  subject,  in  the  event 
of  liquidation  or  other  winding-up  to  a  reduction 
equal  to  the  sum  by  which  that  actually  realised 
by  the  assets  falls  short  of  the  amount  at  which 
they  appear  in  the  balance-sheet.  Such  a  reduc- 


onjunction  \\itli  the  boara  ot  curec-  they  appear  in  the  balance-sheet,    feucn  a  reuuc- 

If  theb.'nk  b»-a  joint  stock  company,  the  tion  may  be  nullified,  or  even  transformed  into  an 

duties   \\ill   be  carried  on  r,t  addition,  by  the  existence  of  the  hidden  reserve 

the  head  office,  and  the  necessary  returns  to  afterwards  dealt  with. 

Government  made  up  time  Reserve     and     Contingency      Fund. 

Agency    Business.     The  head  office  will  The  investing   and  the  depositing   public  look 

•     '     •            "   '  thi           mi    between  the  '    nk  to  a  steady  increase  <>t'  the  reserve  fund,  while. 

.ind    the    various  lent-,    the 

.  '._  .-.•.,  in'  -    beii,_'    p,,-t,-d    from    the 

advices    or     return-    reeeived    from    the 

branches.     If.  in  the  cour-e  of  bu>ine-s. 

•he  community   in  any 

nk    ha<    a    branch 

have     large    and     frequent     transactions 
with  any    other    district,  or    with    some 

A  ill     be 

made  with   another  bank  situated  there, 
mutual  both    direct 

arid    indtr«*  t       Such     arr.'.nu'-me: 


Dr. 

Cr. 

Cril.ital            ..       . 
\  >•  fund 
•its 
Drafts  and  trans- 
[«n    

N'nt«'!»  issued 
Ai'i-i-iitiiiifi-H     and 
I'h.li.rsriiifnt*    .. 
I'rotit  iiml  loss 

£1,000,000 

700,000 
13,000,000 

30,000 
450,000 

120,000 
200,000 

Cash  on  hand  and 
with  bankers     .  . 
Money  at  call  and 
short  notice 
Investments 
Bills  and  Loans    .  . 
Premises 
Acceptances    and 
endorsements    .  . 

£2,500,000 

1,550,000 
1,500,000 
9,630,000 
200,000 

120,000 

£7.-HI.(MKI.         of          wi.i.-h 

u,.tm.-.|.   »  .1  run  off. 

£15,500,000 

£15,500,000 

on  the  other  hand,  a  reduction  in  the  amount 
would  have  a  most  disastrous  effect  on  their 
confidence.  In  consequence,  no  sum  is  ever 
taken  from  such  a  fund,  save  in  most  exceptional 
circumstances,  and  to  enable  this  course  to  be 
carried  out,  a  second  (or  hidden)  reserve  is  main- 
tained, to  which  sums  which  would  otherwise 
pass  through  the  public  reserve  are  placed,  and 
withdrawn  as  occasion  demands. 

This  second  fund,  in  making  up  the  balance- 
sheet,  may  either  be  included  in  the  current 
accounts  or  written  off  the  assets. 

The  deposits  are  usually  included  in  one  total. 
Drafts  and  transfers  follow,  and  represent  the 
aggregate  amount  of  these  which  have  not  yet 
been  settled  by  the  bank,  either  by  cash  payment 
or  by  a  credit  in  account,  while  the  sum  shown 
against  note  issue  is  the  actual  amount  in  the 
hands  of  the  public. 

The  item  "  acceptances  and  endorsements  " 
is  only  a  contingent  liability,  and  is  balanced 
by  an  entry  for  a  similar  amount  on  the  assets 
side.  The  bank  has  given  the  security  of  its 
name  to  this  extent,  but  in  the  event  of  making 
any  payment  it  will  look  to  its  clients  for  a 
refund.  The  business  represented  by  the  two 
entries  has  been  already  referred  to. 

The  treatment  of  profit  and  loss  account  is 
similar  to  that  generally  adopted.  The  amounts 
which  are  placed  to  the  credit  of  this  account 
will  represent  interest  on  loans,  discount  and 
commission  of  any  nature,  returns  on  invest- 
ments, rents,  bad  debts  recovered,  etc.,  while 
the  amounts  withdrawn  will  include  interest 
on  deposits,  rediscount  (if  any),  commissions, 
stationery,  rent,  taxes,  salaries,  expenses  of 
note  issue  (if  any),  bad  debts,  depreciation,  etc., 

d,  in  addition,  any  sums  transferred  to  reserve 

dividend  accounts. 

The  amount  of  rediscounts  is  shown  as  a 
contingent  liability,  if  the  bank  is  in  the  habit 
of  rediscounting. 

Assets.  Assets  are  divided,  in  varying  degrees 
of  detail,  into  different  classes  according  to  the 
ease  with  which  they  can  be  converted  into  cash 
or  its  equivalent,  any  item  easily  convertible  into 
cash  being  termed  a  liquid  asset.  Cash  on  hand 
(coin,  bullion,  and  notes  of  other  banks)  may  or 
may  not  be  coupled  with  the  balances  deposited 
with  other  institutions.  Money  at  call  or  short 
notice  with  brokers  follows,  and  the  proportion 
shown  in  the  balance-sheet  between  the  liquid 
assets  and  the  liabilities  to  the  public  is  sub- 
jected to  the  closest  scrutiny. 

Cheques  and  similar  documents  in  course  of 
post  may  be  included  in  the  cash  total  or  in- 
corporated in  the  amount  shown  against  loans. 
The  figure  at  which  the  customary  investments 
in  first-class  stocks  is  entered  is  the  one  at 
which  they  stand  in  the  bank  books.  This  will 
be  found  to  be  very  much  below  the  current 
market  value,  the  securities,  when  bought, 
being  written  down  to  a  figure  to  which  it  is 
thought  they  will  in  the  ordinary  course  never 
fall.  Before  the  recent  enormous  fall  in  Consols 
it  was  very  customary  to  value  them  at  90,  but 
the  unexpected  course  of  events  has  rendered  a 
lower  figure  necessary.  It  is  usual  to  give  in  the 


BANKING 

balance-sheet  a  somewhat  detailed  statement 
of  the  securities  held.  Bills  discounted  and  loans 
may  be  either  given  in  one  sum  or  in  detail. 

Bank  Bookkeeping.  In  this  section  it  is 
assumed  that  the  reader  is  either  possessed  of 
some  practical  acquaintance  with  the  above,  or 
has  a  knowledge  of  the  system  used  in  mercantile 
business.  If  the  contrary  be  the  case,  some 
study  of  ordinary  bookkeeping  will  be  necessary, 
after  which  the  special  points  of  that  applicable 
to  banks  will  present  no  difficulty.  One  essen- 
tial difference  is  the  absence  of  stock  and  manu- 
facturing accounts,  and  the  attendant  periodical 
stocktaking.  The  material  property  possessed 
by  any  bank  is,  compared  with  the  total  amount 
of  its  resources,  comparatively  small,  seldom 
undergoes  any  change,  and  is  held  at  a  figure 
much  below  its  real  value. 

Each  entry  in  bank  bookkeeping  is  a  cash 
book  or  journal  one,  nothing  corresponding  to 
the  mercantile  day  and  invoice  books  being  in 
use.  A  debit  entry  in  a  bank  ledger  has  the  effect 
either  of  :  increasing  a  debt  due  to  the  bank, 
decreasing  a  debt  due  by  the  bank,  increasing  the 
amount  of  an  account  representing  a  material 
or  similar  asset,  or  ultimately  forming  a  charge 
on  profits  ;  while  a  credit  entry  has  the  effect  of 
either :  decreasing  a  debt  due  to  the  bank, 
increasing  a  debt  due  by  the  bank,  diminishing 
the  amount  of  an  account  representing  a  material 
or  similar  asset,  or  ultimately  forming  an  addi- 
tion to  profits. 

We  consequently  find  in  all  bank  offices  two 
books — which  may  be  termed  the  general  cash 
book  (or  journal)  and  the  general  ledger — through 
which  all  transactions  pass,  either  briefly  or  in 
detail,  the  subsidiary  books  being  divided  into 
these  classes  : 

1.  Cash  books. 

2.  Cross  entry  books. 

3.  Registers  (with  or  without  running  num- 
bers). 

4.  Ledgers. 

5.  Books  partly  registers  and  partly  ledgers. 

6.  Books  kept  in  diary  form. 

7.  Books  recording  balances  and  other  par- 
ticulars. 

General  Ledger.  The  table  given  on  the 
next  page  represents  the  balances  shown  in  an 
imaginary  general  ledger,  kept  at  a  head  office 
(the  shillings  and  pence  being  omitted). 

The  Bank's  Account.  In  the  example 
given  the  bank  is  supposed  to  have  three 
branches,  a  separate  account  being  kept  by  the 
head  office  for  the  transactions  referring  to  each 
of  them.  At  each  of  the  branches  consequently 
three  accounts  will  also  be  kept  under  this 
heading.  This  method  is  best  adapted  to  a 
foreign  or  colonial  bank  with  few  and  widely 
spread  branches,  as  it  enables  each  particular 
branch  to  ascertain  at  any  time  the  position 
of  its  account  with  any  other  office,  and  allows 
of  the  inter-branch  accounts  being  checked 
by  the  offices  concerned. 

In  the  case  of  a  large  home  bank  there  is  no 
necessity  to  know  the  balance  of  the  trans- 
actions between  any  two  branches,  and  the 
entries  will,  in  consequence,  be  passed  through 

4439 


BANKING 


Cr. 

£ 

Bank's  ac-'-..  nut 
llranch  A 

7,123 

97,028 

Branch  It 

8,721 

Branch  C 
nirn-nt  accounts 

1,203,767 

1,««4,912 

SMS 

Loans 
Deposit  accounts 
Deposit  receipts 
Local  bills  <l«8«>unted 
Bills  received  (or  remitted) 

403,698 
129,812 

i<gn 

777 

Bills  past  due 

Stamp  ac«-.  .nut 
Commission  account 
Interest  account 

12,302 
36,202 

M^tl 

80,721 
293,801 

(  li:irnes  account 
Hills  for  collection 
(,,11-Ttion  bills  received 
Acceptances  and  endorsements 
Acceptances  and  endorsements 

80,721 
293,601 

account    • 

Client 
Letters  of  credit  and  circular 

1,928 

Capital 
Reserve  fund 
(  .  ntinnency  fund 
Notes  issued 

1,000,000 
400,000 
210,000 
600,100 

Dividend  account 

9,527 

Unclaimed  dividends 
Pension  fund 
Profit  and  Loss  account 

63 
90,000 
20,918 

Suspense 

13,701 

Agency  accounts  : 

1,921 

Bank  A 

BankB 

16,702 

BankC 

2,163 

900,000 

Investments 

114,000 

Premises 

»»',777 

M..m>y  at  call  and  short  notice 
Cash  at  bankers 

235,752 

Cash 

- 

£4,532,328 

one   account.     The    weekly   returns    from    the 

branches  of  this  account  will,  in  such  a  case, 

be  audited  by  the  head  office,   and  may  be 

divided  into  sections,  bearing  either  the  names 

•  if  the  corresponding  branches  or  of  the  various 

M   <>f   Imsiness.     The  first  method  admits 

of  an  error  once  passed  being  perhaps  more 

easily  discovered,  but  the  second  allows  of  a 

summary  of  the  different  classes  of  outstanding 

••ntries    being    more    readily    made    up.     The 

„ Minaiinii  into  one  account  in  the  example 

D  would,  df  course,  result  in  the  substitution 

'ollowing  for  the  first  three  balances  : 

Dr. 

£9J».-JJ«;         Kink's  Account. 
!•«•  app.-iiviit   that   the  balances  in  the 
head  office  general  ledger  do  not  include  the 
whole  business  of  the  kink,  the  £129,812  shown 
against    I >.],., -it   Hr.-.-ipN  lirinu    tin-    total  out- 
standing  of   those   issued   by   the   head   office 
M'-SS  current  at  the  other  brand n •> 
a  represented  only  by  the  balance  or  balances 

at  th.     !  ount. 

In  addition  to  tin-  Hank's  Account,  the  accounts 

•  -omnion  to  tin-  general  ledger  at  all 

le  eiinvnt  a. vomits  (the  balance 

••nt-   the   total  of  the  accounts 

"<lit  less  th-  amount  of  overdrafts,  or  vice 

vena),    loans,    deposit    accounts    and    deposit 

-ho\vn  correspon 
th>-  turn-nt  oiit-t. nidi- 
Discounted    Bills.        It    is    the 
to  place  th,.  full  amount  of  a  bill,  when  dis- 
MIO 


counted,  to  the  debit  of  some  bill  account, 
,-rediting  the  discount  at  the  same  time  to  an 
interest  account,  Sums  received  in  payment 
are  credited  to  the  bill  account,  and  should  the 
draft  not  be  duly  met  at  maturity  the  amount 
will  be  transferred  to  Bills  Past  Due  Account 
the  balance  of  which  agrees  with  the  total  of 
unpaid  past  due  discounted  bills  in  the  hands 
of  the  bank.  A  doubtful  overdraft  is  not  treated 
in  this  manner,  but  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
relative  ledger,  although  an  amount  has  actually 
been  set  aside  against  it.  A  distinction  is 
made  between  bills  payable  locally  and  those 
domiciled  elsewhere,  the  Local  Bills  Discounted 
Account  agreeing  with  the  amount  of  this  class 
of  paper  in  hand. 

Two  distinct  methods  of  dealing  with  the  bills 
not  payable  locally  are  in  vogue.  The  transfer  of 
the  amount  of  the  bill  from  the  books  of  the 
discounting  office  to  those  of  the  office  to  which 
it  is  forwarded  (for  presentation  for  payment 
on  due  date)  may  be  made  either  at  the  time 
of  discount  or  at  maturity,  the  draft  disappear- 
ing as  an  asset  from  the  books  of  the  discounting 
branch  when  such  an  entry  is  made.  The  bill 
will,  if  the  amount  be  debited  at  the  time  of 
discount,  appear  during  its  currency  as  an 
asset  at  the  Receiving  branch,  and  an  account 
similar  to  that  for  Local  Bills  Discounted  will 
be  kept  by  it  for  Discounted  Bills  Received  from 
other  Offices.  If  the  second  method  is  adopted, 
the  discounting  branch  will  keep  a  Bills 
Discounted  and  Remitted  Account,  which  will 
correspond  with  the  amount  of  bills  discounted 
(other  than  local),  which  have  neither  been 
advised  as  paid  or  returned  unpaid.  Nominal 
accounts  may  be  kept  by  the  remitting  branch, 
in  the  first  instance,  and  by  the  receiving  office, 
in  the  second.  . 

Nominal  Accounts.  When  it  is  con- 
sidered desirable  to  know  the  amount  at  any 
time  of  any  particular  class  of  business,  which 
does  not  at  the  time  constitute  an  actual  liability 
or  asset  at  the  office  in  question,  two  accounts 
will  be  opened  in  the  general  ledger,  the  one 
to  give  the  total  outstanding  and  the  other  to 
balance  the  amount  shown  in  the  former.  Two 
instances  are  given  in  the  specimen  general 
ledger  balance — the  first  relating  to  bills  received 
by  the  head  office  for  collection  which  have 
not  been  discounted.  On  such  a  bill  being 
received  an  entry  is  passed  increasing  the 
balances  of  the  two  accounts  to  the  same  extent, 
and  on  any  bill  being  paid  or  returned  the 
balances  are  reduced  by  an  equal  sum.  The 
same  procedure  applies  to  the  Acceptances 
Account,  which  shows  the  total  contingent 
liability  of  the  bank  and  contingent  liability  of 
its  clients  in  this  connection.  As  no  book- 
keeping check  exists  on  such  accounts  special 
care  requires  to  be  exercised  with  regard  to  them. 
The  Stamp  Account.  The  Stamp  Account 
shows  the  value  of  stamped  forms  as  yet  unsold 
to  the  bank's  clients.  The  cheque  forms,  etc., 
are  not  stamped  immediately  after  being  printed, 
but  only  when  required  to  replenish  the  stock 
in  hand,  and,  in  consequence,  the  balance  of  this 
account  will  never  be  of  very  great  amount. 


Letters  of  credit  and  circular  notes  represent 
the  amount  of  such  documents  issued.  Tli6 
balance  of  a  Circular  Notes  Account  kept  at  a 
branch  appears  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
ledger,  the  head  office,  in  forwarding  a  supply 
to  the  branch,  treating  the  latter  as  if  it  were 
a  customer,  and  debiting  the  branch  with  the  full 
value.  An  account  is  accordingly  opened  by  the 
branch  and  kept  on  similar  lines  to  its  local  Bill 
Account.  On  any  note  being  issued  its  amount 
is  deducted  from  the  branch  account,  tho 
account  kept  at  the  head  office  being  reduced 


BANKING 

provide  the  working  of  a  pension  scheme  it  is 
placed  to  a  special  account  kept  at  the  head 
office.  Suspense  Account  is  dealt  with  under 
balance  work.  The  other  accounts  have  already 
been  referred  to,  and  subsidiary  books  are  dealt 
with  subsequently. 

With  a  view  to  convenience,  some  accounts 
other  than  in  the  name  of  clients  may  be  kept  in 
the  Current  Account  Ledgers  instead  of  in  the 
general  ledgers.  "  Unclaimed  Balances  " — the 
account  to  which  all  sums  left  unclaimed  for  a 
certain  time  are  transferred — is  invariably  one  of 


Date. 

Dr. 

Or. 

Balance. 

i 

Deposit 
Accounts 

Deposit 
'Receipts. 

Sun- 
dries. 

Over- 
drafts. 

Loans. 

Dis- 
counts. 

Sun- 
dries. 

Dec.  31 

Cr. 

_        | 

; 

Jan.    1 

30    2    5 

32    9    5 

Or. 

270' 

1     2 

30    1    3 

17    3 

11    2    6 

20    9    8 

Jan.    2 

15    7  11 

10    7    2 

2    3     7 

12  17    6 

6  10 

8    3 

9  18  11 

45  10     4 

42  16    7 

Dr. 

2  13    9  i 

on  payment  being  made  by  it  to  the  ultimate 
holder  of  the  note.  The  foregoing  accounts 
may  be  added  to,  or  divided,  to  suit  the  con- 
venience of  any  particular  office  or  system. 

Profit  and  Loss  Accounts.  Profit  and 
Loss  Accounts  are  represented  in  the  example 
given  by  interest,  commission  and  charges,  but 
these  may  be  subdivided  to  show  the  amounts 
relating  to  each  particular  class  of  business,  a 
result  that  may  also  be  obtained  by  ruling  the 
portion  of  the  ledger  used  in  the  manner  indicated 
on  this  page  (the  interest  account  being  dealt 
with). 

The  columns  shown  (increased  to  cover  all 
classes  of  transactions)  are  summed  and  balanced 
periodically,  and  give  the  information  required. 

The  remaining  accounts  (with  the  exception 
of  cash)  come  under  the  heading  of  Accounts 
Peculiar  to  the  Head  Office.  The  Cash  Account 


these,  while  accounts  for  the  temporary  disposal 
of  money  which  cannot  be  finally  dealt  with 
on  receipt  may  be  treated  similarly — e.g.,  an 
amount  transferred  from  another  office  to  await 
instructions  may  be  placed  in  such  an  account. 

Cash  Books.  The  General  Cash  Book  may 
either  be  written  up  from  the  subsidiary  books, 
from  vouchers,  or  partly  from  one  and  partly 
from  the  other,  all  cross  entries  between  depart- 
ments (which  in  a  large  office  will  be  numerous) 
being,  of  course,  eliminated.  It  may  either  be 
written  up  concurrently  with  the  subsidiary 
books  or  on  the  following  day,  the  entries  being 
collected  and  arranged  in  the  order  most  con- 
venient, while  the  book  may  be  closed  off,  either 
daily  or  weekly. 

In  large  offices,  the  cashiers  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes — receiving  and  paying.  The 
cash  books  of  the  first  simply  record  the  sums 


From  Whom 
Received. 

Drawer 

Bank. 

Cash.       Notes. 

Clearing. 

Walks. 

House 
Debits.* 

Totals. 

J.  Jones    

C.  Forsyth 
W.  Watson     .  . 

10,701  *    A/B 
A.  Thomas 
W.  Smith      .  . 
A.  Jenkins     .  . 

G.  Howard  .  . 

Glyn  

London  and  County 
Islington 
National  India 

20             10 
10 
10 

30 

t66 

10 

20 

60 
30 

120 

*  Number  of  Note. 
t  Documents  drawn  on 

the  bank  in  quest  i 

m. 

40               10 

130 

10 

20 

210 

simply  represents  the  cash  on  hand,  including 
the  bank's  own  notes  in  the  cashier's  tills. 
Capital,  Reserve  Fund,  and  Contingency  Fund 
require  110  explanation.  Notes  Issued  represents 
the  total  handed  to  the  cashiers  or  sent  to  the 
branches  which  have  not  returned  for  destruc- 
tion, the  amount  including  all  notes  held  at  any 
office.  Dividend  Account,  the  balance  of  which 
is  transferred  after  a  certain  time  to  the  Un- 
claimed Dividend  Account,  shows  the  total  of 
the  current  dividend  warrants  outstanding. 

To  Profit  and  Loss  Account  the  balances  of 
the  profit  and  loss  accounts  at  all  the  offices 
are  transferred  at  each  balance,  while  it  is 
reduced  by  the  sums  put  to  dividend,  reserve, 
contingency,  premises,  investment,  pension,  or 
other  accounts.  If  any  amount  is  laid  aside  to 


paid  in  during  the  day,  the  total  being  agreed  at 
the  close  of  business  with  that  of  the  relative 
waste  took. 

The  latter  is  a  very  wide  book,  in  which  the 
particulars  are  entered  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  shown  on  this  page. 

The  columns  may  be  increased  and  divided,  as 
may  be  deemed  necessary,  while  the  number  of 
particulars  given  depend  on  individual  practice. 
The  paying  cashiers  record  all  sums  paid  away 
(mainly  cheques  drawn  on  current  accounts),  the 
numbers  of  Bank  of  England  notes  paid  out  being 
detailed. 

Each  cashier  may  deal  with  the  ledger  accounts 
only  under  a  certain  letter  or  letters,  while  De- 
posit Receipts,  Country,  Bill  and  other  business 
will  in  all  probability  be  dealt  with  separately. 

4441 


BANKING 

The  cash  \  ook  of  an  official  at  a  small  office, 

onUiM    the   entries   comprising  the 

whole  range  of  bosmees,   and  in  such   a  case 

the    advantage   of   a    columnar    cash    book   is 

al       By  means  of  this  any  body  of  entries 

numb,,     is    large    (e.g.,    those    relating 

to  ,  unvnt  MM  omits)  may  be  entered  in  a  special 

.,„     the  total  of  which  is  carried  to  the  outer 

,,,lumn    at    the   end   «.f   the  day— making   the 

of  errors  a  much  easier  matter. 
C  rosi  Entry  Books.  A  large  number 
of  1  ooks  of  varying  form  will  be  kept  by  the 
dinVrent  departments  to  record  the  entries  passed 
hv  them,  the  hill  entries  going  perhaps  into  one, 
the  correspondence  remittances  into  another,  and 
so  on,  although  arrangements  may  be  made  to 
enable  certain  officials,  through  an  elaborate  use 
of  vouchers,  to  deal  with  all  such  entries.  All 


civen  to  another  branch  or  bank  to  cash  the 
cheques  of  any  client  to  a  certain  extent  should 
be  entered  in  the  ledger,  and  a  similar  course 
adopted  with  regard  to  cheques  on  which  an 
endorsement  guaranteeing  payment  has  been 
placed  by  the  banker;  so  that,  if  necessary,  the 
account  may  be  kept  at  a  figure  sufficient  to 
cover  these  outstanding  liabilities.  A  very 
numerous  body  of  entries  (say,  dividend  warrants) 
may  be  detailed  in  a  subsidiary  book,  and  only 
the  total  inserted  in  the  ledger. 

Checking.  The  checking  of  the  entries 
should  be  done  by  independent  officers,  while 
fraud  is  further  guarded  against  by  an  occasional 
interchange  of  ledgers.  It  is  usual  to  extract 
weekly  the  balances  shown,  and  to  agree  the 
result  with  the  general  ledger  account,  the  return 
of  overdrafts  being  made  up  from  this  balance. 


Partinihrs. 

Dr. 

Cr. 

Sign. 

Days. 

Interest, 

Dr. 

16  7  3 

T,,   Interest       .  .      .  . 
By  Cheque 
To   I'.ahuicc 

100 
100  0  0 

117  7  3 

Dr. 

Cr. 

100  0  0 

7,300 

100 

5% 

17,931  2  7 

17,931  2  7 

Jan.     3 

I'.v    |;-il:iii<v        ..       .. 
T.I    l-J.731 

220  0  0 

100  0  0 

Cr. 
Dr. 

100  0  0 
120  0  0 

3 

300 

5 

100  0  0 

Dr. 

250  0  0 

2 

500 

Bjr    (Cash  100)    and 

200  0  0 

Dr. 

50  0  0 

OheqoM 

cash  and  cross  entry  books  may  only  be  used  on 
•  uite  days,  to  facilitate,  if  necessary,  the 
nork  of  cheeking.  The  example  shown  above 
will  show  that  a  bank  ledger  differs  somewhat 
from  the  ordinary  mercantile  form. 

1  n  t  he  foregoing  example  we  start  the  New  Year 

with  a  balance  of  £100,  £200  being  received,  and 

three  cheques  amounting  to  £350  being  paid, 

M  _'  t  he  account  overdrawn  £50.     The  balance 

'M-  shown  at  the  close  of  each  day,  and,  if  it 

M  overdraft,  must  always  be  preceded  by 

the  -inn  I>r.     In  some  hanks  it  is  not  customary 


In  an  office  employing  several  current  account 
ledgers,  two  books,  ruled  in  the  manner  shown 
below,  will  be  used  to  record,  under  the  heading  of 
each  ledger,  the  debits  and  credits  referring  to  it. 
These  books,  which  are  agreed  with  the  current 
account  entries  in  the  cash  and  cross  entry  books, 
allow  of  each  ledger  being  balanced  separately. 
Each  entry  in  the  deposit  receipt  register  is 
initialled  by  the  official  who  signs  the  relative 
receipt,  a  similar  practice  being  adopted  with 
regard  to  drafts  and  transfers.  The  columns 
in  the  register  for  these  will  provide  for  date, 


VMM. 

F... 

A—  D 

E—  K 

L—  K 

S—  Z 

rt  every  balance  when 

the  accoun'  «'</ in  credit.     The  numbers 

boae  on  the  paid  cheques,  although  the 

\\  hose  favour  the  cheques 

-  riit.-ivd 

"•  -e     in     refen-nee.     the     ledger 

accounts  are  arranged  alphahetically,  while  the 

h   amount    -hould  set  forth   the 

security    held,    the   overdraft    limits    authorised. 

lames  of  persons  authorised  to  operate,  and 

soon,  the  Irdif-r  Ue.-jMT  I,,. i,,,,  responsible  to  see 

ill   ehei|u>  in   accordance  with 

particular^.      In  entering  any  sum   received 

0  did  in:_'ui-h   I  let  \\een  cash 

obviate  the  powibiUty  of  ft  cheque, 

the    fate   of    which    has    not     hecii    received    but 
«l'i'  '  "nm-d  unpaid,  beiny  paid 

The  part  i  x  authority 

1442 


number,  on  whose  account,  in  whose  favour, 
paying  branch,  amount,  commission,  initials. 

Bill  Registers.  The  bill  registers  (which  will 
be  divided  into  various  sections)  give  all  particu- 
lars regarding  bills  received  from  customers,  either 
for  discount  or  for  collection,  and  any  documents 
attached  thereto — date  of  entry,  running  number, 
names  on  bill,  date  of  bill,  currency,  place  of 
payment,  amount,  rate  and  amount  of  discount, 
details  of  documents,  etc.  In  the  bills  for  collec- 
tion section,  the  discount  columns  will  be  replaced 
by  one  in  which  the  date  on  which  payment  is 
received  or  advised  is  marked.  Bills  received  to 
be  forwarded  to  some  point,  for  acceptance  and 
return,  may  be  placed  in  a  separate  section. 

The  entries  relating  to  bills  received  from  other 
offices  do  not  require  to  be  so  elaborate,  but  the 
due  elites  of  these  and  of  local  bills  require  to  be 


very  carefully  entered  in  a  book  kept  in  diary  form 
(under  the  date  on  which  they  mature),  to  prevent 
the  presentation  for  payment  being  omitted. 

Diary.  The  diary  forms,  in  addition,  a 
convenient  method  of  noting  the  expiration  of  a 
loan,  or  any  other  business  which  will  require 
attention  on  a  certain  date.  The  form  given 
below  is  one  covering  several  classes  of  business. 

Discount  Ledger.  The  discount  ledger 
is  kept  to  show  the  total  discounts  current  at 
any  time,  the  amounts  of  the  bills  being  debited 
when  discounted  and  credited  when  matured, 
a  special  account  being  opened  for  any  client 
discounting  largely,  and  all  miscellaneous 
items  being  collected  under  "  sundries."  A 
statement  may  be  made  up  weekly  to  balance 
with  this  ledger,  showing  the  amount  discounted 
at  each  rate. 

In  addition,  books  in  which  are  recorded  the 
particulars  of  periodical  balances,  cheque  books 
sold,  cheques  and  other  documents  received,  with 
clients'  signatures  and  letter  registers,  postage 
books,  indexes,  files  for  letters  of  credit  and  other 
authorities,  and  a  multitude  of  small  memo, 
books  in  which  outstanding  matters,  particulars 
of  securities,  etc.,  are  entered,  will  be  required. 


BANKING 

The  securities  lodged  for  safe  custody  are 
entered  under  the  heading  of  each  client's  name, 
the  fullest  particulars  being  given  both  of  the 
bonds,  etc.,  and  of  any  coupons  attached.  On 
delivery  being  made  of  any  particular  docu- 
ment, the  receipt  on  which  it  appears  may 
be  returned,  endorsed,  and  a  new  receipt  for 
the  remaining  bonds  issued,  or  the  old  receipt 
may  be  allowed  to  stand,  the  entry  in  question 
being  deleted  and  a  receipt,  taken  from  the 
customer.  If  the  documents  are  numerous  and 
operations  frequent,  it  is  desirable  that  the 
client  should  employ  a  locked  box  to  which 
persons  bearing  authority  are  allowed  access. 

The  bookkeeping  returns  from  the  branches 
may  be  divided  into  two  sections — those  which 
refer  to  local  business  (deposit  receipts,  current 
accounts,  etc.),  and  entries  to  the  bank's  account. 
Every  entry  in  the  last  requires  to  be  detailed 
(for  head  office  checking  purposes),  but  the  other 
transactions  need  only  be  given  in  brief  form, 
no  useful  purpose  being  served  by,  say,  a  long 
statement  of  current  account  transactions. 

Balance  Work.  With  a  bank  possessing 
a  large  number  of  branches  scattered  all  over  the 
country  it  is  clearly  impossible  for  the  auditors 


Date. 

— 

Local 
Bills  Dis- 
counted. 

- 

Bills  Dis- 
counted 
and  Re- 
mitted. 

- 

Dis- 
counted 
Bills  Re- 
ceived. 

- 

Collec- 
tion Bills 
Received. 

Accept- 
ances 
Due. 

- 

Customers 
Acceptances 
payable  in 
London. 

Remarks. 

fVf.  Smith 

Loan  £500, 

Jan.  1 

223 

100     1     2 

92 

20  9  3 

83 

100  0  0 

174 

15  1     6 

7 

150  0  0 

719 

100  0  0 

1    due  7th. 

301 

50     5  10 

117 

16  5  1 

127 

500  0  0 

20 

67  1  2 

-{  J.  Thompson 

21 

1,000  0  0 

1    Ashanti 

Coupons 

i,  due  5th. 

»      2 

127 

150     0     0 

205 

90  0  0 

100 

167  1   9 

54 

57  1  10 

722 

750  0  0 

(Have 

137 

10  2  6 

3 

97  8  2 

Promissory 

81 

410  5  7 

614 
5 

100  0  0 
500  0  0 

Not*  No.  -f  8 

renewed- 

Banks  dispensing  with  waste  books  will,  in 
addition,  use  registers  giving  particulars  of 
cheques  remitted. 

Pass  Books.  The  pass  books  are,  in  a  way, 
distinct  from  all  the  other  books  of  the  bank, 
being  the  only  part  of  the  system  which  is 
directly  subject  to  the  scrutiny  of  the  public. 
They  are,  moreover,  regarded  as  the  customers' 
books,  the  entries  being  placed  on  the  reverse 
side  to  that  on  which  they  appear  in  the  bank's 
ledger,  the  pass  book  being  similar  in  form  to  the 
bank  account  kept  in  the  customer's  ledger. 

The  pass  books  should  be  written  up  from  the 
vouchers,  and  not  merely  copied  from  the  ledgers, 
all  books  in  hand  being  regularly  made  up  each 
morning  to  include  the  transactions  of  the 
previous  day ;  and  when  any  book  is  handed  to 
the  customer  concerned,  a  mark  to  this  effect 
should  be  placed  against  the  relative  balance  in 
the  ledger.  The  practice  in  Scotland  is  somewhat 
different.  There  the  paid  cheques  are  not  de- 
livered till  the  customer  has  certified  the  amount 
to  be  correct.  In  England,  however,  the  paid 
cheques  are,  on  the  day  following,  sorted  under 
the  names  of  the  various  clients,  being  either 
sent  with  any  statements  rendered,  or  placed  in 
a  pouch  provided  in  the  pass-book  cover  and 
delivered  when  the  book  is  sent  for. 


to  examine  all  the  books  personally.  In  con- 
sequence, the  signed  returns  from  the  other 
offices  are  accepted  as  correct  (the  periodical 
inspection  from  head  office  supplying  the 
necessary  check).  The  ordinary  weekly  returns 
are  made  up  to  the  night  of  the  balance,  and 
from  these  the  head  office  is  at  once  able  to 
make  up  a  balance-sheet  similar  to  the  usual 
weekly  one. 

The  balances  of  the  profit  and  loss  accounts 
at  the  branches  having  been  transferred  to  the 
head  office  (after  closing  the  books  for  the  half- 
year),  through  the  bank's  account,  the  only 
modifications  which  the  balance-sheet  subse- 
quently undergoes  are  on  account  of  the  suspense 
or  adjusting  entries  for  interest  due  but  not 
applied,  etc.  For  such  entries  no  further  par- 
ticulars are  actually  required  by  the  head  office, 
beyond  the  total  amount  due  at  each  branch; 
of  interest  on  deposits  and  loans  of  rebate 
on  bills  discounted  outstanding  at  the  time 
of  the  balance,  etc.  In  practice,  however,  the 
individual  amounts  of  principal  and  interest 
or  rebate  are  given  against  each  name.  If 
the  current  account  and  deposit  account 
interest  is  applied  on  the  date  of  the  balance, 
no  adjusting  entries  will  be  required  on  their 
account. 

4443 


BANKING 

Deposit  Receipts  and  Ledger  Ac- 
counts. Some  little  time  before  the  balance, 
the  decimal-  and  interest  calculations  in  the 
ledgers  are  carefully  eheeked  to  date,  and  on  the 
I  t<'«  the  end  of  the  year  or  half- 
year  the  total  amount  due  on  each  account  is 
found  and  entered  in  the  return  previously  pre- 
pared. < m  the  succeeding  night  after  the  ledger 
balance  has  been  agreed,  the  principal  sums  are 
also  entered  The  interest  due  on  individual 
deposit  receipts  i>  calculated,  and  the  return  of 
outst.mdiriu'  receipts  made  up  before  the  date 
of  the  balance,  those  paid  after  insertion  being 
subsequently  deleted.  The  interest  on  receipts 
issued  during  the  half-year  is  calculated  on  each 
separate  amount  (with  the  assistance  of  a  table, 
uivinu  the  decimal  for  each  day),  while  that  on 

\\hich  were  outstanding  at  the  date  of  last 
balance  may  be  arrived  at  similarly,  or  by  the 
addition  of  the  amount  due  for  the  half-year 
to  that  accrued  at  the  last  balance,  each  calcula- 
tion in  the  latter  method  being  based  on  the 
same  decimal.  The  correctness  of  the  interest 
calculations  may  be  proved  by  keeping  an 
account  showing  the  daily  balance  of  deposit 
j.ts,  the  interest  due  on  which  is  reckoned 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  on  ledger  accounts. 
This,  added  to  the  amount  due  at  the  previous 
balance,  less  what  has  been  paid  during  the  year, 
should  equal  the  sum  now  due. 

Bills  Returns.  The  bills  detailed  in  the 
Bills  Returns  may  be  either  bills  remitted  or  bills 
received,  according  to  the  method  of  keeping  the 
general  ledger  account.  In  either  case  rebate  for 
the  time  yet  to  run  will  be  calculated  at  a  rate 
(usually  5  per  cent.)  which  will  more  than  cover 
the  rate  at  which  discounted,  a  lower  rate  than 
that  of  discount  inflating  the  current  profits  at 
of  those  for  the  succeeding  period. 
N~'>  interest  is  calculated  on  past  due  bills. 

returns,  together  with  any  additional  ones 
required  by  the  head  office  for  their  own  infor- 

n.  having  been  summed,  checked,  signed, 

and  despatched,  the  ledger  accounts  having  been 

!  iv»|icned  in  the  usual  manner,  and 

'he  n  d  off  and  new  running  numbers 

begun,  the  balance  work  at   the  branches  may 

M^lered  to  be  linished,  all  further  entries 

j.a-ol  |,y  the  heul  office. 
:"re  passing  on  to    the  head  oflice   work, 
the  important  return  in  connection  \\ithbad  and 
doul.tful  debts  calls  for  .vmark.     This  return  is 

h    branch   ;md   despatched    to   the 

chief  ofiice  som-  little  time  (say.  one  month) 
before  the  actual  balance.  [n  'it  all  past  due 
la  are  fully  detailed,  th.-  security  held  and 
prospects  of  payment  beinjr  dealt  with  at  length, 
and  the  probable  lew  (if  any)  .stated.  Any 

JOM  Or  OTerdrafto  considered  in  any  way  doubt  - 

tl  are  dealt  uith  iii  a  similar  manner,  although 
''"•    "  •    include   every    loan,    whether 

'"'I   <-r   not.      In    addition,   it    any    los 
'i    hkely   to   result    on   any   bills 'held    but, 

I.  the  circumstances  will  be  recorded 

M-n.  which.  ,,„  be,,,-  received  at  the 

•'I  Office,  i>  carefully  U'one  into  by  some  of  the 

••lid  the  amounts  required  to  be 

Bide  against  pr,,l,-,bl«-  tattf  determined. 

t  *  \  I 


Head    Office   Balance    Work.          The 

ordinary  weekly  audit  is  pushed  forward  as 
quickly  as  possible,  and  after  it  is  finished  the 
outstanding  entries  in  the  bank's  account  are 
dealt  with,  a  special  cross  entry  book  or  journal 
being  utilised.  The  first  class  of  such  entries 
deals  with  the  transfer  of  the  balances  of  the 
profit  and  loss  accounts  at  the  branches,  made 
by  these  offices  on  the  last  day  of  the  half-year. 
These  are  carried  to  the  profit  and  loss  account.- 
The  book  to  which  the  outstanding  drafts  and 
transfers  are  weekly  transferred  is  next  taken 
in  hand,  and  the  items  of  this  nature  remaining 
unpaid  agreed,  these  will  be  probably  detailed 
in  the  book  itself,  the  total  being  entered  in  the 
special  journal,  and  appearing  in  the  balance- 
sheet  as  a  liability.  Special  entries  carry  the  bills 
discounted  and  debited  to  the  receiving  branch  on 
the  last  day  of  the  half-year  to  a  special  account, 
the  total  of  which  is  included  in  the  amount 
shown  against  bills  in  the  balance-sheet.  A 
similar  procedure  is  adopted  with  cheques  and 
with  any  other  entries  unresponded  to. 

The  amount  of  cheques  in  transit  may  either 
be  included  in  the  amount  of  ledger  loans  or  com- 
bined with  the  cash  items.  The  entries  in  this 
special  journal,  or  cross  entry  book,  clear  out  all 
sums  outstanding  in  the  weekly  returns,  antici- 
pating the  responding  entries  appearing  in  the 
returns  subsequently  received.  In  the  case  of  a 
bank  possessing  only  one  office,  these  entries  will 
be  unnecessary  ;  but  entries  for  unapplied  in- 
terest, etc,  require  to  be  passed  in  every  case. 

The  amount  due  by  the  bank  as  interest 
accrued  but  not  paid,  rebate,  etc.,  forms  a 
charge  on  profit  and  loss,  while  interest,  etc., 
earned  during  the  period  just  closed,  but  which 
has  not  been  applied,  requires  to  be  credited  as 
profit.  Entries,  based  on  the  branch  returns, 
will  accordingly  be  passed. 

Debiting  Profit    Crediting   Sus-    Interest  due  at    date    of 

and  Loss  and        pense  with  balance  by  the  bank  on 

deposit    accounts    and 

deposit  receipts,  rebate 

on  bills  discounted. 

Suspense  Profit   and      Interest  due  at  the  same 

Loss  date  to    the    bank   on 

loans,    overdrafts,    in- 
vestments, rent. 

As  suspense  account  acts  as  a  transfer  account 
between  the  profits  of  one  year  and  another, 
before  any  entries  are  made  relating  to  the  current 
balance  the  sum  resulting  from  those  passed 
at  the  preceding  one  is  removed  from  suspense 
and  carried  to  profit  and  loss.  An  amount  of 
interest  due  to  the  bank,  outstanding  on  the 
30th  June  (the  date  of  the  balance)  and  paid 
the  following  day,  will,  if  the  next  balance  is  on 
the  30th  December,  be  included  in  the  amounts 
of  entries  passed,  as  follows  : 


- 

Debited  to     •                 Credited  to 

.I'll:*-   :;n 
•lulv      1.. 
Dec.   ::u.. 

Suspense 
Current  Accounts 
Interest 
Profit  and  Loss 

Profit  and  Loss 
Interest 
Profit  and  Loss 
.Suspense 

The  amount  of  suspense  account  will  be  in- 
cluded in  the  balance-sheet  in  the  total  of  either 
current  account  deposits  or  loans. 
Continued 


FLOORS  AND  PARTITIONS 

The  Three  Classes  of  Floors—  Single,  Double,  and  Framed.    Floor  Joists.    Ceiling 

Group  4 

BUILDING 
31 

Joists.     Trimming.     Strutting.     Binders.     Girders.     Various  Forms  of  Partitions 

continued  from 
paje  4iJ4 

By  WILLIAM  J.  HORNER 


A  FLOOR  consists  of  a  framework  of  joists 
covered  usually  by  flooring  boards,  the  work 
of  laying  down  the  latter  being  allotted  to  the 
joiner.  Floors  are  no  longer  invariably  constructed 
of  wood  alone.  In  floors  of  large  area,  steel  girders 
are  employed,  and  in  warehouses,  factories,  and 
other  large  buildings  even  flooring  boards  are 
sometimes  discarded  in  favour  of  concrete  or 
other  material.  In  such  cases  there  is  no 
carpentry  work. 

There  are  three  types  of  framework  on  which 
flooring  boards  are  laid,  the  span  of  the  floor 
usually  deciding  which  must  be  employed.  In 
all  cases  the  boards  rest  on  a  series  of  joists  about 
12  in.  apart,  running  in  the  transverse  direction 
to  the  boards.  In  the  simplest  type  of  floor, 
called  a  single,  floor,  these  joists  bridging  from 
wall  to  wall  [284]  are  all  that  is  necessary.  In 
spans  which  exceed  20  ft.,  and  often  in  much 
smaller  ones,  the  joists  themselves  are  supported 
at  one  or  more  intermediate  points  by  a  larger 
transverse  timber  called  a  binder  [285].  This 
intermediate  support  makes  it  possible  to  use 
flooring  joists  of  smaller  dimensions  than  would 
otherwise  be  necessary.  It  is  then  called  a  double 
floor.  In  floors  of  very  large  area,  further  transverse 
members,  known  as  girders  [286],  are  employed 
to  afford  support  to  the  binders.  Such  a  floor 
is  a  framed  floor.  It  is  called  framed  because  the 
girders  and  binders  are  generally  framed  together 
at  the  points  where  they  cross,  but  in  some  cases, 
where  the  increased  depth  of  the  framework  of 
the  floor  is  not  objectionable,  the  binders  rest 
on  top  of  the  girders. 

Single  Floors.  In  single  floors,  where 
joists  alone  are  used,  they  are  usually  made  to 
bridge  the  narrowest  way  of  the  room  or  building. 
Their  ends  rest  on  wall  plates,  or  templets,  which 
in  upper  floors  are  usually  built  into  the  wall, 
and  in  ground  floors  are  set  on  brick  offsets.  Very 
often  offsets  can  be  arranged  for  the  joists  of 
upper  floors  by  reducing  the  walls  in  thickness 
above  each  floor.  When  built  in,  the  templets 
are  of  stone  or  metal,  in  preference  to  wood, 
because  the  latter  decays  in  such  situations  and 
is  bad  in  case  of  fire.  At  least  £  in.  of  air  space 
is  allowed  round  the  ends  of  joists  to  prevent 
decay.  Joists  which  do  not  have  to  span  more 
than  from  about  8  ft.  to  12  ft.,  should  measure 
in  section  about  2  in.  by  8  in.,  which  is  the 
average  dimension,  though  2  in.  thick  is  a 
minimum,  because  a  continuous  line  of  nails 
has  to  be  driven  into  them  to  hold  the  flooring 
boards,  and  less  than  2  in.  would  be  likely  to 
split.  Floor  joists,  like  the  common  rafters  of 
roofs,  do  not  need  to  vary  in  strength  with  the 
area  of  surface  covered,  because  it  is  found  best 
to  support  them  at  intervals  of  about  8  ft. 


Long  timbers  are  generally  slightly  curved  in 
length,  and  should  always  be  laid  the  rounding 
side  up,  to  allow  for  sagging.  Knots,  if  possible, 
should  always  be  at  the  top,  because  they  stand 
compression  better  than  tension,  and  therefore 
are  in  the  best  place  when  in  the  upper  portion 
of  a  beam. 

In  ordinary  dwelling  houses,  single  floors  are 
usually  sufficient  as  far  as  strength  is  concerned, 
but  what  is  rigid  enough  for  a  floor  is  often  not 
sufficiently  so  to  prevent  a  ceiling  below  from 
cracking  if  the  laths  and  plaster  are  attached 
directly  to  the  under  surfaces  of  the  floor  joists. 
Another  objection  to  a  single  floor  is  that  it 
transmits  sound  from  one  room  to  the  other 
very  readily. 

Ceiling  Joists.  Without  introducing 
binders  to  support  the  joists,  these  two  defects 
may  be  reduced  by  attaching  ceiling  joists  to 
the  under  surfaces  of  the  floor  joists  [288], 
contact  between  them  being  made  only  at  every 
fifth  or  sixth  joist,  to  lessen  the  surface  through 
which  sound  can  pass.  This  is  sometimes  called 
a  double  floor,  though  it  differs  from  the  double 
floor  in  which  binders  are  used.  As  ceiling 
joists  have  only  the  laths  and  plaster  of  the 
ceiling  to  support,  they  are  of  small  dimensions 
compared  with  floor  joists,  being  frequently  not 
more  than  1£  in.  by  3  in.,  or  2  in.  by  3  in.  In 
floors  where  they  have  to  span  8  ft.  or  10  ft. 
from  binder  to  binder,  they  may  be  2  in.  by  5  in. 
In  single  floors  ceiling  joists  are  nailed,  and  usually 
notched  as  well,  to  the  unde  •  surface  of  the  joists, 
running,  of  course,  transversely  to  the  latter. 
In  double  floors  they  are  generally  fitted  between 
the  binders  [291]  to  avoid  adding  needless 
depth  to  the  floor.  In  all  cases  they  project 
slightly  below  the  other  members  of  the  floor 
framework,  so  that  when  the  laths  are  nailed  to 
them  there  will  be  no  other  surfaces  to  prevent 
the  plaster  passing  through  and  becoming  keyed 
to  the  laths.  When  ceiling  or  floor  joists  are  more 
than  2  in.  thick,  strips  1  in.  square  are  often 
nailed  to  their  under  surface,  to  attach  the  laths 
to,  thus  affording  a  better  key  tor  the  plaster. 

Trimming.  Examples  of  trimming  are 
shown  in  284.  Trimming  is  necessary  in  almost 
all  floors,  in  order  to  keep  the  joists  clear  of 
fireplaces,  stairways,  and  flues  in  walls.  The 
trimming  pieces  which  enclose  the  open  space 
are  stouter  in  section  than  the  ordinary  joists, 
an  increase  of  an  $  in.  generally  being  added  to 
their  width  for  every  joist  supported  by  them. 
The  joints  are  usually  tusk  tenons,  because  that 
affords  the  best  support  with  the  minimum 
weakening  of  the  timbers.  Sometimes  stirrups 
are  used  instead.  When  the  trimming  can  be 
effected  in  line  with  the  joists,  as  at  A  [284],  it  is, 

4445 


BUILDING 

of  course,  more  satisfactory,  and  when  the  position 
of  a  fireplace  or  stairway  is  fixed  this  sometimes 
makes  it  advisable  to  run  the  joists  the  longest 
instead  of  the  shortest  way  of  the  span,  in  order 
to  simplify  the  trimming.  On  ground  floors  no 
tnmmin./is  r,-«  mired,  i ecause  brickwork  can  be 
built  on:'  to  support  joiste  where  necessary.  Ihe 
trimmed  space  before  fireplaces  is  made  flush 
with  the  floor  boards  by  a  hearthsUne,  the  edges 
,,f  w  hirh  rest  on  the  wood  trimming  and  the  body 
on  a  bed  of  concrete,  which  is  laid  on  an  arch 
within  the  trimmed  space.  This  arch  is  some- 
i  of  wood,  but  more  often  of  brick,  as  in  290. 
times  a  flanged  sheet  of  steel  is  employed. 
When  tin-  arch  is  large,  its  pressure  against  the 
wood  trimming  is  considerable,  and  the  latter  is 
often  better  enabled  to  resist  it  by  the  insertion 
of  long  bolts,  the  nut  ends  of  which  go  through 
the  wood,  while  the  other  ends  are  hooked  and 
built  into  the  wall. 

Strutting.  Struts,  or  braces,  between 
joists  [289]  enable  them  to  assist  each  other  in 
supporting  a  load  and  prevent  them  from  twist- 
ing. They  are  placed  in  continuous  lines  at 
intervals  of  about  4  ft.  In  a  span  of  8  ft.,  for 
instance,  there  would  be  one  line  of  struts  across 
the  centre.  The  herringbone  method  of  strut- 
ting is  the  best  and  most  commonly  employed. 
The  strute  are  in  section  about  2  in.  sq.,  with 
their  ends  cut  to  the  correct  angle.  They 
are  held  by  a  nail  at  each  end,  driven  generally 
through  a  saw  cut  instead  of  a  bored  hole,  as 
the  former  is  more  easily  made,  and  obviates  the 
risk  of  splitting.  Solid  struts  are  also  sometimes 
employed.  They  are  made  slightly  less  hi  depth 
than  the  joists,  and  the  whole  series  are  some- 
times tightened  by  a  long  bolt  passing  through 
the  joists  close  to  the  strutting. 

Pugging.  This  is  often  resorted  to  for  pre- 
venting, as  far  as  possible,  the  passage  of  sound 
and  odour  through  a  floor.  The  carpenter  nails 
til  lets  and  lays  boards  on  them,  as  in  289,  and  on 
this  is  deposited  rubble  or  other  suitable  material 
for  absorbing  sound.  Another  method  is  to 
tack  felt  on  the  tops  of  the  joists.  Sometimes 
felt  is  put  on  in  continuous  sheets  dipping  down 
•  •n  the  joists  so  that  it  will  support  sawdust 
or  otlu-r  material  in  the  same  way  as  the  boarding 
-ho\\n  in  289.  An  objection  to  pugging  is  that 
tin-  absence  of  ventilation  tends  to  induce  dry 
rot  in  the  wood. 

Double    Floors.     A  double  floor  is  made 
floor  joists,  and,  in  most  cases, 
Getting  joists.     In  th^ae  floors  the  binders  usually 
lio  the  shortest  way  of  the  span,  and  they  must 
rest  on  substantial  parts  of  the  building,  never 
where  there  are  window  or  door  openings  below, 
•urse,  is  still  more  important  in  the 
tl    of    fumed    floors.     Fig.    285    shows    a 
douMi-  iliinr  m  which  i\v«i  hinders  are  used,  thus 
•iinj:  the  entire  joist  length  into  three  spans, 
la  many  OMM  only  on.-  hinder  is  necessary  to 
port    th«i    middle    of    the   joists.     The   floor 
npd  ",i  top  of  the  hinders 
2]  or  notched,  and  perhaps  also  supported  on 
fillet*,  as  in  291.     The  ceiling  joists  below  are 
y  notch.-d  on.   ,,r    fitted   between,    some- 
times tenant  I   in   with   chase  mortise-;,   but  a 

HI'. 


better  method  is  that  shown  in  291,  in  which 
they  are  supported  on  fillets.  Binders  are  very 
often  of  steel  instead  of  wood.  Sometimes  they 
extend  below  the  ceiling  level,  as  in  292  and  293, 
and  have  their  corners  rounded  or  beaded  it  ot 
wood,  or  are  boxed  in  if  of  steel.  The  distance 
apart  of  binders  may  vary  greatly  according  to 
circumstances,  but  an  average  distance  is  about 
6  ft.  or  8  ft.  Sometimes,  to  avoid  building  all 
the  joist  ends  into  the  wall,  binders  are  used  to 
support  the  ends  of  the  joists,  leaving  a  little 
clearance  between  wall  and  joist  ends.  Occa- 
sionally, when  steel  binders  are  employed  and 
it  is  desired  to  keep  the  floor  depth  as  shallow 
as  possible,  the  joists  may  'be  framed  between 
the  binders  as  in  294,  or  in  any  other  convenient 
manner,  but,  as  a  rule,  joists  rest  on  top  of 
binders. 

Framed  Floors.  The  girders  of  framed 
floors  [286]  are  now  almost  invariably  of  steel. 
When  of  timber  they  are  generally  flitched  by 
bolting  two  halves  together,  with  an  iron  plate 
between.  In  a  feAv  cases  the  binders  rest  on  top 
of  the  girders,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  are  framed 
together  to  avoid  great  depth  of  floor.  When 
there  is  no  ceiling  the  girders  are  sometimes  placed 
below,  or,  even  with  a  ceiling,  they  can  be  treated 
in  the  same  way  as  the  binder  in  293.  When 
framed  together  in  the  same  plane  the  lower 
flange  of  the  metal  girder  is  utilised  to  support 
the  binder  ends  [295],  and  further  security  is 
obtained  by  bolting  brackets  or  angle  irons  to  the 
sides.  Either  wood  or  metal  members  may  be 
connected  in  this  way,  When  the  girder  is  of 
wood  tusk  tenon  joints  may  be  made,  but  they 
weaken  the  girder  by  the  removal  of  some  of  its 
substance,  and  therefore  it  is  more  satisfactory 
to  support  the  binder  ends  by  light  iron  stirrups 
[296].  Generally,  the  distance  between  girders 
should  not  exceed  10  ft.,  but  this  depends  on 
circumstances.  Binders  are  never  allowed  to 
occur  near  the  middle  of  girders,  but  are  always 
divided  equally  on  each  side  to  strain  them  as 
little  as  possible. 

The  ends  both  of  girders  and  binders  rest 
in  pockets  in  the  walls  [297],  or  on  built  up 
offsets ;  occasionally  on  projecting  corbels, 
but  this  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  either  of  the 
preceding.  They  are  also  often  carried  in  cast- 
iron  shoes  or  stirrups  built  into  the  wall.  If  the 
latter  plan  be  substantially  carried  out,  and  the 
timbers  be  not  heavy,  it  is  better  not  to  let  them 
enter  the  wall  at  all  but  merely  to  rest  in  the 
stirrup,  because  in  case  of  fire  they  cannot  then 
damage  the  wall  when  they  break  and  the 
ends  tilt  up.  Another  good  means  of  accom- 
plishing the  same  end  is  to  bevel  the  ends  of  the 
timbers  as  indicated  by  a  dotted  line  in  297.  This 
does  not  appreciably  diminish  their  strength, 
allows  them  to  enter  the  wall,  and  also  leaves 
plenty  of  air  space.  The  main  timbers  in  ground 
floors  may  be  supported  intermediately  by 
brickwork  [287],  and  those  in  upper  floors  by 
pillars  or  stanchions. 

Flooring  Boards.  These  are  generally  laid 
down  by  the  joiner.  The  forms  of  edge  joints  be- 
tween  boards  have  already  been  shown  in  132  to 
139  [page  3845 j,  but  plain  square  butt  joints  are 


ss^w 


Trimmed    Space 


^SSSSS 


$S?PSiP$$PV 


Trimmed 
Spot^ 


284 


285 


-^r-_;  Boards  ^^^^=^^-'^~-=^~=^ 


lath 


Htrrtnj  Bont    ttrutli^   Solid  Struttla?    BwJt  (»,  Htj^nj 


flur 

Joins 

to 

- 

* 

cm 

OCR 

fe 

* 

Floor 

Jtitts 

> 

? 

(.If 

DIK  L 

J_i_I 

CtUing     Joists 


290 


302 


303 


TIMBER    IN    FLOORS  AND    PARTITIONS 

284.  Single  floor  285.  Double  floor  with  two  binders  286.  Framed  floor  287.  Brickwork  for  main  timbers  288.  Ceiling 
joists  289.  Strutting  and  pugging  290.  Floor  with  brick  arch  for  hearthstone  291.  Double  floor  292.  Cogged  floor  joist 
293.  Steel  binder  in  floor  294.  Joists  framed  between  binders  295.  Floor  showing  girder  and  binders  296.  Binder 
supported  by  iron  stirrups  297.  Wall  pockets  for  girders  and  binders  298.  Simple  partition  299.  Partition  with  boards 

instead  of  laths    300-303.  Trussed  partitions 

4447 


BUILDING 

.  ntlv  employed  for  flooring  boards.  They 
are  generally  nailed  on  to  the  joists  with  flooring 
brads.  In  some  forms  of  joints  these  can  be 

>aled.     Occasionally,    in     high-class     work 

screws  are  used,  their  hen<N  being  sunk  about 

.rid  the  holes  afterwards  plugged  with  wood, 

grain  <»f  which  runs  the  same  way  as  the 
boards.  End  grain  joints  may  be  either  square 
or  splay. --I.  In  the  latter  case  only  the  over- 
ing  part  need  be  nailed.  These  joints  must, 
of  course,  always  occur  on  joists.  For  the  sake 
of  uniformity  the  lengths  are  usually  arranged 
so  that  alternate  boards  are  joined  on  the  same 
joi>t.  An  unbroken  line  of  heading  joints  is 
never  allowed  to  occur  on  one  joist  as  it  would 
be  a  needlessly  weak  arrangement.  To  minimise 
the  ojH-ning  of  joints  through  shrinkage  of 
board>  in  their  width,  they  should  be  well 
seasoned  and  tightly  cramped  together  in  laying. 
Narrow  boards  shrink  less  than  wide  ones.  In 
good  floors  two  thicknesses  of  boards  are  some- 
times laid,  one  at  right  angles  to  the  other.  In 
such  cases  the  upper  series  of  boards  are  usually 
of  hard  wood  and  less  in  thickness  than  the 
lower  ones.  Wood  blocks  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed instead  of  boards,  but  they  are  laid 
on  conerete. 

The  laying  of  floor  boards  should  be  delayed 
•I  long  as  possible  to  avoid  getting  them  swollen 
by  dampness  in  the  building,  and  subsequently 
shrinking  badly.  When  put  down  they  should 
be  as  dry  as  possible.  In  cases  where  two  layers 
of  boards  are  put  down  transversely  to  each 
other,  the  under  ones  may  be  laid  as  soon  as  the 
jui-ts  an-  ready  for  them,  and  the  others  put  on 
when  the  main  work  of  the  building  is  com- 
pleted. 

The  Carpenter's  WorK.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  timbers  are  decided  by  the  span 
and  by  the  weight  the  floor  has  to  carry.  This 
latter  ranges  from  about  1J  cwt.  allowed  for 
each  square  foot  of  floor  surface  in  dwelling- 
houses  to  3  cwt.  in  warehouses  and  factories. 

stability  of  girders  and  binders,  and  the 
supports  on  which  they  rest,  are  of  more  im- 
portance   than    joists,   which    need    not    vary 
»tly  in  ^.,-tion  in  any  floor.     The  carpenter 
a  with  timbers  of  the  section  required 

In,  pptk  ooasfeta  in  cutting  them  to  length' 
k,ln8  l!  y  joints,  and  securing  them 

in  place.     Tins  is  generally  done  while  the  walls 
"  -in  i-oune  of  erection,  because  it  ties  the 
da  so  provides  staging  on  which  planks 
•  la,d  temporarily  for  convenience  in  build- 
<h  the  exception  of  flooring  boards, 

rood 


is  all  concealed  when   W1C   uunu.au 
1    none  ,,f  it  i8  planed,  and  no  § 

*d    be    pa,d    to    appearance.     The    work    is 
Lilly  01  .i  Bmpto  character  when  thp  flrr»™» 
u..  i—       ,     .  .    .  Ul 

th    at 

repeated.    m<l  ; 

•  ••Iv 

J'artition,      between      rooms 

""y    «»f    wo,,d    i..>trad    of    brick 


Partitions. 
•re  very  f ,-,.,, 


H»s 


or  stone.  The  simplest  form  of  partition  is 
shown  in  298.  It  is  called  a  studded  partition, 
and  is  intended  to  rest  on  a  floor  or  joist.  It 
consists  of  a  square  frame,  the  outside  members 
of  which  may  measure  3  in.  by  4£  in.  or  4^  in. 
by  4£  in.  in  section,  filled  in  with  a  series  of  studs 
measuring  2  in.  by  4£  in.  placed  at  intervals  of 
1  ft,  or  2  ft.  Laths  are  nailed  across  these  and 
plaster  laid  on  as  for  a  ceiling.  Another  method 
is  to  use  boards  in  place  of  the  laths  [299],  two 
horizontal  rails  being  shown  in  this  case,  the 
upper  one  corresponding  with  the  top  of  the 
doorway.  Sometimes  the  spaces  between  the 
studs  are  filled  in  with  brickwork,  and  these  are 
called  bricknogged  partitions.  The  partition 
is  usually  4J  in.  thick,  to  correspond  with  the 
bricks,  but  in  some  cases  when  the  partition  is 
very  small,  it  is  made  3  in.  thick,  and  bricks  may 
then  be  built  in  on  edge.  In  many  cases  the 
weight  of  the  partition  cannot  be  allowed  to  rest 
on  a  floor,  but  must  be  carried  directly  by  the 
walls. 

Trussed  Partitions.  The  framework 
then  has  to  be  trussed  in  a  very  similar 
fashion  to  that  of  roofs.  Figs.  300  to  303  are 
examples  of  partitions  which  are  said  to  be 
trussed,  and  which  will  bridge  from  wall  to  wall, 
with  much  more  rigidity  than  the  first  two 
examples.  Doorways  at  the  side  are  usually 
necessary,  and  this  complicates  the  trussing. 
Trussing,  however,  is  not  often  now  carried  out 
so  elaborately  as  formerly,  the  walls  being  often 
bridged  by  a  steel  girder  which  supports  the 
partition,  or  the  partition  is  arranged  to  come 
over  one  of  the  floor  girders  or  binders,  the 
dimensions  of  the  latter  being  increased,  if 
recessary,  to  carry  the  extra  weight. 

The  vertical  studs  are  often  stiffened  by 
transverse  nogging  pieces.  These  may  be  fitted 
between  [300],  generally  out  of  line  as  shown,  for 
convenience  in  nailing  them  in  ;  or  they  may  be 
in  one  piece  notched  in,  either  flush  or  slightly 
below  the  surface  of  the  studs.  In  some  cases 
short  pieces  are  rebated  between,  instead  of 
simply  nailed.  When  laths  and  plaster  have  to 
be  attached,  the  studs  are  generally  a  trifle  wider 
than  other  parts  of  the  framework  of  the  parti- 
tion, so  that  the  latter  will  not  interfere  with  the 
key  of  the  plaster.  As  with  ceilings,  narrow 
strips  are  sometimes  put  on  the  surface  of  wider 
pieces  so  that  when  the  laths  are  on  the  plaster 
will  not  have  its  hold  interfered  with  by  the 
wide  surfaces  immediately  under  the  laths. 
The  attachment  of  narrow  strips  for  this  purpose, 
both  in  ceilings  and  partitions,  is  called  ~brandering, 
or  firring.  Studs  are  stub-tenoned,  and  princi- 
pals tenoned  through  at  top  and  bottom. 

In  large    trussed    partitions   the    joints   and 
methods  of  connection  very  much  resemble  those 
t  king  and  queen  post  roof  trusses.     Straps  and 
bolts  are  used  in  the  same  way,  and  the  methods 
t    jointing    are    the    same.     The    horizontal 
member  at  the  base  is  called  the  sill,  the  one  at 
the  top  the  head,  and  intermediate  ones  intertie. 
vertical  members  at  the  ends  are  wall  po 
those  which  form  doors  are  door  posts. 
Continued 


SOUL  AND   MATTER 

The  Physics  of  the  Body.      Animal  Magnetism.      Mesmerism  and 
Hypnotism.   Psychical  Mysteries  Can  Never  be  Explained  by  Physics 


Group  24 

PHYSICS 
31 

Continued   rom 
page  4'246 


By  Dr.    C.   W.    SALEEBY 


IT  is  good  to  have  the  opportunity  of  discussing, 
however  briefly,  a  subject  of  very  grave  in- 
terest, which  has  unfortunately  lent  itself  to  all 
sorts  of  quackeries  and  abuses.  It  has  long  been 
positively  known  that  the  living  body  possesses 
a  number  of  remarkable  electrical  properties. 
We  have  already  seen,  for  instance,  that  electrical 
changes  are  produced  in  the  retina  of  the  eye  by 
the  influence  of  light.  Muscular  tissue,  also, 
is  the  site,  under  certain  conditions,  of  the 
production  of  an  electric  current.  We  may 
briefly  remind  ourselves  of  the  celebrated  obser- 
vation made  by  Galvani,  in  1786,  of  the  motion 
in  a  frog's  limbs  hung  from  a  metal  railing.  We 
now  know  that  the  muscles  of  that  limb  were 
alive.  No  current  can  be  produced  in  dead 
muscle.  The  brief  facts  we  have  noted  are  only 
indications  of  the  existence  of  a  very  interesting 
branch  of  science  known  as  animal  electricity. 
Mesmer  and  Mesmerism.  But  the 
term  animal  magnetism  has  been  applied  to 
phenomena  of  a  different  kind.  They  were  first 
and  most  notably  exploited  by  the  celebrated 
Anton  Mesmer  (1733-1815).  It  was  his  theory 
that  the  influence  exerted  by  certain  persons 
upon  other  persons,  and  notably  upon  some  of 
their  diseases,  is  really  of  magnetic  origin.  It 
was  a  reasonable  inference  from  this  theory  of 
animal  magnetism  that  similarly  satisfactory 
results  might  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  ordinary 
magnets  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  It  was  not 
long,  however,  before  Mesmer  discovered  that 
this  theory  did  not  hold  ;  nevertheless  the  term 
animal  magnetism  survives  to  this  day,  and  is 
still  used  or  abused  in  many  quarters.  Only  last 
year  (1905),  for  instance,  there  was  published, 
under  the  title  "  Personal  Magnetism,  Telepathy, 
and  Hypnotism,"  a  book  which  contains  a  good 
deal  of  truth,  but  \vhich,  unfortunately,  tends 
to  perpetuate  a  delusion.  We  may  say  posi- 
tively that,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  phrase 
has  been  used  since  it  was  first  coined,  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  animal  magnetism. 

We  must  not  be  misunderstood.  It  is  one 
thing  to  assert  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
animal  magnetism,  another  and  an  entirely 
different  thing  to  deny  the  reality  of  the  remark- 
able and  extremely  important  phenomena  which 
this  stupid  phrase  has  been  called  upon  to 
explain.  Mesmer  was  a  clever  man,  but  he  had 
much  quackery  in  him,  and  his  successor,  the 
Baron  Reichenbach,  was  like  unto  him.  Thii~' 
man  believed  that  he  had  discovered  an  impon- 
derable, or,  as  we  should  now  say,  a  new  form  of 
energy,  which  he  called  odyl,  produced  by 
magnets,  the  human  body,  and  other  means. 

Hypnotism.  It  was  just  about  this  time 
that,  in  1841,  James  Braid,  a  Manchester  sur- 


geon, dismissed  the  physical  explanation  from  the 
realm  of  the  credible  and  raised  the  whole  subject 
to  a  new  plane.  We  owe  to  him  the  now 
recognised  word  hypnotism.  The  terms  mesmer- 
ism and  animal  magnetism  should  be  entirely 
dropped.  They  are  wholly  misleading,  and 
indicate  no  truth  at  all.  Amazing  as  the  facts 
of  hypnotism  and  suggestion  are,  and  of  the 
profoundest  interest  for  the  student  of  the  mind, 
they  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  what 
physicists  have  called  magnetism,  and  the  sooner 
the  fact  is  generally  recognised  the  better. 

It  has  been  thought  by  some  that  the  recent  and 
extraordinary  extension  in  physical  and  chemi- 
cal knowledge  would  reveal  some  basis  of  fact 
for  the  theories  of  those  curious  people  who 
persist  in  desiring  a  materialistic  explanation  for 
these  phenomena.  This  is  not  so,  however. 
Neither  the  "  chemistry  of  the  ion  "  nor  the 
"  chemisty  of  the  electron  " — to  quote  useful 
phrases  employed  by  Sir.  Wm.  Ramsay — 
has  given  the  smallest  indication  of  any  physical 
basis  for  the  facts  of  hypnotic  suggestion  ;  nor 
need  the  N-rays  be  adduced  as  providing  a 
probable  explanation.  Whether  these  N-rays 
exist  or  not,  at  any  rate  they  have  nothing  to 
do  with  hypnotism,  which  is  concerned  with 
the  action  of  mind  upon  mind,  and  with  that 
alone. 

Human  Radio=activity.  The  question 
arises,  however,  whether  there  has  not  been 
demonstrated  such  a  thing  as  human  radio- 
activity, and  whether  this  does  not  furnish  at 
last  a  reasonable  physical  explanation  of  the 
facts  of  suggestion  or  animal  magnetism  so- 
called — the  term  radio-activity  merely  being 
substituted  for  magnetism  in  the  light  of  more 
advanced  physical  knowledge.  In  studying  this 
question,  the  first  point  to  consider  is  the 
existence  of  human  radio-activity.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  it  is  probable  that  radio-activity 
is  a  property  possessed  -in  varying  degrees  by  all 
forms  of  matter,  that  which  composes  the 
living  body  being  no  exception.  But,  as  we  have 
also  seen,  there  is  only  a  very  scanty  group  of 
rare  elements  which  display  radio-activity 
in  anything  like  a  high  degree  ;  indeed,  the 
possession  of  this  property  by  any  elements  other 
than  radium,  uranium,  thorium,  and  a  few 
more,  is  a  matter  of  speculation  and  inference 
rather  than  actual  demonstration.  Now,  though 
traces  of  these  elements  are  possibly  to  be  found 
everywhere,  they  are  certainly  not  amongst 
the  recognised  constituents  of  the  human 
body.  For  practical  purposes,  we  may  say 
that  human  radio-activity  is  a  myth.  If  the 
living  animal  body  displays  any  radio-activity 
at  all,  it  is  entirely  negligible,  being  certainly 

4449 


PHYSICS 

no  greater  than  that  ot  a  host  of  impotent 
substances  which  have  never  been  credited  with 
the  possession  of  "  magnetism."  That  explana- 
tion must  therefore  be  dismissed. 

The  Body  is  not  Radio  -  active.  Ihe 
m  .t  i.  .11 1  hat  the  living  human  body  is  radio-active 
is  due  to  a  popular  error  as  to  the  meaning  of 
the  term  radio  active.  Readers  of  this  and  its 
companion  course  are  aware  that  radio-activity 
is  the  outward  and  visible  sign  of  an  inward 
atomic  evolution,  and  that  this  sign  consists 
of  the  expulsion  of  electrons  or  charged  units 
of  negative  electricity  from  the  radio-active 
atom.  It  has  been  thought,  however,  and  some 
of  the  medical  papers  have  helped  to  propagate 
the  error,  that  the  term  radio-activity  means 
simply  the  production  of  rays.  If  this  were  so, 
the  term  would  have  no  special  meaning  at  all. 
Everything  that  transmitted  light  rays  or  heat 
rays  would  be  radio-active  in  that  sense.  But 
the  rays  produced  by  radio-active  bodies  are  not 
ethereal  waves  at  all,  but  are  actual  particles 
or  corpuscles. 

The  human  body  certainly  does  transmit 
ethereal  waves,  though  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  these  differ  in  quality  or  quantity 
in  different  persons  according  as  whether  they 
possess  a  high  or  low  degree  of  personal  magnetism 
lied.  The  body  reflects  light  that  falls 
upon  it.  It  also  emits  in  large  degree  the  waves 
of  radiant  heat.  If  we  are  to  believe  Professor 
Blondlot,  the  body  also  produces  the  particular 
kind  of  ethereal  waves  that  are  named  after  him, 
and  if  we  are  to  believe  his  colleague,  Professor 
Charpentier,  these  are  produced  in  exceptional 
degree  by  active  nervous  tissue.  None  of  these 
properties,  however,  has  anything  to  do  with 
radio-activity. 

Non-physical  Explanation  of  Psychi- 
cal Things.  Furthermore,  all  these  properties 
may  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the  causation 
of  the  facts  of  suggestion.  We  may  study  the 
physics  of  the  body  as  closely  as  we  please,  but 
\\t-  find  nothing  whatever  that  affords  a  physical 
ur  materialistic  explanation  of  these  facts.  On 
the  contrary,  we  are  confirmed  more  than  ever 
in  our  knowledge  that  they  have  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with  anything  physical  or 
•i.il.  They  belong  to  a  totally  different 
order  ..f  exigence,  and  no  matter  how  subtle 
nr  retined  .. i  impalpable  our  conceptions  of 
}>hy-ie;il  exi-tence  may  become,  we  are  not  one 
uliit  nearer  finding  the  psychical  in  the  physical. 
The  difteranoe  between  the  two  is  the  most  ulti- 
mate, fundamental  and  absolute  of  all  differences 
in  tii.-  universe  ;  all  other  differences  are  super- 
ficial. Any  kind  of  matter  or  energy  can  be  trans- 
i-d,  we  may  believe,  into  any  other  kind,  but 
soul  can  never  be  expressed  in  terms  of  matter. 

Th.-  term  i*r#tnal  magnetism  is  only  one  more 
illustration  «,f  the  constant  attempt  to  explain 
the  psychical  m  terms  of  the  physical.  If  the 
reader  desires  to  realise  how  constant  this 
>!<t  is.  let  him  study  the  materialism  which 
"•J1  and  still  is,  the  curse  of  religion, 

and  from  uhich  only  the  religious  conceptions 
OltM  Ira  m  any  a>:,-  an  free  ;  then  let  him  turn 


Continued 


to  language  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  two 
meanings  of  the  word  spirit,  he  will  realise  that 
men  have  always  tried  to  express  the  psychical  in 
terms  of  the  rarefied  physical. 

The  Materialism  of  Human  Think- 
ing.  Thus,  in  discussing  the  phenomena  of 
suggestion  and  hypnotism,  we  must  be  entirely 
independent  of  any  physical  terms.  We  have 
to  employ  such  words  as  suggestion  and  sub- 
consciousness,  but  we  will  surely  err  whenever 
we  introduce  material  language.  The  ex- 
planation of  the  whole  illusion  is  immensely 
significant  ;  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  incurable 
materialism  of  nearly  all  human  thinking.  A 
purely  psychical  explanation  will  never  satisfy 
anyone  but  the  philosopher.  The  common 
people  want  something  material,  but,  of  course, 
they  want  it  rarefied.  They  will  be  most  in- 
dignant if  it  is  suggested  that  the  soul  con- 
sists of  matter — and  rightly  so.  But  if  we  suggest 
that  the  basis  of  the  soul  is  electrical  or  ethereal, 
they  are  impressed,  not  realising  that  this 
explanation  is  just  as  materialistic  as  the  other, 
and  equally  worthless.  Thus,  even  at  the  present 
day,  when  some  people  who  sternly  reprobate 
materialism  find  solace  in  ridiculously  material- 
istic explanations  of  psychical  phenomena,  we 
see  the  persistence  of  that  habit  of  mind  which 
the  study  of  religions  and  the  study  of  language 
— which  is  almost  incurably  materialistic — 
proves  to  have  prevailed  amongst  mankind 
throughout  the  whole  of  history. 

Thirty  years  ago  it  was  thought  by  some 
that  physics,  or,  rather,  the  group  of  sciences 
which  we  include  under  that  term,  was  ap- 
proaching something  like  finality.  There  was 
doubtless  much  room  for  improvement  in  detail, 
but  the  great  discoveries  had  been  made.  The 
last  decade,  however,  has  witnessed  what  is 
nothing  less  than  a  transformation  of  many 
aspects  of  physics  and  the  addition  to  it  of  new 
sciences.  Radio-activity  is  by  no  means  the  only 
subject  which  has  sprung  into  new  existence  of 
late  years.  We  must  attempt  to  outline  the 
main  facts  of  some  of  these  in  the  brief 
remainder  of  our  course. 

The  Higher  Psychics.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  we  shall  recognise  how  the  "  Great  Mother  of 
the  Sciences,"  in  giving  birth  to  all  these  young 
children,  has  not  lost  her  maternal  control  over 
them.  On  the  contrary,  every  day  shows  more 
clearly,  first,  that  each  development  in  physics 
may  be  trusted  to  throw  light  upon  subjects 
which,  at  first,  may  seem  scarcely  cognate,  and,  in 
the  second  place,  that  the  empire  of  physics  is 
steadily  widening.  Already  we  are  on  the  verge 
of  explaining  all  chemistry  in  physical  language, 
as  being  none  other  than  a  matter  of  applied  elec- 
tricity, and  the  time  is  at  hand  when  the  whole  of 
astronomy  will  be  similarly  included  within  the 
grasp  of  the  great  principles  of  physics.  We  can- 
not yet  say  that  biology  itself  must  be  regarded 
;is  dcmonstrably  no  more  than  a  higher  physics, 
but  the  more  closely  we  study  living  things  and 
living  matter,  looking  at  them  dynamically  as  well 
as  statically,  the  more  certain  are  we  that  this 
statement  will  one  day  be  regarded  as  a  platitude. 


REFINING    SUGAR 

Group  16 

FOOD  SUPPLY 

Melting,  Filtering-,  Decolorising,  and  Boiling  Down  Processes.  Crystallisation. 
Loaf,  Cube  and  Granulated  Sugar.     Treacle.     Golden  Syrup.     The  Refinery 

10 

tCGAB 

continue  d  from 
page  4oS4 

Lv 

It 

cc 


""THE  term  refined  sugar  is  used  for  those  finer 
*  qualities  which  are  made  from  raw  sugar  at 
central  refineries,  and  in  which  animal  charcoal 
has  been  used  for  decolorising.  The  term  is 
often  incorrectly  applied  to  chemically  treated 
beet  sugars.  Sugar  refining  is  mainly  a 
mechanical  process,  and  consists  briefly  in  dis- 
solving the  sugar  in  water,  filtering  through 
cloth  to  take  out  suspended  matter,  and  then 
through  animal  charcoal  to  remove  colour.  The 
clear  bright  liquid  is  finally  evaporated  and 
boiled  to  crystallisation. 

Preliminary  Treatment.  The  raw  sugar 
is  usually  submitted  to  a  preliminary  treatment 
before  the  first  stage.  The  raw  sugar  is  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  syrup,  put  into  a  centri- 
fugal apparatus,  and  washed  with  steam  until 
the  syrup  flowing  from  the  centrifuge  comes  away 
of  a  light  colour.  Raw 
sugar  may  be  said  to 
consist  of  sugar  crystals 
and  molasses,  and  by 
washing  out  the  latter 
the  purity  of  the  sugar 
is  at  once  raised  by  this 
treatment.  The  method 
was  first  suggested  by 
Weinrich,  but  much 
improved  subsequently 
by  Duncan  and  New- 
lands  chiefly  in  the 
method  of  admitting 
steam  and  separating 
the  grades  of  syrup.  The 
process  separates  the 
raw  sugar  into  partly 
refined  crystals  and 
washings  containing  a 
good  proportion  of  the 
molasses. 

Melting.  The  partly 
refined  sugar  is  dissolved  in  water,  or  as  it  is 
termed  melted,  the  melting-pans,  holding  3  tons 
to  10  tons,  being  known  as  blowups.  The  sugar 
is  passed  through  a  grating  into  the  blow-up, 
hich  is  provided  with  a  false  bottom,  stirring 
gear,  and  heating  arrangement  either  of  copper 
coils  or  for  live  steam  [21].  Here  the  sugar  is 
melted  at  a  temperature  of  150°  F.  to  170°  F. 
to  a  syrup  of  28°  Beaume,  and  is  then  filtered. 
In  the  case  of  low  quality  sugars  defecants  are 
used  in  the  blow-ups,  the  oldest  and  best 
known  being  blood. 

Filtration.  Most  refineries  in  Great  Britain 
use  the  old  Taylor  bag  or  stocking  filter  [22] 
for  clearing  the  liquor  produced  above,  although 
the  Danek  filter  is  the  favourite  on  ths  Continent. 
The  filter  presses  described  under  Beet  Sugar 
Manufacture  are  also  used,  but  not  to  any  great 
extent  [page  4163].  The  Taylor  filter  consists  of 


21.    MELTING    OR 


«•  Charging 


ng  opening     b.  Steam 
heating 


a  large  iron  chamber  with  tightly-fitting  doors 
in  the  front,  At  the  top  is  the  tank  or  filter  head, 
leading  to  a  series  of  metal  sockets  to  which  long 
filter  bags  are  attached.  These  bags  are  made  of 
twilled  cotton  measuring  6  ft.  long  and  2  ft.  to  3  ft. 
wide  when  opened  out,  The  bags  are  put  into 
sheaths  of  coarser  material,  and,  the  sheaths  being 
smaller  than  the  bags,  a  larger  filtering  surface 
is  ensured.  The  bags  are  securely  fastened  on  to 
the  nozzles,  and  hang  inside  the  chamber,  which 
is  fitted  with  steam  heating  appliances.  A  filter 
chamber  contains  200  to  500  of  the  filter  bags, 
and  each  bag  can  be  separately  controlled  by 
plugging  the  hole  leading  to  it  from  the  filter 
head,  this  being  necessary  when  one  of  the  bags 
turns  out  to  be  defective.  Some  modern  forms 
of  Taylor  filters  have  removable  filter  heads, 
so  that  the  whole  battery  of  filter  bags  can  be 

removed     at    once   and 

replaced  by  a  fresh  set. 
The  liquor  from  the 
blow-ups  is  run  on  to 
the  filter  head,  and 
passes  into  the  bags,  the 
temperature  being  main- 
tained by  letting  steam 
into  the  filter  chamber. 
When  the  bags  become 
blocked  up  with  dirt  the 
liquid  ceases  to  pass, 
the  supply  of  liquid  is 
cut  off,  and  the  bags 
allowed  to  drain.  The 
bags  are  then  detached, 
and  washed  systemati- 
cally in  several  tanks 
of  warm  water,  the 
washings  being  reserved 
on  account  of  the  sugar 


BLOW-UP  PAN 

valve     c.  Steam  injector  for 


Decoloration.  From  the  Taylor  filter 
the  bright  liquid  is  passed  to  large  char  cisterns. 
These  are  iron  towers  from  18  ft.  to  50  ft,  high, 
filled  with  animal  charcoal  or  char.  The  bottom 
of  the  char  cistern  is  a  perforated  plate  covered 
with  a  blanket,  and  on  this  the  char  is  packed 
to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  top.  The  bright 
liquor,  still  warm,  is  allowed  to  flow  in  at  the  top, 
and,  when  full  of  liquid,  the  bottom  cock  is 
turned  off  and  the  whole  left  to  "  settle  "  for 
some  hours.  A  char  filter  holding  20  tons  of 
char  has  room,  in  addition,  for  about  10  tons  of 
liquor.  After  a  few  hours,  the  cock  at  the  bottom 
is  opened,  and  the  liquor,  now  free  from  colour, 
drains  away.  More  liquor  is  slowly  introduced, 
until  the  filtrate  becomes  tinted,  Avhen  the 
stream  of  liquid  is  passed  into  a  separate  vessel 
for  a  lower  grade  product.  This  is  continued 
until  the  colour  shows  that  the  char  has  ceased 

4451 


FOOD     SUPPLY 

to  work,  when  the  -upply  of  liquor  at  the  top  is 

,-ut   otf    and  what   remains  in  tlu-  char  cistern 

ned  oil:  the  char  is  then  washed  with  hot 

:    and  the  washings  run  into  tin-  sweet-water 

t  ink  as  long  as  they  >huu  th«-  present  of  notable 

quantities    of     sugar. 

The  char  is  in  this  way 

w.i>h.-(l  till  the    water 

tear,  when  it   is 

,1   to  drain,  and 

'he.-lmr  taken  out  ami 

!,-\i\itied   by  Inirning. 

In  some  sugar  houses. 

-ulphurous      acid      is 

added    to  tin-   yellow 

liquor    and    exerts  a 

\.-ry  effectual  bleach- 


and although  the  char  can  be  revivified  a 
large  number  of  times  there  comes  a  time 
when  the  organic  bodies  referred  to  are  used  up 
and  the  charcoal  is  useless. 

Alternative  processes  of  revivification  have  been 
suggested  by  artificial 
cultures  of  bacteria. 

Many  substitutes  for 
char  have  been  pro- 
posed, several  of  them 
containing  carbona- 
ceous matter  with 
absorbent  earths.  They 
fall  far  short  of  char. 

Boiling  down  is 
effected  in  the  multiple 
effect  apparatus  and 
vacuum  pans  described 
in  the  article  on  beet- 
root sugar  manu- 
facture. 
Crystallisation  in 


ing  action,  any  excess 
of  acid  being  expelled 
in  the  subsequent  heat- 
ing operations.  Char- 
waging  machines  are  22.  TAYLOR  rliji^ 
much  used.  Motion.  In  loyl  tne 
Reburning  Char.  The  revivification  of  Machinenfabrik  Grevenbroich  patented  their 
the  charcoal  is  effected  in  pipe  kilns  [23].  The  method  of  crystallising  in  motion — a  distinct 
pipe  kiln  consists  of  a  series  of  cast-iron  pipes  advance  on  previous  practice.  The  massecuite 
into  which  the  char  is  placed  and  heat  applied  to  .from  the  pan  is  run  into  the  apparatus,  which 


the  outside  of  the  pipes.  The 
kilns  are  heated  either  by 
direct  coke  firing  or  by  gas,  the 
advantages  of  the  latter 
method  being  that  there  is  an 
economy  of  fuel,  absence  of 
allies,  and  greater  uniformity 
in  heating.  Beneath  the  kiln 
pipes  are  corresponding  cooling 
pipes.  The  char  is  brought  to 
th<>  kilns  wet,  and  is  first  dried 
and  then,  having  been  filled 
into  the  kiln  pipes,  is  heated 
red  hot.  The  char  is  next 
to  the  cooling  pipes 
iieneiith  by  means  of  discharge 
Hie  contents  of  the 
cooling  pipes  being  passed  to  a 
h"pper,  and  from  this  taken  to 
the  <  liar  cistern  for  use  again. 

Animal   Charcoal. 

Animal     charcoal    is    prepared 

from  bon.-s   by  first   demv.iHim 

them  by  heating  with  water   or 

B1    such  as  hcn/.ene.  and 

ii-lM.nising   the    bunes    in 

retorta.    The  carbonising  takes 

-'lit    hours    and    during 

"•ess  bone  oil    and   am- 


"'H'-'-ted         M-parately.         The 
thru    pla-ecl 

•iiiht     bins  to    rool.  and. 
">"li"U.      ern>hed     and 
graded  by  -iftin>r.  Su^ar  ieii,1(.,-s 
•i    line    trrain    ,-har    for 
•;MM« 


23 


<  M  All    REVIVIFYING     KILN 

'•'.   lim-liaiian  &  .Son,  Liverpool) 


takes  the  form  of  a  large  cylin- 
der, and  is  kept  in  very  slow 
movement  by  a  stirring  arrange- 
ment. In  most  cases  hot  water 
is  circulated  in  the  outer  vessel 
to  control  the  cooling,  and  in 
some  cases  the  vessel  is  airtight 
and  worked  under  a  partial 
vacuum,  air  pressure  being 
utilised  to  empty  the  pan  when 
finished.  The  process  prevents 
the  formation  of  small  grain  by 
inducing  the  crystallisable  parts 
of  the  massecuite  to  grow  on 
crystals  already  formed  or  intro- 
duced. In  the  latter  case  the 
crystals  are  brought  up  to  the 
temperature  of  the  massecuite 
before  being  added.  The  advan- 
tage of  having  large  crystals 
over  small  ones  is  that  the 
separation  of  molasses  in  the 
centrifugal  machines  is  much 
facilitated. 

The  method  is  used  in  beet 
sugar  manufacture  as  well  as  for 
residual  products  of  the  refinery. 

Centrifugal  Machines. 
When  sugar  is  to  be  machined 
it  is  run  from  the  vacuum  pan 
into  a  heater  fitted  with  stirring 
gear.  From  this  it  is  placed 
into  the  baskets  of  centrifugal 
machines  which,  when  revolved 
at  a  high  speed,  throw  out  the 
syrup.  The  sugar  is  more  or 


,Uh>'  «•  «  aon,  uverpooi)          ^washed,    discharged     into 

'  I  til     I"  7h     '",     <>HS,lly  "to™***  >>«t      bin«,  airdried,  and  packed  in  bags  holding  2  cwt. 
»•  Play  un   uuportant      for  sale.    The  syrups  and  washings  are  collected 
separately;  from    the  syrups  another    crop  of 
crystals  is  obtained,   while  the  washings,  being 


^seolour  al,,,rl>ers.      These  or^anie'  Udies 
ivcd  out  by  the  sugar  liquors 


has   washing   or 


purer,  arc  boiled  up  with  the  liquors  used  for 
producing  first  product  sugar.  The  centrifugal 
machine  [24]  is  an  apparatus  which  by  water, 
belt,  or  electrical  driving  is  spun  at  a  rate 
varying  from  500  to  1,200  revolutions  a  minute. 
It  is  arranged  for  discharging  the  contents 
at  the  top  or  bottom  and  h 
steaming  appliances.  Super- 
heated steam  is  used  in  the 
Baker  process.  The  basket  into 
which  the  sugar  is  placed  is  made 
of  perforated  metal,  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  basket  causing  the 
mass  of  crystals  and  molasses 
to  be  violently  thrown  against 
the  inner  wall  ;  the  molasses 
and  a  portion  of  the  crystals 
pass  through  the  perforations, 
but  the  greater  part  of 
the  crystals  are  retained 
in  the  basket.  Centrifugals 
are  either  driven  or  sus- 
pended, the  latter  type 
being  used  more.  The  size 
of  the  basket  is  30  in. 
diameter,  but  a  larger  size 
of  48  in.  diameter  is  in 
use  which,  although  econo- 
mising labour,  takes  more 
power  to  drive. 

Loaf  Sugar.  The 
oldest  form  of  refined 
sugar  is  the  sugar  loaf. 
To  make  these  the  masse- 
cuite is  formed  with  a  small  grain,  run  into  a 
heater  and  raised  to  between  180°  and  190°  F. 
From  this  the  mass  is  run  into  conical  iron 
moulds,  which  have  a  small  hole  at  the  top 
or  cone  and  a  series  of  moulds  is  placed  cone 
downwards  in  a  supporting  frame.  The  hole 
at  the  bottom  is  stopped  up  with  a  wooden 
tipike.  When  the  sugar  has  partly  solidified  the 
contents  of  the  mould  are  mixed  up  with  a 
''brushing 
off' ;  hook  with 
the  object  of 
making  the 
x  t  u  r  e 
throughout 

le  loaf  even. 
?he       moulds 

?main  in  the 
illing  -  house 
for  10  or  12 
hours  and  by 
that  time  the 
contents  have 
become  solid. 
Next,  the 


24.  CENTRIFUGAL  MACHINES 
(Watson,  Laidlaw    &  Co.,  Glasgow) 


25.     GRANULATOR 

u.  Charging  hopper     ft.  Discharge  valve      c.  Steam  inlet   pipe    d.  Water  outlet  pipe 


moulds  are  removed  to  a  warm  room,  the  plugs 
in  the  cones  removed  and  "  green  "  syrup  drips 
from  the  mould  for  about  24  hours.  A  process 
known  as  liquoring  then  takes  place.  The  top 
surface  of  the  sugar  is  removed,  mixed  with  syrup 
(white  liquor,  clear  e,  or  clairce),  and  replaced. 
White  liquor  is  then  fed  on  to  the  top  of  the 
loaf  and  drains  from  the  cone,  taking  with  it 
any  coloured  impurities  that  remain  in  the 


FOOD     SUPPLY 

sugar.  The  liquoring  is  repeated  several  times, 
blued  water  being  used  for  the  final  liquoring 
until  the  runnings  are  quite  clear  and  the  loaves 
of  uniform  whiteness.  Special  appliances  are 
in  use  for  supplying  measured"  quantities  of 
clairce  to  the  cones,  and  suction  apparatus 
worked  by  compressed  air  is  employed  (by 
Steffen  &  Scheibler)  to  hasten 
the  passage  of  the  liquor  through 
the  sugar  loaf.  The  loaves  are 
eventually  taken  out  of  the 
moulds,  dried  in  racks,  and 
wrapped  up  in  thick  paper.  The 
process  takes  about  a  fortnight. 
The  blued  water  referred  to  above 
is  prepared  from  pure  ultramarine, 
the  purpose  of  the  slight  addition 
of  blue  being  to  correct  any  re- 
maining tint  of  yellow. 
Special  centrifugal  ma- 
chines are  made  for  purg- 
ing sugar  loaves  in  the 
centrifuge,  and  many 
machines  have  been 
devised  for  finishing  off 
the  loaves  and  also  for 
cutting  them  into  cubes. 

Cube  Sugar.  The 
slowness  of  the  method 
of  making  sugar  loaves 
has  led  inventors  to  study 
the  question  of  how  to 
make  cube  sugar  in  a 
quicker  manner.  Many 
inventions  to  this  end,  which  involve  similar 
principles,  have  been  patented.  The  massecuite 
is  boiled  to  small  grain  and  filled  into  divided 
moulds  of  such  a  size  that  a  plate  of  sugar  is 
produced.  The  moulds  are  either  a  kind  of 
centrifugal  basket  or  contrived  to  fit  into  the 
centrifugal  basket.  The  massecuite  is  cooled  in 
the  mould,  during  which  process  the  crystals  are 
joined  together  by  a  secondary  crystallisation. 

The  cooled 
moulds  are 
then  put  in  the 
centrifugal  and 
the  syrup  spun 
out.  The 
plates  are  also 
washed  with 
clairce,  which 
is  in  turn  spun 
out.  The 
moulds  are 
removed  and 
taken  apart, 
the  plates  of 
sugar  being 
special  store  in  a 


separated  and  dried  in  a 
current  of  hot  air.  W'hen  the  plates  of  sugar  are 
dry,  they  are  cut  up  into  cubes  in  machines 
invented  for  the  purpose.  The  Adant  cube  sugar 
process  is  worked  on  the  above  lines. 

Cube  Sugar  is  Ousting  Loaf  Sugar. 
Another  principle  adopted  in  some  machines, 
such  as  the  Hersey  cube  machine,  is  to  produce 
sticks  or  cubes  of  sugar  by  means  of  pressure 

4453 


FOOD     SUPPLY 

trum  -.it.  uhite  sugar  that  has  been  dried  and 

nu^cd  in  the  centrifuge.     Tliis  process  is  much 

iujed  in  tli.-  rnitcd  States.     The  method  outlined 

in  which  the  cubes  are  made  from  the 

maoM-cuite  direct,  is  preferable.     The  cube  form 

•  n-plji-.-inji  the  Did  form  of  loaf  sugar. 

Granulated  Sugar.  Granulated  sugar  is 
nriKlui •••<!  l.y  the  Hersey  process, patented  in  187J. 
I'll.-  granalator  [  25]  consists  of  an  outer  conveyer 
cylinder  23  ft.  long,  6  ft.  diameter,  inside  which  is 
I  In-  cylinder  '2:}  ft.  long,  and  30  in.  diameter, 
K'ed  to  revolve  about  five  times  in  a  minute, 
and  heated  internally  by  steam.  The  granulator 
is  inclined  from  the  horizontal  position,  so  that 
introduced  at  one  end  travels  mechanically 
to  tin-  lower  end.  A  current  of  air  is  passed 
MI-  driven  through  the  drying  chambers  to 
absorb  the  moisture  that  arises  from  the  sugar 
during  its  passage  through  the  granulator. 
Sugar  is  first  washed  in  a  centrifuge,  and  then 
passed  through  the  granulator,  about  30  barrels 
of  sugar  being  treated  in  an  hour. 

The  effective  drying  of  sugar  is  an  important 
matter,  since,  if  it  be  stored  in  a  moist  condition, 
much  deterioration  or  "  greying  "  results,  owing 
to  the  action  of  bacteria  developed  on  the  sugar. 
A  sugar  store  that  has  become  infected  with 
"  greying  "  bacteria  must  be  thoroughly  disin- 
fected, Tnl lens's  formaldehyde  lamp  being  useful 
for  this. 

Other  Methods  of  Refining.  Alcohol 
-u^rstrd  for  refining  sugar  by  Duncan 
and  Ncwlands  as  long  ago  as  1878.  The 
sugar  was  heated  Avith  alcohol  when  the  sugar 
was  dissolved ;  then,  on  cooling,  the  sugar  was 
deposited  in  a  pure  state.  Ten  pounds  of  sugar 
required  three  gallons  of  alcohol.  But  the  high 
cost  of  the  alcohol  and  the  expense  due  to  loss 
.in-  prohibitive. 

In    Langan's    process       the    raw     sugar    is 

mi-.ed  with  a  saturated  syrup  so  as  to  make  a 

kind  of  artificial  massecuite.     The  mass  is  drawn 

into  a  vacuum  pan    for    the  removal  of  small 

grain  and  any  contained  air.     The  mass  is  boiled 

t«.   fun n   .1    natural  massecuite,  then  cooled  in 

crystallisers  to  about  49°  C.,  and  subjected  to  a 

mat  it  washing  and  liquoring  with  saturated 

\  i  iij)  to  increase  the  purity.     The  sugar  is  then 

dissolved  in   the    washing  receptacle   itself  by 

MS  of  a  special  appliance.     The  object  of  the 

Langan  process  is  to  prevent  the  waste  of  sugar 

ordinarily  dm-  to  Dilution  of  the  crystals  in  the 

« ,-nt ri fu^al  machines.     By  using  saturated  syrup 

ilii>  diflinilty   i>  overcome. 

Fontenille  and  Desormeaux's  Pro- 
cess. Th«-  Fon t.-ni lie  and  Desormeaux  process 
was  patented  in  IMIS,  th.-  claim  bring  that  by 
A  Mijrar  can  he  converted  in  less  than 
four  hours  into  n-fini-d  sugar  in  pieces  ready 
for  deliv.iv  to  the  consumer.  The  method  is 
1  in  the  following  stages: 

1  N!l1'  '!"•  tan  Migur  at  a  temperature  of 
from  70°  to  7.-,  C.  .ind  at  a  density  of  about  28 
Beaume 

Add  finely-powdered  animal  charcoal  in  the 
rtiMi,  ,,f  from  .">  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  raw 
r,  and  mix  at  above  temperature  until  the 
MfcmrfetfsefaMged  from  the  rogar. 
MM 


3.  Filter  in  press-filter,  or  separate  the  sugar  in 
a  centrifugal  machine,   the  charcoal  being  re- 
covered and  washed. 

4.  Reheat  the  syrup  to  75°  C. 

5.  Pass   the  syrup  through  bag  filters  undei 
pressure. 

6.  Concentrate,  and  boil  to  grain. 

7.  Pass  the  massecuite  into  moulds  or  crystal- 
lising apparatus,  or  submit  to  centrifugal  action. 
If  poured  into  moulds  only  one  cleansing  is  re- 
quired;    if  into  a  crystallising  apparatus,  the 
syrup  is    sucked    away    by   vacuum,  and    one 
cleansing  only  is  needed.     When  the  centrifugal 
method  is  used   the   mass   is   cleansed  in  the 
centrifuge. 

8.  The  mass  from  the  crystallising  apparatus, 
or  centrifuge,  is  broken  up  and  sifted,  and  then 
sent  to  the  moulding  machine  after  moistening 
with  2  or  3  per  cent,  of  blue  water. 

9.  The    moulding    machine    forms  the  pieces 
of  the  size  required  for  sale  by  pressing.     The 
pieces  are  expelled  mechanically. 

10.  The  pieces  are  dried  in  a  store  at  60°  C., 
either  in  air  or  vacuum. 

Crosfield  and  Stein's  Process.  The 
Crosfield  and  Stein  process  depends  on  the 
treatment  of  the  acid  solution  of  sugar  with 
peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

The  raw  sugar  is  melted  at  about  160°  F., 
and  the  acidity  brought  up  to  about  0*02  per 
cent,  with  phosphoric  acid.  The  acid  sugar 
liquor  at  about  27°  Beaume,  and  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  180°  F.,  is  treated  with  0 '01  to  1  per  cent, 
of  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  subsequently  with 
0-005  to  0'6  per  cent,  of  tannic  acid  ;  then  with 
0'05  to  0'2  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  this 
treatment  partly  destroying  the  colour.  Where 
deemed  necessary  the  liquor  may  be  treated 
with  sulphurous  acid.  The  liquor  is  next  filtered, 
and  the  filtrate  is  treated  with  O'Ol  to  1  per 
cent,  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  and  phosphate 
of  soda  or  ammonia  in  quantities  of  about 
0-005  to  0-2  per  cent. 

The  liquor  is  passed  through  a  filter  press, 
and  the  clear,  bright  solution  boiled  to  crystals 
in  a  vacuum  pan.  The  massecuite,  which  is 
very  white  and  bright,  is  machined  in  centri- 
fugal machines,  and  washed  therein  with  concen- 
trated syrup,  or,  if  desired,  sugar  solution  and 
peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

Robin  =  Langlois'  Process.  By  the 
Robin -Langlois  method,  patented  in  1898,  the 
fibres  and  dust  in  the  sugar  are  removed  by 
blowing  air  across  a  stream  of  sugar  falling  from 
a  hopper  on  to  a  series  of  inclined  boards. 
The  sugar  is  then  crushed  and  treated  with 
steam  in  order  to  introduce  a  definite  small  pro- 
portion of  moisture,  and  to  brighten  the  facets 
of  the  small  crystals.  This  operation  is  per- 
formed in  the  mixer  for  the  sake  of  uniformity. 
Jets  of  steam  or  atomised  water  impinge  against 
angle  plates,  whence  they  rebound  on  to  the 
sugar,  falling  from  the  supply  tube  into  the 
mixer  in  two  streams. 

The  mixer  is  essentially  an  annular  space 
between  two  concentric  hot- water  jackets,  the 
rotating  blades  and  sugar  being  contained 
in  this  space  at  a  desired  high  temperature. 


The  discharge  hole  of  the  mixer  stands  above 
an  annular  trough  in  a  revolving  circular  table, 
the  circumference  of  the  two  machines  inter- 
secting to  the  necessary  extent. 

The  circular  table  contains  on  its  periphery  a 
trough  across  which  the  moulds  are  arranged 
radially  in  juxtaposed  boxes.  These  moulds 
are  open  at  the  top,  and  have  perforated  bot- 
toms. They  are  locked,  disengaged,  and  opened 
by  special  appliances  which  enable  them  to 
work  continuously  and  to  be  emptied  without 
injury  to  the  bars  of  sugar.  As  the  annular 
series  of  moulds  revolve,  they  pass  in  turn  under 
the  discharge  hole  of  the  mixer,  and  are  filled 
with  sugar  by  inclined  scrapers  ;  they  then  pass 
on,  and  the  sugar  in  each  mould  is  compressed 
by  a  corrugated  roller,  fixed  in  relation  to  the 
table,  but  revolving  on  its  own  axis,  so  that  its 
projections  correspond  consecutively  with  each 
mould.  At  a  further  stage  of  the  revolution 
the  moulds  are  automatically  placed  under 
vacuum  and  the  syrup  sucked  out,  and  when 
dry  they  are  unlocked,  emptied,  and  read- 
justed continuously  by  the  devices  mentioned 
above. 

La  Fontaine's  Process.  In  the  La  Fon- 
taine method  the  patentee  employs  the  reducing 
agents  to  the  massecuite  instead  of  the  raw  juice. 
Ten  parts  by  volume  of  liquid  sulphurous  acid 
is  diluted  with  100  parts  of  water,  and  4  litres 
of  this  liquid  is  added  at  intervals  of  five  minutes 
to  100  kilos  of  massecuite  previously  diluted 
with  molasses  from  a  preceding  operation.  The 
mass  is  well  mixed,  allowed  to  rest  for  an  hour, 
and  then  centrifugalised.  When  the  greater 
part  of  the  molasses  has  separated,  2  litres 
of  the  sulphurous  acid  solution  is  added  by  an 
atomiser  jet  to  attack  any  colouring  matter  that 
may  have  escaped  action  and  be  still  adhering 
to  the  crystals.  By  means  of  a  perforated 
tube  depending  into  the  centrifugal  machine, 
a  mixture  of  dry  steam  and  peroxide  of  hydro- 
gen (6  vol.  strength)  is  injected  to  remove  any 
remaining  sulphurous  acid.  After  five  minutes 
of  this  treatment  the  crystals  become  remarkably 
white  and  completely  transparent,  thus  indicat- 
ing their  purity.  Although  this  process  does 
not  properly  come  under  the  head  of  refining 
sugar,  it  is  given  here  as  indicating  one  of  the 
newer  methods  of  whitening  sugar. 

Ranson  Process.  In  the  Hanson  process 
the  syrup  is  made  alkaline  witb  barium  hydrate 
or  sodium  carbonate,  and  hydrogen  peroxide 
added  in  the  proportion  of  from  |  litre  to  5  litres 
per  100  kilos  of  sugar,  according  to  the  colour 
of  the  product.  The  decoloration  is  effected 
gradually.  To  every  100  kilos  of  sugar  100 
grammes  of  powdered  animal  charcoal  freed  from 
phosphate  is  added  to  accelerate  the  liberation 
of  oxgyen  from  the  hydrogen  peroxide  by  Avhich 
the  decoloration  is  effected.  The  excess  of' 
oxgyen  is  removed  from  the  syrup  by  adding 
hydrosulphites  of  aluminium  or  barium  or  by 
producing  hydrosulphurous  acid  in  the  syrup. 
The  excess  of  sulphite  in  the  syrup  is  converted 
into  sulphate  by  adding  hydrogen  peroxide. 


FOOD     SUPPLY 

The  temperature  is  then  raised  to  78°  C.  and  the 
syrup  filtered  and  boiled  to  crystallisation. 

Ultramarine,  The  substance  ultramarine 
which  has  been  referred  to  several  times  is  a 
double  silicate  of  sodium  and  aluminium,  to- 
gether with  bisulphide  of  sodium.  It  is  a 
beautiful  blue  colour,  and  is  made  by  burning 
a  mixture  of  sodium  sulphate,  china  clay,  and 
carbon  in  crucibles  for  from  six  to  nine  hours 
at  a  red  heat.  The  dull  green  product  thus 
obtained  is  mixed  with  sulphur  and  roasted 
until  it  assumes  a  bright  blue  colour.  In  the 
"direct"  method  soda  is  employed,  and  a  very 
careful  regulation  of  the  heat  of  the  crucibles 
is  required  for  successful  manufacture,  Pro- 
cesses of  washing,  sifting,  and  drying  have  to 
be  gone  through  before  a  marketable  product 
is  obtained.  Ultramarine  exists  in  Nature  as 
lapis  lazuli,  and  was  not  prepared  artificially 
till  1828,  when  the  above  method  was  discovered 
independently  by  Guimet  and  Gmelin.  Since 
then  improvements  in  the  manufacture  .have 
brought  about  reductions  in  the  cost,  and,  con- 
sequently, new  uses  for  the  product  have  Iven 
opened  out. 

Treacle  and  Golden  Syrup.  When 
the  syrups  no  longer  yield  sugar  they  are  made 
into  treacle,  golden  syrup,  or  invert  sugar. 
Golden  syrup  is  a  purer  kind  of  treacle.  Of 
late  years  the  quality  has  much  improved,  the 
appearance  in  many  cases  being  artificially 
improved  by  the  addition  of  glucose  syrup. 
Glucose  syrup  is  also  used  to  prevent  granulation, 
but  in  the  opinion  of  some  experts  is  not  neces- 
sary if  the  sugar  syrup  be  well  inverted.  The 
process  of  inverting  sugar  is  explained  in  a 
separate  lesson,  either  the  acid  process  or  Tomp- 
son's  yeast  method  being  used,  although  there 
are  objections  to  Tompson's  method  on  account 
of  the  introduction  of  organic  matter.  The  golden 
syrup  is  passed  through  a  char  filter  and  when 
perfectly  bright  and  clear  is  concentrated  in  the 
vacuum  pan  to  the  required  viscosity. 

Residual  molasses  of  too  low  a  quality  for 
making  golden  syrup  is  sold  to  the  distiller  or 
used  for  cattle  food. 

The  Refinery.  The  site  of  a  refinery 
should  be  well  chosen  for  the  purchase  of  raw 
sugar,  and  the  distribution  of  the  finished  sugar. 
If  near  a  coalfield  it  would  be  an  additional 
advantage.  There  should  be  a  good  supply  of 
soft  water  and  the  cost  of  labour  should  be 
moderate.  The  blow-ups  are  placed  on  the  top 
floor  of  the  factory,  beneath  them  being  the 
Taylor  filter:;,  and  knver  still  the  char  filters. 
The  char  kilns  are  usually  in  a  separate 
building.  The  number  of  refineries  has  much 
diminished  of  recent  years  owing  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  baneful  influence  of  sugar 
bounties.  In  1875  there  were  20  refineries  in 
London,  9  in  Liverpool,  3  in  Bristol,  2  in  Man- 
chester, 1  each  in  Earlestown,  Plymouth,  and 
Newcastle-under-Lynie,  13  in  Greenock,  1  in 
Leith,  and  1  in  Dublin  ;  total,  52.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  approximately  only  10  refineries 
in  the  United  Kingdom. 


Continued 


4455 


Group  11 

CIVIL 
ENGINEERING 

31 


SEWERAGE&SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 

Sewerage  Systems.     Laying  Out  a  Sewerage  System.     Sewers, 
Manholes,    and    Syphons.      Pumping    and    Ventilating    Sewers 


By  Professor  HENRY  ROBINSON 


IX 


this  course  it  is  intended  to  describe  briefly 
the  principles  which  govern  the  design  and 
execution  of  works  relating  to  the  sewerage  of 
a  town,  anft  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  there- 
from. By  the  house  drain  the  fluid  refuse  of  a 
building  is  delivered  into  the  public  sewer,  to  be 
i  \eyed  away  for  disposal  as  quickly  as 
possible.  In  some  cases  several  house  drains 
discharge  into  a  drain  serving  a  row  of  houses 
at  their  backs  (called  a  combined  drain),  and 
this  connects  with  the  mam  sewer. 

Sewerage  Systems.  In  determining  the 
volume  of  sewage  to  be  dealt  with  in  a 
town,  the  first  thing  is  to  decide  whether  the 
whole,  or  only  part,  of 
the  rainfall  is  to  be 
admitted  to  the  sewers. 
If  all  the  rainwater  is 
to  pass  into  the  sewers 
it  is  called  the  combined 
system  of  sewerage.  If 
the  rainwater  is  not  ad- 
mitted to  the  sewers, 
but  is  carried  away  by 
independent  pipes,  it  is 
called  the  separate 

system.     If    the     rain- 
water from  roofs,  yards, 

etc,  is  admitted— which 

it  often  is — the  system 

is    called    the    partially 

separate.   The  separation 

<»f  t  he  rainfall— or,  at  all 

events,  of  a  considerable 

part  of  it— enables  the 

sewers   to   be   designed 

so  as  to  be  self-cleansing, 

and  tlie  >ewage  which  is 
'•d     by    them    is 

brought  to  the  point  of 

•  I. --Large    in    a    fresher 

state    than    i*    possible 

where     the    sewers     are 

eafenkted  t.>  num.\  the 

whime.    M  'th.-y 
of 

<1-  P-i.  m  dry  weather.     That  which  is  admitted 
'  fojjjed,  if  possible,  to  the  rain  falling 
roofs,   „„•,,.,,     yardgf   court      back  8 


1.    STORM   OVERFLOW   CHAMBERS 


,         r 
•d  surfaces.  ,,,..  uhj(.h  may 

Mr!iall 
held-,,  etc. 


ar 

gar 


termed  t'ra- 


with  much  horse 


HI  I  .sequent 
and  may 


Volume  of  Sewage.  The  volume  of 
sewage  to  be  provided  for  in  a  system  neces- 
sarily depends  on  the  rainfall,  a  part  of  which 
inevitably  reaches  the  sewers.  If  the  town  has 
many  manufactories,  the  fluid  from  which  is 
admitted  to  the  sewers,  then  provision  must 
be  made  for  a  much  greater  volume.  This  has 
to  be  determined  by  an  intelligent  investigation 
on  the  part  of  the  engineer,  as  no  fixed  quantity 
can  be  adopted  for  general  application,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  forty  towns  in  this 
country  the  volume  varies  from  25  gallons  per 
head  to  90  gallons  per  head.  The  factors 
which  govern  the  questions  are  : 

1.  The     amount     of 
water    used  in    private 
houses. 

2.  The  amount  of  rain- 
fall that  is  admitted  to 
the    sewers.      This    de- 
pends" on    the    system, 

~-r.v  either  separate  or  com- 
j  bined,  which  is  adopted, 
j  and  also  upon- the  rain- 

— r.j  fan  of  ^e  district. 

3.  The     number     of 
manufactories,  and   the 
volume     that     is     dis- 
charged from  them. 

In  calculating  the 
amount  of  storm  water 
that  will  enter  a  sewer- 
age system  the  rate  of 
rainfall  has  to  be  ascer- 
tained, especially  the 
falls  of  short  duration, 
which  are  more  frequent 
and  intense  than  those 
over  longer  periods.  A 
study  of  the  rain  gauges 
in  a  town  can  determine 
this.  An  interesting 
paper  was  read  at  the 
Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers  by  Mr.  Lloyd 
Da  vies  in  January,  1906, 
in  which  the  results  of  a  careful  series  of 
observations  made  in  Birmingham  over  a 
long  period  are  given.  Only  a  brief  reference 
can  be  made  to  it,  and  the  following  conclusions 
recorded : 

(1)  That    the    storm-water    discharge    from    any 
*<i  distnct  is  directly  proportional  to  the  per- 
centage of  impermeable  area  comprised  in  it, 

(.     That,  subject  to  a  time  allowance  being  added 

for  the  entrance  of  the  rain  into  the  system,  the  dia- 

.  storm   water   from   underground   channels 

oportional  to  the  aggregate  rainfall  during  the 

time    of   concentration    of    the    water    through    tho 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING 

suitable  character  to  allow  the  fluid  to  sink 
quickly  below  the  surface,  and  away  from  wells. 
In  cesspools  a  septic  or  liquefying  action  takes 
place  on  the  organic  solids.  A  certain  amount 
f-  of  solid  matter,  however,  re- 

mains, involving  the  clear- 
ing out  of  the  cesspool  at 
stated  times. 

Laying  Out  a  Sewer* 
age  System.  Having 
ascertained  what  amount  of 
sewage  has  to  be  provided 
for  in  the  sewers,  we  now 
consider  how  to  lay  out  a 
sewerage  system.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  the  total  dis- 
observations  are  given  in  2.  THE  FIELD  AUTOMATIC  FLUSHING  CHAMBER  charge  from  a  town  must 


conduits,  from  the  extreme  boundaries  of  the  district 
to  the  point  of  observation. 

(3)  That   the   maximum   rate   of   flow   is   reached 
when  the  greatest  cumulative  rainfall  applicable  to 
the  duration  of  the  nvntmum  time  of  concentration 
and  to  the  district  considered  rn 
occurs. 

(4)  That  the  total  volume  of 
storm   water  received  is  pro- 
portional    to    the    maximum 
rate  of  flow. 

Overflow  Cham  = 
bers.  The  design  of  storm 
overflow  chambers  [1]  de- 
serves a  reference,  and  the 
following  is  a  description  of 
one  adopted  at  Birmingham 
with  success,  and  detailed 


Mr.  Lloyd  Davies'  paper. 

The  overflow  sill  is  situated  at  a  level  equal 

to  that  attained  by  six  times  the  average  dry- 
weather  flow  in  the  foul 
sewer.  Across  the  foul 
sewer  at  the  sill-level  a 
cast  -  iron  separating  - 
plate,  V,  is  fixed  hori- 
zontally, and  to  this  is 
riveted  a  vertical  deflec- 
ting plate,  W,  with  a 
hood.  When  the  flow 
exceeds  the  volume 
giving  the  requisite 
dilution,  the  surplus 
storm -water  is  accu- 
rately separated  and 
deflected  into  the  relief 
culvert,  X,  the  re- 
mainder passing  freely 
under  the  plate,  and 
down  the  foul  sewer,  Y. 
The  length  of  the  sill  is 
arranged  so  that  a  large 
percentage  of  the  over- 
flow will  fall  into  the 
3.  PENSTOCK  tumbling  bay,  Z,  before 

the  plates  are  brought 

into  action,  and  undue  impact  is  thus  avoided. 


average 


The  reason  for  taking  six  times  tli 
dry- weather  flow  is  that  at  the 
present  time  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board  requires  provision 
to  be  made  for  that  amount  at 
sewage  disposal  outfalls. 

Treatment  of  Isolated 
Buildings.  For  isolated  build- 
ings and  villages,  where  no 
sewerage  system  is  admissible, 
the  excremental  refuse  is  got 
rid  of  by  dry  earth  closets, 
pail,  or  midden  system,  and 
by  cesspits.  In  the  first-named 
the  refuse  has  to  be  removed 
from  the  dwelling  promptly,  and 
disposed  of  on  land  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, where  it  can  be 
utilised  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. If  cesspools  receive  the  fluid  refuse,  they 
should  be  placed  so  that  when  filled,  whatever 
overflows  is  conveyed  to  adjoining  land  of  a 


5.    ADAMS   FLUSHING   TANK 


vary  during  the  twenty  -four 
hours.  It  is  usual  to  calculate  that  about  one- 
half  the  flow  will  pass  off  in  six  hours,  or  about 
8  per  cent,  per  hour  in  the  tributary  sswers. 
The  volume  to  be  provided  for  in  the  main 
outfall  sewer  will  be  affected  by  the  dis- 
tances of  the  tributary  sewers  serving  the 
various  parts  of  a  large  town  from  the 
outfall  sewer,  and  also  by  their  gradi- 
ents. The  sewage  from  one  part  will 
reach  the  outfall  sooner  or  later  than  from 
another. 

It  is  usual  to  calculate  the  size  of  the 
sewer  so  that  it  runs 
about  two  -  thirds  or 
three-quarters  full  at  its 
maximum  flow,  with  a 
velocity  of  about  3  ft. 
per  second,  which,  it  has 
been  decided,  will  carry 
away  the  usual  solid 
matters,  and  prevent 
them  depositing  and 
putrefying.  In  large 
sewers,  a  velocity  of  .4  DISC  VALVE 
2|  ft.  per  second  should 

be  obtained  when  they  are  running  one-third 
full,  2£  ft.  per  second  when  running  one-halt' 
full,  and  3  ft.  per  second  when  running  two- 
thirds  or  three-quarters  full.  The  velocity  should 
never  be  less  than  2  ft.  per 
second. 

Automatic  Flushing. 
If  the  district  be  flat,  so  that 
the  levels  do  not  admit  of  the 
gradients  giving  the  required 
velocities,  automatic  flushing 
tanks  have  to  be  adopted,  or 
the  sewage  can  be  headed 
back  by  penstocks,  placed  so 
as  to  divide  the  sewers  up  into 
sections.  The  rush  of  fluid  thus 
produced  ensures  the  solid 
matters  being  carried  forward. 
The  illustration  [2]  shows  an 
automatic  flushing  chamber 
with  which  the  name  of  the 
late  Rogers  Field,  the  in- 


ventor, will  always  be  associated. 

Fig.  5  is  an  illustration  of  an  Adams  flushing 
tank  fixed  in  a  manhole. 

4157 


'  ">'.._' T 


CIVIL     ENGINEERING 

When  the  manhole  has  to  I,.- entered  for  any 
purpose,  it  can  In-  drained  l.y  n-m..ving  a  plug, 
which  clears  it  of  water. 

PenstocK.  A  pen>to--k  consists  of  a  sliding 
Hat  plate  or  shutter  which  fits  into,  and  can 
move  up  ami  down  in  a  grooved  recess  at  the 
|,ot torn  of  the  manhole  in  the  sewer.  This 
>  I  id  ing  plate  is 
attached  to  a  rod, 
l»y  which  the  pen- 
stock, is  put  int.. 
operation.  A  man 
n  down  the 
plate,  and  closes  the  r 
lower  part  of  the 
sewer,  thus  heading 
back  the  sewage, 
which  rises  behind 
the  penstock  until 
the  sewer  is  tilled  to 

anv  height  that  the  arrangement  has  provided. 
After  a  time  the  man  returns  and  raises  the 
penstock,  causing  the  impounded  sewage  to  pass 
with  a  rush  down  the  sewer. 

The  form  of  penstock  shown  [3]  is  provided 
with  a  rod,  and  is  moved  up  and  down  by 
means  of  a  key  which  fits  on  to  the  top  of  the 
rod.  For  smaller  sewers  the  same  object  can 
be  attained  by  means  of  an  ordinary  disc  valve, 
a  form  of  which  is  shown  in  4. 

Storm  Overflows.  In  the  event  of 
sewers  receiving  the  whole  of  the  rainfall  it 
is  essential  that  provision  should  be  made  of 
storm  overflows  or  relief  sewers,  to  deal  with 
tunes  of  floods  due  to  exceptionally  heavy 
rainfall  acting  for  a  short  time, 
i  .-lilting  in  the  sewers  becoming 
gorged,  and  flooding  the  base- 
ments of  houses.  We  can  best 
emphasise  this  by  giving  par- 
ticulars of  a  case  in  which  the 
writer  was  engaged  some  years 
ago.  A  district  on  the  south 
-ide  of  the  metropolis  had  been 
gradually  built  over,  but  no 
adequate  increase  of  the  sewer- 
ago  system  had  been  made. 

•itually.  a  heavy  fall  of  rain 
occurred,  which  caused  one  of 
the  sewers  to  become  gorged, 
.uid  houses  were  flooded,  doing 
much  damaife.  This  sewer  dis- 
charged into  one  of  the  metro- 
politan outfalls,  which,  being 
also  gorged,  could  not  receive 

^•wage.     The  writer  had  to 

-tigate  the  matter,  and  a 
••••.'••l  her    with    a 

•  overflow,  wen-  proposed. 
A  >iudv  of  the  illustrations 
[8und  7]  will  explain  the  state 


Size  and  Gradient.  Having  ascertained 
the  volume  of  sewage  to  be  dealt  with,  and 
the  various  levels  of  the  ground  and  of 
the  house  drains  having  been  recorded,  we 
have  to  calculate  the  size  and  gradient  of 
the  sewer  to  carry  away  the  sewage.  The 
following  formula  has  been  adopted  by  the 


writer 


R' 


BELIEF   SEWER   AND    STORM    OVERFLOW 


V  = 


where  V  =  the  mean 
velocity  in  feet  per 
second,  R  =the  "hy- 
draulic radius "  in 
feet — that  is, 

area  of  water 

wetted  perimeter' 

S  =  the  cosecant  of 

the   angle    of    incli- 


nation  of  the  hydraulic  gradient  = 

C  =  a  coefficient  representing  the  roughness  of 
the  surface. 

The  index  x,  the  root  n,  and  the  coefficient  C 
depend  on  the  nature  of  the  surface  of  the 
channel. 

For  brick  sewers  in  good  condition,  the  value 
of    x  =  '61,    n  =  2,    and    C  =  '007746.      The 
formula  for  brick  sewers  therefore  becomes 
"R  -01 

v  =-*.! 


4735 


skeirma  ,fterm, 

7.    RELIEF   SEWER   AND    STORM 
OVERFLOW 


of  affair-,  at  the  time  of  the-  flooding,  and  the 

tin. 

The    diagram    j?|   shows     how    the    gorging 
of   the  old   -,.-\\,-i   u,i-  to   IK?  remedied  by  pro- 
viding    a     >torm     o\,-rilow     when     the     sewage 
tot  levi-1  of  4-_'-iM».  when  it  passed  away  to 
tii-  n. 

I  I. Is 


where  C  =  -007746 

In  the  writer's  book  on  "  Sewerage  and 
Sewage  Disposal  "  a  diagram  is 
given,  from  which  can  be  scaled 
the  velocities,  discharges,  etc., 
of  various  sewers,  without 
having  to  work  them  out  by 
the  formula. 

An  oval  or  egg -shaped  sewer, 
instead  of  a  circular  one,  has  an 
advantage,  owing  to  the  greater 
velocity  obtained  in  the  con- 
tracted lower  part  of  the  oval, 
when  the  volume  uf  sewage  is 
at  its  minimum. 

The   internal   dimensions    of 
an  oval  or  egg-shaped  sewer  are 
determined  as  follows  : 
If  D  =  the    internal    depth    of 
the  sewer — that  is,  from 
the  top  of  the  arch  to  the 
surface  of  the  invert, 
R  =  the    radius   of   the   top 

of  the  sewer, 
r  =  the  radius  of  the  invert 

of  the  sewer, 

x  —  the  radius  of   the  sides 
— that     is,    the     curve- 
joining  the  top  and  bottom  curves,  then 

D  =  x 
I) 


R 


In  some  cases  r  is  taken  at  J  of  D,  where  the 
sewer  has  to  convey  at  times  only  a  very  small 
volume  of  sewage,  as  the  contraction  of  the  invert 
tends  to  prevent  deposits  by  increasing  the  depth 
of  sewage,  and  consequently  improving  the 
velocity.  If  the  volume  of  sewage  be  subject 
to  great  fluctuation,  so  that  at  times  it  is  very 
small,  the  egg-shaped  or  oval  sewer  is  preferable 
to  the  circular  form.  Where  the  sewage  generally 
half  fills  the  sewer,  the  oval  shape  loses  this 
advantage,  and  the 
circular  shape  is 
cheaper  to  make, 
while  it  is  also 
stronger. 

The  thickness  of 
sewers  varies  with 
the  size,  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  the 
depth.  A  4^-in.  ring  of  brickwork  suffices  for 
the  smaller  sizes  in  good  ground.  In  larger 
sewers  the  thickness  varies  from  9  in.  upwards. 
The  thickness  can  be  calculated  by  the  formula 

•  inn  -  =  thickness  of  brickwork  in  feet, 
100 

where  D  =  depth  of  excavation,  and  R  =    ex- 
ternal radius  of  sewer. 

Manholes.  Sewers  must  be  laid  in  straight 
and  not  curved  lines.  The  invert  of  the  sewer 
must  also  be  a  straight  line.  Any  alterations 
or  depressions  both  inter- 
fere with  the  flow  of 
sewage  and  assist  the  for- 
mation of  deposits.  At 
every  change  of  direction 
of  the  sewer  a  manhole 
should  be  placed.  This  is 
carried  to  the  surface  of 
the  road,  and  enables  a 
man  to  go  down  and  in- 
spect the  sewer  between 
the  manhole  in  which  he 
is  and  the  next  one,  a 
light  being  placed  in  the 
latter.  It  is  usual  to  have 
means  of  inspection  every 
100  yards  so  that  if  the 
manholes  be  farther  apart, 
owing  to  a  long  piece  of 
straight  sewer,  a  lamp- 
hole  is  placed  at  these 
intermediate  points. 
Lampholes  are  small, 
vertical  iron  or  stone- 
ware pipes  carried  up 
to  the  road  level  so 
as  to  enable  a  man 
to  lower  a  lantern  to  the  sewer  at  that  point. 

Syphons.  When  the  sewer  has  to  be 
carried  under  the  bed  of  a  stream,  either  in  the 
form  of  a  syphon  or  in  the  continuation  of  the 
gradient,  it  is  best  to  make  it  of  cast  iron,  as 
the  flanged  pipes  can  be  bolted  up  on  rafts  or 
barges,  lowered  into  position  quickly  and  covered. 
Fig.  8  shows  a  syphon  carried  out  by  the  writer 
in  this  way. 

The  syphon  was  tested  by  water  pressure  to  see 
that  it  was  sound,  and  the  trench  was  filled  with 


8.    SEWER  SYPHON 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING 

concrete,  by  means  of  wooden  funnels,  to  prevent 
the  stream  washing  away  the  cement.  A  copper 
wire  cord  ought  to  be  passed  through  the 
syphon  before  it  is  put  into  position,  and  left 
there  permanently  to  admit  of  a  scraper  being 
drawn  through  at  any  time  the  pipe  may  get 
blocked. 

Open  Grids.  Covers  are  placed  over  all 
manholes  and  lampholes,  with  open  grids  or 
gratings  in  them  for  ventilation.  These  grids 
should  form  part  of 
a  system  of  venti- 
lation acting  as  in- 
lets for  fresh  air,  the 
outlets  consisting  of 
iron  pipes  carried  up 
the  sides  of  houses 


REEVES  VENTILATING  APPARATUS 


or  trees,  and  away  from  windows,  or  columns 
in  the  road  placed  at  shelters,  etc.,  and  at 
a  height  sufficient  to  cause  any  foul  gas  to 
be  diffused  above  people's  heads.  In  certain 
cases  these  open  grids  have  to  be  sealed.  Some 
advocate  the  abolition  of  the  trap  on  the 
house  drain,  so  that  the  soil-pipe  will  act  as 
an  upcast  for  the  foul  air  from  the  public 
sewer.  This  is  open  to  the  objection  that  the 
private  house  will  then  be  receiving  the  ob- 
jectionable sewer  gas,  which  should  be  dealt 
with  in  some  systematic  and  intelligent  way 
by  the  public  authority. 

Sewer  Ventilation.  The  ventilation  of 
sewers  is  a  matter  of  such  importance  in  regard 
to  public  health  that  it  deserves  full  considera- 
tion, and  reference  will  be 
made  to  systems  which  have 
been  employed  to  prevent 
the  obnoxious  gases  which 
are  generated  in  sewers  from 
causing  injury  to  the  health 
of  those  who  are  exposed  to 
their  emission  from  gratings, 
or  otherwise.  In  some  cases 
surface  gratings  cannot  be 
regarded  as  a  solution  of  the 
problem  even  with  upcast 
shafts,  as  the  atmospheric 
conditions  may  at  times  be 
unfavourable  to  the  removal 
of  the  foul  air  by  means  of 
the  upcast.  If  the  sewers 
have  proper  gradients  and 
are  self  cleansing,  the  usual 
provision  of  gratings  and 
upcast  shafts  will  ensure  the 
proper  change  of  air;  but 
there  are  many  cases  where 
the  conditions  do  not  exist, 
and  it  is  well  to  record  how  to  prevent  sewer  air, 
under  such  circumstances,  from  being  a  danger 
to  health.  One  system  which  has  been  employed 
with  success  is  called  the  Reeves  system. 

This  is  based  on  the  use  of  chemicals  in 
the  sewers,  whereby  the  noxious  gases  are 
deprived  of  their  injurious  properties.  Fig.  9 
will  explain  how  this  is  effected. 

A  ventilating  apparatus  has  been  brought  out 
by  Messrs.  Stone  &  Company  which  deserves 
mention.  Fig.  10  shows  the  apparatus  in  a 

4459 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

,,I(U    ready    to   IM-    tixed    in    lh« 


foul 


,,I(      reay     o       - 

gases  in  which  it   i>  desired  t..  neutralise. 

11    ihoWl     the     apparatus    fixed    in    the 
sewer  ready  for  use. 

Construction  of  Sewers.      In  the  cor 
rtrootion  ..f  briek  wiran  only  well-burnt  and 
welUhaped   l.ri.-ks   should   be  used,  and   they 
.hould  be  w.-ll  soaked  to  prevent  their  absorbing 


10.  STONE'S  VENTILATING  APPARATUS 

water  from  the  cement.  The  sewer  invert  should 
a  smooth  and  hard  surface  to  diminish 
friction  and  to  prevent  erosion.  Blue  Stafford- 
shire bricks,  glazed'  fireclay  bricks,  or  hard 
I  .locks  well  glazed  on  the  surface  are  generally 
used  for  inverts.  The  bricks  should  be  radiated 
to  suit  curves  so  that  no  more  mortar  is  used 
than  is  necessary  to  make  the  joint.  The  mortar 
>h«  »ukl  be  made  of  one  part  of  best  well-seasoned 
Portland  cement  to  one  of  clean,  sharp  sand. 
Good  hydraulic  lime  or  blue  lias  lime  is  some- 
times used.  The  materials  require  great  care  in 
selecting,  and  the  mortar  should  be  used  as  soon 
as  mixed.  Brick  sewers  are  sometimes  built  in 
sections  in  wooden  moulds. 

Where  the  nature  of  the  ground  requires  it,  a 
I.  rick  sewer  should  be  strengthened  by  encasing 
it  partly  or  wholly  with  cement  concrete,  and 
if  there  are  several  rings  of  brickwork  a  "  collar 
joint  "  of  cement  about  1  in.  thick  between  each 
ring  ensures  the  watertightness  of  the  work. 
Tin-  joints  of  brickwork  should  not  be  too  thick, 
the  faces  being  not  more  than  J  in.  apart.  The 
trowel  should  be  passed  over  the  mortar  to 
increase  it«  density.  The  work  ought  not  to  be 
.-\poM-d  lo  ,-ontact  \\  iih  \\atcr  until  it  i-  \\cll  set. 
In  very  wet  ground  a  subsoil  drain  should  be 
placed  under  the  trench  to  take  away  the  water 
to  the  pumps,  instead  of  its  running  at  tin- 
bottom  of  the  trench  to  the  pumps.  If  the 
i  be  made  where  any  settlement  of  buildings 
may  occur  great  care  should  be  taken  to  timber 
the  trencho  xu-H,  ami  ,.v,.n  to  leave  the  bulk  of 
the  timlH-r  in.  in  order  to  avoid  the  risk  of 


Concrete    Sewers.        Some     very    good 

\e    been    made    entirely  of  concrete 

Mini:   «.f   ill    part-  of    gravel  and  sand  free 

;hy    matter    to    one  part  of   Portland 

lit.     The  invert  of   the   sewer   is  first  built. 

then     concrete      i>      udl     rammed     behind    a 

mould  with  a  smooth  surface     formed  of  sheet 

'her    material      ;m(|     the    top    of    the 

'  irned  upon  ••i.-ntr.-.-*.     If  the  interior 

1460 


IK-  well  rendered  with  cement,  a  good  sewer 
can  be  made,  provided  the  best  Avell-seasoned 
cement  and  perfectly  good  materials  are  em- 
ployed, otherwise  concrete  is  liable  to  crack. 

Stoneware  Pipe  Sewers.  Stoneware 
pipes  can  be  used  for  seAvers  up  to  21  in. 
in  diameter.  Beyond  that  size  sewers  are 
generally  made  of  brickwork,  as  the  handling 
and  jointing  of  pipes  of  large  size  results  in  their 
costing  as  much  as  brick  sewers.  Stoneware 
pipes  should  be  made  of  good  vitreous  material 
having  a  clear  ring  when  struck  and  having 
strength  to  stand  shocks  and  strains.  They 
should  be  well  burnt  at  a  high  temperature  with 
a  salt  glaze  which  permeates  the  body  of  the 
pipe  and  renders  it  impervious.  They  can  be 
tested  for  impermeability  by  closing  the  lower 
end  and  filling  the  pipe  with  water.  Any  lowering 
of  the  water  Avill  disclose  defects.  By  drying  a 
pipe  and  weighing  it,  and  putting  it  in  water  for 
a  while  and  re-weighing  it,  a  test  of  imper- 
meability can  be  made. 

The  joints  of  ordinary  stoneware  pipes  should 
be  carefully  made  so  as  to  be  watertight.  This 
requires  the  enforcement  of  certain  well-knoAvn 
conditions.  The  bed  has  to  be  prepared  on  which 
to  lay  the  pipes,  with  spaces  taken  out  to  receive 
the  socket,  so  that  the  whole  length  of  the  barrel 
is  supported.  Where  the  ground  is  not  thoroughly 
sound  and  solid,  a  bed  of  cement  concrete  about 
6  in.  thick  should  be  laid  at  the  bottom  of  the 
trench,  with  similar  spaces  for  the  socket.  This 
layer  of  concrete  can  be  carried  up  after  the 
jointing  is  finished,  so  as  partly  or  wholly  to 
encase  the  pipes,  according  to  circumstances. 
After  the  end  of  one  pipe  has  been  placed  in  the 
socket  of  the  other  it  should  be  butted  home 
and  tarred  gaskin  should  be  caulked  up  to  the 

face.  The  joint 
is  then  com- 
pleted by  filling 
the  space  with 
cement  finished 
off  neatly  by  a 
fillet  outside. 
Either  neat 
Portland  ce- 
ment or  half- 
clean  sharp  sand 
and  half  cement 
can  be  used,  but 
not  clay.  A  pro- 
perly made  joint 
depends  first  on 
the  pipes  but- 
ting home,  then 
on  the  gas-kin 
being  caulked 
up  to  the  face 
of  the  socket, 


11.  STONE'S  VENTILATING 
APPARATUS  IN  SEWER 


and,  lastly,  on  the  ring  of  cement  being  of 
equal  thickness  all  round. 

Special  Joints  for  Stoneware  Pipes. 

There  arc  means  of  Jointing  stoneware  pipes 
other  than  the  ordinary  way  which  has  been 
described.  The  earliest  departure  was  the  Stan- 
ford joint.  Avhich  was  formed  by  the  contact  of 
two  eonieal  surfaces  cast  outside  the  ends  and 


inside  the  sockets  of  the  pipes.  The  surfaces, 
when  in  contact,  were  relied  on  to  make  a  water- 
tight joint,  and  were  found  of  service  where 
sewers  had  to  be  laid  in  ground  with  much 
water.  Such  joints  require  the  sewer  to  be  much 
supported,  as  any  settlement  draws  the  joint. 
Improvements  have  been  made  on  this  by  casting 
the  ends  of  the  pipes  with  annular  rings  on  both 
spigot  and  faucet.  These  can  be  filled  with  liquid 
cement  poured  in  through  holes  in  the  top  with- 
out risk  of  its  being  washed  out 
or  disturbed,  as  is  the  case  with 
ordinary  cement  joints.  The 
"  Hassall "  was  the  first  joint 
based  on  this  principle. 

There  are  many  more  recent 
arrangements  which  have  been 
patented  for  making  joints  in 
stoneware  pipes,  and  we  shall 
refer  to  some  of  them. 

In  making  a  tarred  gaskin 
and  cement  joint  in  an  ordinary 
stoneware  pipe,  dependence  has 
to  be  placed  in  the  barrel  being 
kept  in  the  right  position  by 
hand  until  the  gaskin  is  rammed 
in  at  the  bottom  to  ensure  that 
the  spigots  and  faucets  of  the 
pipes  are  in  their  right  positions. 
If  this  is  not  done  properly  the 
space  that  has  to  be  cemented 
may  be  greater  at  the  top  than 
at  the  bottom.  The  writer  once 
inspected  a  long  length  of  leaky 
stoneware  sewer,  where  he 
found  that  the  leaks  were  caused 
by  the  absence  of  any  gaskin 
and  cement  at  the  bottom. 
Many  forms  of  joints  have  been 
devised  to  prevent  this,  and 
some  are  shown  from  12  to  28. 

Stanford  Joint.  Fig.  12 
is  the  Stanford  joint,  the  spigot 
end  of  which  is  provided  with 
an  annular  bituminous  band, 
which  fits  truly  into  a  similar 
band  in  the  socket.  These 
bands  are  greased  over  before 
the  spigot  end  is  driven  home, 
thus  forming  a  watertight  joint. 
Fig.  14  shows  another  form  of 
this  joint,  where  the  bands  are 
only  half  the  width,  thus  per- 
mitting the  joint  to  be  finished 
with  a  fillet  of  cement. 

SyKes  Joint.  The  Sykes 
joint  shown  in  13  has  been  ex- 
tensively used  by  the  writer.  The  spigots  and 
sockets  of  the  pipe  are  provided  with  bituminous 
rings  which,  when  in  position,  form  a  groove 
into  which  liquid  cement  grout  is  poured.  The 
illustration  also  shows  a  screw  stopper  for  plug- 
ging temporarily  the  branches  on  the  main 
sewer  provided  for  house  junctions.  Another 
form  of  Sykes  joint  is  shown  in  19. 

The  Spiralitic  Joint.  This  is  a  recent 
form  of  joint  [15]  in  which  the  spigot  end  of  the 
pipe  has  a  band  of  bituminous  compound  cast 


CIVIL     ENGINEERING 

round  it,  having  a  groove  in  it  of  a  spiral  or  screw 
shape.  The  socket  [16]  is  lined  with  a  similar 
band  of  material  also  having  a  spiral  groove. 
The  socket  has  two  holes  side  by  side,  one 
connecting  to  each  end  of  the  groove.  When 
the  spigot  end  is  pushed  home  the  two 
grooves  form  a  cavity  into  which  liquid 
Portland  cement  is  poured  in  at  one  hole  until 
it  appears  at  the  other,  which  shows  that 
the  spiral  cavity  is  filled. 


SEWER   JOINTS 

Other  Pipe  Joints.  Parker's  safety  pipe 
joint  is  another  form  of  joint  for  stoneware  pipe 
sewers.  Fig.  18  shows  its  construction. 

The  Archer  eccentric  pipe  joint,  as  shown  in 
20,  is  in  substitution  for  the  old  joint  of  the  same 
patentee,  which  was  abandoned  some  years  ago. 

Brown's  hydrotite  joint  is  another  arrange- 
ment, and  is  shown  in  21  and  22. 

The  Freeman-Hines  joint  [23  and  24]  is  a  new 
form  of  joint,  effecting  rapidity  of  laying  with 
watertightness.  On  to  the  spigots  of  the  pipes 

4401 


CIVIL     ENGINEERING 

and    to   the    faucet-  of    the  sockets  an-  east    bitU- 

inimius  eccentric   bands,   which,   when    brought 
ther    and    slightly    twistc<l.    form    a    small 


29.  SHONE'S  EJECTOR 

cavity  which,  after  being  rilled  with  bitumen, 
completes  the  joint. 

Wuketield's  insertion  pipe  or  junction,  as 
shown  in  27,  is  useful  when  the  barrel  of  a 
sewer  has  to  be  broken  in  order  to  form  a  house 
connection. 

H  assail  's  single  lined  joint  is  some- 
what similar  to  the  Stanford  joint, 
<  •  vc  |  it  that  the  sockets  are  much 
deeper.  The  spigot  ends  and  sockets 
an-  provided  with  narrow  bands  of 
Lit  uminous  compound.  The  spigot 
end,  after  being  pushed  home  into 
•><  ket,  leaves  a  space  which  is 
tilled  \\ith  cement  as  shown  in  26. 

HassaH's  two-lined  joint  is  shown  3^  SECOND 
in  28.  '  * 

Cast-iron  Sewers.     In  some 

cases  it  is  found  necessary  to  employ  cast-iron 

i'-uare   pipes  for   sewers.     The 

usual  method  of  jointing  cast-iron  pipes  is  that 

-In  »wn  on  page  4340.    It  is  sometimes  found  more 

tiOQfl  to  use  a  turned  and  bored  joint. 

Anm  In  i   form  of  joint  for  cast-iron  mains  is 

ii    in    25.    and    is   the   one   generally   used 

•yphon-    under    rivers.     The   faces    of    the 

Hanges  are   usually    maehined,  the  joint  being 

ppmptotod    by    a    rubber    rinjr    placed    between 

the   BMgM    p..p.t,.,,Mlv    tn   th,.;,-   iK.jng   bolted 

ther. 

Sewage     Pumping.       In     laying    out    a 

sewerage    .-y-tem.    .-are    should    be     taken     to 

I    unnecessary   pumping    if    the    level,    in- 

volve    the    >eua*e     |HM,IK    lift(.(l     to     r(.a(.,,    th(. 

I      In    -..me    MMI    the    higher  part   of  a 


TRAp 


district  can  discharge   its  sewage  by  a   gravi- 
tation sewer,  leaving  only  the  lower  part  to 
be  pumped,  instead  of  bringing  the  sewage  from 
the  high  district  down  to  the  low. 
The  size  of  the  "  rising  main," 
which  conveys  the  pumped  sew- 
age, should  be  calculated 
so  that  the  velocity  in  it 
conforms    to    what    has 
already  been  stated  as  necessary  to 
prevent  the  deposition  of  solids.    If 
the  rising  main  pass  over  a  summit, 
an  automatic  air-valve  should  be 
placed  there  to  prevent  an  air  lock. 
Fig.  32  shows  one   manufactured 
by  Messrs  Ham,  Baker  &  Co. 

It  is  advisable  to  place  a  back- 
pressure or  reflux  valve   [35]   on 
the  rising  main  near  the  pumping 
station.     This  prevents  a  rush  of 
sewage  taking  place  should  a  break- 
down occur  at  the  pumps. 
If  the  district  to  be  sewered  be  flat,  and  low- 
lying  in  reference    to  the    outfall,   it  is  often 
impossible  to  get  the  necessary  gradients  without 
laying  the  sewers  in  places  at  a  considerable 
depth,    and    perhaps    in    waterlogged    ground, 
involving  heavy  expense. 

Shone's   Ejector.     When  sewage  has  to 
be  raised  at  places  where  the  establishment  of  a 
steam  or  other  kind  of  pumping  station  might 
be  undesirable,  or  would  raise  oppo- 

_A T^^  sition,  the  power  necessary  to  lift 

~"  the  sewage  at  such  points  can  be 
developed  at  any  convenient  spot 

*U|        at  a  distance,  transmitted  to  these 

30.  FIRST  points,  and  applied  to  suitable  lift- 
TRAP  mg  machinery  placed  in  chambers 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
One  appliance  that  is  much  employed 
is  Shone's  ejector  [29],  of  which  the 
following  is  a  description. 

This  is  an  automatic  arrangement 
by  which  compressed  air  is  applied 
to  the  surface   of  the  sewage,  col- 
lected in  an  airtight  receiver  from 
32.  AUTOMATIC  any    number    of    low-level    sewers. 
AIR-VALVE     The  pressure  of   air  forces  the  low- 
level   sewage   from  the  receiver  to 
a  sewer  at  a  higher  level  which  conveys  it  to 
the  outfall. 

The  illustration  [29]  shows  a  recent  installa- 
tion of  this  system  consisting  of  two  ejectors. 
E  and  E1,  placed  in  a  circular  cast-iron  chamber, 
constructed  below  the  ground.  These  ejectors 


33.    RESERVOIR   ON   THE    LJERNUR    SYSTEM 


work  alternately,  being  regulated  by  an  ingenious 
arrangement  of  valves  at  P.  The  admission  of 
compressed  air,  and  also  the  exhaust  air  from 
the  receivers,  are  controlled  by  automatic  air 
valves  V1  and  V2,  actuated  by  floats,  as 
shown  by  F1  and  F2  in  the  ejector,  E,  attached 
to  rods  which  are  connected  to  weighted  levers, 
W.  This  device  is  arranged  so  that  when  the 
receiver  is  empty,  its  floats  assume  their  lowest 
positions.  As  the  incoming  sewage  rises,  and 
eventually  sub-  .  ,p 


merges   the  top 
float,  the  equili- 
brium    of     the 
lever      is      dis- 
turbed   by    the 
floats      rising, 
causing     the 
weight,     W,    to 
drop,      thus 
operating  a  slide 
valve  which  ad- 
mits   the    com- 
pressed    air    to 
the    surface    of 
the  sewage,  col- 
lected   in,     and 

m 

1        " 

,5     fcj 

34.  ADAM'S  SEWAGE  LIFT 

CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

reservoir.  He  then  proceeds  to  open  the  cocks 
R  one  after  the  other.  As  he  does  so  the 
atmospheric  air  rushes  through  the  soil  pipes, 
or  air  inlet,  causing  strong  pressure  to  be 
exercised  in  the  matter  in  the  receptacle  R,  and 
forcing  the  same  into  the  street  sewers  and  the 
reservoirs.  After  that,  cocks  R  are  closed  again 
and  tap  A  is  opened,  this  making  the  communica- 
tion with  the  main  sewer  (under  vacuum), 
opening  at  the  same  time  an  air  inlet  over  the 
reservoir,  by  which  means  the  whole  of  the 
sewage  collected  in  the  district  reservoir  js 
sent  to  the  main  station.  The  operation  being 
terminated,  tap  A  is  closed  and  taps  R  again 
opened,  and  ordinary  conditions  restored.  The 
operation  takes  ten  minutes. 

The  maintenance  of  the  seals  of  the  house 
traps  is  effected 
as  follows. 
The  first  trap 


filling  the  receiver.  The  contents  of  the  receiver 
are  then  rapidly  removed  and  discharged  into 
the  high-level  sewer.  The  floats,  falling  with  the 
sewage,  cut  off  the  compressed  air  supply,  and 
also  open  an  exhaust  valve,  which  releases  the 
expended  air  in  the  receiver. 

The  Liernur  System.  The  removal 
of  the  fluid  refuse  from  houses  by  this  system 
is  effected  by  pneumatic  agency.  It  was 
adopted  many  "years  ago  at  Amsterdam,  where 
the  writer  saw  it  in  operation  with  the  late 
Captain  Liernur.  The  system  has  been  more 
recently  successfully  adopted  at  Trouville  in 
France,  Leyden  in  Holland,  and  at  Stansted 
in  Essex.  The  sewers  have  to  be, 
of  course,  airtight,  and  are  of  iron. 

Where  a  sewer  receives  solid 
matters  which  may  deposit,  as  is  the 
case  especially  in  Oriental  cities, 
where  the  underground  conduits 
connecting  with  the  sewers  receive 
much  coarse  material,  it  is  claimed 
that  the  Liernur  system  meets  the 
difficulty. 

Fig.  33  is  a  diagram  of  a  district 
reservoir  into  which  the  sewage  from  the  area 
which  it  serves  is  discharged  by  this  system. 

Ea,ch  district  reservoir  is  constantly  in  con- 
nection with  the  vacuum  pipe,  in  which  a 
vacuum  of  not  more  than  half  an  atmosphere  is 
constantly  maintained  by  the  engines  at  the 
pumping  station  ;  and,  in  order  that  everything 
may  be  entirely  removed  from  the  district  pipes 
and  the  house  receptacles,  these  are  put  once  a 
day  into  communication  with  the  district 
reservoirs,  with  which  they  are  connected.  This 
is  done  by  a  man  first  proceeding  to  close  the 
cocks  R  and  opening  the  cocks  M,  thus  establish- 
ing the  communications  with  the  vacuum  pipe, 
which  is  always  under  depression,  and  the 


the  house  liquid 
first  passes 
is  formed  as. 
shown  in  30. 
A  is  the  inlet, 
the  outlet. 
W  h  en  the 
vacuum  is 
brought  into 

action  the  contents  will  be  reduced  to  a  level 
slightly  above  that  of  the  line  X  Y,  as  shown, 
because  the  air  will  force  itself  through  a  small 
depth  of  water  seal,  and  the  water  always 
remains  above  the  level  X  Y. 

The  second  trap  is  formed  as  shown  in  31, 
being  simply  an  enlargement  of  the  soil  pipe. 
During  the  action  of  the  vacuum  the  fluid 
passes  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  but  the 
concentric  ring  of  liquid  between  the  dotted 
lines  and  the  periphery  of  the  trap  is  not  drawn 
off,  and  hence  remains  to  fall  back 
after  the  pneumatic  action  is  over, 
and  to  form  a  new  seal. 

Adams  Sewage  Lift.  By 
this  system,  sewage  in  a  sewer  at  a 
high  level  is  utilised  to  lift  sewage 
from  a  low  level  automatically,  and 
thus  save  pumping.  Figs.  34  and 
35  show  the  working  of  the  system. 
The  sewage  lift  is  actuated  by  air 
compressed  by  a  column  of  sewage, 
the  only  moving  parts  required  being  the  inlet 
flap  valves.  The  distance  between  the  air  and 
forcing  cylinders  is  immaterial.  In  all  cases  the 
sewage  to  be  raised  gravitates  to  the  "  forcing 
cylinder,"  A,  entering  it  through  a  non-return 
flap  valve.  Liquid  is  fed  to  a  flush  tank,  B, 
in  the  air  chamber  and  discharged  through  its 
pressure  pipe,  P,  to  the  air  cylinder,  C,  displacing 
the  air  therein,  which  passes  by  an  air-pipe,  D, 
to  the  forcing  cylinder,  A,  exerting  there  its 
pressure  upon  the  sewage  to  be  raised,  the  latter 
being  discharged  through  the  rising  main,  E,  into 
the  intercepting  sewer  The  air  cylinder,  C, 
when  full,  is  emptied  into  the  intercepting  sewer 
by  means  of  a  syphon,  F. 


REFLUX   VALVE 


Continued 


4463 


Group  14 

METALS 


IRON  AND  STEEL 

Varieties  of  Iron :    Cast  Iron,  Malleable  Cast  Iron,  Wrought 
Iron    and      Steel.        Iron     Ores    and     their    Composition 


By  A.    H.    HIORNS 


1  RON  is  by  far  the  most  useful  and  the  most 
*  used  of  all  metals  hi  virtue  of  its  special 
properties,  especially  its  great  strength,  its 
abundance  in  the  earth,  and  its  low  price. 

Varieties  of  Iron.  It  occurs  commercially 
in  different  forms,  and,  with  the  aid  of  foreign 
bodies,  possesses  widely  different  qualities.  In 
one  case  it  is  easily  melted  and  cast,  very 
brittle  when  solid,  and  cannot  be  forged.  In 
another  case  it  is  soft  at  a  white  heat,  easily 
forged  and  welded,  offers  considerable  resistance 
to  sudden  shock,  is  almost  infusible,  and  retains 
oftnews  after  sudden  quenching  in  water. 
In  yet  another  case  it  is  malleable,  highly 
tenacious,  and  can  be  made  intensely  hard  by 
sudden  quenching  in  water.  These  widely 
divergent  properties  enable  it  to  be  employed  in 
a  greater  variety  of  circumstances  than  any 
other  metal.  Up  to  about  50  years  ago  only 
three  kinds  of  iron  were  recognised — cast  iron, 
steel,  and  wrought  iron — but  at  present  a 
greater  number  of  different  kinds  are  manu- 
factured, varying  in  properties  with  the  nature 
of  the  foreign  elements  they  contain,  which 
really  convert  the  pure  iron  into  an  alloy.  Of 
theM-  foreign  l>odie<  by  far  the  most  influential 
is  carbon. 

All  kinds  of  iron  may  be  classified  under  two 
chief  head-  : 

MALLE \BI.K:  Wrought  iron  and  ingot  iron; 
wrought  steel  and  ingot  steel. 

NON -MALLEABLE:  Pig  or  cast  iron. 

Tin-  difference  l»ct  ween  iron  and  steel  is  marked 
by  the  hardening  or  non-hardening  properties. 
In  wrought  metal  the  structure  is  obtained  by 
mi' al  treatment  at  a  welding  temperature. 
In  hum!  metal  the  product  is  cast  into  moulds 
from  the  liquid  condit.  ,n.  Ingot  iron,  in  conse- 
quence of  it->  non-hardening  property,  is  also 
termed  "  mild  steel." 

Pig   or  Cast    Iron.     Pig   iron  is  obtained 

nelt  ing  iron  ore  with  charcoal,  coke,  or  raw 

MM!  in  ,i  lila>t  furnace.     Two  chief  varieties  are 

•[•pendent  upon  the  furnace  conditions 

nature  of  the  charge, termed  grey  and  white 

Grey     Pig    Iron.     Crt-y    pig   iron   consi-t- 

MMmtiiilly  ,,t  iron.  (ail. on  and  silicon,  but  other 

''''  ln  •   phosphorus,  manganese,  and 

-ulphur   an-    frequently    present .      The  carbon 

generally  \aric>  I,  -t  ween   •_'  per  cent,  and  4  per 

thcMlieon  froin  1  per  cent,  to  3  per 

iliar  character  of  grey  iron  is  due 

to  the  mode  ,,f    oeeuiTcnce  of  the  carbon,  which 

i-  influenced    l,y    the   amount    of  silicon    present 

L464 


and  the  rate  of  cooling.  Silicon  tends  to  cause 
the  carbon  to  crystallise  out  in  the  form  of 
graphite.  By  very  slow  cooling  these  crystals 
become  very  large,  and  by  quicker  cooling,  very 
small.  Grey  iron  is,  therefore,  not  one  uniform 
mass  like  white  iron,  but  it  contains  different 
bodies  mixed  together,  the  size  of  the  grain 
largely  determining  the  strength.  With  large 
flakes  of  graphite  the  iron  approximates  nearer 
in  strength  and  malleability  to  wrought  iron. 
Grey  iron  requires  a  higher  temperature  to  melt 
it  than  white  iron,  becomes  thinly  liquid  when 
melted,  and  expands  when  solidifying,  which 
admirably  adapts  it  to  castings.  It  is  also 
produced  at  a  higher  temperature  in  the  blast 
furnace  than  white  iron,  which  tends  to  make  it 
more  impure. 

White  Pig  Iron.  White  pig  iron  contains 
its  carbon  chiefly  in  the  combined  form,  is  freer 
from  silicon,  and  often  contains  more  manganese 
than  grey  iron.  It  is  a  true  alloy  of  iron  with 
carbon,  phosphorus,  manganese,  etc.  It  is 
intensely  hard  and  very  brittle.  With  much 
manganese,  from  5  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent.,  it 
is  composed  of  large  crystalline  plates  and 
termed  sptegel-eisen.  When  the  manganese 
content  considerably  exceeds  20  per  cent.,  the 
crystals  are  much  smaller,  and  the  alloy  is  termed 
ferro-manganese.  White  iron  is  produced  when 
the  furnace  is  charged  with  a  heavy  burden  of 
slags  mixed  with  ore,  and  is  then  termed 
cinder  pig,  as  distinguished  from  iron  pro- 
duced entirely  from  ore.  White  iron  is  also 
produced  from  easily  reducible  ores,  which 
require  less  fuel  than  ones  reducible  with  greater 
difficulty. 

Mottled  Iron.  Mottled  iron  is  intermediate 
between  grey  and  white  iron,  and  partakes  of  the 
properties  of  both.  When  broken,  it  shows  a 
veined  or  mottled  appearance.  Pig  iron  is 
arranged  into  a  variety  of  classes  according  to 
the  colour,  texture,  size  of  the  crystalline  plates, 
and  general  character  of  the  fractured  surface. 
It  is  graded  in  numbers  from  1  to  8,  or  more 
commonly  from  1  to  4,  for  foundry  purposes,  and 
number  4  forge,  mottled  and  white.  No.  1  is  the 
greyest  and  the  richest  in  silicon.  Passing  from 
No.  1  to  white  iron  the  combined  carbon 
gradually  increases  and  the  silicon  diminishes. 

The  term  cast  iron  is  used  to  express  the 
metal  obtained  by  remelting  pig  iron  and  casting 
it  into  moulds  of  various  kinds  in  the  foundry. 
The  greyer  varieties  of  pig  iron  are  termed 
foundry  pigs  and  the  others  forge  pigs,  the 
latter  being  USed  chiefly  for  the  production  of 
wrought  iron. 


German   Cast    Iron.     In    Germany 
following  kinds  are  produced  : 


the 


WHITE    PIG 

IRON 

Ferro-mangaiH'sc. 

White  Iron  Proper. 

Spiegel. 

White. 

Ordinary. 

30  to  80  per  cent, 
manganese 

5  to  20 
per  cant, 
mangan- 
ese 

1  to  5 

p?r  cent, 
mangan- 
ese 

Less  than 
1  percent, 
mangan- 
ese 

GREY    PIG 

IRON 

Half  pig.                    Deep  grey. 

Silicon  iron 

0  to  3  per  cent.     0  to  5  per  cant, 
manganese               manganese 
0-5  to  1«5  per  cent.    2  to  4  per  cent, 
silicon                        si'icon 

5  to  17  per  cent. 
si;icon 

Malleable  Cast  Iron.  When  cast  iron 
articles,  produced  from  high  class  white  iron, 
are  embedded  in  powdered  haematite,  packed 
in  iron  cases,  and  heated  to  a  cherry  red  heat 
for  a  few  days,  they  become  malleable,  and  are 
said  to  be  annealed.  By  this  action  the  combined 
carbon  is  set  free,  and  some  of  the  carbon  is 
burnt  off  from  the  surface,  which  renders  the 
cast  wares  malleable. 

Wrought  Iron.  Wrought  or  malleable 
iron  is  a  mixture  of  iron  and  slag,  drawn  out 
into  fibres  by  mechanical  treatment  at  welding 
temperatures.  There  i»,  however,  this  difference, 
that  the  iron  is  crystalline  and  the  slag  amor- 
phous. Wrought  iron  is  not  pure,  but  contains, 
in  addition  to  the  slag,  those  elements  in  a  smaller 
degree  which  are  present  in  the  pig  iron.  It 
possesses  the  welding  property  in  a  high  degree. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  7 '8,  and  its  melting  point 
about  1,600°  C. 

Steel.  This  is  a  malleable  and  tough  alloy 
of  iron  and  carbon,  the  latter  not  exceeding 
2  per  cent.,  and  generally  less  than  T6  per  cent. 
In  special  steels,  elements  such  as  manganese, 
nickel,  tungsten,  chromium,  etc.,  are  added  in 
various  amounts.  When  the  carbon  it;  less  than 
0'3  per  cent,  it  is  termed  mild  steel,  and  cannot 
be  materially  hardened  by  sudden  quenching. 
1  is  finely  crystalline  in  structure,  and  the 
er  the  percentage  of  carbon  the  smaller 
.he  grain.  The  carbon  exists  chiefly  in  com- 
ination,  forming  the  compound  Fe;jC.  Steel 
as  a  bluish-white  colour,  is  generally  destitute 
of  fibre,  except  in  wrought  steel,  and  possesses 
great  strength  and  tenacity.  It  can  be  made 
intensely  hard  by  sudden  quenching  and  again 
softened  by  slow  cooling  from  a  red  heat.  By 
cautiously  re-heating  hardened  steel  to  200° 
or  300°  C.  the  tension  is  released,  the  metal  loses 
its  brittleness,  and  its  intense  hardness  is  modified. 
This  is  termed  tempering.  Hardened  steel  is 
capable  of  retaining  its  magnetism  after  being 
once  magnetised,  especially  the  variety  known  as 
tungsten  steel. 

The  Early  History  of  Iron.  We  can 
only  conjecture  when  iron  was  first  extracted 
from  its  ores  and  applied  to  the  use  of  man. 
The  most  ancient  samples  have  been  obtained 


METALS 

from  Egypt  and  Assyria,  some  of  them  assumed 
to  be  4,000  years  old.  When  the  Roman 
Empire  was  extended,  the  use  of  iron  became 
widely  known.  Pliny  mentions  the  hardening 
of  steel  by  quenching  in  water  and  in  oil.  For 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  iron  was 
produced,  and  what  is  now  known  as  Styrian 
and  None  iron  was  famed  for  its  high  quality. 
The  ancient  Britons  were  acquainted  with  the 
use  and  probably  the  extraction  of  iron,  and 
during  the  Roman  occupation  the  manufacture 
was  enormously  increased  in  the  country. 

In  all  ancient  processes  the  iron  was  obtained 
from  the  ore  in  one  operation.  This  is  known 
as  the  direct  method,  and  is  the  one  still  employed 
in  some  parts  of  India,  China,  Africa,  South 
America,  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  in  Europe. 
The  furnace  is  a  simple  open  hearth  or  small 
blast  furnace.  The  fuel  used  is  charcoal,  and 
the  blast  is  obtained  by  rude  blowers  or  bellows. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  cast  iron  began  to 
be  obtained  in  small  blast  furnaces.  All  ancient 
iron  furnaces  were  heated  with  charcoal.  The 
increase  of  iron  smelting  in  this  country  produced 
a  scarcity  of  charcoal,  which  directed  attention 
towards  the  use  of  coal  and  coke.  Dudley, 
in  1619,  produced  pig  iron  from  ore  smelted 
with  coke.  This  led  to  a  practically  new 
industry,  that  of  coke  making,  which  has  been 
associated  with  that  of  iron  smelting  ever  since. 
The  invention  of  the  steam  engine  led  to  the 
use  of  blowing  cylinders  for  the  production  of 
the  blast,  which  was  obtained  at  high  pressure 
and  greatly  increased  the  yield  of  iron. 

Improved  Processes  of  Refining  Iron. 
In  1784  a  great  improvement  in  the  method  of 
refining  pig  iron  was  made  by  Henry  Cort. 
Before  that  time  iron  was  purified  in  small 
hearths  with  a  great  expenditure  of  fuel,  but 
Cort's  introduction  of  the  reveiberatory  puddling 
furnace  lessened  the  fuel  consumption  and 
enabled  coal  to  be  used  instead  of  charcoal. 

Another  marked  advance  was  made  by 
Neilson,  in  1828,  by  the  substitution  of  hot  for 
cold  blast.  This  was  soon  followed  by  closing 
the  top  of  the  blast  furnace,  so  as  to  collect  the 
waste  gases  and  utilise  them  for  heating  the 
blast. 

In  1840,  Huntsman  greatly  improved  the 
manufacture  of  crucible  steel.  In  1855,  the 
great  inventions  of  Bessemer  were  given  to  the 
world,  and  in  1861.  Siemens  invented  his  re- 
generative furnace.  In  1878,  the  introduction 
of  the  basic  process  of  steel-making  was  made 
by  Thomas  and  Gilchrist,  and  is  now  employed 
in  the  Bessemer  and  Open  Hearth  methods. 

In  recent  years  the  development  of  the 
blast  furnaces  has  resulted  in  increased  height 
and  capacity,  greater  facilities  for  charging, 
discharging,  casting,  and  dealing  with  the  pig 
iron  obtained.  In  steel-making  the  great 
feature  has  been  the  invention  of  new  types  of 
open  hearth  furnaces,  and  in  methods  of  treat- 
ing, working,  and  using  them. 

Great  improvements  have  been  made  in 
machinery,  chiefly  electrical,  rather  than  in 
processes.  The  tilting  furnaces  of  Campbell 
and  Wellman  for  continuous  practice,  and  the 

4465 


METALS 

aul-Theil  duplex  method  of  working  are 
the  most  prominent.  Many  kinds  of  special 
steels  have  boon  ivo-ntly  introduced,  which 
rcquir-  special  treatment,  and  these  have 
revoluti.mised  mr  -hine  simp  practice. 

Ores  of  Iron.  Iron  occurs  in  Nature  in 
small  quantities  in  the  m.-tallie  state  as  meteor- 
hut  the  oxides  and  carbonates  form  the 
chief  source  of  the  metal. 

Magnetite  is  a  black  oxide  of  iron,  Fe^O4, 
and  possesses  magnetic  properties.  It  contains, 
wh.'ii  I'inv,  7-J-4  per  cent,  of  iron.  A1Jnough 
occurring  in  various  parts  of  the  world  the 
chief  supply  is  obtained  from  Sweden  and 
North  America.  From  this  ore  the  celebrated 
Swedish  iron  is  obtained. 

Haematite,  is  the  red  oxide,  Fe.,O3,  and  contains, 
uhen  pure,  70  per  cent,  of  iron.  It  occurs  in 
a  variety  of  forms  as  specular,  micaceous, 
kidney,  'ochre  and  massive  hematite.  The 
most 'important  deposits  in  this  country  are  in 
ComberkukL 

Brovcn  hcematite,  or  limonite,  is  of  a  brown 
or  yellow  colour,  and  consists  of  Fe»08  with 
combined  water.  It  may  be  typically  repre- 
sented by  the  formula  2Fe.2O;}3H20.  It  is 
abundant  in  the  English  Midlands  and  various 
parts  of  the  world. 

Xjxtthic  ore,  chalybite,  or  siderite  is  a  carbonate 
of  iron,  FeC03,  containing,  when  pure,  48  per 
of  iron.  It  is  abundant  in  the  Midlands, 
South- West  and  Northern  counties.  It  occurs 
in  enormous  masses  in  Scandinavia,  Central 
Europe,  and  North  America.  Clay  ironstone 
and  Black  band  are  varieties  of  this  ore. 

Iron  pyrites,  FeS.,,  although  it  is  very 
abundant,  is  not  suitable  for  smelting  on 
account  of  the  sulphur  which  it  contains. 


heated  in  air  or  oxygen  the  surface  becomes  coated 
with  the  black  oxide,  Fe3O4.  Iron  is  readily 
attacked  by  hydrochloric  or  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  hydrogen 'being  given  off  and  chloride  or 
sulphate  of  iron  formed.  If  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  be  employed  the  metal  is  oxidised 
at  the  expense  of  the  acid  and  sulphur-dioxide 
is  evolved.  Ordinary  nitric  acid  attacks  iron 
vigorously  ;  but  if  *the  acid  be  concentrated 
the  iron  becomes  passive. 

There  are  three  oxides  of  iron  of  metallur- 
gical importance — ferrous  oxide  (FeO),  ferric 
oxide  (Fe.,03),  and  magnetic  oxide  (Fe;504).  Fer- 
rous oxide  is  very  unstable  and  rapidly  oxidises 
in  air  ;  it  unites  with  acids  to  form  iron  salts 
and  is  the  principal  base  in  all  slags  formsd 
in  the  refining  of  crude  iron.  In  combination 
with  carbon-dioxide  it  forms  spathic  ores. 
Ferric  oxide  occurs  native.  It  is  a  fairly  staple 
compound,  but  at  a  white  heat  it  gives  up 
oxygen,  forming  Fe304.  The  magnetic  oxide 
is  the  richest  ore  of  iron  ;  it  is.  produced  when 
iron  is  strongly  heated  in  air,  oxygen,  or  super- 
heated steam,  and  is  used  as  a  protective  coating 
from  further  oxidation  of  iron  goods.  The 
influence  of  silicon,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  carbon, 
etc.,  is  dealt  with  elsewhere. 

Production  of  Pig  or  Cast  Iron.  Most 
iron  ores  are  first  calcined  in  heaps,  stalls,  or  kilns, 
with  the  addition  of  a  little  fuel.  The  object  of 
this  is  to  remove  water,  sulphur,  carbon,  dioxide, 
and  other  volatile  matter,  to  convert  ferrous  into 
ferric  oxide,  and  to  render  the  ore  more  porous 
and  more  readily  susceptible  to  the  action  of  the 
reducing  agents  in  the  blast  furnace. 

The  calcined  ore  is  put  into  the  blast  furnace 
with  coal,  coke,  or  charcoal,  and  a  flux,  which  is 
generally  limestone.  About  four  tons  of  material 


TYPICAL     COMPOSITION     OF     IRON     ORES 

— 

Sw.lisli 
M.iv-rirtitr. 

Ciiiiilwrlniiil 
Hematite. 

New  South 
Wales 
Hamiatite. 

North.  iiip- 
toii 
Limonite. 

f-tyrian 
Spathic. 

.Staffordshire 
Clay 
Ironstone. 

Cleveland 
Ironstone. 

Backhand. 

\  1  1  )  K 

59 







51 

47.5 

40 

41 

FKKKIC  <>\n 

28 

93 

73 

65 



— 

3-5 

2-5 

"MI.K 

o-i 

0-2 

— 

0-5 

5-5 

0-9 

1-0 

1-0 

All    MINA         .  . 

0-3 

0-6 

4 

3-5 

3-5 

4-8 

7-5- 

3-0 

LIME 

0-4 

1-7 

2-5 

0-9 

1-9 

7-5 

2-0 

<IA       .  . 

o-i 



0-9 

0-8 

1-9 

4 

1-0 

SIM,  v 

12 

5-56 

10 

13-2 

0-28 

10 

9 

7-0 

ruui.iN  M  1x11.1: 

d-l 

38 

31 

23 

28-0 

(••HI.       \.    II, 

(H)3 

0-04 



1-3 

0-04 

0-05 

1-8 

0-5 

Si  -1.1-111    K 







0-11 

It 



0-6 

10-4 

14 



1-95 

2-5 

1-0 

1'      M  \TTKK 

— 

— 

— 

— 

15-0 

Chemistry    of  Iron.      Pure  iron  may  be 
pnidur. -.1  in  two  ways: 

1.   Ky  mini  -ing  pure  ferric  oxide  by  hydrogen 

in    •    pom-lain    tube    at    700°    C.,  when   it   is 

obtained  as  a  dark  powder.      If   the    jvdm-tion 

much    higher    temperature    a 

U   mass    is   obtained. 

.'.   By  the  i-l.-,-tr«. lysis  of  a  solution  of  pure 

••hlnride  or  sulphate. 

D  is  unaltered  in  dry  air.  but  in  the  presence 

Ufa,  forming  a  hydrated  oxide. 

•  I'-rated   by   the 

•nie    acid.     Wlu'ii  it   is  strongly 

MM 


will  produce  one  ton  of  iron.  Air  is  forced  in  at 
the  bottom  and  rises  towards  the  top  ;  it  thus 
encounters  the  solid  materials  which  are  descend- 
in?,  and  by  acting  upon  them,  liberates  the  iron. 
The  oxygen  of  the  air  combines  with  the  carbon, 
and  produces  the  necessary  heat.  The  carbon 
and  the  carbon  compounds  formed  reduce  the 
iron  oxide.  The  flux  unites  with  the  gangue 
of  the  ore,  and  forms  slag.  Thus  we  have  the 
heat-producing  action,  the  reducing  action,  and 
the  slag -forming  action. 

Necessary    Conditions    in    Iron    Re= 
duction .     In  order  completely  to  reduce  oxide 


of  iron,  we  must  have  a  high  temperature  and 
contact  with  a  deoxidising  substance,  such  as 
carbon,  carbonic  oxide,  etc.  The  reduction  of 
oxide  iron  by  carbon  yields  carbonic  oxide,  in 
which  form  it  escapes,  but  the  reduction  by 
carbonic  oxide  yields  carbon  dioxide.  These 
reductions  may  be  expressed  by  the  following 
equations  : 

Fe.,03  +30=  2Fe  +  3CO  ; 
Fe.26.5  +  SCO  =  2Fe  +  3C0.2 

Under  the  strongly  reducing  conditions  re- 
quired for  the  reduction  of  oxide  of  iron,  elements 
other  than  iron  are  also  reduced,  such  as  phos- 
phorus, sulphur,  silicon,  manganese,  etc.,  and 
these  combine  with  the  iron.  The  fuel  also  con- 
tains sulphur,  and  sometimes  phosphorus,  and 
these  contribute  impurities  to  the  iron.  By  con- 
tact with  incandescent  carbon  also  iron  absorbs 
some  carbon. 

"  Direct "  Methods.  Similar  reactions 
take  place  when  primitive  or  direct  methods  are 
used,  but  these  are  now  employed  only  to  a 
limited  extent.  In  these  furnaces  a  relatively 
low  temperature  and  a  short  contact  of  the  iron 
with  the  carbon  prevents  a  little  of  the  latter 
from  uniting  with  the  iron,  and  by  the  oxidising 
action  of  the  blast  the  combined  carbon  is 
largely  removed,  and  a  pasty  mass  of  metal, 
termed  the  bloom,  is  ootained  and  hammered 
into  a  malleable  mass  of  wrought  iron.  By 
keeping  the  bloom  longer  in  contact  with  incan- 
descent carbon,  a  steel  or  steely  iron  is  obtained. 
Such  a  method  is  termed  direct,  because  iron  is 
produced  in  one  operation  instead  of  in  two,  as 
in  the  blast  furnace  method,  where  pig  iron  is 
first  produced,  and  then  refined  in  the  puddling 
furnace. 

Direct  methods  can  be  applied  only  to  very 
rich  ores  with  little  gangue,  and  charcoal  is 
necessary  as  fuel.  In  addition  to  this,  the  labour 
is  very  great,  and  the  loss  of  iron  in  the  slag 
considerable.  These  conditions  have  led  almost 
to  the  abandonment  of  the  process.  In  order 
to  prevent  waste  of  iron,  limestone  is  necessary  as 
a  flux,  which  forms  a  slag  with  silica  ;  but  this 
requires  for  its  formation  a  high  temperature, 

!such  as  that  of  the  blast  furnace. 
Molten  Iron.  It  has  been  mentioned  that 
the  conditions  in  the  blast  furnace  are  favour- 
able to  the  absorption  of  carbon  by  the  iron, 
and  the  pig  iron  obtained  contains  3  to  4  per 
cent.  This,  having  a  lower  melting  point  than 
malleable  iron,  becomes  perfectly  liquid  at  the 
temperature  of  the  furnace,  and  on  account  of  its 
specific  gravity  falls  to  the  bottom.  The  slag 
also  is  melted,  and  floats  on  the  top  of  the  iron, 
the  gaseous  products  escaping  at  the  top.  In  a 
general  way  the  reactions  may  be  expressed 
thus  : 
2Fe.,0,  +  SiO.2  +  CaO  +  3C  =  4Fe  +  CaOSiO., 

+  3CO, 

But  the  reactions  are  not  nearly  so  simple  as 
this.  Carbonic  oxide  plays  an  important  role  ; 
the  gangue  of  the  ore  contains  alumina,  magnesia, 
oxide  of  manganese,  phosphoric  acid,  etc.,  so 
that  the  slag  is  a  complex  silicate.  The  escaping 
gases  contain  also  nitrogen,  carbonic  oxide, 
hydrogen,  and  other  volatile  matters.  It  will  be 


METALS 

understood,  then,  that  temperature  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  determining  the  character  of 
the  reduced  iron. 

It  is  possible  in  the  blast  furnace  to  treat 
much  poorer  ores  than  in  the  forge  furnace  ;  the 
slag  is  almost  free  from  iron,  and  the  manual 
labour  much  less.  Since  pig  iron  is  aimed  at, 
coal  and  coke  can  be  used  instead  of  charcoal  as 
fuel.  In  the  forge  furnace,  also,  3  or  4  tons  of 
charcoal  are  required  for  the  production  of  1  ton 
of  malleable  iron,  while  in  the  blast  furnace  1  ton 
of  pig  iron  can  be  produced  with  1  ton  of  coke. 
It  is  true  that  pig  iron  has  to  be  refined,  but  the 
combined  cost  of  reduction  and  refining  is  much 
less  than  a  single  operation  in  the  forge  furnace. 

Principles  of  Blast  Furnace  Practice. 
The  aim  is  to  secure  regularity  of  working  and 
fuel  economy  with  maximum  output.  The  ore 
should  be  of  uniform  quality,  or  a  uniform 
mixture  of  different  ores  should  be  used,  with 
a  suitable  flux  to  produce  the  quality  and 
composition  of  slag  best  suited  to  the  process 
of  smelting.  Neither  a  very  lean  ore  nor  a  very 
rich  mixture  of  ores  yields  the  best  results. 
The  more  refractory  the  ore,  the  more  finely 
should  it  be  crushed,  so  as  to  be  readily  reducible. 
Two  dangers  present  themselves  here.  A  very 
fine  ore  offers  great  resistance  to  the  ascending 
gases,  and  a  greater  quantity  is  carried  into  the 
flue  as  dust ;  therefore  increased  blast  furnace 
pressure  is  necessary.  It  is  important  that  .the 
sizing,  or  separating  of  the  ore,  according  to 
relative  coarseness,  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered, and  the  charging  of  very  fine  and  coarse 
ores  together  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  The 
best  plan  is  to  separate  it  into  two  or  three 
different  sizes,  and  either  smelt  separately  or 
smelt  the  coarser  ones  together.  The  fine  ones 
can  be  best  used  after  making  into  briquettes 
or  agglutinating  in  some  convenient  way.  If 
coarse  and  fine  ores  are  smelted  together  they 
should  be  charged  in  in  separate  strata,  and  a 
strong  blast  used. 

The  Flux.  What  has  been  said  of  the 
ores  applies  in  a  great  measure  to  the  flux.  It 
should  be  broken  into  pieces  of  uniform  size 
and  all  dust  avoided.  The  slag  performs  a 
twofold  function  —  physical  and  chemical. 
Physically,  it  acts  as  a  filter,  purifying  the 
globules  of  reduced  iron  as  they  pass  through  ; 
and  as  a  shield,  protecting  the  metal  from 
oxidation  by  the  blast.  Chemically,  it  absorbs 
sulphur,  and  assists  in  regulating  the  silicon 
content  in  the  iron.  The  proper  composition  of 
the  slag  is  very  important.  Alumina  should  be 
as  low  as  possible,  as,  although  it  does  not  reduce 
the  fusibility,  it  reduces  the  fluidity,  wThich 
is  a  vital  point  in  the  blast  furnace.  A  good 
slag  should  retain  the  solid  form  up  to  the 
melting  point,  and  then  become  quite  liquid, 
and  not  pass  through  a  stage  which  causes 
sticking  and  hanging,  and  has  a  tendency  to 
retain  globules  of  iron. 

Fuel.  The  fuel  for  the  blast  furnace  may  be 
raw  coal,  coke,  anthracite,  or  charcoal.  Of  these 
the  raw  coal  is  seldom  used  alone — anthracite  is 
generally  too  dear,  and  charcoal  too  expensive 
and  too  scarce.  Coke  is  the  best  possible  fuel  for 

4467 


METALS 

molernblaM    fanMUM.      The   I'"'1-   il   *hould  b6 

,,.„„. mi,,.r,.  1.  performs  a  phy>ical  and  a  chemical 

I'hv-ieiiUy.  it  preserves  an  open  passage  for 

ling  gases,  and  for  this  reason  should  be 

h:ird.  M|  uniform  in  si/e.    Fine  dust  or 

,  is  very  objectionable,  jix  it  blows  over  with 

ihe    -as.      rhemically.    the   fuel   generates   the 

\  lemi-oombartkm  with  oxygen, 

and  the  carbonic  oxide  formed  is  a  necessary 

.:ent  for  the  reduction  of  the  oxide  of 

Ooke  >hould  be  highly  porous,  so  as  to 

otfer  the   maximum  surface  to  the  oxygen  of 

th-  bla<t.     The  mo.t  objectionable  impurity  in 

coke  is  sulphur,  and  phosphorus  for  special  irons. 

The  composit  ion  of  t  he  ash  is  almost  as  important 

as  its  quantity.     The  alumina  should  be  low 

and  the  silica  high. 

Blast.  The  blast  should  be  regular  in 
quantitv.  and.  as  far  as  possible,  constant  in 
volume!  A  regular  temperature  is  very 
important,  since  every  100  degrees  of  heat 
added  is  equal  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  carbon 
burned  at  the  twyers.  Temperatures  corre- 
sponding to  a  red  heat  are  constantly  used  for 
h  -at ing  the  blast,  but  beyond  this  limit  it  is 
not  advisable  to  go,  although  theoretically  the 
limit  is  not  reached  until  the  fuel  reduces 
the  quantity  of  carbonic  oxide  to  just  that 
quantity  required  to  reduce  the  ore.  The 
introduction  of  the  hot  blast  regenerative  stove 
nabled  higher  temperatures  to  be  obtained, 
but  it  is  subject  to  greater  variability  of 
temperature  than  the  old  pipe  stove.  The  loss 
of  temperature  in  an  hour's  blowing  is  from 
200°  C.  to  300°  C.,  and  this  is  equivalent  to  an 
increase  of  7i  per  cent,  of  fuel  burned  in  the 
hearth.  This  may  be  largely  avoided  by  washing 
the  gases  and  using  larger  or  more  numerous 
stoves.  For  noting  uniformity  of  temperature 
a  pyrometer  is  necessary,  and  an  autographic 
d  will  show  the  temperature  each  minute  if 
nry. 

The  composition  of  the  blast  varies  with  the 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  and,  as  one  pound 
of  moist  uiv  iv.,uircs  1  -3  Ib.  of  carbon  to  be  burned 
at  the  twyers  to  replace  the  heat  absorbed  by  the 
m position  of  this  water,  an  enormous  amount 
of  heat  is  thus  I,, st.  This  consideration  has 
induced  ironmasters  to  use  desiccating  plants 
for  removing  the  moisture  from  the  blast. 

The   Charge.     The  temperature   and  con- 
lit  ion  of  the  charge  varies  in  different  parts 
tumace.     In    the    top    portion 
•re    wurmod,    and    the     oxide 
iron     j.     partially    reduced.       Lower    down, 
•'""•   flux    is    calcined,   forming    lime 
n    dioxide    at    a    red    heat.      A    little 
•I". Ii     dioxide    oxidises. 

''  "t    '!'"  fuel  forming  carbonic  oxide 
nd    the    reduced   iron 

-ik.-s  up  earbon.     This  action   is  continued  in 

tl'"  '  "  ""Hi  also  the  oxides  of  silicon 

'h"n'--  etc.,  are  reduced,  and  the  silicon 

'I    phocpboroi   unite   with   the  iron.     In  the 

"'i'"i    the    furnace    is   at   an   intense 

heat,  th.-  carburised  impure  iron  is  melted, 

Jf  *'  -•  ;;II(|  ""'1»  f"ll  into  the  hearth' 

bomc  OXM|.;  cannot  completely  reduce  oxide 

1488 


of  iron,  so  that  other  reducing  agents  are  necessary, 
chiefly  carbon.  The  reduction  of  oxide  of  iron 
takes  place  at  comparatively  low  temperatures 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  furnace.  In  the  middle 
portion  the  iron-reducing  tendency  is  about 
balanced  by  the  iron-oxidising  tendency,  while 
the  carbon -depositing  tendency  is  equalled  by 
the  carbon-oxidising  tendency.  In  the  lower 
portion  the  iron  is  reduced  by  carbon  and  car- 
bonaceous bodies,  such  as  potassium  cyanide. 

Changes.  The  changes  occurring  in  cold- 
blast  charcoal  furnaces  are  somewhat  different 
from  those  for  hot-blast  coke  furnaces,  for  the 
charge  will  pass  a  considerable  distance  down  the 
furnace  before  reduction  begins.  The  ore  appears 
to  pass  from  ferric  to  magnetic  oxide,  then  to 
ferrous  oxide,  before  being  reduced  to  the  metallic 
state,  so  that,  while  in  the  coke  furnace  reduction 
takes  place  in  the  upper  part  by  the  action  of 
carbonic  oxide,  the  reduction  in  a  charcoal 
furnace  takes  place  in  the  middle  of  the  furnace 
at  a  comparatively  high  temperature. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the 
proper  working  of  a  blast  furnace  is  th.3  suit- 
able distribution  of  the  charge,  and  this  has 
been  emphasised  since  the  introduction  of 
automatic  charging  apparatus.  The  tendency 
of  the  skip  hoist  to  distribute  coarse  or  fine 
ore  unequally  is  a  defect  not  yet  overcome.  The 
ideal  charging  apparatus  should  be  under  con- 
trol so  that  the  material  may  be  distributed 
evenly  over  the  entire  area  of  the  blast  furnace. 
The  cup  and  cone  system  falls  far  short  as  a 
distributor  because  of  its  narrow  limitations 
and  its  inflexibility. 

Waste  Gases.  The  blast  furnace  gases  are 
important  factors  in  smelting,  both  inside  and 
outside  the  furnace.  Inside,  they  distribute  the 
heat  and  reduce  the  ores  to  the  metallic  form, 
and  the  proper  performance  of  their  functions  is 
determined  by  analysis.  The  gas  temperature 
is  also  a  valuable  guide.  A  hot  top  indicates 
insufficient  heat  at  the  bottom,  with  the  con- 
sequent production  of  inferior  iron  and  bad 
slag.  The  waste  gases  from  a  blast  furnace 
consist  of  carbonic  oxide,  carbon  dioxide,  and 
nitrogen,  with  small  quantities  of  hydrogen  and 
hydrocarbons.  With  furnaces  using  raw  coal 
the  gas  is  richest  in  hydrogen  and  hydrocarbons. 
In  coke  furnaces  the  volume  of  carbonic  oxide 
is  double  that  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  in  char- 
coal furnaces  the  greater  volume  of  carbon 
dioxide  is  found. 

Waste  gases  have  been  chiefly  used  for  heating 
boilers  and  hot-blast  stoves.  In  some  '  cases 
they  are  used  for  heating  kilns,  ovens,  and  general 
heating  appliances.  Blast  furnace  gases,  after 
purifying,  are  now  used  for  driving  gas  engines, 
and  in  this  direction  great  economy  may  be 
effected  in  the  production  of  cheap  electricity 
for  furnaces.  The  cleaning  of  the  gases  for  engine 
work  is  indispensable.  Cleaning  should  take 
place1  in  three  stages — a  preliminary  dry  cleaning  ; 
a  wet  cleaning  for  use  in  stoves,  boilers,  kilns, 
and  furnaces  ;  and  a  special  cleaning  for  power 
purposes  by  means  of  fans.  Fewer  and  smaller 
stoves,  less  heating  surface  for  boiler  plant, 
diminished  consumption  of  gas,  less  cleaning  and 


repairing  will  result  from  proper  cleaning  of  the 
gases. 

Slags.  Blast  furnace  slags  differ  in  colour 
and  appearance  according  to  the  charge  and  the 
working  conditions  of  the  furnace.  With  excess 
of  lime,  the  slag  is  white  and  fusible  with  diffi- 
culty. With  a  moderate  amount  of  lime,  the  slag 
is  grey,  hard,  and  compact.  When  the  furnace 
is  making  white  iron  the  slag  is  dark  in  colour 
and  very  fluid,  which  makes  it  very  corrosive  on 
the  furnace  lining.  It  often  contains  much 
oxide  of  iron,  and  is  termed  a  scouring  slag.  The 
slag  is  tapped  from  the  furnace  into  bogies 
running  on  rails,  and  forms  a  mould  of  a 
truncated  conical  shape.  In  some  works  it  is 
run  through  a  bronze  twyer  on  to  a  trough,  and 
thence  to  small  pans  fixed  on  an  endless  chain 
which,  by  its  revolution,  delivers  the  slag  into 
trucks.  In  some  cases  the  slag  is  removed  at 
intervals  in  side-tipping  ladles. 

The  harder  kinds  of  blast  furnace  slag,  it  not 
too  glassy,  are  used  for  mending  roads,  for  levelling 
waste  lands,  for  -building  breakwaters,  and  for 
ballast.  In  the  form  of  large  blocks  slag  is 
used  for  road-making.  It  is  used  also  for 
building  purposes  when  suitable.  For  this 
intention  it  is  moulded  into  bricks,  which  are 
kept  at  a  strong  heat  for  several  hours  in  a  closed 
space,  in  order  to  devitrify  them  and  make  them 
harder.  Good  bricks  are  made  of  granulated 
slag  and  lime.  If  not  too  acid,  slag  may  be 
burnt  in  a  state  of  powder  with  lime  and  yields 
a  good  hydraulic  cement.  The  following  are 
analyses  of  slags  used  for  this  purpose  : 


METALS 

blast.  With  some  ores,  cindeis,  etc.,  the  con- 
sumption of  coke  reaches  30  cwt.  per  ton  of 
iron.  Approximately,  54  per  cent,  of  the  total 
heat  is  carried  away  in  the  waste  gases,  6  per 
cent,  in  the  slag,  3  per  cent,  in  the  iron,  6  per 
cent,  in  the  water  used,  and  7  per  cent,  by 
radiation  and  conduction. 

The  modern  blast  furnace  is  an  elongated 
barrel-shaped  structure  in  interior  vertical 
section,  and  generally  circular  in  cross  section. 
The  height  varies  from  75  to  95  ft.,  the  greatest 
width  from  25  to  30  ft.,  and  the  maximum 
capacity  of  50,000  cubic  ft. 

The  body  is  formed  of  wrought-iron  plates, 
half  an  inch  thick,  and  riveted  together.  Within 
this  is  built  the  outer  casing  of  ordinary  masonry, 
the  inside  being  lined  with  firebrick,  about  18  in. 
thick,  while  in  some  cases  between  the  two 
layers  of  brickwork  is  a  small  space  filled  with 
sand  to  allow  for  expansion  and  contraction. 
The  body,  or  stack,  is  supported  on  a  cast-iron 
ring,  resting  on  pillars  of  the  same  material,  and 
the  lower  part,  from  the  top  of  the  columns 
to  the  hearth,  is  also  cased  with  iron  and  in  some 
cases  with  water  blocks.  The  hearth  is  indepen- 
dent of  the  masonry  of  the  stack,  and  is  built 
in  after  the  stack  is  completed.  It  requires  to 
be  made  of  very  refractory  material  of  consider- 
able thickness,  having  to  withstand  a  very  great 
heat  in  addition  to  the  corrosive  action  of  the 
molten  slags. 

The  hearth  is  perforated  with  six  to  eight 
holes  for  the  introduction  of  the  twyers,  which 
convey  the  blast  of  air  into  the  furnace.  On  the 
front  or  the  work- 


— 

Bilbao. 

Middles- 
brough. 

Saulines, 
France. 

Chrinde/. 
Switzerland. 

Hartzburg. 
Germany. 

Belgium. 

LIME..          .. 

SILICA  -   -  .  . 

47-30 
32-90 
13*25 

32-75 

30-00 

28-00 

47-20 
31-65 
17-00 

45-11 

26-88 
24'12 

48-59 
30-72 
16-40 

44-75 
32-51 
13-91 

FERROUS  OXIDE 
MAGNESIA 
CALCIUM  SULPHIDE 
MANGANESE  OXIDE 
RESIDUE 

00-46 
1-37 
3-42 
1*13 

0-17 

0-75 
5-25 
1-90 
0-60 
0-75 

0-65 
1-36 

0-85 
1-29 

0-44 
1-09 
1-86 
0-50 

0-^3 
1-28 
2-16 

0-42 

0-48 
2-20 
4-90 
0-60 
0'65 

Slag  wool  is  made  from  blast  furnace  slag  by 
blowing  steam  on  to  a  thin  stream  of  the  slag 
in  such  a  way  that  the  steam  encounters  only 
half  the  stream.  It  is  light  and  fireproof,  and 
used  for  covering  steam-pipes,  etc. 

The  Blast  Furnace.  An  English  blast 
furnace  of  the  old  type  was  a  massive  stonework 
structure,  circular  in  cross  section,  and  the  shaft 
approached  in  sectional  elevation  to  that  of 
two  truncated  cones  joined  at  their  bases.  The 
lower  cone  was  continued  to  the  ground  level 
or  enlarged,  forming  the  hearth,  three  sides  being 
continued  to  the  bottom,  and  the  other  left 
open  for  access.  The  interior  was  lined  with 
firebricks.  The  dimensions  varied  from  9  to  10  ft. 
in  diameter,  and  from  30  to  45  ft.  high. 

The  blast  furnace  of  to-day,  compared  with 
that  of  a  century  ago,  is  an  efficient  machine. 
Then,  the  consumption  of  fuel  per  ton  of  iron 
was  often  10  tons  ;  now,  it  is  often  less  than 
19  cwt.  of  coke.  This  has  been  mainly  effected 
by  the  introduction  of  the  hot  blast  and  the 
utilisation  of  the  waste  gases  for  heating  the 


ing  side  the  hearth 
was  formerly  ex- 
tended, forming  a 
rectangular  cavity 
known  as  the  fore- 
hearth,  which  was 
bounded  in  front 
by  a  very  refractory 
stone,  termed  the 
damstone.  The  arch 
covering  this  was  called  the  tymp-arch.  The 
tymp  was  made  either  of  a  very  refractory  stone 
or  of  a  hollow  cast-iron  box  built  in  the  masonry, 
and  through  this  box  a  current  of  water  con- 
stantly circulated  to  keep  it  cool. 

Fig.  32  represents  a  modern  American  blast 
furnace.  It  is  about  85  ft.  high,  23  ft.  wide  at 
its  greatest  diameter,  and  of  11  ft.  diameter  in 
the  hearth.  The  hearth  is  protected  by  water- 
cooled  plates,  and  in  the  boshes  are  eight  rows  of 
bronze  cooling  plates,  eight  plates  forming  the 
circle,  each  plate  having  two  watercourses. 
Cast-iron  cooling  plates  are  also  placed  between 
the  twyers,  the  number  of  the  latter  being  seven, 
each  6  in.  in  diameter.  The  cubical  capacity 
is  about  20,000  cubic  ft.  The  charging  bell 
is  12  ft.  and  the  throat  15|  ft.  in  diameter.  The 
volume  of  air  blown  in  is  24,000  cubic  ft.  per 
minute.  The  temperature  of  the  blast  is  650°  C., 
and  the  average  pressure  8  Ib.  per  square  in. 
For  flux  10  cwt.  of  limestone  are  required  per 
ton  of  iron  produced,  and  this  amount  is  produced 
with  17  cwt.  of  coke.  The  output  is  about  2,000 

4469 


METAL8 

tons  i>«-r  wok.  Th«-  f.-llouim:  oomparwon  be- 
fcweeo  A  tvpi.Ml  Knirlish  and  •  typical  American 
(urn--  will  show  thr  different  conditions  in 


.  :.in.l. 

m^ 

Cubical  contents 

25,500  ft. 

18,200  ft. 

Te  nip.  ratlin-  of  the  blast. 
r  ton  of  ore      . 
. 


7i'4°  C. 
19-99  cut. 
ll-oo    „ 
48-00     „ 

16-80  cut. 
9-00     „ 
32-30     „ 

Weight  of  blast  per  ton  .  t 

87-ir,    .. 

71-20     „ 

of  pwes 
Temperature  of  gpMi 

Tons    ,,f     iron     for     l.nnn 

119-50     .. 
250    0. 

100-1     „ 

171°  C. 

<-uliic   ft.   space    of    fur- 
per    week 
r  ton  of  iron  .  . 
B  produced  per  ton 
of  iron     

21-.V7 

28-00  cut. 

88-:.:: 

128-0 
10-70  cwt. 

69-569 

It  will  be  observed  by  the  above  figures  tha* 
the  English  furnace  has  much  the  greater 
capacity,  the  temperature  of  the  blast  is  higher, 
and  the  calories  of  heat  per  ton  of  iron  are  more, 
therefore  the  fuel  used  per  ton  of  ore  is  greater, 
the  blast  is  hotter,  the  waste  gases  escape  at 
a  much  higher  temperature,  the  flux  required 
and  the  slag  produced  are  greater.  The  great 
reducing  energy  of  the  American 
furnace,  with  its  high  grade  ore  and 
r.-.]  .id  working,  yields  six  times  as 
much  iron  per  cubic  foot  of  space  as 
tin  Knglish  furnace. 

Pig  Bed.  This  consists  of  a  sand 
bed  with  a  number  of  parallel  grooves 
of  a  semi-cylindrical  section,  generally 
with  their  long  axes  towards  the 
tap-hole,  while  the  top  ends  of  these 
furrows  in  each  row  are  connected 
with  a  common  channel  running  at 
ri'.'ht  angles  to  them,  and  known  as 
tin-  sow,  or  feeder.  These  feeders 
themselves  are  put  in  connection  with 
th«-  main  channel  leading  from  the 
tap-hole.  In  some  works  the  mould- 
ing is  done  by  mechanical  means,  so 
that  the  pigs  are  of  uniform  size  at 
equal  distance*  apart,  and  are  cast 
.11  ps  of  30  or  more.  When  cold, 
an  overhead  crane  picks  up  each 
group  and  carries  it  to  the  pig 
breakers.  Pig-iron  casting  machines  are  of 
vftri«  as,  but  have  not  yet  come  into 

general  use. 

Form     and      Dimensions     of      Blast 

Furnace.    The  hori/.ontul  section  of  the  hearth 

varies  with  tin-  }>r.—mv  ..t'  the  I  .last  and  the 

•»f     tli--     mat'-ri:.^     employed.     The 

the  fnrn.icf  must  lie  (united  when  the 

fuel  is  fri.Uile  (such  as  i'nthr.i-itc)   or  the    ore 

for  if  too  compact   thr  .r.iMs   cannot    cir- 

i'-rly.     MOICOV.T.  in  a  mass  of  different 

inline    .irradually,     the    efi'ect    of 

the  height 

of  '  In  -uni.    Cleveland 

fiirn.K'-s  ill.-  bo  .  illfrthan  usual,  while 

.•iciiy  is  in  the  upper  or  reducing 

Tin-  inventors  claim   for 

4470 


32.   BLAST    FURNACE 


this  a  lower  fuel  consumption  and  a  greater 
regularity  of  working.  The  angle  of  the  boshes 
as  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  furnace  varies 
in  different  districts  ;  but  the  modern  tendency 
seems  to  be  in  the  direction  of  boshes  low  down 
in  the  furnace  and  at  an  .ingle  of  about  75°. 
The  section  of  most  furnaces  is  round,  which 
economises  heat  and  causes  it  to  be  more 
uniformly  distributed.  The  hearth  is  circular 
in  section.  The  greater  the  diameter  of  the  hearth 
and  the  greater  the  vertical  distance  between 
the  slag  notch  and  the  twyers,  the  larger  is  the 
output.  The  tap-hole  should  be  on  a  line  mid- 
way between  the  twyers,  and  the  same  remark 
applies  to  the  slag  notch. 

Twyers.  The  twyers  are  made  with  a 
double  casing  that  water  may  flow  between.  In 
some  twyers  the  cooling  water  in  the  form  of 
spray  is  driven  from  the  end  of  a  perforated 
pipe  against  the  port  of  the  twyer. 

The  Scotch  twyer  consists  of  a  spiral  wrought  - 
iron  tube  enclosed  in  a  cast-iron  casing,  and  water 
circulates  through  the  coil  to  keep  it  cool.  The 
number  of  twyers  varies  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  ore  and  fuel  used.  Excessive  blast  con- 
sumes too  much  fuel,  cools  the  slag,  and  impedes 
the  working.  The  cutting  action  of  the  blast 
on  the  lining  is  reduced  by  allowing  the  twyers 
to  overhang,  but  this  at  the  same 
time  reduces  the  melting  action  of 
the  hearth. 

The  blast  is  heated  by  causing  it  to 
pass  through  hot  stoves,  of  which 
there  are  two  chief  kinds — cast-iron 
stoves,  containing  pipes  heated  by 
solid  fuel,  and  stoves  of  refractory 
brickwork,  constructed  on  the  re- 
generative principle.  Two  principal 
forms  of  the  latter  are  employed,  in- 
vented by  Cowper  and  Whitwell  re- 
spectively. 

Stoves.  The  Cowper  stove  [33] 
is  a  circular,  wrought-iron  tower,  60  ft. 
high  and  28  ft.  in  diameter,  closed  with 
a  high  dome-shaped  roof  and  lined 
internally  with  firebrick  constructed 
on  the  regenerative  principle.  About 
two-thirds  of  the  interior  is  lined 
with  a  checker  work  of  brick  for 
absorbing  the  heat  obtained  from 
the  combustion  of  the  waste  gases 
from  the  blast  furnace.  A  large  vertical  flame 
flue  receives  the  gases,  in  which  they  are 
ignited.  The  flame  passes  downwards  through 
the  checker  brickwork  and  makes  it  red  hot. 
When  this  has  continued  a  sufficiently  long 
time  the  air,  gas,  and  chimney  valves  are 
closed  and  the  cold  blpst  admitted  in  the 
opposite  direction,  when  it  takes  up  the  heat 
from  the  brickwork  and  passes  on  to  the 
blast  furnace  through  the  hot-blast  valve 
as  shown  in  33.  It  is  necessary  to  have 
two  stoves  for  each  furnace,  so  that  one  may 
absorb  the  heat  from  the  burning  gases,  while 
the  other  is  heating  the  blast.  The  bricks 
are  of  spical  shape,  and  when  they  are  placed 
together  form  hexagonal  passages  with  walls 
2  in.  thick.  As  compared  with  the  pipe  stoves 


the  Cowper  stove  gives  a  much  higher  tempera- 
ture, and  has  led  to  an  increased  yield  from 
similar  furnaces  of  20  per  cent. ;  the  fuel  con- 
sumption is  at  the  same  time  lessened.  One 
disadvantage  of  regenerative  brickwork  stoves 
is  the  liability  to  become  choked  with,  dust, 
especially  when  finely-divided  ores  are  being 
smelted  ;  this  necessitates  occasional  cleaning,  and 
for  this  purpose  Mr.  C.  Wood,  of  Middlesbrough, 
employs  a  brass  cannon,  which  is  charged  with 
powder,  run  into  the  stove,  and  fired.  The 
explosion  displaces  the  dust,  which  is  allowed  to 
settle  and  then  removed.  Another  method 
depends  on  the  use  of  release  valves  which 


METALS 

tli3  brickwork.  The  reversals  are  much  the  same 
as  in  the  Cowper  stove,  and  two  stoves  are  re- 
quired to  one  blast  furnace.  Many  modifications 
of  the  above  are  in  use  in  different  districts,  some 
of  which  combine  the  advantages  of  both  systems. 

The  Ford  =  Moncur  Stove.  The 
Ford-Moncur  stove  is  one  that  has  met  with 
considerable  favour  of  late  years.  The  bricks 
are  dome-shaped  so  as  to  prevent  dust  lodging 
on  them.  The  stove  is  also  divided  into  four 
different  parts  by  vertical  partitions,  so  that 
when  it  is  desired  to  clean  out  the  dust  the  blast 
may  be  turned  on  to  each  partition  separately. 

Lifts.    The  materials  are  brought  to  the  top  of 


33.    THE    COWPER    STOVE 


allow  of  the  instantaneous  discharge  of  the 
imprisoned  air.  A  cloud  of  dust  is  immediately 
discharged  and  shot  up  into  the  air. 

The  Whitwell  Stove.  The  Whitwell 
stove  is  cylindrical,  with  a  domed  top  and 
lined  with  firebrick,  but  the  internal  arrange- 
ment is  different  from  that  of  the  Cowper 
stove.  The  regenerators  consist  of  a  number 
of  firebrick  passages  made  of  5-in.  brickwork. 
This  brickwork  contains  a  main  combustion 
flue  for  the  burning  of  the  waste  gases,  and  air 
is  admitted  by  special  feed  passages.  The  hot 
and  partially-burned  gases  pass  repeatedly  up  and 
down  through  the  passages,  giving  up  their  heat  to 


the  blast  furnace  by  lifts  of  various  kinds.  The 
inclined  plane  consists  of  a  railway  on  which 
runs  a  triangular  platform  with  two  unequal 
pairs  of  wheels.  The  power  is  supplied  by  a 
steam  engine,  working  a  Avinding  drum,  around 
which  passes  a  wire  rope  or  a  flat-linked 
chain.  Another  form  is  the  colliery  lift  similar 
to  that  used  in  a  coal-mine.  A  pneumatic 
lift  is  often  used,  and  consists  of  a  cast- 
iron  ram,  working  in  a  long  cylinder  rising 
the  whole  height  of  the  furnace.  From  this 
pass  wire  ropes  over  large  pulleys  to  a  lift- 
ing table,  which  contains  the  loaded  trucks  or 
barrows. 


Continued 


4471 


Group  9 

DRESS 
31 


c-nii.D***'* 

n  tl  mini  from  p*gr  4397 


DRESS  FOR  GIRLS 

Frocks:    Drafting,  Cutting,  snd  Making.     A  Princess  Petticoat 
and     a    Circular    Skirt.       Overalls.        Hints     on     Lengthening 


By    AZELINE     LEWIS 


17ROM  four  to  six  years  old  and  onwards,  girls' 
*  clothing  assumes  a  definite  character,  though 
>imi>li<ity  should  always  be  the  keynote  of 
<•'  il  hen's  fashions. 

With  respect  to  underwear,  the  patterns  of 
combinations  already  given  will  be  a  suitable 
shape  up  to  the  age  mentioned,  unless  chemise 
and  drawers  be  preferred,  for  which  draftings 
are  given.  The  nightdress  pattern  also  will  be 
quite  right  if  cut  somewhat  larger  and  longer. 
It  can  be  made  to  fasten  at  the  side  if  preferred. 
[For  larger  sizes,  see  UNDERCLOTHING.] 

The  princess  form  of  petticoat  is  preferable 
to  the  banded  affair,  unless  this  be  buttoned  on 
to  a  plain  under-bodice,  so  that  the  weight  rests 
on  the  shoulders.  If  the  latter  be  preferred, 
the  skirt  portion  should  be  gored  somewhat,  so 
as  not  to  add  to  the  bulk  at  the  waist.  For 
girls  in  the  early  'teens,  inclined  to  be  stout,  the 
princess  form  of  petticoat  is  best.  In  this  case 
it  is  better  made  with  a  deep  frill,  cut  either 
shaped  or  straight. 

Frocks.  The  plain  shoulder  yoke  and 
smocked  style  should  not 
1  M  •  worn  after  eight  years  Dt 
of  age — and  not  then  if 
the  child  is  inclined  to  be 
tall  and  thin — certainly  ;/ 
not  by  girls  of  10  and  12 
years  of  age,  as  we  have 
seen,  unless  secured  to 
the  waist  by  a  sash  or 
loose  belt.  The  Empire 
yoke,  of  course,  ran  be 
worn  by  girls  of  any  age, 
but  it  is  not  particularly 
ilng  to  a  stout 
child. 

Foundation 

Bodice.  As  was  shown 
in  our  Dressmaking 
course,  all  garments  are 
nio'l'-llcd  or  built  upon  a 
skirt  and  I  (dice  patt'-rn. 
so  46  gives  a  drafting 
-i  it  able  for  a  child  of 

••«uht  years  of  age 

of     that     in 


46.    BODICE    DRAFTING 


Tins  follows  on    the 

KK^MAKINi;.       with      the 

ptaODS,  and  c,!n  !,<•  adapted  to  any 
rement.  -1^  in.;  back  length, 
This   last    meagre,  however,    is    a   very 
a-*  the  waiM    i-  not    dearly  defined 
Dg  H  -1,11,1    and    the  drafting  shows  a 
uluch     will    do     for     the 
I  i'  tunan  coat. 

to  I),   <hc>t    mi-axin, -mem  :    B  to  A  and 
-''!>  ..fki.-k  plus  i  in.  for  nook  curve; 

entire  length.    The  « 
JITJ 


line  can  be  altered  to  any  depth  without  affect- 
ing or  interfering  with  the  drafting  in  any  way, 
the  only  alteration  needed  being  that  darts  or 
side-pieces  —  if  made  —  must  be  carried  down 
to  the  waist-line.  A  to  H  and  H  to  I,  one-third 
of  chest  measure  ;  A  "to  G,  one-sixth  of  neck 
measure  less  \  in.  for  curve.  A  to  I,  £  in. 
Curve  from  G  to  I  for  back  neck.  A  to  J, 
two-thirds  of  chest  measure  ;  J  to  K,  one-half 
of  the  same  less  \  in. 

Draw  line  from  K  at  right  angles  towards  back 
(this  is  merely  as  a  guide  for  armhole)  ;  markKa. 
I  to  2,  one-sixth  of  half  chest  measure  (this, 
however,  varies  with  fashion,  and  may  be  less 
or  more  according  to  taste)  ;  2  to  3,  |  in.  Draw 
a  line  from  3  to  G  for  back  shoulder  and  curve 
from  3  to  I  for  back  armhole. 

J  to  4  is  same  length  as  from  I  to  2.  Draw 
a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  right.  Mark  centre 
of  J-4  ;  then  measure  back  shoulder,  and 
draw  same  length  for  front  from  line  4  to  line 
D-A,  with  centre  on  the  cross  marking  centre, 
as  shown  by  broken  line.  Make  dots  one  twelfth 
£  __  ^  of  chest  measure  on  each 
side  of  angle  K  ;  curve 
from  5  to  I,  passing 
through  dots  on  each 
side  of  angle  K. 

B  to  8,  3  in.  Draw 
a  line  from  I  to  8  and 
curve  \  in.  to  right  of 
this  line  for  back. 

Advance  7  one-twelfth 
of  an  inch  towards  D, 
make  L,  and  draw 
shoulder  as  shown  by 
firm  line. 

8  to  9  is  1  in.  ;  curve 
from  I  to  these  points  ; 
8  to  10  is  3  in.  ;  draw 
line  to  armhole  and  make 
10a,  then  curve  \  in. 
either  side  of  this  at 
waist,  for  under-arm. 

These  lines  are  shown 
b  a  broken  line,  as 


they  are  quite  optional,  shaping  at  these  portions 
not  being  always  necessary.  They  should  rfot 
be  cut,  but  just  marked  with  the  tracing-  wheel 
if  made  to  the  waist  only. 

Now  measure  pattern  and  add  on  what  may 
have  been  taken  in  by  the  side-piece  to  make 
the  chest  measure  correct,  and  mark  11. 
Draw  L  to  M  one-sixth  of  chest  measure,  then 
from  M  to  11.  From  M  to  Ma  is  |  in.  ;  curve 
from  L  to  11  for  neck. 

For  the  lower  portion,  make  a  point  midway 
between  8  and  9,  also  one  immediately  below 


on  line  E  to  F,  and  draw  lines  8a  and  9a  the 
same  distance — i.e.,  \  in. — to  right  and  left. 

Extend  lines  on  either  side  of  10  2J  in.  below 
waist,  and  curve  from  waist  to  point  of  these. 
Trace  round  the  pattern  and  cut  out,  following 
the  firm  line  for  the  front  shoulder  and  arm- 
hole. 

This  method  can  be  used  for  any  size  up  to 
12  years  of  age.  After  this  period  one  or  twro 
darts  may  be  required,  and  the  various  draftings 
already  given  in  DRESSMAKING  and  TAILORING 
can  be  followed  or  modified  according  to  re- 
quirement. 

With  the  aid  of  this  pattern  any  kind  of 
bodice  can  be  made.  The  method  of  obtaining 
a  yoke  of  any  sha;^  has  been  fully  explained 
in  DRESSMAKING  [sec  39  to  43,  page  479].  If 
one  of  the  Empire 
style  be  preferred, 
cut  to  the  depth 
required  below  the 
armhole,  whilst  if 
the  long  -  'waisted 
French  bodice  be 
the  model,  simply 
extend  the  lower 
portion  as  much 
below  the  waist  as 
may  be  needed, 
sloping  it  out  slightly 
from  armhole  to 
lower  edge.  It  should 
not,  however,  ex- 
tend too  far,  as  this 
impedes  the  move- 
ments of  the  child. 
If  the  bodice  be 
gathered,  allow  for 
the  necessary 
amount  in  front  or 
at  the  shoulders, 
according  to  the 
design.  If  pleated, 
model  the  pleatings 
on  the  pattern 
drafted,  which,  as 
already  remarked, 
forms  the  founda,- 
tion  for  all  kinds  of 
styles.  The  neck 


DRESS 

E  ;  cut  through  10  and  10a  and  slope  out 
the  sides  each  1  in.,  as  shown  by  the  double 
line,  when,  of  course,  no  side-piece  would  be 
required,  and  the  centre-back  must  be  placed 
to  a  fold. 

For  the  sleeve,  any  of  the  draftings  already 
given  can  be  fol'owed  according  to  fashion. 
The  drafting  of  a  collar  has  been  shown  in 
several  of  the  previous  diagrams. 

Fig.  47  gives  a  few  examples  of  garments 
suited  to  girls  of  the  ages  mentioned,  but  from 
this  period  and  onwards  the  various  fashions 
may  be  consulted,  so  these  designs  are  merely 
given  as  models  which  may  form  the  foundations 
of  an  endless  variety  of  other  styles,  with 
slight  alterations  and  additions.  These,  how- 
ever, we  think,  will  readily  occur  to  the  worker 
who  has  followed 


47.  A  GIRL'S  WARDROBE 


portion  may  also  be  cut  round,  or  pointed,  or 
square,  or  any  shape  preferred. 

As  to  the  skirt,  this  can  be  obtained  from  the 
model  shown  in  GIRLS'  TAILORING  [p.  2469], 
where  full  directions  are  given  for  drafting  a 
circular  skirt  adaptable  to  any  size  and  shape. 
See  also  drafting  for  skirt  of  Victorian  Coat 
[50],  which  will  be  equally  suitable. 

The  skirt  portion  of  an  Empire  yoke  may  be 
either  circular  or  straight,  pleated  or  gathered,  as 
preferred.  The  frock  part  of  one  with  a  shoulder- 
yoke,  or  saddle,  should  be  sloped  at  the  under- 
arm seams,  and«also  requires  rounding  slightly 
at  the  armhole.  The  lower  edge  should  be  cut 
a  little — a  very  little — shorter  at  the  sides,  as  it 
always  has  a  tendency  to  drop  here. 

To  cut  an  American  blouse  from  the  drafting 
just  given,  slope  the  fronts  out  half  an  inch  at 


either,  or  all,  of  the 
previous  courses. 

Chemise  and 
drawers  are  not 
illustrated,  as  those 
already  given  for 
children  of  one  to 
four  years  of  age 
can  quite  easily  be 
enlarged. 

The  same  remark, 
too,  will  apply  to 
the  combinations. 

We  will  now  de- 
scribe the  garments 
sketched. 

(a)  A  princess 
frock. 

(b)  Here  we  have 
the     divided     skirt 
already     mentioned 
in  the  garments  for 
the     toddler.     The 
method  of  obtaining 
this  pattern  is  indi- 
cated in  the  drafting 
of  the  first  knickers, 
by  a  broken  line,  so 
is   not   given  again. 
The    material     and 
trimming     are,      of 
course,  a  matter  of 

taste,  but  for  small  children  this  is  a  much 
better  shape  for  the  flannel  petticoat  than  the 
ordinary  skirt  affair.  In  this  case  it  would  be 
better  without  the  frill,  and  the  edges  finished 
off  with  a  festooned  hem.  The  fastening  is  at 
the  back,  the  closing  being  accomplished  by 
means  of  several  buttons  and  buttonholes. 

(c)  A  Russian  frock. 

(d)  A  plain    overall  or  frook,  cut  all  in  one 
piece. 

(e)  A   German  pinafore.      The  shape  of  this 
quaint  little  model,  hailing  from  the  Fatherland, 
is  explained  by  the  back  view.     It  is  cut  all  in 
one  piece,  and  fastens  on  the  shoulder. 

(/)  Long-waistecl  French  petticoat,  with  two 
circular  frills  for  the  skirt  portion.  This  shape 
sets  out  the  frock  very  prettily  at  the  lower  edge. 
Directions  for  cutting  circular  and  shaped  frills 

4473 


DRESS 

I,  iv,-  already  been  given  in  DRESSMAKING,  whilst 

tfcose  for  th«-  >h:i|M-d  skirt  part  of  the  Victorian 

bo  1"-  .-dapted  to  the  size  required. 

ityie  of  petticoat  is  better  suited  to  cambric 

,n-  lom/'-loth  for  white  summer  ones. 

(g)  The  long-waisted  style,  known  as  the  French 

(/,)  A  sailor  style   tor  either 

boy  or  girl.     This  is  termed  a 

master     frock,    and    is 

i.-t  ly  the  same  as    the 

man-o'-war  style  [page  4355J, 

the  only  difference  being  that 

th»-  fronts  are   left  open  and 

head. 

(•')  The  flannel  vest  or  bodice 
to  be  worn  with  this  style  of 
frock,  which  is  made  of  fine 
white  flannel  or  cloth. 

(/)  A  princess  petticoat. 

(k)  Reefer  coat  and  skirt 
costume. 

(/)  Red  Riding  Hood  cloak. 

(m)  A  Victorian  coat. 

(n)  Overall  frock  with  yoke 
and  box-pleated  front,  model- 
led as  (i ). 

The  making  of  a  coat  with 
step-collar  and  Norfolk  coat, 
also  of  a  girl's  sacque  coat, 
have  all  been  fully  explained  ,s\  ,4 
in  BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  TAILOR- 
ING, and  these  styles,  with 


48.    PRINCESS    PETTICOAT 


slight  modifications  of  size,  style  and  length,  are 
all  suited  to  girls'  outdoor  wear,  the  loose  Nor- 
folk coat  being  especially  neat  and  becoming 
to  a  young  girl. 

A  Princess  Petti- 
coat.  In  Diagram  48  we 
have  the  drafting  of  the 
princess  petticoat,  which 
will  he  found  a  most  use- 
ful one.  This  is  /•?' 

•  I       to      a 

n.  chest 
measurement. 
The  working  of 
the  upper  por- 
t  i«  >n  is  exactly 
the  same  as  46, 
allowing  for  tin- 
difference  of 

rot,      with 

Eoeptibn  ot  1  to  -1.  which  is  ]£  in.,  to  allow 

1  •' Milder.      8  and  8a,  9  and  9a 

omitted     Make  8  2£  in.  from  B,  without 

Hoping  thi-  in   at   Mntae-tack.      Make  N  mid- 

l>etween  G  and  :{.  and  curve  slightly  from 

make  a  dot  \  in.  to  right  of  8   and 

Muve  f,,,m  1,,-re  to  meet    line  N  at  width  of 

bMfe  line      .\,,u  make  12,  2£  in.  f rom  C  on  waist 

lino  ;   make  o  midway  between  L  and  7,  curve 

sl.uhtly  from    <)    to     12.       Make  a  point  \  in.  to 

on  W.,M  |1Me.  eurve  up  from  this  to  meet 

Tuive  tn.m   |o  to  \(\ti  as  in  46. 

'   t'oin    I  I//  to  1,-iiLMh    required,  in  this 
l>  m.  :    m.:k-   M.  then  m,-ike  a  point  1  in 
1474 


TO  left  of  this  mark,  15.  and  slope  from  this 
dot  to  11,  to  give  a  little  extra  width  for  centre- 
front.  Make  a  dot  2|  in.  to  right  of  14,  then 
make  another  1  in.  to  right  and  left  of  this, 
and  draw  a  line  from  12  and  13  to  these  dots, 
as  shown  at  12«  and  13«.  Make  a  dot  level 
with  10  the  same  distance  as 
from  C  to  13;  make  dots 
1|  in.  to  right  and  left,  and 
draw  a  line  from  waist  to 
meet  these,  as  at  106  and  lOc. 
Treat  line  N  to  8  and  9  the 
same  for  the  side  of  back  and 
centre-back. 

Two  inches  below  B  ma,ke 
a  dot ;  then  add  on  2  or  more 
inches  for  back  fulness  to  the 
bottom,  which  make  the  same 
length  as  from  9  and  10. 
Trace  the  pattern  round  care- 
fully and  cut  out,  placing  the 
various  notches  as  shown,  as 
these  are  a  guide  for  putting 
together. 

This  drafting  will  do  for  the 
princess  frock  shown  at  A  in 
47,  the  only  alteration  being 
needed  at  the  side  and  back, 
which  are  gathered  on  to  the 
waist  in  the  ordinary  skirt 
fashion. 

For  this  style  the  back  of 
the  bodice  is  cut  slightly 


49.    OVKI;\I.I, 


below  waist  at  back,  the  skirt  portion  consisting 
of  straight  or  very  slightly  gored  widths,  being 
made  as  full  as  taste  may  dictate.  It  is  joined 
on  to  the  side  seam  and  the  waist  part  of  back 
of  bodice,  whilst  the  bodice  trimming  is  carried 
over  the  shoulder  to  the  skirt  at  back  waist. 

By  altering  the  position  of  the  side  seam,  as 
from  N  and  0,  to  nearer  the  shoulder,  the  same 
drafting  will  do  for  the  Russian  frock  marked 
at  (c)  in  the  same  diagram.  In  this  case  the  front 
portion  is  folded  over  towards  the  sleeve  to 
form  a  pleat,  which  is  stitched  down  quite  flat. 
This  frock  fastens  at  the  left  side  under  the  fold, 
so  a  narrow  left-side  front  will  be  required. 

It  would  also  form  a  corselet  or  suspender 
frock,  all  that  is  necessary  being  to  cut  it  to 

the  approved 
height  above 
the  waist  line. 
Should  it  be 
preferred  with 
inverted  pleats 
at  the  seams, 
the  required 
amount  for 
these  can  be 
easily  added 
on  at  each 
seam,  exactly 
.  as  shown  for 
the  centre-back.  Such  an  arrangement  always 
looks  better  if  the  pleats  slope  upwards,  in 
height,  from  the  front,  the  highest  being  at 
the  cent  re -back. 

This  design  would  make  a  very  pretty  little 


frock,  whilst  the  pleats  coald  either  be  inverted, 
or  box-pleated  outside  the  seams,  where  they 
could  be  mitred  off  at  the  tops  or  finished  off 
in  various  ways.  Care  must,  however,  be  taken 
to  keep  them  perfectly  even,  and  not  let  them 
drop  at  the  sides. 

No.  49  illustrates  the  overall  depicted  at  (d) 
in  the  sketch  under  consideration, 
which  is  easily  obtained  from  the 
bodice  drafting  of  46,  as  the  broken 
lines  show,  or  the  princess  frock 
drafting  of  48,  by  omitting  the  side 
seams.  It  will  form  the  foundation 
of  ( n),  and  many  others.  This  can 
be  cut  all  in  one  piece,  or  with  an 
underarm  seam,  as  preferred.  The 
broken  line  and  crosses  show  the 
portion  not  to  be  cut.  If  made 
quite  plain  with  the  V-shaped  open- 
ing, cut  as  shown  by  the  broken 
line.  If  with  the  pointed  yoke  as 
at  (d),  cut  this  as  indicated  by  the 
double  broken  line,  and  model  the 
box  pleat  at  the  lower  portion  as 
already  mentioned  for  the  tunio 
suit  and  girl's  skirt  mentioned  in 
GIRLS'  TAILORING.  If  made  V-- 


51.   REEFER    COAT 


shaped  at  back  and  front  of  neck,  and  pleated 
instead  of  quite  plain,  this  makes  a  very  pretty 
frock  to  be  worn  over  lace  vests. 

To  make  a  perfectly  plain  overall  or  frock, 
as  at  (d),  2|  yd.  of  27-in.  goods  are  required. 

Circular  Skirt.  No.  50  shows  the  draft- 
ing of  the  circular  skirt  for  the  Victorian  or  Em- 
pire coat,  the  bodice  being  obtained  from  46. 

A  to  B,  half  of  waist 
measure  less  1  in  ;  A  to  D,  a 
quarter  of  same  ;  D  to  E, 
skirt  length,  in  this  case 
24  in.,  but  it  may  be  made 
any  length  desired.  B  to 
C,  same  length  as  from  D  to 
E  ;  C  to  F,  3  in.  Extend 
D  to  E,  and  draw  line  from 
B  to  F  ;  G,  midway  between 
A  and  B  ;  G  to  H,  1  of 
waist  measure  (6  in.).  Curve 
from  B  through  H  to  D  , 
measure  from  this  the  length 
of  skirt ;  also  midway  be- 
tween make  marks  for 
outer  circle  and  curve  from 
F  to  E. 

If  a  pleated  skirt  be 
desired,  the  foundation  need 
not  be  quite  so  full,  and  may  be  decreased  as 
shown  by  the  broken  line.  Upon  this  the 
pleated  portion  can  be  modelled.  The  sleeve 
can  be  obtained  from  the  previous  drafts. 

For  the  making  of  the  coat,  see  TAILORING — 
Ladies'  Empire  Coat  [page  2328J — for  which  the 
instructions  there  given  can  be  followed.  If 
of  fairly  thick  cloth,  the  bodice  only  need  be 
lined,  when  the  seams  and  edges  should  be  neat- 
ened  by  binding. 

The  required  quantities  for  this  coat  with 
circular  skirt  would  be  2£  yd.  of  44-in.  goods, 
f  yd.  of  Italian  cloth  for  bodice  lining,  and  a 


CUT     EDGES 

52.    CLOAK 


DRESS 

small  quantity  of  fine  French  canvas  for  inter- 
lining. 

For  children,  separate  collars  are  the  best 
kind  of  neck  finish,  as  they  can  be  removed  and 
laundered. 

Number  51  shows  the  method  of  cutting  out 
the  reefer  coat  from  48- in.  cloth,  of  which  lj  yd. 
should  be  sufficient.  The  drafting 
and  making  of  this  jacket  are 
similar  to  that  of  the  sacque  in 
GIRLS'  TAILORING,  to  which  we 
must  refer  the  worker  for  instruc- 
tions on  this  point.  The  collar  can 
be  easily  altered  to  the  ordinary 
sailor  style  if  wished  by  sloping  it 
off  to  the  front.  The  facing  will 
require  joining,  as  shown  by  the 
crosses,  the  seams  of  which  must 
be  carefully  pressed. 

A  cloak  of  the  Red  Riding  Hood 
order  forms  a  most  welcome  addi- 
tion to  a  small  girl's  wardrobe,  and, 
indeed,  is  useful  at  almost  any  age 
[52]. 

The  cloak  shown  is  made  with 
a  collar  and  hood,  and  is  fitted  to 
the  shoulder  by  two  darts.  If  made 
without  the  latter,  it  will  need  to  be  almost 
circular,  and  thi?  adds  the  fulness  at  the 
lower  part,  which  is  therefore  apt  to  fly  about 
too  much  for  the  comfort  and  warmth  of  the 
small  wearer  ;  for  this  reason  the  shape  shown 
is  recommended. 

This  cloak  will  require  2|  yd.  of  44-in 
material,  and  in  the  making  care  will  have  to 
be  taken  to  keep  the  edges 
thin  and  the  corner  of  the 
cape  and  collar  quite  sharp. 
When  making  the  latter, 
be  careful  to  ease  the  upper 
portion  slightly  1  in.  from 
each  corner,  as  mentioned 
in  Pocket-flaps  [see  BOYS' 
TAILORING,  page  129 1J,  when 
putting  on,  so  as  to  get  this 
to  set  over  and  not  curl  up. 
The  upper  edge  should  also 
come  slightly  over  the  under 
one,  as  in  making  boys' 
coats. 

Girl's  French  Frock. 
For  the  girl's  French  frock, 
cut  the  bodice  lining  accord- 
ing to  the  drafting  of  46  or 
48,  according  to  the  age  and 
size  of  the  child,  making  this  the  length  required. 
Model  one  side  of  front  as  sketched,  making  it 
cross  over  a  little  beyond  the  centre.  If  the 
worker  is  not  very  expert,  she  had  better  do  this 
in  paper.  Cut  it  out  carefully,  then  fold  the 
material  and  cut  two  pieces  exactly  alike,  marking 
the  pleats  to  keep  them  even,  and  placing  the 
crossover  edges  to  the  selvedges.  This  is 
very  important,  as,  if  placed  on  the  bins,  the 
fronts  will  stretch  and  soon  get  out  of  shape. 
The  backs  are  pleated  from  the  shoulder  and 
neck,  and  do  not  cross  over  or  require  a  vest 
of  white  as  in  the  front. 

4475 


Tin- >Uirt  i-ineidy   '  straight  length  of  material 
l-j  m    t..  1»  in    or  l<>  in.  deep,  according  to  tin- 


or  puff  sleeves ;  also  with  open  neck,  which  looks 
very  pretty  for  small  children's  summer  wear. 
Hints    on    Lengthening.       With  regard 


.,,,, m,n,n<s   l,,,t.  as  alrm.lv  remarked,  Hints    on    Lengthening. 

"hou       mi     "t "mi   below   the   knees.      It    mav,       to  lengthening,  the  last-named  style  is  one  of 

great  possibilities  in  this  most  important  detail. 

Sleeves  are  generally  more  difficult  to  deal  with 
in  this  respect.  The  simplest  way,  however,  is  to 
make  these  either  of  the  bishop  or  puff  order, 
a  little  longer  than  the  required  length,  when  a 
tew  tiny  horizontal  tucks  at  the  elbow  will  serve 
for  ornament  at  first  and  length  later  on.  If 
on  a  foundation  a  tuck  should  be  run  in  this, 
just  above  the  elbow. 

For  petticoats,  the  bodice  part  can  always  be 
made  a  little  longer  than  is  necessary  and  a  tuck 
put  in  this,  which  is  then  easily  let  down  when 
necessary. 

For  frocks,  the  skirt  part  can  either  be  secured 
an  inch  or  more  above  the  lower  edges  of  bodice, 
or  a  tuck  made  in  the  foundation,  to  be  let  down 
as  needed.  In  other  cases  wide  hems  or  tucks 


however,  l»-  kilt«-«l  instead  of  gathered,  which  has 
x  i  ivmdy  u'ood  effect.    The  directions  already 
making   the  kilt  can   be  followed  if 
•vie  of  >kirt  is  preferred. 

When   makinu  this  frock,  mark  the  turnings 
•  illv.   thm  tuck  the  vest  and  tack  in 
portion.       Hem   the  crossover  edges  of  front.-. 
press  well,   and  arrange   these  as  sketched  on 
the  lining  foundation,  right  crossing  over  left; 
••'•  lower  edge  and  tack  to  foundation,  allow- 
ing it  to  pouch  somewhat.     Turn  in  the  edges 
of  foundation  back  to  the  marks,  machine-stitch, 
and  make  button-holes  on  the  right  side  1£  in. 
apart,  ami  NW  buttons  on  left  to  correspond. 

Turn  in  the  edges  of  material  back  to  form  an 
inch-wide  hem.  and  machine  this  next  at  the 
edge.  Arrange  and  tack  material  backs  on 
foundation,  the  edges  overlapping  a  little; 
tack  fronts  and  backs  together  at  shoulder  and 
underarm  seams,  machine-stitch,  open,  oversew, 
and  press.  Then  sew  six  or  eight  small  hooks 
backwards  on  the  inside  of  hem  at  centre-back 
on  the  stitching,  and  make  silk  loops  on  the  left 
-<ide  to  correspond.  Gather  lower  edges,  arrange, 
and  pin  in  position  on  lower  edge  of  foundation, 
and  tack  to  this.  Tack  the  collar  and  secure  this 
to  neck.  Then  place  right  hem  of  foundation 
over  the  left  hem;  stitch  firmly  together; 
arrange  the  right  and  left  material  backs  to 
-pond,  and  secure  together  an  inch  or  so 
above  this  to  prevent  gaping  open  when  on. 
Join  the  skirt  portions  required,  open  and  press 
seams,  turn  up  lower  edge  and  make  a  hem  from 
1  in.  to  2  in.  wide.  Mark  centre  of  back  and 
front,  gather  upper  edges,  using  one  thread  for 
each  division:  place  centres  of  front  and  back  to 
of  bodice,  being  careful  to  have  no  seam 
in  ciiitre-front.  Draw  up  gathers  to  fit  bodice, 
•ige  so  that  the  fulness  is  graduated  off  to  the 
back,  pin  and  sew  in  place,  then  neaten  Avith 
.}>  of  material  or  binding,  which  should  be 
hemmed  to  foundation  and  fastened  off  securely 

The  Sleeves.      Join  the  sleeves  by  means 

of  ;i   l-Y.-n.  h  seam  (unless  the  material  be  too 

thick),   and  gather  the   lower  edges.     Now  join 

up  the  cutT  portions,  open  and  press  seams,  fold 

in  half  along  the  centre  of  cuff,  then   turn   in 

upper  edges  to  face.   Draw  up  cuff  edges  of  sleeve 

M   l>etwr(-M  them,  stitch  together  and 

off    the    ends   neatly.      Make   the   other 

I    cufT    to    correspond,    then    gather 

I'p- -r  p .in.  ascertain  position  of  front  seam, 

•:-••    MI   .iimlmle.  sew    them    firmly  in  place 

u  or  hind  neatly.      Sew   in  the    other 

•  nd. 

Kini-h  nil  \\aist  part  uitli  folded  belt 

ThU  trork  will  t«ke  •_',-   vd.ot    U-in.  material, 

•'d   £  yd.  of   silk  for    vest    and 

•i  course,  be  varied  in  many  \\-a  vs. 

:ln<l  m"|(>  with  .-    pointed  yok.-'.  elbow 


should  be  made,  whilst  the  bodice  should  always 
allow  for  expansion  and  be  an  easy  fit. 

One  point  of  importance  should  not  be 
forgotten.  It  is  important  that  the  skirt  should 
hang  perfectly  evenly  all  round,  and,  if  anything, 
a  trifle  shorter  at  the  back  than  the  front, 


rather  than  have  the  slightest  suspicion  of  a 
"  dip  "  there.  This  detail,  apparently  a  trifling 
one,  is  frequently  overlooked,  and  makes  all  the 
difference  between  a  well-dressed  child  and  a 
dowdy  one. 

For  a  child's  bathing  gown,  the  combination 
pattern  given  will  be  suitable,  wrhilst  for  a  later 
period  it  is  also  better  to  have  a  combined  under- 
garment and  a  separate  skirt  portion,  both  for 
bathing  and  gymnastic  purposes.  [See  also 
UNDERCLOTHING.]  Small  girls,  it  may  be 
mentioned,  are  often  clad  in  a  sailor  suit  for 
gymnastic  exercises. 

At  about  twelve  years  of  age  begins  the 
awkward  period  of  a  girl's  attire,  when,  how- 
ever, the  varying  fashions  may  be  more  or  less 
consulted  and  adapted.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  deal  with  all  these,  but,  as  has  been  already 
remarked,  simplicity  should  always  be  the  guiding 
principle,  with  a  certain  regard  for  the  type  and 
characteristics  of  the  young  girl  herself,  wiio 
is  usually  gauche  and  awkward  enough  at  the 
"  between  age  "  without  having  these  peculiarities 
accentuated  by  her  clothing. 

A  full  frock  with  an  empire  yoke  outlined  with 
a  thick-folded  belt  with  large  bow  and  long  ends, 
and  fichu-like  drapery  at  the  neck,  would  not 
rouse  enthusiasm  on  a  stout  and  short-necked 
girl,  but  worn  by  her  slim  sister  the  result  would 
be  charming.  In  the  first  case,  lines  of  trimming, 
or  folds,  arranged  to  give  length  and  decrease 
the  apparent  width  should  be  selected.  In- 
judicious or  unbecoming  attire  has  a  very 
subtle  effect  on  the  character,  particularly  at 
this  susceptible  period,  and  shyness  and  self- 
epnsciousness  are  often  increased  thereby. 
Therefore,  we  repeat,  let  children's  clothing  be 
well  chosen,  but,  above  all,  let  it  be  .very  simple. 

s  (  I.OTIU.M;  concluded;  followed  by 
MILLINERY 


147C 


PARALLEL    LINES 

Theory    of    Parallel    Straight    Lines.      The  Val  e   of  the 
Angles  of  a  Triangle,  and  of  those  of  any  Rectilineal  Figure 


Group  21 

MATHEMATICS 
31 

OEOMETRY 

continued  from  page  4r,l 


By   HERBERT  J.   ALLPORT,    M.A. 


L  ACD  is  >L  FCE. 
•  L  ACD  is  > 


Proposition   10.     Theorem 

Ij  one  side  oj  a  triangle  is  produced,  the 
exterior  angle  is  greater  than  either  of  the  interior 
opposite  angles.  A 

Let  ABC  be  a  A 
in  which  BC  is  pro- 
duced to  D. 

It     is     required 
to   prove  that  the 
/.ACD    is    greater  Q" 
than  either  of  the 
L  s  ABC,  BAG. 

Construction.   Bi- 
sect AC  at  E .     Join  BE  and  produce  BE  to  F, 
making  EF  -  BE.     Join  CF. 

Proof.     In  the  AS  BAE,  FCE, 
AE     CE,  BE  =  FE 

L  AEB  =  vertically  opposite  /.  CEF  (Prop.  3). 

.'.As  are  equal  in  all  respects  (Prop.  4). 


But 


In  the  same  way,  by  producing  AC  to  G  and 
joining  A  to  the  middle  point  of  BC,  we  can 
prove  that  ^BCG  is  >/_ABC.  But  /.BCG 
=  L  ACD  (Prop.  3). 

.'.L  ACD  is  >  L  ABC. 

Corollary  1.  Any  two  angles  of  a  triangle 
are  together  less  than  two  right  angles. 

For  L  ABC  has  been  proved  <  L  ACD. 

.'.  LS  ABC,  ACB  are  together  less  than  LS 
ACD,  ACB,  i.e.,  <  two  right  angles  (Prop.  1). 

Corollary  2.  Every  triangle  must  have  at 
least  two  acute  angles. 

For,  if  it  has  one  angle  equal  to.  or  greater 
than,  a  right  angle,  then,  by  Cor.  1,  each  of  the 
other  angles  must  be  less  than  a  right  angle. 

Hence,  a  triangle  is  only  called  acute-angled 
when  it  has  all  its  angles  acute. 

Parallel  Lines 

1.  Parallel   straight   lines  are    straight    lines 
which     lie     in     the     same 

plane  and  which  do  not 
meet  however  far  they 
are  produced  in  either 
direction. 

2.  Let  the  two  stiaight 
lines,  AB,  CD  be  cut  by  a 
third    straight     line     EF. 
Then,  of  the  eight  angles 
formed, 

1,  4,  5,  8  are  called  exterior  L  s. 

2,  3,  6,  7  are  called  interior  LS. 

2  and  7  are  called  alternate  L  s. 

3  and  6  are  also  alternate  L  s. 

If  we  are  referring  to  any  one  of  the  exterior 


angles,    say   5,    then    7    is   called    the    interior 
opposite  angle  on  the  same  side  of  EF. 

3.  Play  fair's  Axiom.  Tico  straight  lines  which 
intersect  cannot  both  be  parallel  to  a  third  straight 
line. 

Proposition    11.     Theorem 

If  a  straight  line  cuts  two  other  straight  lines 
and  makes,  either 

(i.)  the  alternate  angles  equal ; 
or        (ii.)  the  exterior  angle  equal  to  the  interior 
opposite  angle  on  the  same  side  of 
the  cutting  line  ; 

or       (iii.)  the  two  interior  angles   on   the   same 
side  of  the  cutting  line  together  equal 
to  two  right  angles, 
.     then,  in  each  case,  the  two  straight 

lines  are  parallel. 

Let  the  straight  line  EF  cut  the  two  straight 
lines  AB,  CD,  at  the  points  G  and  H. 

(i.)  Let  the  L  AGH  =  the  alternate  /.GHD. 

It    is    required 
to      prove      that 

V  AB  is  ||  to  CD. 

V  B  Proof.      If    AB 

and  CD  are  not  |J, 
they     will     meet 
when      produced, 
c  \ D  either  in  the  direc- 

\  tion  of  A  and  C, 

or  in  the  direction 
of  B  and  D. 

Suppose  they  meet  when  produced  towards 
B  and  D,  in  the  point  K. 

Then,  GHK  is  a  triangle,  with  the  side  KG 
produced  to  A. 

.'.  The  exterior  /_  of  the  triangle,  /.AGH,  is 
>the  interior  opposite  /.GHD  (Prop.  10). 

But  /.AGH  is  given  equal  to  /.GHD,  and 
they  cannot  be  both  equal  and  unequal. 

.'.  AB  and  CD  cannot  meet  when  produced. 

.'.  AB  and  CD  are  parallel. 

(ii.)  Let  the  exterior   /.EGB  —  the  interior 

opposite  /.GHD 

It  is  required  to  prove  that  AB  is  j|  to  CD. 
Proof.     Since  L  EGB  -  L  GHD  (Hyp. ), 
and  L  EGB  =  /.AGH  (Prop.  3). 

.'.^AGH=  /.GHD. 
But  these  are  alternate  LS. 
.'.  by  (i.),  AB  and  CD  are  ||. 
(iii.)  Let  the  interior  ^sBGH,  GHD,  together 

equal  two  right  angles. 
It  is  required  to  prove  that  AB  is  l|  to  CD. 
Proof. 

/.BGH+  ^GHD=  2  right  LS  (Hyp.}, 
and  ^BGH+  ^AGH=  2  right  La  (Prop   1). 
=  /.BGH+  _AGH. 

4477 


MATHEMATICS 

.'.    taking    a  \\.-iy    tin- 
tlkene  i-.iu.-il-.  we  ha\v 


_  K<  J  II    fr<»in    tvu-li    of 


Hut   t  hrsr  an*  altrnia:  • 

/.  by  (i.),  ABan.l  CD  are    . 

Proposition   12.     Theorem 

//  n  .-./  mil/Ill  fin''  fills  tin>  fHii-iiHi'l  straight 
.  '/  make*, 

(i.)    '/'/»»•  dlh-i-niih'  iiit'/li'*  >-<i\i«\  . 

MI  )   '/'/('•  >.<•/,  ,;,,)•  ,in<il'-  I'liiul  to  the  interior 


nn   tin-  Mini'' 


of  the 


^*^ 

V 


v 


(iii.)  The  I  »•»  iuf  prior  o  m/^'s  <»//   ///<-  win  if.  side 
of  the  cutting  line  together  equal  to  In;, 
right  angles. 
I •••'  the  straight  line  EF  cut  the  two  parallel 

-ht  lines  AB,  CD  at  the  points  G  and  H. 
It  is  required  to  prove  _ 

that 

(i.)  L  AGH  =  alternate 

Z.GHD. 

(ii.)   Z.EGB  =  interior 

opposite  L  GHD. 

(iii.)   /.BGH  +  Z.GHD 

=  2  right  L  s. 
Proof,  (i.)  If  the /.AGH 
»  not  equal    to   Y.GHD, 
Mipp«.sr  the   /.KGH  is  equal  to   /.GHD  and 
alien  late  to  it.     Then 

KG  is  ||  to  CD  (Prop.  11). 
But  AB  is  \\  to  GD  (Hyp.). 

.'.  there  are  two  intersecting  straight  lines 
AM,  KG,  which  are  both  ||  to  CD.  But,  by 
I  May  fair's  Axiom,  this  is  impossible. 

.'.  /.AGH  is  not  unequal  to  .iGHD, 


and 


. 
Since  LEGE=  Z.AGH  (Prop.  3), 


/LAGH  =  ^GHD. 


Add    to    each  the 
BGH. 


_  —  =  2  right  L  s. 

Proposition   13.     Theorem 

MratgM  /,,„..,  ,,-hich  are  parallel  to  the  same 

'' ""  I"' "'IM  to  one  another. 

Let  AB,  CD,  each  be  ||  to  XY. 
It  IN  ivquuvd  to  prove 

AB  is  ||  to  CD.  £• 

•«'    a   straight    line  / 

KK  .-MHin-AB.  CD.  XV,    A PL 

*t  the  point*  F,  G,  B  / 

Thm.  since  AB  is  ||  to 

^  ,   and    KK    nir.-tx  thru, 


rin 

•ni'I.  nnoc  CD  is!|  to  XY 
-1'"1  '  ben 

•  •  -F<;'>      interim-  ,,,,,,,,,itr  _  l  HV 

.'.  -AFH    ,  LFGD 
'•"t  theee  are  alternate  _s 
•  •   u ;  •' »  (  PI-HI,.  1 1 » 

Proposition   14. 
""  "" ••"/>'//.-  ,,f  „  triangle 

l"t',;,  r,,,1,t  ., 


Theorem 


It  is  required   to 
prove  that 

_ABC  + 
+  /.CAB  =  2  right 

L  S. 

Produce     BC     to 
any    point    D,    find 
let      CE      be      the 
straight  line  through  C  which  is  ||  to  BA. 

Proof.     Since  BA  and  CE  are  !|,  and  AC  meets 
them 

.'.  L  ACE  =  alternate  /.BAC; 
and,  since  BA  and  CE  are  |l  and  BD  meets  them 
z_ECD=  interior  opposite  Z.ABC. 


C 


C  onlinued 


i.e  ,  L  ACD  =  L  BAG  +  L  ABC. 

To  each  of  these  eq  uals  add  L  BC  A. 
Then 

^ACD+  ,i.BCA=  /.BAC+  Z.ABC  + 
But 

L  ACD  +  /_  BCA  =  2  right  z.  s  (Prop.  1). 
.*.  Z.ABC+  Z.BCA+  ,LCAB=  2  right  z_s. 
NOTE.  In  the  course  of   the  proof   we  have 
shown  that  if  one  side  of  a  triangle  be  produced, 
the  exterior  angle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the,  tiro 
interior  opposite  angles. 

Corollary  1.     All   the  interior  angles  of  any 
rectilineal  figure,  together  with  four  right  angb'.i. 
are  equal  to  twice  as  many  right  angles  as  thu 
figure  has  sides. 
Let  ABCDE  be  a  rectilineal  figure. 

Take  any  point  O  within 
the  figure,  and  join  O  to  each 
of  the  angular  points.  The 
figure  is  thus  divided  into 
as  many  AS  as  it  has  sides. 

Now,  the  three  L  s  of  each 
A  =  2  right  L  s. 
.".  the  £.s  of  all  the  As  =  twice  as  many  right 
L  s  as  there  are  As. 
=  twice  as  many  right 
L  s  as  the  figure  has 
sides. 

But  the  /.s  of  the  As  make  up  the  LS  of  the 
figure  together  with  the  L  s  at  O,  and  the  L  s  at 
O  make  four  right  La  (Prop.  1.  Cor.). 

.'.  Ls  of  the  figure  +  four  right  /_s=  twice 
as  many  right  L  s  as  the  figure  has  sides. 

Corollary  2.  If  the  sides  of  a  rectilineal  fig  ur>> 
which  has  no  re-entrant  angle  (i.e.,  no  angle 
greater  than  tiro  right  angles)  are  produced  in 
order,  the  exterior  angles  .so 
formed  are  together  equal  to 
four  right  angles. 

The  interior  z_  +  the 
exterior  L.  at  any  angular 
point  =  two  right  <Ls. 

.'.  all  the  interior  /.s  +  all 
the  exterior  LS  =  twice  as 
many  right  L  s  as  the  figure 
has  angles,  i.e.,  as  the  figure 
has  sides. 

But,  the  interior  ._ s  +  four  right  Z.s=  twice 
right  z.sas  the  figure  has  sides  (Cor.  1). 
interior    LS+  the  exterior   L  s  =  the 
L.  s  +  four  right  L  s. 
the  exterior  /_s=  four  right  LS. 


BORING,  SCREWING  &  SAWING  TOOLS 

Different  Classes  of  Bits.     Taps  and  Dies  and  their  Prin- 
ciples.    Saws.     Forms  of  Saw  Teeth  and  Set   of  Saws 


Group  12 

MECHANICAL 

ENGINEERING 

31 

TOOLS 

continued  from  page  4264 


By  JOSEPH   G.    HORNER 


Woodworkers'     Boring    Tools.       The 

differences  between  these  and  the  drills  and 
allied  tools  used  by  metalworkers  are,  as  in 
other  tools,  chiefly  those  due  to  cutting  angle, 
which  again  is  governed  by  the  difference  in 
the  softer  and  harder  character  of  the  materials 
operated  on.  The  woodworkers'  boring  tools 
have  a  small  tool  angle ;  the  angle  of  front  rake, 
or  that  of  the  cutting  face  often  approximates 
very  closely  to  that  of  the  face  of  the  material 
being  cut,  and  the  angle  of  top  rake  is  low, 
permitting  of  the  free  escape  of  the  shavings. 
These  points  are  seen  in  the  numerous  bits 
and  auger  bits.  The  term  bits,  with  suitable 
prefixes,  denotes  a  large  and  varied  group  of 
useful  tools,  some  being  seen  in  38  to  42 ; 
but  though  these  bits  possess  in  common  the 
features  just  stated,  th'eir  variations  call  for  some 
further  explanation. 

Two  Classes  of  Bits.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  holes  required  in  timber — one  in  which 
location  to  a  precise  centre  is  not  essential, 
the  other  in  which  it  is.  The  ordinary  shell 
bit  [38],  A,  spoon  bit,  B,  nose  bit,  C,  and  augers 
[39],  A,  do  not  bore  accurately,  because  they 
possess  no  centring  tit.  The  gimlets,  and 
gimlet  augers,  B,  and  the  twist  gimlet,  C,  do 
possess  this  feature  in  the  tapered  screw.  But 
they  have  disadvantages  in  other  respects,  in 
consequence  of  which  they  are  unsuitable  for 
work  demanding  a  high  degree  of  accuracy. 
The  numerous  centre  bits  possess  the  centring 
faculty  in  varying  degrees,  because  the  hole 
is  started  by  the  tit  placed  in  the  centre,  before 
the  cutting  edges  come  into  action.  Around 
this  principle  designs  are  varied  to  obtain 
equally  balanced  cutting  forces,  to  produce 
clean  severance  of  grain  with  the  least  effort, 
and  to  facilitate  the  escape  of  chips  with  tho 
minimum  of  friction.  From  these  points  of 
view  the  common  centre  bit  [40],  A,  is  the  worst 
of  its  class,  because  its  cutting  action  is  un- 
balanced. It  has  one  nicker,  a,  and  one  cutting 
lip,  b,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  tit.  Directly 
the  cutter,  b,  begins  its  work,  practically  all 
the  stress  is  thrown  upon  its  side  of  the  centre, 
with  much  torsional  effort.  Its  cutting  edge 
also  is  too  wide  for  easy  work,  hence  these  bits 
tend  to  run,  and  they  will  not  bore  with  fair 
truth  except  in  plank  way  of  the  grain.  Try 
them  in  end,  or  diagonal  grain,  and  they  are 
almost  useless.  Neither  is  the  tit  of  triangular 
section  a  good  form  for  centring,  hence  many 
recent  bits  have  a  screw  instead,  B,  but  the 
other  objectionable  features  remain. 

Balanced  Bits.  Contrast  this  with  the 
later  forms  [41],  the  Gilpin,  the  Jennings,  the 
Irwin,  and  others.  These  comprise  a  fine 


central  screw  for  centring,  two  nickers,  and 
two  cutters  on  opposite  sides.  Or  cutting  is 
an  operation  done  without  separate  nicking,  and 
the  lips  are  generally  formed  in  some  fashion 
or  another  to  give  a  shearing  or  detailed  cut, 
and  so  lessen  the  severity  of  the  task.  In  41, 
A  is  a  Jennings  bit  with  screw  and  nickers  ; 
B  differs  in  having  double  nickers,  or  spurs, 
going  down  and  up,  the  latter  helping  to  get 
the  chips  out  of  the  hole  ;  in  C  the  spurs  stand 
upwards  only.  In  Gedge  bits,  D  and  E,  the 
curved  cutting  edges  cut  very  sweetly,  on  the 
same  principle  that  a  gouge  severs  more  material 
with  less  effort  than  a  chisel  does,  due  to  the 
shearing  action.  E  is  a  solid-nose  auger,  the 
chips  passing  up  through  the  holes  in  the  nose. 
F  is  a  screw  auger  with  lips  which  neither  stand 
up  or  down  ;  G  and  H  are  Irwin  bits,  or  augers 
in  two  forms  out  of  several,  the  features  common 
to  all  being  the  solid  circular  forged  shank. 
In  the  examples  A  to  F,  provision  for  getting 
out  the  chips,  absent  in  the  centre  bit  [40],  is 
secured  by  the  spiral  twist.  In  some  also  the 
turned-up  lips  assist  in  lifting  out  cuttings 
from  deep  holes.  The  spiral  in  A  to  F  is  imparted 
by  twisting  a  flat  piece  of  steel  into  a  helical 
form.  In  G,  H,  and  others  the  shape  is  that 
of  a  small  cylindrical  stem  with  a  deep  helix 
around  it,  and  it  is  claimed  that  there  is  less 
friction  and  more  strength  in  this  form  than 
in  the  other.  Some  of  these,  termed  auger 
bits  and  augers,  are  made  in  the  same  designs, 
but  of  larger  size.  These  tools  are  made  for 
use  by  hand,  and  by  machine  also. 

All  these  are  rigid  tools,  each  capable  of 
boring  only  one  diameter.  The  principle  of 
adjustability  is  embodied  in  the  expansion 
centre  bits  and  the  hollow  augers,  the  first  for 
holes,  the  second  for  pins  and  dowels.  In  the 
first  [42]  the  cutting  lip  is  adjustable  to  a 
considerable  range  of  radii,  and  is  clamped  by 
a  screw.  Graduations  on  the  face  enable  the 
diameter  to  be  read.  These  bits  will  bore  the 
exact  size  specified ;  centre  bits  always  bore 
larger  than  the  normal  diameter.  The  hollow 
auger  [43]  has  two  adjustable  knives,  a,  pinched 
with  set  screws,  to  produce  a  moderate  range 
of  diameters. 

Well=sinKer's  Tools.  The  boring  tools 
are  not  exhausted  by  the  metal  and  wood 
workers.  The  well-sinker  uses  them  for  boring 
hundreds  of  feet  down  into  the  earth's  strata. 
These  are  formed  on  identical  principles  with 
the  others,  but  they  are  attached  to  rods,  added 
lengths  of  which  are  screwed  on  as  the  depth 
of  the  boring  proceeds.  Some  types  pre- 
dominate— the  flat  chisel,  the  tee  chisel,  the 
clay  auger,  and  the  circular  chisel.  A  few  are 

4479 


MECHANICAL      ENGINEERING 

>ho\ui  in  44.     A   is  a   tee  chisel.      It   combines 

i  ,nn    <>f    the    ,-liivl    with    the    funrtion   of 

tin-    drill.      The    curved    >idr    piece    ensures    the 

,  ut tin-  ot  a  .  iicular  liole  by  the  rotation  of  the 

I.        Flat    chisels   are    used    without  the  side 

piece,  I'ut   they  have  to  be  lifted  at  every  few 

in.-hrx    mid     rotated     rapidly.     B    shows    four 

la    mounted    on    a    boring    head.     C    is    a 

.!,,!•  rhi-el  armed  with  teeth.  Diamonds 
.  <|iientlv  set  iii  a  tool  of  this  kind,  having 
in  ennui  instead  of  teeth.  They  are  used 

.irillinir  the  hanlest  rocks,  and  often  cost 
hundreds  of  pounds  each.  Ordinary  rocks  arc 
pierced  by  rock  drills.  Some  have  four  edges  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  usually  of  chisel  shape,  though 
\aiied  in  forms.  \).  These  are  used  in  percussion 
boring.  U'ing  lifted,  dropped,  and  rotated,  so 
1. 1  caking  up  the  rock  and  producing  round  holes. 
The  (hips  are  removed  by  other  tools  termed 
>helk  ( 'layey  soil  is  removed  by  clay  augers. 
Tools  for  Screw  Production.  Few 

pi  engineers  are  aware  of  the  large 
mini  here  of  diverse  tools  and  machines  which 
an-  iiM-d  in  the  formation  of  screw  threads. 
The  dimensions  of  screws,  the  degree  of  accuracy 
d'-manded,  and  the  quantities  required  are 
the  principal  causes  which  control  methods. 
And  within  each  governing  condition  there  are 
methods,  and  many  designs  by  which 
similar  results  are  attained.  The  subject  of 
•MTCWH,  and  the  tools  and  machinery  for  pro- 
din  ing  them  do,  in  fact,  give  sole  occupation 
to  numerous  firms. 

urns.'  tackle  may  be  broadly  divided  into 
two  grou|>s,  one  being  that  in  which  the  cutting 
tool  or  tools  have  one  function  only,  that  of 
producing  the  correct  section  of  the  screw 
thread,  the  piteh  and  diameter  being  controlled 
by  extraneous  devices.  This  is  the  method  of 
the  se re \v -cutting  lathe,  the  chasing  lathes, 
and  the  hand-operated  comb,  or  chasing  tools. 
The  other  group  comprises  tools  which  not  only 
produce  the  sections  of  the  threads,  but  also 
-i/.  und  pitch  correctly.  These  include  the 
oth  hand  and  machine  operated, 
which,  once  started,  have  the  capacity  of  self- 
iMiidanre  by  virtue  of  the  lead  of  the  threads, 
••  three  or  more  cutters  in  the 

Ot  the  lir-Mum.d  group  little  need  be  said. 

The  method>  of  >ere\\   ••uttiiii:  in  the  lathe  have 

touched  on   in   a  previous  article.     With 

•d  to  the  tools,  they  simply  have  the  section 

of    the    thread,   vce  or  square  'in  plan,  generally 

it  top  rakr.  aetin-r.   therefore,  as   scrapes. 

'ooU  for  >i|uare  threaded  screws,  care 

ha-  tn  be  taken  to  give  sufficient  clearance  at 

the  leading  edge,  the  amount  of  which  depends 

"iL-le  of  tin-  screw  thread.     The 

"ip   includes   the   common   taps   and 

diet,  m  \\hirh  there  ;,,e  „  \eral  important  points 

Mdthrn   the   maehine  dirs.  \vhicl, 

v   large  number,   m.i-t    of  which 

•"tomatic  in  their  a-tioii. 

Taps  and  Dies.     In  their  most  elementary 

Miply  Screws  adapted  as  rutting 

ate.      They    have    undergone   a   gndwS 

••volution  from  forms  in  which  friction 


and  squeezing  a'  tion  were  more  in  evidence  as 
cutting,  to  present-day  types,  in  which  friction 
is  of  the  slightest.  In  the  old  ones  the  screw 
threads  occupied  by  far  the  largest  portion 
of  the  circumference  of  the  tap  or  die  ;  in  the 
modern  types,  the  spaces  predominate. 

If  we  look  at  the  tap  and  die  in  elementary 
forms,  used  still  in  small  taps  and  screw  plates, 
we  see  that  a  screw,  external  or  internal,  is  made 
iflto  a  tool  for  reproducing  other  screws  by 
cutting  grooves  down  depthwise,  the  edges  of 
which  grooves  act  either  by  scraping,  or  by 
cutting. 

Tap  Sections.  In  the  very  smallest  taps 
considerations  of  strength  prevent  them  from 
being  deeply  fluted  like  those  of  larger  size. 
Small  taps — that  is,  those  which  are  used  with 
screw  plates — are  often  of  the  sections  in  45, 
A  and  B,  in  this  respect  resembling  the  flat- 
faced  reamers,  and  coming,  therefore,  properly 
under  the  head  of  scraping  tools.  All  taps  were 
formerly  of  these  sections.  But  taps  of  over 
about  |"k  in.,  and  even  smaller  in  the  best 
makes,  are  fluted,  as  at  C  or  D,  the  front  of  the 
cutting  edges  pointing  radially  to  the  centre  of 
the  tap.  Either  three  or  four  flutes  are  made, 
four  being  generally  favoured,  on  account  of  the 
better  guidance.  A  slight  amount  of  clearance 
or  relief  is  imparted  to  the  back  of  the  teeth 
by  backing  off  the  threads,  C,  D,  in  a  similar 
manner  to  that  described  in  connection  with 
backed-off  milling  cutters.  Formerly  taps  were 
relieved  by  tapering  the  entire  thread  down  the 
length  of  the  tap,  but  such  is  bad  practice,  and  is 
never  followed  now,  because  the  tap  loses  thereby 
its  proper  guidance.  But  backing-off  can  never 
be  very  pronounced  because  of  the  weakening 
effect  of  each  on  the  cutting  edges  ;  hence  the 
friction  of  tapping  is  severe.  In  the  best  taps 
there  is  seldom  any  front  rake.  But  good  results 
are  secured  by  lessening  the  segments  of  the 
thread,  either  by  increasing  the  number  of  grooves, 
or  by  giving  them  greater  spacing,  which  applies  to 
both  taps  and  dies.  Though  the  incisive  action 
is  not  increased  directly,  it  is  indirectly,  by  lessen- 
ing the  amount  of  screw  thread  which  is  buried 
in  the  work,  and  thus  lessening  friction.  Simple 
though  these  principles  are,  yet  on  the  due 
balancing  of  the  relations  of  these  elements  in 
die  construction,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  in  taps, 
depends  a  difference  of  perhaps  200  or  300  per 
cent,  in  rapidity  of  output. 

Die  Sections.  In  the  dies  the  typical  form 
is  not  so  apparent.  The  cutting  face  is  formed 
by  grinding  the  leading  edges,  either  parallel  with 
the  face  of  the  die,  or  radial  [46].  But  it  is  obvious, 
on  a  moment's  consideration,  that  the  cutting 
action  of  either  one  of  the  edges  or  corners  is  of 
a  variable  character,  because  of  the  varying 
diameter  of  the  thread  which  is  being  cut,  and 
tin-  unalterable  size  of  the  dies.  Dies  are  cut 
over  hobs  [47],  which  are  either  one  or  two 
threads  larger  in  diameter  than  the  screws  which 
they  have  to  cut,  and  as  the  thread  to  be  cut  has 
two  diameters,  one  at  the  bottom  and  the  other 
at  the  top  of  the  thread,  tru% coincidence  between 
thread  and  dies  can  take  place  only  in  one 
position. 


TOOLS   FOR  BORING,    SCREWING   AND    SAWING 

38.  Woodworkers' bits,  of  shell  and  allied  types  39.  Nose  and  gimlet  types  40.  Common  centre  hits  41.  Balanced 
augers  and  auger  Kits  42.  Expanding  centre  bit  43.  Hollow  auger  44.  Well-sinkers' tools  45.  Sections  of  taps 
46.  The  action  of  screwing  dies  47.  Master  tap  48.  Spring  dies  and  chasers  49.  Opening  die-head  50.  A  set  of  taps 

51.  Handsaw  teeth     52.  Circular  saw  teeth     53.  Band  or  frame  saw  teeth    54.  Cross-cut  saw  teeth 
U  4481 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

The  action  <>f  the  dies  N  seen  dearly  in  46, 
\\hi-i-t-  1  slmw>  tin-  position  of  the  die  when  com- 
mencing to  cut  tin-  thread,  and  2  its  position 
when  the  thread  is  finished.  BO  that  the  cut  is 
•iciiced  with  the  corners  a.  Then  as  the  thread 
MM  they  an-  thrown  off,  and  a  squeezing 
art  ion  occurs  between  a  and  b,  and  afterwards  the 
comers  n  o,uite  cease  to  cut,  and  all  the  work  is 
then-ton-  thrown  upon  the  internal  corners  b. 
Tin-  only  angle  of  clearance  then  is  that  slight 
amount  "which  is  present  when  the  surface  of  the 
thread  I  icing  cut  is  not  in  exact  coincidence  with 
tin-  surface  of  the  die — that  is,  at  the  periods 
when  the  corners  o  or  6  are  actually  cutting. 
A  No.  the  slight  alteration  in  the  angle  of  the 
thread,  which  i>  continually  taking  place  as  the 
diameter  of  the  screw  is  being  reduced,  throws 
i  work  on  the  dies,  causing  excess  of  friction. 
It  is  thus  apparent  that  dies  are  not  good 
cutting  tools.  Chasers  are  superior  as  cutting 
tools,  because  they  have  the  proper  angles 
readily  imparted  to  them. 

Out  of  this  action  arises  the  question  of  the 
best  curvature  to  impart  to  dies.  As  these  are 
cut  by  a  hob  or  master  tap  [47],  their  curvature  is 
obviously  that  of  the  tap,  and  unalterable.  In 
46,  A  shows  a  practically  impossible  form  in 
hand  dies  of  the  style  shown,  cut  over  a  hob  of  the 
»me  diameter  as  the  thread  to  be  produced. 
Obviously,  though  these  would  cut  at  the  start,  1, 
At  the  finish,  2,  the  cutting  action  would  have 
ceased.  But  in  those  shown  at  B,  made  over  a 
aob  one  thread  deeper  than  the  thread  to  be  cut, 
'•hey  arc  still  operative  at  2  when  the  thread  is 
low  n  to  si/e,  for  the  edge  6  still  has  relief,  due  to 
he  difference  in  curvature  of  the  thread  and  the 
•lie.  At  C,  dies  cut  over  a  hob  two  threads  deeper 
than  the  screw  to  be  cut  do  not  cut  well  at  first, 
l>m  when  the  thread  is  finished  they  are  fully 
operative. 

Now,  though  these  are,  and  have  long  been,  the 
standard  design  used  in  England  for  hand  dies, 
they  are  not  the  best  possible.  American  dies 
have  \\ider  Bptoes,  and  smaller  arcs  in  operation. 
Fig.  48  illustrates  a  few. 

American  Dies.     The  feature  in  these  is 

that  they  are  solid,  and  do  not  therefore  permit 

•  (I  inwards  at  intervals  as  the  thread 

like  i  he  (lies  just  illustrated.   One  run  over 

•i'-iciil  to  cut  the  screw,  and  there  is  far  less 

of  the  s<|iiee/ine  action  which  causes  the  ordinary 

-  w.rk  BO  liar. I.    The  appearance  of  a  solid 

die  in  plan  i>  >hown  in  47,  A.    The  cutting  faces 

n»ve  a  ^ln-ht  amount  of  front  rake,  and  the  dotted 

indicate   the   relative  angles  of  the  faces 

behind  the  thread,  which  slope  away  in  adirection 

•'i-enyih  to  the  die.    The  threads  are 

<1  off  to  give  clearance  similarly  to  taps 

Although  these  are  solid  dies,  provision  is  intro- 

_•  the  diameter  of  the  screw  cut 

tor  wear  of  the  die,  or  to 

in  the  lit  of  screws  in  their  holes 

';-'"  \  connnon  method  is 

'  B.  where  the  die  is  split  at  one  side,  and 

placed  within  a  rmL.  or  ,-„///•/.  is  expanded 

'••«"»*  in  the  pointed  screw  at  the  side    or 

by   the  two  Bcrewu  at   ri^ht    angles, 

th("  tfcedie  i.em,  >,,fhvicnt  to  allow 

4482 


of  a  small  amount  of  springing.  There  are  many 
other  devices  for  producing  the  same  effect,  being 
chiefly  tapered  or  pointed  screws.  The  outer 
collet  is  held  in  the  die  stock,  or,  in  the  case  of 
lathes  and  screw  machines,  in  a  circular  body. 

In  some  dies,  especially  those  of  the  larger 
sizes,  steel  is  saved,  and  convenience  of  grinding 
secured  by  fastening  flat  pieces,  or  chasers,  in  a 
body,  C,  provision  being  made  for  easy  removal, 
and  for  adjustments  to  and  from  the  centre. 
Another  class  of  die,D,  used  on  some  machines, 
has  four  or  more  cutting  portions  and  is  encircled 
by  a  clamp  ring,  so  that  the  die  may  be  closed 
in  or  allowed  to  expand  in  order  to  thread  to  very 
fine  limits.  Sharpening  is  easily  done  by  means 
of  a  grinding  wheel  passing  down  the  flat  faces 
in  the  gaps. 

Machine  Dies.  The  dies  for  use  in  ma- 
chines are  much  more  elaborated  than  the  taps. 
There  are  some  dozens  of  different  designs  of  these 
die-heads,  as  they  are  termed.  But  they  nearly  all 
have  the  property  of  adjustment,  or  sizing,  to 
compensate  for  wear,  and  to  work  to  minute 
limits  of  tolerance.  Hence  the  mechanism  in  some 
is  highly  elaborated.  In  the  simpler  forms,  used 
largely  hi  screw  machines  and  turret  lathes,  a 
spring  action  is  embodied,  the  dies  being  split  as 
in  48,  and  encircled  by  a  ring  or  collar  by  which 
they  can  be  closed  to  a  minute  amount  from  time 
to  time.  In  others,  the  closing  hi  or  opening  out 
is  effected  in  a  way  which  is  regulated  by  gradua- 
tions, so  that  the  diameter  of  the  thread  can  be 
read  on  the  edge  or  face  of  the  holder.  In  more 
advanced  designs  provision  is  made  for  the 
automatic  opening  of  the  dies  when  a  thread  has 
been  cut,  in  order  to  avoid  the  reversal  and  run- 
ning back  of  the  die  off  the  thread.  These  are 
self-opening  dies — a  numerous  group.  In  all,  the 
flat  chasers  are  used,  of  the  style  C  in  48.  All 
these  make  an  interesting  and  wide  study  in 
themselves. 

Opening  Die=heads.  In  the  opening 
die-heads  mechanism  is  included  by  which  the 
chasers,  usually  four  in  number,  may  be  suddenly 
drawn  back  from  the  thread,  so  that  the  head  can 
be  withdrawn  by  the  turret  in  which  it  is  held. 
This  movement  of  the  chasers  is  either  a  direct 
radial  one,  the  chaser  holders  sliding  in  grooves, 
or  a  pivoting  action  is  given,  an  example  being 
shown  here.  A  stop  piece  is  provided,  which  is 
struck  sometimes  by  the  end  of  the  work, 
sometimes  by  a  part  of  the  machine,  to  cause 
the  chasers  to  fly  open,  under  the  pressure  of  a 
spring.  When  another  thread  has  to  be  cut 
they  are  closed  in  again  by  hand,  or  auto- 
matically, and  the  cycle  is  repeated.  Previous 
to  the  introduction  of  these  time-saving  die- 
heads,  the  direction  of  rotation  of  work  in  the 
screw  machines  had  to  be  reversed,  so  that  the 
head  ran  itself  off  the  thread. 

The  Tucker  die,  made  by  the  Pratt  &  Whit- 
ney Company,  may  be  taken  as  an  instance  of  the 
pivoting  type  [49].  In  the  three  views,  A  shows 
the  outside  elevation  and  B  a  section  with  the 
chasers  dosed  in,  while  C  indicates  the  appear- 
ance when  opened  off  the  thread  ;  a  is  the  shank, 
li«-ld  in  the  turret  hole,  and  carrying  a  sleeve,  b, 
which  has  a  limited  amount  of  sliding  motion 


A  ring,  c,  is  fixed  in  any  position  on  b  by  a  set 
screw,  and  a  long  screw,  d,  in  c  projects  out 
more  or  less  as  required,  so  that  it  may  be  struck 
by  a  portion  of  the  machine  when  the  turret 
has  travelled  up  to  the  required  distance.  The 
result  of  striking  d  is  that  c  is  slid  back,  carrying 
with  it  b,  which  causes  the  dies  to  open,  in  the 
following  manner.  The  chasers,  e,  are  clamped 
with  square-headed  set  screws,  and  adjusted 
with  slotted  head  screws  endwise  in  holders,  /  ; 
the  latter  are  pivoted  in  a  ring,  and  coiled 
springs  are  inserted  in  the  holes  below  the  slotted 
screws  which  adjust  the  chasers.  The  flat 
springs  shown  in  black  on  the  end  of  the  body,  a, 
serve  to  keep  out  dirt  and  cuttings.  It  will"  be 
seen  that  as  long  as  the  sleeve,  b,  remains  in  the 
position  shown  at  A  and  B,  the  dies  are  closed, 
ready  for  work  ;  but  when  the  thread  is  finished, 
and  the  screw  d  struck,  6  is  slid  back  and  its 
bevelled  end  allows  the  ends  of  the  chaser 
holders,  /,  to  slip  down,  the  coiled  springs  men- 
tioned causing  the  tilting  action,  the  result 
being  that  shown  at  C.  Reclosing  is  effected 
by  sliding  the  ring,  c,  and  sleeve,  6,  back  again 
to  the  position  at  A. 

Kinds  of  Taps.  Leaving  the  sectional 
1brms  of  taps  and  dies,  we  note  the  longitudinal 
shapes  of  taps  [50].  In  taps  operated  by  hand, 
two  separate  ones  are  required  to  cut  a  thread, 
and  in  some  cases  three.  First,  as  the  tap  must 
enter  a  hole  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  bottom 
of  the  thread,  the  lower  portion  of  the  tap  is 
ground  away  to  that  diameter,  thence  tapering 
upwards  until  only  about  five  complete  threads 
are  left  at  the  top.  This  is  the  entering  or 
taper  tap  [50],  A.  The  next,  or  middle  tap,  B, 
has  all  its  threads  full,  save  four  or  five  at  the 
bottom,  and  this  completes  the  thread,  provided 
the  hole  is  a  thoroughfare  one,  so  that  the  tap  can 
run  right  through  it  by  four  or  five  threads. 
But  if  a  hole  terminates  in  a  blank  end  the 
bottoming  or  plug  tap  has  to  finish.  This  has  full 
threads  to  the  end,  C.  The  illustrations  are  those 
of  American  taps,  in  which  the  same  proportions 
exist  as  in  dies — namely,  narrow  cutting  arcs 
and  wide  spaces.  English  made  ones  have  about 
twice  the  width  of  threads.  Machine  taps  are 
longer  than  hand  taps,  often  very  long,  and 
they  are  gripped  differently.  When  very 
exact  dimensions  are  required,  expanding  taps 
are  sometimes  employed,  in  which  the  cutters 
are  capable  of  radial  adjustment,  similarly  to 
those  of  the  reamers. 

Saws.  Saws  include  both  scraping  and  cutting 
tools,  whether  we  regard  the  action  of  individual 
teeth  or  their  total  action.  It  is  seldom  that 
the  angle  of  front  rake  is  less  than  90  deg. — it  is 
usually  more,  the  teeth  leaning  back,  in  most 
saws,  until  we  arrive  at  the  equilateral  triangular 
form  of  the  cross-cut  and  hack,  or  metal-cutting 
saws.  Hence  the  material  is  removed  as  dust, 
except  in  the  case  of  very  wet  stuff,  when  it  be- 
comes somewhat  stringy,  but  never  approaches  to 
the  character  of  a  shaving.  Yet,  viewed  in  one 
aspect,  most  saw  teeth  have  a  formation  whjch 
causes  their  action  to  approximate  to  that  of 
true  cutting  tools.  All  saws,  except  those  used 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

for  metal,  are  sharpened  at  a  bevel,  by  which 
friction  is  diminished,  the  saw  cutting  sweetly 
and  attacking  the  material  in  an  oblique  line, 
with  a  resulting  shearing  operation.  Thus,  in 
51  and  52  bevelled  lines  represent  the  direction 
in  which  the  file  is  held  when  sharpening  the  tooth 
faces,  so  that  the  tooth  face  meets  the  material 
like  the  iron  of  a  skew-mouthed  rebate  plane,  or 
like  a  turning  chisel.  Though  the  tooth  is  so 
thin,  this  bevelling  exercises  a  very  marked 
influence  on  the  sweetness  of  the  action  of  the 
saw  teeth. 

Forms  of  Saw  Teeth.  There  are 
various  practical  considerations  which  govern 
the  sizes  and  forms  of  saw  teeth.  The  main 
requisite  to  be  fulfilled  is  that  the  teeth  shall 
operate  as  freely  as  possible.  As  a  general  sum- 
mary, we  may  say  that  the  harder  the  material 
the  greater  the  backward  slope  of  the  faces  of  the 
teeth ;  in  technical  language,  the  less  rake  present, 
and  the  finer  the  pitch  or  distance  between  teeth, 
relatively  to  the  size  of  the  saw,  the  less  the  set, 
or  amount  by  which  the  teeth  are  bent  to  right 
and  left  of  the  plane  of  the  blade. 

Teeth,  when  cutthig  through  wet  wood,  must 
have  more  set  than  those  working  in  dry  stuff, 
because  the  material  removed  is  more  apt  to 
clog  and  hinder  the  saw's  action,  and  they 
require  larger  pitch,  which  means  more  spacing 
in  order  to  allow  freedom  for  the  dust  to  get 
away  without  choking. 

The  Set  of  Saws.  In  many  saws,  espe- 
cially for  metal,  the  set  is  imparted  by  a 
thinning  back  of  the  blade  behind  the  teeth. 
Fig.  51  may  be  termed  the  hand  saw  type  of 
tooth,  varied  in  the  slope  of  front  and  back  rake, 
and  in  sizes  of  teeth.  -  It  will  rip,  or  cross-cut 
hard  or  soft  wood,  but  is  more  suitable  for  the 
first  kind  than  the  second.  For  soft  wood  only, 
the  front,  a,  of  the  teeth,  should  be  nearer  the 
upright  position,  and  the  backs  might  have  more 
slope.  The  set  seen  in  the  plan  [51]  is  slightly 
exaggerated,  being  suitable  only  for  use  in  cross- 
cutting  soft  wcods.  For  ripping  hard  or  soft 
woods  its  amount  should  be  considerably  less. 

Fig.  52  illustrates  the  teeth  of  circular  saws 
for  hard  and  soft  woods.  The  teeth  of  A 
have  little  rake,  those  of  B  have.  A  has  less  set 
than  B,  and  its  sharpening  angle  is  less,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  dotted  lines.  Note  the  large  size 
of  the  gullets,  which  are  necessary  to  permit  free 
escape  of  the  sawdust.  Rapidly  running  saws, 
like  circulars,  require  more  space  than  the  hand, 
or  pit  saws,  or  even  the  frame  saws. 

Fig.  53  shows  the  blade  saws,  used  as  band  saws 
and  frame  saws.  A  would  be  suitable  for  hard 
woods,  B  for  soft.  Fig.  54  illustrates  two  types 
of  cross-cut,  the  triangular  toothed  A,  and  the 
M-toothed  B,  variations  in  which  occur.  <  They 
scrape  only,  and  operate  equally  well  in  both 
directions. 

Saws  are  either  rectilinear  or  continuous. 
To  the  first  class  belong  the  hand,  tenon,  bow, 
fret,  compass,  cross-cut,  and  kindred  kinds. 
To  the  latter  the  band,  circular,  and  cylin- 
drical forms,  all  of  which  are  too  familiar  to  call 
for  any  observations  or  illustrations. 


Continued 


4483 


Group  22 

MUSIC 
31 


ACCORDION,  FLAGEOLET,  &  CONCERTINA 

Construction  and  Peculiarities  of  the  Instruments.    Attitude 
of    Placer.      Fingerboard.      Scales.      Positions.      Exercises 


By    ALGERNON    ROSE 


ACCORDION 

The  accordion,  or  melodeon,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  large  edition  of  the  mouth-organ,  its  sounds 
a  ok, lined  much  in  the  same  way.  It 
consists  of  a  pair  of  oblong-shaped  hand-bellows 
wit  h  seve"n  or  more  folds.  To  the  right  side  of  the 
instrument  is  affixed  a  number  of  levers  arranged 
in  rows.  Sometimes  these  keys  are  like  the  stops 
of  a  concertina.  According  to  the  make  of  the 
instrument,  so  there  are  8,  10,  12,  or  21  keys. 
ies  these,  there  are  three  larger  valves, 
known  as  the  wind,  accompaniment,  and  bass 
stops.  In  the  largest  variety  there  are  21  keys 
in  t  \\o  rows.  The  upper  series  gives  an  irregular 
scale  cf  G  major  [Ex.  1]. 

An  inverted  v  over  a  note  implies  that  the 
bellows  have  to  be  drawn  out.  Notes  without 
such  a  mark  are  obtained  by  pressing  in  the 
bellows.  The  lower  series  gives  the  scale  of 
C  major  [Ex.  2]. 

Each  key  or  lever  sounds  two  notes.  The 
first  is  produced  when  the  bellows  are  pushed  in, 
and  the  second  when  they  are  pulled  out.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  as  each  key  is  pressed  a 
valve  inside  the  hand-board  is  opened.  Within 
the  opening  are  two  little  tongues  of  metal,  one 
»>ent  forward  and  the  other  backward.  Accord- 
ing to  the  small  or  large  size  of  the  tongues,  so  is 
the  pitch  of  the  sound  produced  high  or  low. 
When  a  valve  is  opened  and  the  air  is  compressed 

Ex.  1. 

Key  of  G. 


it  causes  one  of  these  tongues,  or  reeds,  to  vibrate 
quickly,  and  its  motion,  magnified  by  a  sound- 
board, causes  the  musical  tone.  Then,  when  the 
bellows  are  expanded,  the  other  litttle  tongue  is 
made  to  vibrate  by  the  opposite  current  of  air. 
Thus  the  second  sound  is  produced. 

The  best  way  cf  playing  the  accordion  is  to 
rest  it  upon  the  knee.  By  making  a  pivot  of  the 
knee,  a  pushed  bass  note  and  a  pulled  melody 
note  may  be  sounded  at  the  same  time.  Pass 
the  right  thumb  through  the  loop  provided  for  it. 
This  leaves  the  other  right  fingers  free  to  press 
the  keys.  Put  the  left  hand  on  the  other  side: 
its  chief  duty  is  to  work  the  bellows.  According 
to  the  force  used  in  pressing  or  drawing  out  the 
latter,  so  is  the  intensity  of  the  tone  regulated. 
It  requires  considerable  skill  to  make  a  goojj 
crescendo  or  diminuendo.  An  overblown  accordion 
sounds  at  its  worst,  whereas  when  played  with 
even  softness,  it  is  often  heard  at  its  best.  Place 
the  second  and  third  left  fingers  through  the 
strap  ;  the  left  thumb  can  then  press  the  wind 
stop.  The  bass  valve  is  worked  by  the  left  little 


ACCORDION 


0      A         B      D        D       F    V      .Zfc.il 


finger.    It  gives  two  deep  notes,  C  gjL-J-  wnen 
the  Jtellpws  are  pressed  in,  and  G  below7  the  C 
when  they  are  drawn  out.      The  first 
left  finger  is  used  for  the  accompaniment  stop, 
with  21  KEYS 


the 
Ex.  2 

A  A. 


C       D 


C        D 


fa  3. 


E       F         <;        A 


ACCORDION  with  8  KEYS 


D       E         F        G 


8vol.. 


0  A  B  C 

ACCORDION  with  12  KEYS 


•  i  i 

-   *       DEF«ABCDEFGACB 


C       B        E 


MUSIC 


Ex.5. 


ACCORDION  with  10  KEYS— Scale  of  C  Major 


^H-^jT-rVi-i-p--- 
*Efe^i£^fe££t=£E! 

B —        —  B— LB— -LJ=/\ — fca 


—i — fi— 7 — jm-<>—  ~—m-&-~ — r<>-'> 

BStEp^S^d 


This  gives  the  chord  of  the  sub-dominant  of  G 


when  the  bellows  are  pushed  in  Ehu^n  and 
the  chord  of  the  tonic  of  G  when  hey  are  pulled 
out  /£v  ^  • ,  a  couple  of  chords  such  as  an 

organist  in  church  usually  employs  for  the 
"  Amen/' 

The  student  who  wishes  to  make  the  most  of 
this  instrument  should  peruse  the  course  on 
Harmony  [page  37],  in  order  to  avoid  sounding 
the  accompaniment  and  bass  stops  with  wrong 
notes  of  the  melody,  as  is  done  by  unmusical 
street  players.  Nevertheless,  the  best  of  these 
instruments,  when  performed  upon  skilfully, 
are  not  without  a  certain  artistic  value. 
As  a.n  incentive  for  the  non-musician  to  pre- 
pare himself  to  learn  the  English  concertina, 
the  accordion  has  been,  and  is,  undoubtedly 
helpful. 

Before  beginning  to  play,  press  the  wind  stop. 
This  inflates  the  bellows.  If  they  are  already 
full,  and  a  "drawn-out"  note  has  to  be  sounded, 
press  the  stop  to  let  some  of  the  air  escape.  The 
bellows  can  then  be  further  drawn  out  and  the 
necessary  notes  obtained. 

Having  given  the  notes  for  the  accordion  with 
21  keys,  for  the  sake  of  reference  we  tabulate 
the  scale  of  the  smallest  variety,  that  with 
8  keys  [Ex.  3]. 

The  scale  of  the  accordion  with  12  keys 
is  given  in  Ex.  4. 

But  the  most  popular  style  of  accordion  at 
present  sold  is  the  instrument  with  10  keys.  We 
have  therefore  reserved  the  fingering  of  its 
compass  [Ex.  5]  to  the  last. 

B  means  bass  stop,  A  accompaniment  stop  ; 
if  both  letters  occur  together,  both  stops  mast 
be  used  at  tbe  same  time. 

As  an  exercise,  in  conclusion,  the  student 
who  has  followed  these  instructions  carefully 
may  practise  with  profit  the  quaint  old  country 
melody  which  is  given  in  Ex.  6.  Strict 
attention  must,  however,  be  paid  to  time. 


FLAGEOLET 

The  English  instrument  has  six  finger-holes. 
From  these  three  octaves  and  a  half,  with  all 
the  intermediate  semitones,  can  be  produced,  if 
the  student  only  knows  how. 

The  cheap  flageolet  can  be  bought  in  various 
sizes.  They  are  all  fingered  alike,  but  the  longer 
the  tube  the  deeper  the  tone.  Get  the  most 
usual  size,  marked  "  D."  Its  lowest  note  should 
be  in  tune  with  the  D  below  treble  staff. 

Cause  of  the  Tone.  Everybody  is 
familiar  with  the  tin  whistle,  but  few  understand 
that  the  whistle,  in  itself,  has  no  sound.  The 
plug  of  wood  filling  up  most  of  the  tube  forming 
the  mouthpiece  serves  to  shape  the  breath  into 
a  thin  flat  sheet.  This  air  strikes  against  the 
sharp  lip,  slightly  bent  in,  of  the  aperture, 
the  result  being  that  the  sudden  contact  brings 
about  those  pulsations  or  vibrations  which 
produce  the  musical  tone.  Do  not  play  the 
top  notes  with  the  right  hand.  The  left  hand 
must  finger  those  nearest  the  mouthpiece,  and 
the  right  hand  the  three  lower  notes. 

Place  the  left  thumb  behind  the  upper  half  of 
the  tube  and  let  the  right  thumb  steady  the  lower 
half.  Keeping  the  fingers  off  the  holes,  blow 
gently.  This  (in  a  "D"  tube)  sounds  Cji, 
nearly  an  octave  above  the  lowest  D.  Put  down 
the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  Blowing  as 
before,  the  sound  will  be  B,  third  line  treble 
clef.  Depress  the  second  left  finger  to  get  A  ; 
the  third  left  finger  for  G  below  ;  the  first  right 
finger  for  Fiji  (in  the  key  of  D  major);  the 
second  right  finger  for  E  ;  and  the  third  right 
finger  for  D.  All  the  holes  are  now  covered. 

Natural  Notes.  Now  tackle  the  scale 
of  D  major,  uncovering  the  holes  successively 
and  sounding  the  notes  softly  as  the-  scale  is 
ascended.  [Ex.  1.] 

After  reversing  the  order  of  the  six  notes 
first  played,  to  get  the  octave  D  above  the  lowest 
note,  put  down  all  the  fingers  excepting  the  first 
of  the  left  hand.  Blowing  with  somewhat  more 
force,  take  off  the  third  right  finger  as  the  first 
left  finger  is  put  down,  the  octave  above  the 
previous  E  sounded  will  be  heard.  To  get  FJJ, 
G,  A,  and  B,  uncover  the  notes  exactly  as  before, 

4485 


MUSIC 

1  -  '                                                                 Ci__D 

i     i  **                                               3                             ,  ,  ,  __  -1      -fSf  — 

E        F; 

1  

G 

^ 

B       C3 

i  e-:i= 

D 

% 

JO  "          ~^s  ^=S^=^I=:^  fL~\'     ^ 

U 

hut  increasing  the  pressure  of  the  breath.  The 
reason  for  this  increased  pressure  is  that  the  air- 
motion  inside  the  tube  needed  for  a  note  of  high 
pitch  must  be  quicker  than  that  for  one  of  low 
pitch  For  the  lowest  note,  the  breath  must 
,  .  as  in  the  case  of  a  string,  the  whole 
tube  to  pulsate  in  one  large  segment  [see  VIOLIN, 
page  2511].  By  increasing  the  rapidity  of  the 
air,  this  segment  splits  itself  up  into  two,  and 
tlu-  same  etfect  is  obtained  from  a  tube  as  from 
sounding  only  half  the  length  of  a  string.  For 
the  octave  above  the  Cjt  sounded  when  all  the 
holes  were  free,  put  down  the  second  and  third 
left  fingers  and  the  first  right  finger. 

To  get  the  next  note,  D,  two  octaves  above  the 
lowest  sound,  lift  the  first  right  finger.  For  the 
E  above,  open  the  two  centre  holes,  but  put  down 

Kx.  3. 


the  first  and  second  left,  and  second  and  third 
right  fingers.  To  get  the  F~.  two  octaves 
above  the  first  F>,  put  down  the  first  and  second 
left  fingers  and  the  first  and  second  right  fingers. 
For  the  G,  two  octaves  above  the  first  G,  depress 
the  first,  second  and  third  fingers  and  blow  hard. 
Lastly,  to  obtain  the  highest  note  the  instru- 
ment gives,  cover  the  four  centre  holes,  leaving 
top  and  bottom  holes  open.  Thus,  the  ordinary 
flageolet  easily  sounds  nineteen  notes.  The 
beginner  whose  ear  is  musical  will  soon  learn 
them,  especially  if  he  gets  the  sound  he  wants 
well  into  his  mind  by  referring  to  a  piano  or 
harmonium.  These  are  called  the  natural  notes 
of  th»-  instrument.  and  suffice  for  the  playing  of 
ordinary  tunes.  If  in  earnest,  the  student  may 
learn  much  on  the  tin  \\histle.  which  will  be 
helpful,  should  he  desire,  later  on,  to  take  up 
the  fife  or  flute.  After  memorising  the  notes 
he  u  ill  soon  l>r  able  to  play  by  ear  "  God 

the  Km'.:.        Ho  me  Sweet  Home,"  and  other 
i;miiliar  melodies.  Rather  than  wasting  his  leisure 

h  ;i  way,  we  would  point  nut  tin- desirability 
of    practising    daily,    in    correct    time,    t-xe- 
whirh  \\illfumiliiirisrhim  with  the  fingering  of  the 
•  use,  without  such  training,  he 

BE  hop.-  to  excel.       |  Ex.  2.] 

Iii  this  cxcn-is,-  ,-ach  note  must  he  played 
distinctly  and  \\ith  a  separate  In-rath.  Do  not 
hurry.  The  main  point  is  to  p|;-y  slowly  and 
Steadily,  in  correct  time.  Make  each  sound  last 
•  luriiiL'  H  many  tiek.s  i-f  a  clock.  Increase  the 
speed  gradually  by  diminishing  the  number  of 

4486 


ticks,  but  avoid  playing  three  or  four  notes 
quickly,  then  pausing  to  find  out  the  next,  and 
then  making  another  rush.  Next  try  playing 
several  notes  with  one  breath,  so  that  they 
appear  to  be  linked  together  by  a  slur.  [Ex.  3.] 

Chromatic  Scale.  Ws  now  come  to  a 
greater  difficulty,  which  ordinary  players  imagine 
is  impossible  of  accomplishment  on  a  flageolet 
without  keys.  It  is  to  insert  between  the  natural 
notes  those  sharps  or  flats  necessary  to  enable 
the  player  to  run  up  or  down  the  scale  by  a  series 
of  semitones.  This  is  done  partly  by  difference 
in  fingering  and  partly  by  the  graduated  force 
of  the  breath.  If  mastered,  it  enables  the 
student  to  play  in  almost  any  key,  and  invests 
his  instrument  with  musical  attributes  unknown 
to  ordinary  players.  The  student  should,  there- 
fore, not  rest  content  until  he  has  made  himself 
thoroughly  familiar  with  this  fresh  complication. 
Sound  the  low  D  as  before,  with  the  six  holes 
covered,  To  get  D  $,  blow  a  little  more  strongly. 
"  Will  "  to  get  the  half-tone  above.  The  sound 
wanted  will  come.  Take  off  the  third  finger  for 
E.  To  get  Ft,  half  a  tone  above,  lift  the 
second  right  finger,  blowing  softly.  As  the 
instrument  is  in  D,  and  D  major  has  two  sharps, 
F  and  C,  the  next  natural  note  will  be  FjT.  Play 
that  as  before,  by  taking  off  the  second  and  third 
right  fingers.  Sound  the  G  as  before  by  taking 
off  the  first  right  finger.  For  G  J,  take  off  the 
third  left  finger,  as  for  A,  but  put  down  the 
first,  second,  and  third  right  fingers,  blowing 
softly.  Sound  the  A  by  removing  the  three 
right  fingers. 

To  get  A  £,  take  off  the  second  left  finger  as 
for  B,  covering  all  the  other  holes.  Sound  B. 
To  obtain  C£,  take  off  the  first  left  finger 
as  for  CJ,  but  put  down  the  second  left  and  the 
first  and  second  right  fingers.  Play  C>  as 
before,  with  all  the  holes  open,  and  D,  an  octave 
above  the  lowest  sound,  by  closing  all  the  vents 
excepting  the  top  one.  To  get  D  %,  do  precisely 
as  for  the  previous  D  jj.  Make  E,'  F,  F  £  and  G 
as  before,  altering  the  pitch  by  increased  pressure 
of  the  breath.  To  get  the  G  jt  an  octave  above 
that  first  sounded,  finger  as  for  A,  with  the  first 
and  second  right  digits  down;  close  the  fourth  hole 
with  the  first  right  finger.  Sound  the  A  as  before. 

For  the  Ajj,  an  octave  above  the  first  AjT, 
linger  as  for  B,  with  the  first  right  finger  down  ; 
but  put  down  also  the  third  right  finger.  To 
get '  C  £,  an  octave  above  the  first  C  £,  finger 
as  for  Cjj,  with  the  second  and  third  left 
fingers  and  first  right  finger  down,  but  depress 
also  the  second  right  finger.  Then  take  off  the 


MUSIC 

c 


Ex.  1. 


Left 
Hand 

~-i 
A 

latter  for  the  C  f.  Take  off  the  first  right  finger 
for  the  D.  To  get  D  *,  put  down  the  second  and 
third  right  fingers,  as  for  E,  also  the  second  and 
third  left  fingers.  Then  lower  the  first  and 
second  left  fingers  as  before  for  the  E.  To 
obtain  the  F^  two  octaves  above  the  first 
F£,  put  down  the  first  and  second  left  and 
first  and  second  right  fingers,  and  blow  hard. 
Sound  top  G  as  before,  with  the  first,  second, 
and  third  left  fingers. 

For  G  JT,  two  octaves  higher  than  the  first  G  £, 
when  all  the  notes  were  closed  except  the  third, 
reverse  the  process  by  leaving  all  open  except 
that  hole.  Lastly,  sound  top  A  as  before. 

Exercises.  Facility  in  playing  chromati- 
cally cannot  be  gained  all  at  once.  But  as 
the  rules  controlling  the  production  from  a 
simple  pipe  of  the  different  sounds  enumerated 
are  governed  by  acoustical  laws,  they  apply  not 
alone  to  the  flageolet,  but  to  other  tubular  instru- 
ments proportioned  in  the  same  way.  The 
sooner,  therefore,  the  student  familiarises  him- 
self with  them  the  better,  although  later,  the 
necessary  sharps  or  flats  may  be  obtained  more 
conveniently  by  keys. 

CONCERTINA 

The  musical  student  who  has  an  opportunity 
of  becoming  the  possessor  of  an  English  concertina 
may  rest  assured  that  it  is  well  worthy  of  serious 
attention.  It  is  no  mere  toy,  as  is  too  often 
supposed.  Not  only  has  the  concertina  great 
purity  of  tone,  but  it  is  capable  of  remarkable 
rapidity  of  execution,  whether  in  single  or  double 
notes.  Moreover,  the  simplicity  of  its  fingering 
and  power  of  crescendo  and  diminuendo  are 
most  effective.  The  English  concertina,  being 
furnished  with  a  double  action,  produces  the 
same  note  both  on  drawing  out  and  pressing  in 
the  bellows. 

Not  only  is  it  capable  of  being  played  in  any 
key,  but  in  some  ways  it  is  superior  to  the 
pianoforte,  owing  to  its  power  of  sustaining  and 
modulating  the  tone,  its  portability  making  it 
possible  to  be  carried  from  place  to  place,  and  its 
smaller  cost  which  places  it  within  the  reach  of 
more  pockets.  Without  difficulty  the  executant 
can  negotiate  intervals  of  thirds,  •  sixths, 
octaves,  tenths,  and  extended  harmonies.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  capable  of  performing  music 
written  for  the  flute,  hautboy,  etc. 

A  Minor  Derangement.  The  only 
trouble  this  instrument  is  likely  to  give  a  player 
is  v.-hen  a  note  sometimes  goes  dumb.  This  is 


usually  caused  by  a  particle  of  dust  getting 
between  the  frame  and  the  vibrator.  Loosen 
the  six  screws  in  the  plate  of  the  side  which  needs 
attention  sufficiently  to  allow  the  action  to 
be  removed.  Take  out  the  action.  The  note 
will  be  easily  discovered,  as  its  name  is  stamped 
on  the  top  of  the  frame.  Displace  the  reed 
by  drawing  it  from  the  groove.  Hold  it  up  to 
the  light.  The  dust  which  interferes  with  the 
sound  will  be  visible.  Remove  this  with  a  pen- 
knife. In  replacing  the  parts,,  note  that  R 
and  L  stand  respectively  for  the  right  and 
left  hand.  These  letters  must  correspond 
with  the  R  and  L  and  number  on  the  top  of  the 
pan  to  ensure  correct  adjustment.  Observe  the 
same  figures  in  replacing  the  action. 

The  complete  concertina  family  consists  of  four 
instruments.  First,  we  have  the  soprano,  used 
Ex.  2.  L 


B  B 

for  solo  work,  with  a  compass  of  thi'ee  and  a  half 
octaves  from  fiddle  G,  two  ledges  lines  below 
treble  staff.  The  tenor,  bass  and  double-bass 
concertinas  extend  the  compass  downwards,  so 
as  to  make  altogether  six  and  a  half  octaves. 

Attitude.  The  concertina  may  be  played 
either  sitting  or  standing.  To  diminish  the 
weight  on  the  thumbs,  especially  with  the  larger 
patterns,  a  ribbon  is  secured  to  the  middle 
buttons  and  carried  round  the  neck.  Be 
careful,  when  the  instrument  is  played  sitting, 
that  the  folds  of  the  bellows  do  not  rub  against 
the  clothes  or  dress.  Place  the  left-hand  side  of 
'the  instrument  on  the  left  knee.  Each  thumb 
must  be  passed  as  far  as  the  first  joint  into  the 
loop  provided  for  it.  If  this  is  too  tight,  or 
too  slack,  regulate  it  by  screwing  or  unscrewing 
the  metal  button.  Place  the  fourth  finger 
lightly  in  the  finger  rest.  It  should  stop  there 
except  when,  by  moving  it,  the  hand  can  assume 
an  easier  position  while  playing.  Do  not  draw 
out  or  press  in  the  bellows  unless  a  key  is 
touched.  The  pressing  in  and  drawing  out  is 
done  with  the  right  hand.  Force  of  sound  depends 
on  the  degree  of  pressure  or  pulling  applied. 

The  beginner  should  practise  his  exercises  at 
first  with  the  least  degree  of  force.  It  saves 
the  wear  of  the  instrument,  and  makes  it  almost 
inaudible  in  another  room.  To  facilitate  the 
pressing  in  or  drawing  out,  rest  the  fleshy  part 

4487 


MUSIC 

of  the  hand  against  the  instrument.    The  attitude 

„,    U,e    ,, laver    should    be    natural.     Keep    the 

pomtioc  Of  'the  arms  easy.     Never  overforce  the 

beUowi      This    produces    a    discordant    sound, 

.„„!   .,  sometimes  injurious  to  Ui«-  instrument. 

Md  ,,n-s  in  steadily,  in  a  stra.oht  line. 

01    turn  or  twist  the  instrument.     Cultivate 

,,t  of  pullinu  out  to  the  full  extent,  and  then 

ling  in  without  break  in  the  sound.     Do  not 

chaJM?  tin-  d.rection  of  blowing  in  the  middle 

^phrase.     Exactly  as  the  lungs  act  when 

nj»  so  let  the  instrument  take  a  fresh  breath 

,  and  alter  a  passage.   Utilise  any  rest  which 

occurs  for  such  inflation.     Remember  that  lower 

notes  require  more  reserve  force  than  upper  ones. 

Fingerboard.      The    system    of    fingering 

and  position  of  the  notes  on  the  English  cpn- 

oa  niak.-  it  distinct  from  any  other  musical 

instrument,  and  give  certain  peculiarly  artistic 

attributes.     On  either  face  there  are  four  parallel 

rows  of  stops.     The  two  centre  rows  are  akin 

to   the  white  keys,  or  naturals,  on  a  piano,  the 

outer,  or  first  and  fourth  black  rows,  furnishing 

the  sharps  or  flats.     The  C's,  to  distinguish  them 

from  the  other  notes,  are  coloured  red,  an  idea 

probably  borrowed  from  the  harp.     The  treble 

Ex.  3. 


are  on  the  spaces,  whilst  the  bottom  staff  only 
those  notes  which  are  on  the  lines. 

Thus  G  is  the  lowest  of  the  second  column  on 
the  right  hand,  and  A  the  lowest  note  negotiated 
by  the  second  finger  of  the  left  hand.  B  is 
the  lowest  played  by  the  second  right  finger  ; 
C,  the  lowest  played  by  the  first  left  finger ;  and 
so  on,  zigzagging  from  key  to  key.  To  run  up 
a  scale,  therefore,  the  hands  are  used  alternately, 
whereas,  on  a  harmonium,  one  hand  has  to  do 
the  work  alone.  The  difference  in  fingering 
thus  between  the  two  instruments  is  capable 
of  producing  quite  different  effects.  Play  the 
natural  key  of  C  [Ex.  2]. 

Chromatic  Scale.  The  chromatic  scale 
is  important  and  needs  daily  repetition.  Be 
careful  to  press  each  note  equally,  so  as  to 
obtain  evenness  of  tone.  Practise  slowly.  The 
student  should  observe  that  the  concertina, 
unlike  the  piano,  has  separate  notes  for  G  $  and 
A?,  and  for  D^  and  EU.  These  are  not  'tuned 
in  unequal  temperament,  but  are  added  in  order 
to  simplify  the  fingering.  Therefore,  when  D$ 
or  G  jf  is  required,  play  the  note  next  to  Dj] 
or  G£.  When  A!?  or  E!?  is  needed,  press  that 
next  to  A  fl  orE£.  [Ex.  3.] 


iiina    usually    has    48    keys,    comprising 

_'.'•   naturals   and   '23   accidentals.      Now,   when 

the  thumbs  are  in   the   loops,   the  first  finger 

latee  the  whole  of  the  second  column  of 

keys,  that  digit   being   moved  to  the  first  row 

required.     The  second  finger  negotiates 

•h-  third  row,  and  the  third  finger  the  fourth > 

The  place  of  the  little  finger  is,  as  has  been' 

'.Mentioned,  on  its  rest,  except  when  it  is  used  to 

simplify    •  xet-ution.     When    sounding    passages 

octaves,  and  tenths  in  sharp  or  flat 

keys,  it  is  of  particular  service.     Finger  pressure 

be  elastic  and  delicate,  but  firm.     Do  not 

thump  the  studs.     Let  the  finger  tips  glide  from 

•  •ne  note  to  another. 

ia.  .-at.,  playing,  however,  raise  the  finger 

ly  al>..v  th«-  n->te.  >,,  that  it  may  be  struck 

•id  immediately  released.     In  passages 

whieh  are  sinned,  each  note  must  be  held  down 

until  the  ne\t  tinker  i*  ready,  that  there  may  be 

no  break  IM-UU-.-II  op-  sound  and  another. 

Scales.     Tak-    K\.     1.      Here  we  give  two 

M   Allows    only    notes 


Although,  as  a  general  rule,  each  column  of 
keys  is  manipulated  by  the  same  finger,  certain 
effects  are  facilitated  by  repeating  the  same 
notes  with  different  fingers.  In  such  a  case, 
keep  the  two  fingers  used  for  the  change  close 
together  to  avoid  unnecessary  movements. 

If  artistically  produced,  the  tremolo  effect 
closely  resembles  the  human  voice.  It  should 
be  done  by  making  the  finger  quiver  over  the, 
note  itself,  and  not  by  shaking  the  bellows. 

If  the  student  forgets  the  place  of  any  note, 
looking  at  the  instrument  itself  is  a  bad  habit. 
When  the  thumb  is  placed  in  a  loop  and  the 
little  ringer  in  its  rest,  the  second  finger  of  the 
right  hand  should  drop  upon  the  red  note,  C, 
and  the  second  finger  of  the  left  hand  upon  B. 
Those  two  notes  are  useful  guides  £o  the  beginner 
in  finding  the  others,  but  the  best  way  of 
impressing  their  position  on  the  memory  is  for 
the  student  to  make  a  diagram  of  the  four  columns 
of  keys  for  each  hand,  adding  to  them  the 
names  of  the  notes.  If  he  has  this  diagram  before 
him,  he  will  see  at  once  the  position  of  any  key. 


1488 


,  and  Concertina  concluded 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEESEMAKING 

Necessity  for  Rich  Milk  and  Pure  Water.    British  and  Foreign  Cheeses. 
Processes  Used  in  Making-  Cheese.     Rennet.      The  Uses  of  Bacteria 

Group  1 

AGRICULTURE 
31 

HAIRY    V    KM1NG 

continued  from  page  4281 

By   Professor  JAMES   LONG 


A  LTHOUGH  our  forefathers  are  often  credited 
with  great  skill  in  the  production  of  line 
cheese,  we  may  take  it  for  granted  that,  except 
perhaps  in  occasional  instances,  nothing  was  pro- 
duced in  the  past  which  can  compare  in  quality 
with  the  finest  cheese  that  is  made  to-day.  This 
fact  is  owing  to  the  formulation  and  compre- 
hension of  principles.  The  reasons  for  the 
various  operations  are  now  known,  and  the 
maker  is  therefore  placed  in  a  position  of  control 
which  enables  him  to  conduct  his  work  with 
much  greater  success  and  certainty.  The  object 
of  the  cheesemaker  is  to  obtain  a  maximum 
quantity  of  cheese  of  high  quality  from  a  given 
quantity  of  milk  ;  but  he  cannot  accomplish 
this,  however  extensive  his  practice,  without 
recognising  the  principles  involved.  The  pro- 
duction of  good  cheese  depend;;  upon  the  soil 
upon  which  the  cattle  feed,  upon  the  quality  of 
the  milk,  and  the  skill  of  the  maker,  especially 
in  his  control  of  temperature  and  acidity. 
Cows  fed  on  soil  rich  in  lime  usually  produce 
milk  which  contains  a  larger  percentage  of  lime 
than  is  common  in  milk  produced  on  other  soils, 
for  which  reason  the  acidity  of  the  milk  is  slightly 
delayed,  while  a  variation  in  the  temperature, 
of  the  quantity  of  rennet  employed,  and  the 
work  of  manipulation  are  often  necessary. 
Difficulties  which  arise  owing  to  the  richness  or 
poorness  of  milk  in  mineral  matter  and  fat 
are  easily  removed  by  those  who  have  mastered 
the  principles  involved,  but  they  present  striking 
obstacles  to  those  who  have  not. 

The  Value  of  Rich  Milk.  To  obtain  fine 
cheese  it  is  essential  that  the  milk  should  be 
rich,  a  fact  which  has  long  been  disputed,  while 
quality  also  increases  the  yield.  In  the  first 
place,  then,  rich  milk  produces  a  mellower 
cheese,  for  the  reason  that  it  contains  more  fat ; 
while  next  it  adds  considerably  to  the  weight 
produced  per  gallon,  for  not  only  does  an 
increased  quantity  of  fat  tell,  bat  with  that 
increase,  as  we  shall  see  later,  there  in  also  an 
increased  appropriation  of  the  casein  and  of  the 
water  employed.  It  has  been  estimated  on  the 
basis  of  exhaustive  experiments  that  for  each 
pound  of  fat  present  in  milk  the  yield  of  cheese  is 
increased  to  the  extent  of  2'7  lb.  At  the  great 
American  trials  at  Chicago,  which  were  attended 
by  the  writer,  the  Jersey  herd  produced  in  one 
month  cheese  which  was  worth  £11  more  than 
that  produced  by  a  similar  number  of  Shorthorns, 
although  the  latter  breed  is  in  England  regarded 
as  the  best  type  of  cow  for  cheese  production. 

Pure  Water.  It  is  important  that  in 
the  cheese  dairy  the  water  employed  should  be 
of  the  purest,  and  that  the  food  supplied  to  the 
cattle,  whether  on  the  pasture  or  in  the  stall, 


should  be  absolutely  free  from  anything  likely 
to  convey  an  undesirable  flavour  or  odour  to 
the  milk.  The  cheese  plant  or  equipment  should 
be  of  the  best  modern  construction,  intended 
to  facilitate  the  work  and  to  present  as  little 
trouble  and  difficulty  in  cleaning  as  possible. 
On  these  points  the  intending  cheesemaker  may 
obtain  many  hints  by  paying  a  visit  to  the 
British  Dairy  Institute  at  Reading,  the  Midland 
Institute  near  Derby,  or  the  Scottish  Institute 
at  Kilmarnock. 

Varieties.  The  principal  varieties  of  cheese 
are  set  out  in  the  table  on  the  following  page. 
Among  minor  varieties  not  referred  to  in 
the  table  are  the  Cotherstone  (blue  veined), 
the  Slipcote  (soft  curd),  the  York  (soft  curd), 
the  Caerphilly,  the  Dunlop  cheese  of  Scotland, 
the  Yorkshire  cheese  known  as  Liberton,  the 
Wilts  loaf  cheese  of  Cheddar  type,  the  blue 
skimmed  milk  cheese  of  Dorset,  and  a  variety 
of  local  curd  cheeses  Avhich  include  the  New 
Forest  and  the  Colwick.  In  France  there  are 
many  varieties,  apart  from  those  mentioned, 
including  the  Coulommiers,  which  resembles  the 
( 'amembert,  the  Mont  d'Or,  the  Gerome,  all  of 
which  are  soft  varieties ;  and  the  Livarot,  a 
strong-:  melling  soft  cheese  made  from  skimmed 
milk.  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  other 
European  countries,  like  America,  have  no  special 
varieties  of  either  pressed,  blue,  or  soft  cheese 
which  are  recognised  upon  the  great  markets 
of  the  world. 

The  Action  of  Rennet.  In  beginning 
the  process  of  cheese  manufacture,  it  is  essential 
first  to  coagulate  the  milk.  In  some  cases  the 
evening's  milk  is  kept  until  the  morning,  when 
the  morning's  milk  is  added  under  condition:; 
which  will  be  subsequently  referred  to.  The 
milk  having  been  brought  to  the  required 
temperature — usually  in  a  jacketed  vat — and 
its  volume  ascertained,  the  requisite  quantity 
of  rennet  is  measured,  mixed  with  four  time^  its 
volume  of  water,  and  stirred  in  the  milk.  Where 
the  evening's  milk  is  kept  until  the  morning,  a 
slight  amount  of  acidity  will  have  developed, 
unless  the  temperature  be  low.  As  acid  possesses 
a  power  of  coagulation,  it  assists  the  rennet,  and 
allowance  must  therefore  be  made  on  this  score. 
The  action  of  the  rennet  largely  depends  upon 
heat,  for  the  quantity  of  rennet  required  is  in 
an  inverse  ratio  to  the  temperature  of  the  milk, 
while  within  undefined  limits  the  time  of  coagu- 
lation is  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  the  quantity  of 
rennet  used.  Thus,  theoretically  speaking,  if 
one  part  of  rennet  converts  10,000  parts  of  milk 
at  95°  F.  into  curd  in  forty  minutes,  it  would 
coagulate  one-tenth  the  quantity  of  milk  in  one 
tenth  of  the  time,  the  same  temperature  being 

4489 


AGRICULTURE 


Till-'    I'KlNTirVli  VAKIKTIKS   OF   (  UK  KM-, 

•jTOLAXD 

r,,,,,K-ratun- 

..... 

NOMl    M 

1  tloll. 

Water. 

Casein,  etc.        Fat. 



Devices  F. 
84 

40-50  min. 
60    ,, 

Percent. 
34 
37 

Percent. 
30 
24 

Per  ceul  . 
31 
29 

-'••I-     

Stiit-.n  (blur  veined) 
\\.-n-i.-yriiir  (I'lnr  reined) 

78-84 
80-90 
84-88 

90    „ 

50     ., 
60    ,, 

33 
30 

36 

29 

29 

2! 

29 
35 

27 

31 

24 

35 

••lift  -••     

30                0 

THK    CONTINKNT 

t.llr. 

Copulation. 

Water. 

Casein,  etc.         Fat. 

Degrees  F. 

Her  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  rent. 

Gruyere      (France      and 
BwttMriand)       ..     .. 
Cnntal  (  France) 

25 
90 

;}()  min. 
60  „ 

35 
44 

31 
25 

31 
24 

K.«|ii.f.>it    (France)  (blue 

31 

27 

33 

Port    tin   Saint   (France) 

(soft,   sli-litly    pVMMa) 
Brie  (France)  (soft) 

f;mi.  •iulicrt(F.-ance)  (soft) 
NYiiiVliat.-l  (France)  (blue) 

86 
82*86 
80 
90 

30   „ 
2-4  hr. 
2  „ 
2-4  „ 

50 
40 
44 

29 
15 

30 
34 

Pont  tl'  Eveiine     (France) 

(soft)     

88 

15  min. 

ill     (France)     (soft, 
part  cream)  
Ivlain  (roiintl  l»utch) 
(Juii.la  M:it  Dutch)  .  .      .  . 
f';iiiMf~:in  (Italy) 

65 
84 
93 
77 

8-12hr. 
15  min. 
25   „ 
20-30  ,, 

53 
36 
22 
31 

12 

24 
47 
42 

30 
30 
25 
19 

•ii/ola    (Italy)     (Mm- 
\  .-iiii-d)  

77-90 

15   „ 

44              28 

30 

rd.  P>ut  \\v  have  to  deal  with  proba- 
liilitirs.  Thus,  the  larger  volume  of  milk  would 
retain  its  heat  more  perfectly  than  the  smaller 
volume,  hence  practice  does  not  exactly  corre- 
.-|H.nd  with  theory. 

Coagulation.  Milk  is  set  at  various 
ii  -mperatures,  in  accordance  with  the  variety 
of  eheese  to  be  made,  as  from  65°  F.  in  small 
varieties  made,  from  a  mixture  of  milk  and 
cream,  to  95°  F.,  which  is  adopted  in  the  manu- 
facture of  some  of  the  pressed  varieties.  Rennet 
however,  possesses  very  little  activity  below 
».:>  K.  The  time  occupied  in  the  coagulation  of 
milk,  then,  depends  upon  the  temperature  of 
tin-  milk  and  the  quantity  of  rennet  employed. 
Tim-,  a  >mall  quantity  of  rennet  prolongs  the 
peril  •<!.  while  a  large  quantity  hastens  it.  These 
periods  are  further  expanded  in  accordance  with 
the  tem|ier;itiire  ,,f  the  milk.  In  making  firm  or 
ton  \  minutes  to  two  hours  are 
luually  oerupied  ;  lmt  in  making  soft  cheese,  from 
t\\(.  to  fifty  houix  may  I,.,  occupied.  The  higher 
the  temperature,  too.  ;MM|  ti,r  smaller  the  curd  is 
«-ut.  the  more  rapidly  does  it  part  Avith  its  whey  ; 
while  the  lower  the  temperature,  and  the  larger 
the  curd  is  cut.  the  more  slowly  it  drains. 
AHhoogb  drainajre  is  promoted  by  cutting  the 
tine  iii  the  haul  cheeses,  such  as  Cheddar, 
Cheshire,  l)ut<-h.  ami  Grnyere,  all  are  inbee- 

quently    pressed   for    the    removal    of    the   surplus 

whey  or  mom.     Blue-veined  cheeeee,  like  Stilton 

•i/.ola.  however.  are  not    pressed,  while 

1  letie-,    of   soft    ehee-,,-.    |JU,.    . 
and      Port      du     Salut.     a.re     pn-x.-d     but 


Cutting  the  Curd.  The  true 
soft  cheeses,  whether  ripened  or 
fresh,  as  Brie,  Camembert,  or 
York,  part  with  their  surplus  whey 
by  gravitation  and  evaporation  ; 
and  here  heat  plays  an  important 
part,  for  unless  the  dairy  employed 
be  sufficiently  warm  the  serum  is 
held  by  the  curd  and  the  cheese 
spoiled  ;  while  if  too  warm  the 
whey  drains  too  freely,  and  the 
cheese  becomes  dry  and  inferior. 
The  finer  the  curd  is  cut  the  largei 
the  area  of  drainage.  In  the  best 
varieties  the  curd  is  cut  into  cubes 
by  the  aid  of  two  many-bladed 
knives,  one  horizontal,  the  other 
vertical.  The  whey  is  therefore 
induced  to  exude  from  each  face 
of  each  cube,  thus  forming  as  it 
were  by  contraction  a  toughened 
coat,  which  largely  prevents  the 
remainder  of  the  whey  leaving  the 
curd.  When  heated,  however,  as 
it  usually  is  within  the  large 
volume  of  whey  which  has 
already  collected,  this  whey  is  in 
large  part  removed,  for  heat 
assists  the  process  of  drainage. 
In  making  soft  cheese,  the  tender 
curd  is  handled  as  little  as  pos- 
sible ;  such  cheese  contains  more 
moisture  than  pressed  cheese,  and 
care  is  thus  taken  to  prevent  its  loss.  The 
presence  of  more  moisture  in  soft  cheese  means 
also  the  presence  of  more  sugar,  which  is  the 
chief  cause  of  its  more  rapid  fermentation. 
Where  the  temperature  is  too  low,  an  excess 
of  whey  is  retained  in  the  curd,  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  formed,  and  the  cheese  swells  and  spoils. 
This  especially  applies  to  Stilton  and  other 
unpressed  varieties. 

The  small  cheesemaker  often  fails  to  produce 
high  quality  on  account  of  the  small  volume  of 
milk  with  which  he  has  to  deal.  He  is  unable, 
unless  very  highly  skilled,  to  maintain  the  heat 
necessary  to  perfect  coagulation  ;  nor  is  he  often 
assisted  by  a  perfect  dairy  apartment,  the 
temperature  of  which  he  is  able  to  control.  In 
making  cheese  on  a  large  scale,  it  should  be 
possible  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  65"  F., 
while  in  a  small  dairy  the  average  temperature 
should  scarcely  be  less  than  70°  F. 

Quantity  of  Rennet  Required.  Rich 
milk  requires  less  rennet  than  poor  milk, 
hence  the  importance  of  knowing  the  fat  per 
centage.  The  quantity  of  rennet  required  and 
the  time  of  coagulation  vary  with  the  tempera 
ture  of  the  dairy,  and  therefore  with  the  season 
and  climate,  which  so  largely  control  it.  This, 
too,  is  the  reason  why  more  rennet  is  required  in 
spring  than  in  summer  r,nd  autumn.  It  is  essen 
tial  that  rennet  should  be  carefully  kept,  that 
its  strength  may  be  maintained,  and  that  the 
same  variety  should  always  be  employed — a 
standard  rennet  being  that  in  which  one  part 
coagulates  1,000  parts  of  milk  in  a  given 
time  at  a  given  temperature.  It  should  be 


remembered,  however,  that  as  cows  which  have 
calved  in  spring  fall  off  in  their  yield,  their 
milk  increases  in  quality,  so  that  an  altera- 
tion in  the  quantity  of  rennet  employed  may 
be  necessary.  Again,  as  lactic  acid,  which 
possesses  the  power  of  coagulation,  forms  more 
quickly  in  warm  weather,  there  is  a  further 
influence  which  bears  upon  the  quantity  of 
rennet  employed. 

How  and  When  to  Remove  Curd. 
In  cutting  or  removing  curd  from  the  cheese- 
vat  or  tub,  great  care  must  be  taken.  It  must 
not  be  cut  too  soon  or  too  late,  or  roughly 
handled.  If  the  tube  of  a  glass  thermometer  be 
dipped  in  the  curd,  small  particles  will  adhere 
if  it  is  unfit ;  but  if  ready  to  cut  and  remove 
the  tube  will  come  out  clean.  If  the  curd  has 
passed  the  proper  period  for  cutting  it  will 
fracture,  and  whey  will  collect.  As  curd  for 
pressed  cheese  is  cut  fine,  as  already  remarked, 
that  intended  for  unpressed  and  soft  cheese, 
on  the  contrary,  is  removed  in  large  layers  or 
slices  by  the  aid  of  hollow,  plate-like  metal 
.skimmers.  Dry  curd,  not  the  production  of 
fine  cutting,  may  be  obtained,  as  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Stilton,  by  slightly  longer  coagulation 
and  by  the  removal  of  large  slices  of  curd 
at  the  right  moment  into  cloths  laid  in  suit- 
able draining  vessels  [32],  the  cloths  being 
subsequently  tied  from  corner  to  corner,  and 
tightened  gently  from  time  to  time  [33].  The 
temperature  of  the  curd  should  exceed  70°  F. 
If  largo  pieces  of  curd  are  left  after  fine 
cutting,  the  presence  of  the  whey  within  them 
will  cause  local  fermentation,  swelling,  and 
damage. 

Avoidance  of  Skimmed  MilK.  The 
employment  of  skimmed,  milk  is  fatal  to  both 
quality  and  quantity  of  cheese.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  Cheddar,  1-13  Ib.  of  fat  should  be 
present  per  Ib.  of  casein  ;  the  proportion  of  fat, 
indeed,  should  never  be  below  the  proportion 


33.   METHOD  OF   TIGHTENING   STRAIN  ING -CLOTH 
(From  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society) 

of  casein.  There  is,  too,  a  greater  loss  of  fat  in 
the  making  where  skimmed  milk  is  used  at  all. 
[f  cream  be  added  to  new  milk,  the  loss  of  fat 
is  diminished,  while  the  weight  of  the  cheese  is 
increased  by  more  than  the  weight  of  the 
increased  solids  added. 


AGRICULTURE 

Source  of  Rennet.  The  rennet  em- 
ployed in  cheese  manufacture  is  an  extract  from 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  fourth  stomach  or 
"  veil  "  of  the  milk-fed  calf.  No  other  material 
known  to  man  can  be  employed  for  the  same 
purpose  in  cheese  production.  Rennet  is  always 
reliable  in  action  if  pure  and  its  strength  main- 


32.    STRAINING-CLOTHS   CONTAINING   CURD 

(From  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society) 

tained  ;  it  not  only  coagulates  milk,  but  it  helps 
to  ripen  the  cheese,  and  unless  it  be  imperfectly 
made,  as  we  have  seen  it  in  Italy,  where 
macerated  pieces  of  the  actual  stomach  of  the 
calf  are  sometimes  employed,  it  is  never  hurtful 
to  cheese.  Although  occasionally  made  on  the 
farm,  rennet  is  now  a  standard  product  of  com- 
mercial manufacture.  It  is  sold  in  liquid,  tablet, 
and  powdered  forms,  the  first-named  being  the 
most  simple  and  reliable  ;  but  its  strength  or 
quality  varies  in  accordance  with  the  make. 
The  cheesemaker  having  selected  a  variety, 
should  adhere  to  it,  or  he  may  spoil  a  batch  of 
cheese.  The  coagulating  power  of  rennet  is 
affected  by  soda  and  other  alkalis.  Below^ 
50°  F.  rennet  produces  no  normal  coagulation  ; 
between  100°  F.  and  108°  F.  its  action  is 
quickest,  while  from  108°  F.  to  122°  F.  the  period 
of  coagulation  increases,  partially  losing  its 
influence  at  the  latter  temperature.  If  we  use 
too  much  rennet  for  a  given  quantity  of  milk, 
or  adopt  too  high  a  temperature,  the  resulting 
cheese  is  tough  ;  if  we  use  too  little,  or  adopt  too 
low  a  temperature,  the  curd  becomes  too  tender, 
the  fat  is  lost,  and  the  quality  of  the  cheese 
diminished.  The  loss  of  fat  is  denoted  by  the 
whitish  character  of  the  whey,  which  should  be 
clear  and  of  a  greenish  tint.. 

Proportions   of   Rennet    to   be  Used. 

It  is  important  that  rennet  should  be  accurately 
measured,  and  either  the  ounce  or  the  cubic 
centimetre  (c.c.)  may  be  employed.  The  latter 
is  almost  imperative  in  making  soft  cheese,but  it 
is,  under  all  circumstances,  superior  to  the  former. 
A  measuring  glass  divided  into  hundredths 
should  be  used.  There  are  1,000  c.c.  to  a 
litre  (10  litres  =  2-2  gallons).  If  we  take  1  c.c. 
of  a  standard  rennet,  therefore,  and  add  it  to 
a  litre  of  milk  at  a  temperature  of  95°  F.,  it  will 

4491 


MMMNM.TUM 

ilate  in  four  minutes— assuming  that  the 
temperature  i-  maintained  constant;  similarly. 
III.IHMI  o.e.  (-2-2  gallons)  will  coagulate  in 
fort\  minute.-.  The  principle  involved  in  these 
iiu'ures  should  be  es]>e<  ially  recognised,  but  in  all 
torti  a  eura'  y  i-  impossible  unless  the  tern- 
•me  of  the  milk  l>e  controlled.  If  the  time 
occupied  in  such  a  test  be  live  minutes,  instead  of 
tour  minute-,  it  i>  proof  that  the  rennet  is  not  of 
indard  quality,  but  that  1  c.c.  is  capable  of 
coagulating  only  800  c.c.  of  milk;  so  that  in 
practice  it  we  employ  it  in  our  work  we  shoul'd 
require  not  1  c.c.  per  thousand,  but  1  £  c.c. 

Value  of  Acidity.  Acidity  is  impera- 
tive in  cheesemaking,  for  upon  it  depends 
not  only  flavour,  but  mellow  or  salvy  consis- 
tence. Acidity  develops  more  freely  in  curd 
than  in  whey,  but  in  practice  it  is  whey  that  is 

I  The  proportion  of  acidity  in  the  whey 
i-  iw.u  ascertained,  and  in  the  West  of  England 
experiments  of  Mr.  Lloyd  the  best  results  were 
obtained  when  they  contained  '22  per  cent,  of 
acid,  as  indicated  by  the  particular  method  of 
te-ting  which  he  employed.  Excess  of  acid  is 
fatal  to  quality  in  most  varieties  of  cheese,  but 
it  is  largely  owing  to  deficiency  that  causes 
cheese  made  in  spring  to  be  inferior  to  that 
made  later,  for  acidity  is  developed  by  heat. 

In  the  manufacture  of  pressed  cheese,  like 
<  heddar  or  Cheshire,  acid  is  developed  by  heating 
or  "  scalding  "  the  curd  and  whey  in  the  vat  to 
a  higher  temperature.  Where  the  curd  is  slowly 
formed,  the  acid  present  i.s  larger  in  quantity  ; 
hence  the  excess  of  acid  in  tender  curd  which 
hold-  the  uhey  longer  than  curd  which  is  drier. 
In  the  manufacture  of  .such  a  refined  soft  cheese 
uuembcrt  acidity  is  especially  needed,  as 
the  moulds  or  fungi  which  are  essential  in  the 
ripening  process  grow  more  freely  upon  the  crust. 
A-  the  moisture  of  this  cheese  evaporates  during 

i  it  ion.  the  /„//,, /////„_  a  network  which  is 
comparable  to  the  tiny  rootlets  of  a  green  or 
•hlorophyll-containing  plant— penetrates  the 
*md  and  neutralise.-,  tlu-  acidity,  \\ith  the  result 
that  the  bacteria  present  are  able  to  begin  their 
\\oik  of  decomposition,  and  the  practical  con- 
VCIHOU  ,,f  ,tn  insoluble  to  a  soluble  material.  In 

which  i-  drier  than    is   necessary,  there  is 

idity  I'ceause  the  sugar,  the  great  medium 
through  which  it  is  produ.ed.  has  largely  escaped 

m   the  \\hev. 

Scalding.      The  <  'heddar  manufacturer  pro- 

the  development  of  acidity  by  the  addition 

•our  whey  to  the  ,,iilk  .-    but' this  plan  is  not 

ntial    daring  normal    eheesemakirm  ueather 

"i    When  the  temperature  ,,t  the  dairy  is  under 

:       Acidity    may     be     developed     in     the 

"Ik.   ;<nd    thia   development    may   be 

•1;.t'"1       •  rj      by    Scalding     the      mas, 

1     "lanutacture.      In   8pring    or 

;'">'    '"7-"""     ">»•»     the     temperature'    is 
'"'•rniully   lmv     sour    whey   may   be   „,,., 

though  scalding  be  resorted  to;   but  in  all 
•dlow  ance  „,„,,  be  made  for  the  increas. 
ingriohneas  oi  the  milk  as  the  season  advances 

manufacture    largely 

"l»"'    oleanlineaa  and   the  conBequenl 


Continued 


prevention  of  the  introduction  into  the  milk  of 
foreign  or  destructive  bacteria,  which  are  not 
only  the  cause  of  ill  flavour  and  bad  texture, 
but  of  abnormal  decomposition  and  decay.  This 
i.s  particularly  noticeable  in  the  production  of 
Stilton.  In  the  manufacture  of  Camembert 
cheese,  for  example,  it  is  practically  proved  that 
three  varieties  of  bacteria  are  essential  to  success, 
while  their  activity  and  perfection  of  the  cheese 
depend  upon  the  presence  of  sufficient  acidity. 

Blue  Mould.  Again,  there  are  many 
varieties  of  cheese,  chiefly  those  which  are 
pressed  but  slightly  or  not  pressed  at  all,  upon 
or  within  which  the  successful  growth  of  fungi 
is  necessary,  and  we  may  especially  refer  to 
Camembert,  Brie,  Coulommiers,  a,nd  Neufchatel 
among  soft  cheeses,  and  to  Stilton,  Wensley- 
dale,  Gorgonzola,  and  Roquefort  among  blue- 
veined  cheeses,  in  which  the  blue  mould, 
Penicillium  glaiicum,  plays  a  most  important 
part.  The  spores  or  seeds  of  these  parasitic 
plants  are  apparently  present  in  the  atmosphere 
of  every  milk-room,  whether  perfectly  clean  or 
the  reverse.  They  find  the  curd  of  milk  a  suit- 
able soil ;  but  their  successful  culture  depends 
upon  moisture,  air,  and  sufficiency  of  heat. 
They  are  practically  excluded  from  growth  in 
pressed  cheese  by  the  pressure  which  is  exerted, 
while  in  cheese  like  Stilton,  which  is  composed  of 
pieces  of  unpressed  curd,  between  which  there 
is  no  real  union,  interstices  are  formed  which 
leave  room  for  the  development  of  the  spores. 
Varieties  of  soft  cheese,  such  as  those  already 
mentioned,  first  develop  a  white,  velvet-like 
fungus,  which  is  followed  by  the  blue,  and  in  the 
Brie  in  particular  by  patches  of  a  vermilion 
mould,  believed  to  add  to  the  piquancy  of  the 
flavour. 

How  Fat  Affects  the  Weight.  With 
reference  to  the  influence  of  the  solids  of  milk 
on  cheese  production,  it  should  be  pointed  out 
that,  as  the  result  of  experimental  work  of  a  most 
extensive  character  conducted  at  the  stations  in 
the  States  of  New  York  and  Wisconsin,  it  was 
found  that  with  every  increase  of  one  pound  of 
fat  there  was  an  increase  of  '60  of  casein  and  albu- 
men and  of  one  pound  of  water.  When  rich  milk 
was  employed,  the  percentage  of  solids  extracted 
from  the  milk  in  the  process  of  cheesemaking  was 
larger  than  when  it  was  poor  in  quality.  The 
fat  lost  when  the  richest  milk  was  used  wa? 
•17  per  cent,,  while  it  reached  '49  per  cent,  when 
cheese  was  made  from  poor  milk,  the  average 
being  -29  per  cent.,  or  6£  per  cent,  of  the  total 
fat.  The  quantity  of  casein  and  albumen  lost 
under  similar  conditions  was  equal,  on  the 
average,  to  23 "3  per  cent,  of  the  total.  On  the 
basis  of  the  work  of  one  year,  too,  it  was  found 
that  the  green  or  unripe  cheese  produced  per 
100  Ib.  of  milk  was  equivalent  to  the  weight  of  the 
fat  present  in  that  milk  multiplied  by  2'75. 
Thus,  if  the  milk  contained  4  per  cent,  of  fat, 
I'M)  Ib.,  or  10  gallons  of  milk,  produced  eleven 
pounds  of  cheese,  while  where  the  milk  con- 
tained 3£  per  cent,  of  fat,  which  we  may  take 
as  a  fair  average  of  the  cows  of  our  country,  the 
cheese  produced  would  reach  JHilb. 


EARTH  AS  THE  HOME  OF  MAN 

Distribution  of  Land  and  Water  and  its  Effect.     Climate  and  Temperature. 
Winds.     Mountains  and   Rivers.      Plains  and  Soils.      Coasts   and   Tides 


Group  13 

COMMERCIAL 

GEOGRAPHY 

1 

Following  on 


By  Dr.  A.  J.  HERBERTSON,  M.A.,  and  F.  D.  HERBERTSON,  B.A. 


survey  of  the  world  has  brought  out  its 
great  diversity.  Few  regions,  if  any,  yield 
abundantly  all  that  is  required  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  highest  civilisation.  Commercial 
geography  deals  with  the  struggle  of. man  to  win 
subsistence  in  such  a  world.  This  he  does  partly 
by  adapting  himself  to  his  environment,  whether 
harsh  or  genial,  and  partly  by  attempting  to 
modify  that  environment  to  suit  his  needs.  One 
of  his  efforts  in  the  latter  direction  is  commerce, 
which  seeks  to  equalise  the  distribution  of 
useful  commodities. 

Two  factors  must  be  considered,  the  geo- 
graphical and  the  human.  The  first  deals  with 
permanent  geographical  conditions,  the  distribu- 
tion of  sea  and  land,  of  heat,  cold  and  moisture, 
which  man  can  do  little  to  modify.  The  second 
is  concerned  with  man's  increasing  power  of 
availing  himself  of  the  possibilities  they  offer. 

The  Land  of  the  World.  Only  two- 
sevenths  of  the  Earth's  surface  consists  of  land. 
Only  two-sevenths,  therefore,  is  fitted  for  the 
permanent  home  of  man.  The  remaining  five- 
sevenths  consists  of  seas  and  oceans,  at  first 
a  barrier,  but  often  later  a  pathway  to  better 
conditions  of  existence. 

The  known  lands  of  the  world  are  about 
52,000,000  sq.  miles  in  area.  Of  this  about 
twelve-thirteenths  is  grouped  into  two  immense 
islands — the  Old  and  New  World.  Australia 
unts  for  nearly  three-quarters  of  the  re- 
nder. By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the 
land  lies  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  This 
results  in  a  considerable  extension  from  north  to 
south,  giving  a  complete  series  of  climatic  zones 
and  consequently  of  economic  products.  It 
brings  the  land  portions  of  the  world  into 
r  proximity  by  contracting  the  breadth  of 
he  oceans  between  them. 

The  bulk  of  the  land  lies  in  temperate  latitudes. 
With  the  exception  of  Greenland  and  a  possible 

.tarctic  continent,  little  land  lies  within  the 
blar  circles.  No  part  of  the  mainland  of  Europe 
hes  the  tropics,  and  no  part  of  the  mainland  of 
reaches  the  equator,  which  crosses  only 
two  continents — Africa  and  South  America. 
The  dissection  of  tropical  Asia  into  tapering 
peninsulas  separated  by  wide  seas,  and  the 
hollowing  lout  of  tropical  America  by  the  Ameri- 
can Mediterranean,  considerably  reduces  the  area 
of  the  tropical  lands. 

The  Influence  of  Climate.  Of  the 
factors  affecting  the  distribution  and  develop- 
ment of  the  human  race,  climate  is  the 
most  important.  This  is  not  because  man  is 
hypersensitive  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 
On  the  contrary,  he  has  a  wider  climatic  range 
than  any  other  living  creature.  The  check 


operates  indirectly  through  the  great  climatic 
sensitiveness  of  plants,  on  which  both  man  and 
animals  depend  for  subsistence. 

Plants,  which  are  fixed  to  the  soil,  have  less 
power  of  adaptation  than  animals,  which  can 
move  from  place  to  place,  and  which,  along  with 
this  mobility,  and  perhaps  as  a  consequence  of  it, 
have  developed  great  variability.  Each  family 
of  plants  is  exacting  in  its  demands.  Tropical 
fruits,  some  of  which — for  example,  the  banana 
— form  the  mainstay  of  large  societies,  require 
a  high  temperature  to  ripen  them.  Some,  such 
as  the  coco-nut  palm,  prefer  in  addition 
proximity  to  the  sea.  The  olive,  a  characteristic 
Mediterranean  fruit,  not  only  requires  a  rather 
hot  summer,  but  cannot  bear  winter  frosts. 
Hence  it  cannot  be  grown  in  Lombardy,  where 
the  summer  temperature  would  suit  it  admirably. 
Maize  needs  a  hotter  summer  than  wheat,  which 
in  turn  is  less  hardy  than  rye  or  barley.  Not 
even  the  latter  will  ripen  below  a  certain  summer 
temperature,  and  within  the  Arctic  circle  the 
vegetable  kingdom  is  represented  chiefly  by 
mosses  and  lichens.  Still  nearer  the  Pole  even 
these  disappear.  Other  plants  require  special 
conditions  of  moisture.  Cereals  are  more 
sensitive  to  excess  or  defect  of  moisture  than 
grasses,  which  thrive  in  regions  too  wet  and  too 
dry  for  the  former.  Rice,  which  needs  swampy 
or  flooded  soil,  suits  hot  damp  climates,  but 
cannot  be  grown  in  the  hot  dry  climate  which 
brings  the  date  to  perfection.  Each  group  of 
economic  plants  therefore  has  a  definite  geo- 
graphical range,  a  circumstance  which  influences 
not  only  the  distribution  of  man,  but  even  the 
type  of  civilisation  within  a  given  area. 

Temperature  :  The  Hot  and  Cold 
Lands.  Temperature,  one  of  the  chief 
elements  in  climate,  varies  with  distance  from 
the  equator  and  with  distance  from  the  sea-level 
— that  is,  with  latitude  and  elevation. 

The  relation  between  latitude  and  climate 
has  already  been  considered.  [See  page  293.] 
Here  it  is  sufficient  to  recapitulate  the  main 
climatic  divisions  as  determined  by  latitude. 

1.  Intertropical  lands,  hot  all  the  year  round. 

2.  Warm  temperate  lands,  with  hot  summers 
and  mild  winters. 

3.  Cool  temperate  lands,  with  warm  summers 
and  cool  or  cold  winters. 

4.  Polar  lands,  with  long  cold  winters,   and 
short  cold  summers. 

The  intense  heat  and  moisture  of  tropical 
lands  favour  the  growth  of  dense  forests,  but 
are  not  well  suited  to  agriculture.  Owing  to 
the  density  of  vegetation  arid  the  fatigue 
attending  exertion  in  a  hot  climate,  the 
initial  difficulty  of  clearing  the  soil  is  great. 

4493 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

When  cleared  the  soil  is  fertile,  but  without 
Lttan  it  quickly  relapses  into 
,!,.  wild  state.  Deserted  clearings  in  the 
tropical  forest  are  overgrown  by  jungle  in  a  sur- 
pri-in<'ly  she.rt  time,  and  the  excessive  heat  and 
mo.sture  an-  demoralising  to  many  temperate 
plants,  which  run  riot  in  stem  and  leaf  without 
maturing  root  and  fruit.  The  influence  on  man 
is  equally  marked.  The  enervating  climate  is 
unfavourable  to  steady  industry,  and  the  reeking 
-nil  l.iv,  Is  many  diseases.  For  these  and  other 
reasons  tropical  lands  rarely  develop  high  types 
of  civilisation. 

In  the  Polar  regions  the  long  cold  winters  and 
the  protracted  darkness  make  agriculture  im- 
possible. Man  contrives  to  exist  far  beyond 
the  northern  limit  of  cereals,  but  he  is  stunted 
in  body  and  his  energies  are  absorbed  in  the 
struggle  for  existence.  On  the  margin  of  the 
Polar  region  the  long  summer  daylight  permits 
almost  continuous  growth,  and  greatly  reduces 
the  period  between  germination  and  ripening. 
This  gives  the  cereals  a  greater  Poleward  range 
than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 

In  the  temperate  lands  the  seasons  are 
regular.  The  summers  are  not  too  hot  or  the 
winters  too  long  and  cold  for  cereals  and  other 
useful  plants  to  survive.  Thus  there  is  a  con- 
tinuity of  effort  which  ensures  progress.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  temperate  lands  are  the 
most  highly  endowed  physically  and  mentally, 
and  have  founded  all  the  great  civilisations  of 
the  world. 

Climate  and  Elevation.  The  relation 
bet  \\  ecu  temperature  and  elevation  has  already 
been  explained.  A  rise  of  300  ft.  above  sea- 
level  corresponds  with  a  fall  of  1°  F.  in  tem- 
perature. Climate,  as  determined  by  latitude,  is 
tints  greatly  modified  by  elevation.  Temperate 
and  Polar  conditions  may  exist  in  tropical  lands 
at  a  sufficient  height.  Elevation  is  sometimes 
advantageous,  and  sometimes  the  reverse.  In 
the  Andes  many  flourishing  cities  are  found 
d  thousand  feet  above  sea-level.  Here 
elevation  acts  beneficially,  affording  more  favour- 
able conditions  than  the  hot,  unhealthy  lowlands 
ot  the  coast.  The  nearer  we  go  to  the  equator 
the  higher  can  human  settlement  be  pushed; 
the  further  we  go  from  the  equator  the  nearer 
•  \el  must  man  make  his  home.  In  tropical 
land-  the  existence  of  highlands  may  increase 
the  area  suitable  for  settlement;  intemperate 
lands  it  almost  inevitably  contracts  it.  This 
i-  \\i-ll  -een  in  Kraner.  \\hcrethe  Central  Plateau 
ha-  a  in. -re  sprinkling  of  inhabitants  though  the 
-Hi-rounding  lo\\  lands  are  thickly  peopled. 

Rainfall.       The    second   climatic    factor    is 

the  distribution  of  rainfall.      Many  fertile  regions 

ninhabitrd  hrrau-.-  they  are  rainless.      Such 

•  ither  remote  from'thc  sea.  the  ultimate 

:.iin.  or  in  the  l-v  of  mountains,  \\hieh 

inteiv.-|,t  the  rainy  winds,  or  in  the  track  of  dry 

\\inds.      Somr    of    the    dri.T    regions    an-    jrrass 

lands,  but  the  most  arid  are  de-n  t ,.  cx.-rpt  \\her-- 

i'Tij:  rt»,  when  irrigated,  are 

i.tionally  fertile,  because  the  chemical 
Min-iiu  tioiu  \vhieh  plants  build  up  their 
ft  hav  not  I  mi  \\ashcd  out  of  the  soil 

MM 


by  rain  A  typical  area  of  this  kind  is  the  Great 
Basin  of  Utah,  where  irrigation,  round  Salt 
Lake  City,  has  converted  the  desert  into  a 
garden. 

In  some  regions  the  rainfall  is  excessive. 
Even  in  our  own  country  cereals  do  not  do  well 
in  the  wetter  west.  The  wettest  place  in  the 
world  is  the  Khasi  Hills  of  Assam,  where  over 
400  in.  of  rain  fall  annually.  In  such  regions 
only  very  special  forms  of  agriculture  are  possible. 
The  Distribution  of  Rain.  Not  less 
important  than  the  total  rainfall  is  the  manner 
of  its  distribution  over  the  year.  In  many  dry 
regions  a  long  drought  is  followed  by  torrential 
rains,  which  are  wastefully  expended  in  flooding 
the  watercourses  for  a  few  hours,  leaving  them 
empty  soon  after.  Regular  distribution  is 
necessary,  as  well  as  a  sufficient  total  precipita- 
tion. This  may  be  either  fairly  uniform  through- 
out the  year,  as  in  our  own  country,  or  uniform 
at  certain  seasons,  as  in  the  Mediterranean, 
where  nearly  all  the  rains  fall  in  winter.  In  the 
latter  case  a  different  type  of  agriculture  results. 
The  evergreen  trees  of  Southern  Europe  are 
fitted  to  resist  the  long  drought  of  summer. 
The  dry  autumns  bring  the  vine  and  other  fruits 
to  perfection,  and  count  as  one  of  the  climatic 
advantages  of  the  region. 

While  the  average  distribution  of  rainfall  has 
been  worked  out  for  the  more  settled  parts  of 
the  world,  it  is  liable  to  fluctuate  from  year 
to  year.  Some  years  are  exceptionally  wet, 
and  others  exceptionally  dry,  and  these  wet 
and  dry  years  may  occur  in  short  or  long 
cycles.  Exceptionally  wet  and  dry  seasons  are 
both  injurious  to  crops,  and  the  former  may 
cause  floods,  and  consequent  loss  of  life.  Of 
the  two,  drought  is  generally  the  more  dangerous 
to  life,  especially  in  the  regions  where  the 
rainfall  is  at  no  time  abundant.  The  failure 
of  the  monsoon  in  the  drier  parts  of  agricultural 
India  means  famine,  in  which  the  loss  of  life 
may  amount  to  millions.  In  the  agricultural 
regions  of  North  America,  where  wheat  is  grown 
for  export  by  a  relatively  thin  population,  it 
results  all  over  the  wheat-importing  area  in  the 
rise  of  the  price  of  food,  and,  consequently,  of 
the  price  of  labour  and  of  commodities  in  general. 
In  the  pastoral  lands  of  the  New  World  and 
Australia  it  seldom  results  in  the  loss  of  human 
life,  but  millions  of  stock  may  perish. 

The  Track  of  the  Winds.  The  relation 
of  rainfall  to  continental  and  oceanic  climates 
has  already  been  explained  on  page  300.  The 
windward  shores  of  islands  and  continents 
receive  rain  from  moisture-laden  winds  which 
have  crossed  the  ocean.  These  winds  become 
drier  as  they  pass  inland,  and  have,  therefore, 
less  moisture  to  precipitate  as  rain.  The  interior 
of  all  continents  is  much  drier  than  their  mar- 
ginal areas.  A  typical  continental  climate  is  dry 
as  well  as  extreme.  A  typical  oceanic  climate  is 
humid  as  well  as  ei (liable.  [See  maps,  page  295.] 
The  above  results  are  due  to  the  action 
of  winds,  which  exercise  great  influence  on 
climate.  Our  own  islands  lie  in  the  track  of  the 
westerly  winds,  which  blow  strongly  all  the  year 
round,  but  especially  in  winter.  The  desert  of 


Sahara  lies  in  the  track  of  the  dry  trade  winds. 
On  a  smaller  scale,  great  importance  attaches  to 
local  winds.  The  daily  land  and  sea  breezes  of 
seaside  places  are  a  familiar  illustration.  Many 
others  might  be  found.  The  traveller  in  Italy 
dreads  equally  the  tramontana  from  the  Alps,  and 
the  sirocco  from  the  desert.  The  mistral,  or  cold 
Alpine  wind,  of  the  Rhone  valley  prevents  the 
cultivation  of  the  orange  and  lemon,  though 
these  ripen  in  the  neighbouring  but  sheltered 
Riviera.  The  chinook  winds  of  the  western 
prairies  of  North  America  are  warm  winds, 
before  which  snow  disappears  as  if  by  magic, 
enabling  the  farmer  to  begin  operations  much 
earlier  than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  Similar 
winds  in  the  Swiss  valleys  are  expressively  called 
snow-eaters.  Winds  of  the  same  type  blow 
during  harvest  in  New  Zealand,  and  do  great 
damage  by  shaking  the  grain  from  the  full  ear 
before  it  is  cut.  A  spell  of  such  winds  may 
mean  the  ruin  of  the  harvest.  The  cold  winds 
from  the  Mongolian  Plateau  make  the  winters  of 
Northern  China  very  severe,  and  occasionally 
cause  frosts  at  Shanghai. 

The  Effect  of  Mountains.  Elevation 
affects  climate  in  other  ways  than  merely  by 
reducing  the  temperature.  The  position  of  the 
highlands  helps  to  determine  the  rainfall  of  the 
regions  on  either  side.  When  moisture -laden 
winds  approach  mountains  they  are  deflected 
upwards,  a,nd,  becoming  cooled,  drop  part  of  their 
moisture  as  rain,  passing  on  as  drier  winds."  The 
windward  slopes  of  mountains  are  therefore  much 
wetter  than  the  leeward.  This  difference  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  western  and  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Pennines  of  our  own  country.  The  south- 
Avest  monsoon  strikes  the  Western  Ghats,  which 
are  very  wet,  while  the  Deccan  peninsula  above 
has  a  deficient  rainfall.  The  same  monsoon 
brings  heavy  rains  to  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Himalayas,  while  the  northern  slopes  towards 
Central  Asia  are  arid.  Desert  areas  are  often 
found  in  the  lee  of  mountains,  as  in  the  desert 
of  Central  Asia,  or  of  Western  North  America. 

The  advantages  of  a  mountainous  region, 
though  less  obvious  than  the  disadvantages, 
are  not  less  real.  Mountains  are  the  great 
reservoirs  from  which  rivers  are  fed.  This 
is  specially  important  in  dry  regions.  In 
the  drier  parts  of  Asia  the  villages  are  in  the 
mountain  valleys,  because  there  only  is  water 
abundant.  When  mountains  are  high  enough 
for  the  formation  of  snowfields  and  glaciers, 
a  permanent  supply  of  water  in  the  hot  summer 
months  is  assured.  The  glaciers  of  the  Hindu 
Kush  feed  the  Oxus,  which  brings  life  to  the 
deserts  of  Russian  Turkestan.  The  higher  the 
mountain  the  steeper  and  swifter  are  the 
mountain  streams,  and  the  greater  is  the  load  of 
sediment  they  carry.  Mountains  are  thus  great 
soil  factories,  from  which  rivers  obtain  the  raw 
materials  out  of  which  fertile  lowlands  are  built 
up.  The  Abyssinian  Highlands  have  furnished 
the  raw  materials  of  Egypt,  the  Alps  that  of  the 
plain  of  the  Po,  the  Himalayas  that  of  the  plains 
of  Bengal.  The  higher  the  mountains  the 
more  likely  is  it  that  extensive  and  fertile  low- 
lands will  be  formed  at  their  base. 


COMMERCIAL.     GEOGRAPHY 

Rivers  rising  high  have  swift  currents,  which 
make  them  useful  as  sources  of  power.  The 
sluggish  rivers  of  the  English  Midlands  are  almost 
useless  for  this  purpose,  while  innumerable 
Alpine  valleys  obtain  cheap  electric  power 
from  the  torrents  that  rush  down  them.  Such 
regions  may  develop  flourishing  industries,  as 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Jura  or  the  Black  Forest. 

The  Treasures  of  the  Mountain.  The 
wet  windward  slopes  of  mountains  are  usually 
densely  forested,  and  the  timber  is  easily  trans- 
ported by  the  streams.  Equally  valuable  are 
the  minerals  in  which  most  highlands  abound. 
Mountains  are  formed  by  the  crumpling  up  of 
the  earth's  strata  into  folds.  The  upper  strata 
are  then  gradually  worn  away  and  deep  valleys 
cut  by  the  action  of  weather,  ice,  or  running 
water,  so  that  the  inner  strata  are  exposed. 
This  often  brings  valuable  minerals  to  the  surface. 
In  the  Pennines  the  layers  younger  than  the 
coal  measures  have  been  worn  away,  exposing 
rich  coalfields  on  both  flanks.  In  Southern 
England,  where  the  strata  have  not  been  folded 
and  elevated  in  the  same  way,  the  coal  measures 
are  buried  miles  deep  and  cannot  be  worked. 
The  silver  mines  of  the  Andes,  the  mineral 
wealth  of  the  Rockies  or  the  Urals  illustrate 
the  importance  of  minerals  in  highland  regions. 
One  of  the  most  widely  distributed  useful 
minerals  is  building  stone  which,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  marbles  of  the  Apennines,  or  Greece, 
may  be  valuable  for  its  beauty. 

Mountains  are  often  useful  in  keeping  off 
hurtful  winds.  The  open  plains  of  North 
America,  which  stretch  almost  unbroken  from 
the  Arctic  Circle  to  the  Gulf,  are  often  swept 
by  icy  Polar  gales,  and  the  orange  groves  of 
Florida  may  be  ruined  by  frost.  The  French 
and  Italian  Riviera,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
sheltered  from  cold  north  and  east  winds  by 
the  Alps  and  Apennines.  Oranges  and  lemons 
ripen  out  of  doors  and  the  air  is  fragrant  with 
flowers.  To  this  fortunate  situation  is  due  the 
prosperity  of  the  innumerable  health  resorts. 

The  Influence  of  Slope.  Slope  deter- 
mines the  direction  of  rivers  and  their  commercial 
value.  Those  following  the  short  slope  tend 
to  be  short  and  swift,  those 
of  the  long  slope  to  be  longer, , 
slower,  and  better  fitted  for 
navigation.  This  is  well  seen 
in  the  Andes,  from  which  no 
river  of  importance  flows  west 
into  the  Pacific,  while  the 
great  Amazon  flows  east  to 
the  Atlantic.  If  mountains 
are  centrally  situated,  great 
rivers  may  flow  in  many  direc- 
.tions.  From  the  St.  Gotthard  Alps  the  Rhine 
flows  to  the  North  Sea,  the  Rhone  to  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Ticino  to  the  Adriatic. 

Slope  is  important  in  another  way.  The 
diagram  shows  that  on  the  slopes  facing  the 
sun  the  sun's  rays  fall  more  nearly  vertically 
than  on  the  level,  and  consequently  have  a 
greater  heating  power.  This  explains  why,  in 
many  parts  of  Central  Europe,  southern  slopes 
of  the  hills  are  terraced  Avith  vineyards.  In  the 

4495 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

Southern     Hemisphere    tin-  northern    slopes    aiv 
tlius   planted. 

Tin-  etfect  i if  slope  on  a  large  scale  is  seen  in  the 

contrast     betueen    valleys    opening    north    and 

Kvery  traveller  across  the  St.  Gotthard 

notes  the  contrast    between   the  valleys  on  the 

and  Italian  slopes.     In  the  latter  the  snow 

line    and    tree   line   are    much   higher,  and   the 

chotnut,  niullK-rry.  olive  and  vine  are  cultivated 

,  onsiderable  height. 

Finally,  as  we  saw,  highlands  may  be  advan- 
tageous in  tropical  lands  by  lifting  large  areas 
above  the  unhealthy  climate  of  the  plain.  This 
i>  the  ease  in  South  Africa,  where  only  the 
highlands  above  the  fever  line,  which  reaches  as 
high  as  4,000  ft.,  can  be  inhabited  by  Europeans. 
A  much  greater  range  of  products  can  also  be 
cultivated. 

Mountains  and  Passes.  The  obstacles 
to  communication  presented  by  mountains  are 
very  obvious.  To  the  physical  labour  of 
ascent,  which  narrow  precipitous  valleys,  deep 
unfordable  rivers  and  dangerous  glaciers  may 
render  very  great,  are  added,  in  the  case  of 
the  higher  mountains,  the  sufferings  due  to 
intense  cold,  high  winds,  and  the  difficulty  of 
breathing  the  highly  rarefied  air.  Mountains 
frequently  form  a  barrier  between  two  countries, 
especially  when  the  routes  across  them  are 
difficult.  They  hinder  commercial  intercourse 
by  increasing  the  time  and  the  cost  of  transport. 
The  former  consideration  is  so  important  that 
costly  engineering  works,  such  as  tunnels 
through  the  Alps,  ultimately  pay  for  themselves 
by  the  economy  of  time  effected. 

The  amount  of  resistance  to  communication 
olVered  by  a  mountain  range  depends  on  the 
height  not  of  the  peaks  but  of  the  passes.  .It 
matters  little  how  high  the  peaks  on  either  side 
rise  if  the  pass  or  depression  between  them  be 
low.  A  second  important  point  is  whether  a 
pass  can  be  found  which  enables  the  entire 
system  to  be  crossed.  Hence  the  importance 
of  such  Alpine  passes  as  the  St.  Gotthard  and 
the  Mrenner.  Other  things  being  equal  a  rail- 
way will  tend  to  take  a  route  where  a  single 
pass  only  need  he  negotiated,  as  in  the  trans- 
continental line  from  the  Argentine  into  Chile, 
\\lierr  the  namnving  Andes  can  be  crossed  by 
-.ne  pax.  the  CiimKre  or  Uspallatu. 

The  command  of  the  passes  means  the  control 

of    the    region.      For    this    reason    Switzerland 

fortifies  the  St.  <  milliard,  and  Britain  must  retain 

utrol  of  the  Kliaibar  route  from  the  plains 

"f  India  into  Afghanistan  at  any  cost. 

Hardships    among     the     Mountains. 

Highland  unions  are.  excepi   under  exceptional 

tiona,   thinly  populated.     The   lower  tem- 

;lt»"-.    am!    especially   the    longer    and     colder 

"inter,     are    unfavourable     i,,    agriculture      and 

-"  may  be  good  in  summer  the 

la     IIIIIM     generally     be    drive,,     to    lower 

•'    winter.     The   heavy  rainfall 

'<"•<•••  "t    the   mountain   streams 

rapidly    denude    ,[„•    ,[,,,„.„    nf    S()jK    S()    ((|;it    f()]. 

t-M-iii    of    terracing,    always    a 

'aborioua  r  generally   necessary 

filler  i.,  the  Alp*  will  remember  .lie 


tiny  terraced  gardens,  banked  up  with  stones, 
a  pathetic  witness  to  the  hardship  of  the  moun- 
taineer's life.  The  terraced  olive  yards  of  the 
Mediterranean  represent  centuries  of  unremitting 
labour.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  example,  is 
seen  in  the  high  valleys  opening  to  the  upper 
Oxus  or  Indus,  where  bare  mountains,  stripped 
of  soil,  slope  precipitously  to  raging  torrents. 
After  every  flood  the  hill  folk  climb  down  to  the 
confluence  of  the  nearest  side  valley  to  gather 
up  a  basketful  of  soil,  out  of  which  they  build 
up  terraces  of  soil  on  the  rocky  hillside.  In 
this  way  little  villages  win  a  hard  subsistence 
at  great  heights  among  the  bleak  mountains  of 
Central  Asia.  But  the  amount  of  labour  ex- 
pended is  evidently  incommensurate  Avith  the 
result,  and,  though  mountain  dwellers  are 
generally  strong  and  enduring,  they  remain  a 
frugal  people  without  those  more  complex  needs 
which  make  for  progress. 

This  suggests  another  reason  for  mountains 
acting  as  barriers.  They  are  infertile  and  thinly 
peopled.  The  Northern  Highlands  of  England 
were  thus,  though  not  high,  an  effective  barrier 
between  England  and  Scotland  till  population 
became  dense  on  the  northern  coalfields. 

The  Influence  of  Rivers,  Mountain 
and  river  are  almost  correlative  terms,  and  in 
considering  the  influence  of  mountains  we  have 
incidentally  considered  in  part  that  of  rivers. 
Like  that  of  mountains  this  influence  is  mixed, 
sometimes  co-operating  with  man's  efforts,  and 
sometimes  thwarting  them.  The  importance 
of  rivers  as  routes  is  obvious.  A  river  is  cease- 
lessly at  work  broadening  and  levelling  its 
valley  [see  page  457].  Many  rivers  offer  a 
choice  of  routes,  by  water  or  by  land.  Others, 
though  not  navigable,  are  practicable  as  valley 
routes.  Population  tends  to  follow  the  river 
valleys,  which  are  the  natural  roads.  Hence, 
we  find  civilisation  early  developing  in  the  rivei 
valleys  of  the  Ganges,  the  Euphrates,  the 
Nile,  and  so  forth. 

The  importance  of  the  river  as  a  route  grow? 
with  the  development  of  means  of  communica- 
tion. Most  of  the  great  land  routes  of  the  world 
follow  rivers,  though  the  line  has  frequently  to  b* 
blasted  out  of  the  sheer  sides  of  the  valley. 

Rivers,  however,  hinder  communication  as 
well  as  acilitate  it.  Many  side  valleys  open  to 
the  main  valley,  and  the  streams  which  fill  them 
must  be  bridged  or  otherwise  crossed.  Some- 
times the  character  of  the  country  makes  this 
extremely  difficult.  The  rivers  may  have  cut 
deep  canons  far  below  the  surface  of  the  country, 
to  which  descent  may  be  almost  impossible. 
Here  a  bridge  is  the  only  practicable  method  of 
communication,  and  costly  bridges  are  not 
built  till  the  development  of  a  country  is  far 
advanced.  In  the  earlier  stages  such  canons 
effectually  hinder  communication,  as  in  the 
drier  parts  of  the  Western  United  States.  Or, 
again,  a  river  may  be  so  swollen  by  floods  in 
summer  as  to  close  a  route  which  it  opens  in 
winter.  This  is  the  case  on  the  great  trade 
route  from  Leh  to  Yarkand  in  Central  Asia. 
The  winter  route  follows  the  Shyok  Valley,  but 
in  summer  the,  river  conies  clown  in  flood,  making 


the  valley  impassable.  The  summer  route  has 
to  go  up  many  side  valleys  and  across  the 
passes  which  separate  them. 

Rivers  as  Constructive  Agents.  Rivers 
are  ceaselessly  at  work  making  new  land  [see 
page  458].  This  is  sometimes  advantageous  to 
man  and  sometimes  the  reverse.  It  has  given 
him  some  of  the  most  fertile  lands  in  the  world, 
but  it  may  undo  his  work,  and  make  his  task 
more  difficult. 

In  every  flood  a  river  spreads  beyond  its  banks, 
leaving  behind  it  when  it  retires  a  deposit  of 
soil.  Thus  it  gradually  levels  the  land  on  either 
side,  forming  a  flood  plain.  The  soil  of  the  flood 
plain  becomes  deep  and  fertile.  The  flood  plain 
of  the  upper  Rhine,  between  the  Vosges  and 
Black  Forest,  is  one  of  the  garden  spots  of 
Europe.  On  a  larger  scale  the  same  process 
builds  up  vast  plains  and  deltas  like  those  of  the 
Rhine,  the  Po,  or  the  Nile. 

Broadly  viewed,  therefore,  the  constructive 
work  of  rivers  benefits  man  by  creating  new  lands 
for  his  occupation.  But  immense  loss  and 
damage  may  be  caused  in  the  process.  The 
floods  of  the  Hwang-ho  constitute  China's 
sorrow,  and  those  of  the  Mississippi  are  almost 
equally  destructive.  Man  may  be  forced  to 
check  the  misdirected  energy  of  such  rivers  by 
building  embankments  and  otherwise  restraining 
the  tendency  to  flood.  The  forming  of  bars  and 
the  silting  up  of  harbours  are  disadvantages 
which  result  from  the  constructive  energy  of  rivers. 

The  Newer  Uses  of  Rivers.  In  other 
ways  rivers  exercise  an  important  influence  on 
the  development  of  civilisation.  Irrigation 
may  be  necessary,  and  the  rivers  of  a  country 
may  or  may  not  be  suitable  for  the  purpose.  If 
they  are,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Ganges,  the  Nile, 
the  Euphrates,  and  many  others,  agricultural 
prosperity  is  assured.  If  they  are  not,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Spanish  rivers,  which  are  in  deep 
gorges,  the  development  of  a  country  is  hindered. 

Rivers  may  confer  another  advantage  on  a 
country  by  supplying  power.  The  early  manu- 
factures of  the  Tweed  or  Yorkshire  Ouse  pros- 
pered largely  because  there  were  rapid  streams 
to  turn  the  mills.  The  discovery  of  electric 
power  has  made  the  command  of  water  power 
infinitely  more  valuable.  Niagara  Falls  have 
long  been  harnessed  in  the  service  of  man.  The 
largest  producer  and  transmitter  of  electric 
power  in  the  Old  World  is  the  Falls  of  Cauvery 
in  Mysore,  with  93  miles  of  wire  to  the  Kolar 
Goldfields,  and  57  miles  to  the  electric  lights  of 
Bangalore.  The  command  of  water  power  may 
occasionally  make  mountain  regions  important 
industrial  centres,  but  it  is  usually  where  the 
river  enters  the  lowlands,  forming  falls,  that 
industrial  centres  develop.  This  is  well  seen  in 
the  chain  of  flourishing  manufacturing  towns 
along  the  Appalachian  "  fall  line." 

Irrigation  plays  a  great  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  many  countries.  Rivers  are  not 
essential,  for  water  maybe  collected  in  cisterns 
and  tanks  in  the  wet  season,  as  in  Southern 
India,  or  obtained  by  sinking  wells  to  water- 
bearing strata,  as  in  the  Sahara,  the  Western 
United  States,  or  Australia.  But  for  irrigation 

I  27 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

on  a  great  scale  rivers  are  necessary.  The  usual 
method  is  to  dam  the  river,  forming  a  head  of 
water  from  which  distributing  canals  can  be  fed. 
This  method  is  applied  with  conspicuous  success 
to  the  Indus,  the  Ganges  and  the  Nile. 

Plateaus  and  Plains.  Plateaus  have  more 
or  less  of  the  disadvantages  of  all  highland  regions 
according  to  their  elevation.  Under  certain 
circumstances  they  may  be  the  most  favoured 
part  of  a  region.  The  plateaus  of  Switzerland, 
of  Central  Asia  and  the  Andes  are  cases  in  point, 
though  for  a  different  reason.  High  plateaus 
are  seldom  fitted  for  agriculture,  but  their  dry 
pastures  often  produce  a  fine  quality  of  wool 
or  hair.  From  that  of  the  sheep  and  goats  fed 
on  the  plateaus  of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  are 
made  Turkey  and  Persian  carpets,  the  finest  and 
most  durable  in  the  world.  Plains  present  great 
uniformity  over  considerable  areas,  and  offer  the 
minimum  resistance  to  movement  and  com- 
munication. They  may  be  swampy  and  low 
lying,  as  in  Holland,  but  this  is  met  by  drain- 
ing and  dyking.  The  soil  is  fertile  for  the  same 
reason  that  valley  soil  is  fertile.  Throughout  the 
world  plains  are  centres  of  population,  and  the 
site  of  all  the  important  cities.  When  they  are 
adjacent  to  good  harbours  their  prosperity  is 
still  more  marked. 

Soils.  The  character  of  the  surface  soil  is 
important.  Clay  is  stiff,  compact  and  imper- 
vious to  the  free  passage  of  air  and  water. 
It  is  therefore  unsuited  to  agriculture.  A  sandy 
soil  has  the  opposite  defects,  and  is  too  loose 
and  porous.  Fresh  lava  is  absolutely  unfertile  ; 
but,  as  its  surface  begins  to  weather,  vegetation 
appears.  When  thoroughly  disintegrated  it  is 
extremely  fertile,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
chemical  substances.  Thus,  though  the  slopes 
of  Vesuvius  are  barren  almost  to  the  base,  the 
surrounding  district  of  Campania  is  extremely 
rich.  In  forest  regions  decaying  vegetable 
matter  enriches  the  soil,  forming  humus  or 
vegetable  mould.  The  virgin  soil  of  cleared 
forests  is  therefore  very  fertile,  as  in  Siberia 
or  North  America.  Alluvial  soils  are  generally 
fertile  after  they  have  passed  through  the  initial 
swampy  or  waterlogged  stage.  We  have  already 
referred  to  the  fertility  of  desert  soils.  The 
loess  region  of  Northern  China  is  composed  of 
very  fine  soil  carried  by  the  wind  from  the  deserts 
of  Central  Asia.  An  extreme  case  is  seen  in  the 
nitrate  deserts  of  Chile,  which,  though  barren  of 
vegetation,  yield  an  invaluable  fertiliser. 

Certain  soils  are  specially  adapted  to  certain 
crops.  The  Deccan  has  its  "  cotton  soil,"  and 
the  Black  Earth  Lands  of  the  Russian  Empire 
grow  fine  cereals. 

Indirectly,  too,  the  character  of  the  soil 
exercises  considerable  influence  on  the  conditions 
of  existence  by  its  suitability  or  unsuitability 
for  making  hard-wearing  roads.  In  a  clay 
country  the  roads  are  impassable  after  rain, 
and  impede  communication.  In  the  lower 
regions  of  China  the  "roads  become  deeply  sunk 
in  the  porous  soil. 

The  Land  near  the  Sea.  The  prosperity 
of  a  marginal  area  depends  partly  on  the  character 
of  the  coast,  and  partly  on  the  character  of  the 

4497 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

hark  region,  or  hinderland.  flood  harbours  are 
of  little'  value  Nvhere  the  hinderland  is  poor,  and 
a  ri.-h  hinderland  may  develop  slowly  owing 
to  the  absence  of  harbours.  With  good  harbours 
and  a  good  hinderland  a  marginal  area  possesses 
superior  advantages  to  an  inland  region. 
M..M  of  the  countries  of  Europe  and  ot 
Eastern  North  America  are  hi  this  favoured 
position. 

Coasts  and  Harbours.  The  different 
•VMS  of  coasts  have  already  been  described. 
Tlie  presence  or  absence  of  cliffs^  bays,  gulfs,  and 
estuaries  opening  to  navigable  rivers,  the  depth 
or  shallowness  of  the  seas  off  the  coasts,  the 
existence  of  sandbanks,  reefs,  or  sunken  rocks, 
and  the  presence  or  absence  of  islands,  all  affect 
the  commercial  development  of  a  region. 

Where  mountains  rise  immediately  from  the 
sea  good  harbours  are  rare.  In  the  moun- 
tainous island  of  Capri,  near  Naples,  there  are 
only  two  possible  landing-places  at  any  time, 
and  in  stormy  weather  only  one.  On  some 
mountainous  coasts  the  sea  has  penetrated  far 
inland  up  the  river  valleys,  forming  rias,  fiords, 
and  other  inlets.  The  coasts  of  such  fiords  are 
generally  fringed  with  islands,  which  form  a 
natural*  breakwater,  as  in  the  Skerry  Guard 
of  Norway.  The  fiords  are  natural  routes  to 
the  interior,  and  as  such  valuable,  but  in 
these  regions  the  interior,  or  hinderland,  is 
apt  to  be  rugged  and  barren,  neutralising 
this  advantage  to  a  great  extent.  Examples 
of  fiord  coasts  with  poor  hinderlands  are  Norway, 
the  West  Coast  of  Scotland  and  British  Columbia 
and  of  ria  coasts  in  North-west  Spain  and  South- 
west Ireland.  All  along  the  Pacific  coast  of 
America  good  harbours  are  few.  The  Atlantic 
coast  of  North  America,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
many  good  harbours  in  drowned  river  valleys 
which  give  access  to  a  rich  hinderland.  The 
contrast  between  the  prosperity  of  the  eastern 
and  western  coasts  of  North  America  is  very 
instruethe. 

Low,  sandy  shores  are  also  unfavourable  to 
commerce.  Such  shores  are  frequently  beaten 
by  dangerous  surf,  as  on  the  coast  of  West 
Africa,  or  Western  India,  where  special  surf 
boats  are  used  for  landing. 

Seas  and  Oceans.  The  distribution  of 
seas  and  oceans  and  their  influence  on  climate 
have  already  been  described.  Europe  is 
fortunate  in  possessing  two  inland  seas,  which 
I-  i iet rate  far  inland— the  Baltic-North  Sea  in 
the  north  and  the  Mediterranean  in  the  south. 
Until,  but  particularly  the  latter,  have  played 
a  great  part  in  the  history  of  the  world  by 
rendering  communication  easy.  The  early  growth 
vilisation  and  commerce  all  round  the 
Mediterranean  is  a  case  in  point.  North 
America  ha^  M.me\\hat  similar  advantages  in 
what  \ve  m. iv  call  tin-  St.  Lawrence  Sea  in  the 
north  and  the  . \meriean  Mediterranean  in  the 
.-••nth.  BMtern  Atk  i-  \u-ll  ,-ut  up  by  inland 
seas,  but  the  other  continents  are  very  compact. 


Trade  Winds.  Winds  have  already  been 
described.  In  his  struggle  for  existence  man  must 
take  winds,  currents  and  tides  into  account. 

Winds  exercise  a  great  influence  on  naviga- 
tion. A  vessel  leaving  Southampton  for  Cape 
Town  is  first  in  the  region  of  the  west  winds  and 
mav  have  rough  weather  for  a  day  or  two, 
especially  in  "the  Bay."  Towards  30°  N. 
it  comes  into  a  region  of  calms,  out  of  which 
it  passes  south  into  the  north-east  trades,  which 
blow  steadily  till  the  belt  of  calms  round  the 
equator  is  reached.  South  of  these  equatorial 
calms  it  enters  the  region  of  the  south-east 
trades,  and  after  passing  through  the  calms  of 
Capricorn  perhaps  experiences  rough  weather 
on  nearing  Cape  Town  in  the  region  of  the 
southern  westerlies.  These,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, blow  much  more  fiercely  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere,  giving  the  "  roaring  forties "  an 
evil  reputation,  and  making  the  voyage  round 
Cape  Horn  in  particular  an  experience  to  be 
dreaded.  Ships  naturally  go  with  the  wind 
so  far  as  possible.  A  ship  sailing  west  across 
the  Atlantic  steers  a  southerly  course  to  get 
into  the  north-east  trades,  which  originally 
guided  Columbus  to  the  New  World.  Returning 
eastwards  to  Liverpool  it  steers  further  north, 
to  get  into  the  track  of  the  west  winds.  The 
summer  and  winter  courses  also  differ  somewhat, 
as  the  track  of  these  winds  varies  with  the 
season.  A  sailing  vessel  to  Australia,  similarly, 
finds  it  easiest  to  go  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  return  by  Cape  Horn. 

Currents  and  Tides.  The  influence  of 
currents  on  climate  has  already  been  considered. 
The  warm  surface  water  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
Drift  keeps  the  ports  of  Britain  and  Norway 
ice -free  in  winter ;  but  the  cold  Labrador  current 
closes  the  St.  Lawrence  ports  in  winter.  In  a  less 
degree  than  winds,  currents  influence  courses  at 
sea.  A  vessel  going  with  the  equatorial  current 
proceeds  much  more  quickly  than  one  going 
against  it. 

Currents  play  another  part,  which  beautifully 
illustrates  the  interdependence  of  Nature. 
They  often  carry  seeds,  some  of  which  may 
survive  their  long  exposure  to  sea-water  and 
germinate.  In  this  way  the  coconut  palm 
early  appears  on  coral  islands,  to  which  its  seed 
has  been  carried  by  ocean  currents. 

Tides  in  particular  are  of  great  assistance  to 
shipping  by  carrying  vessels  up  and  down 
estuaries  into  harbour.  The  high  tides  of 
London,  Avhcre  two  tidal  crests  meet,  have  con- 
tributed to  its  greatness  as  a  port.  Some 
harbours  can  only  be  entered  at  high  tide. 

Ice.  The  value  of  a  sea  is  much  lessened  if 
it  is  ice-bound  in  winter.  The  ports  of  the 
Baltic  and  the  northern  Black  Sea  are  of  less 
importance  than  the  ports  of  the  North  Sea 
and  the  Mediterranean,  which  are  ice-free.  The 
summer  course  of  Atlantic  liners  is  affected  by 
the  presence  of  icebergs,  which  are  then  drifting 
south  from,  the  Polar  regions. 


Continued 


4498 


TEXTILE  PRINTING 

Hand,  Block,  and  Machine  Printing.     The  Perrotine.     Cylinder 
Machines.       Multiple     Colour    Printing.       Finishing    Processes 


Group  28 

TEXTILES 
31 


Continued  from 
page  4'!45 


By  W.    S.    MURPHY 


Preparation.  Cotton,  wool,  and  silk  in 
the  order  named  are  the  fibres  most  frequently 
dealt  with  by  the  textile  printer.  Cotton  and 
wool  are  printed  not  only  in  the  piece  but  as 
yarn  to  produce  variegated  effects  in  cloth, 
and  woollen  slubbing  is  also  printed.  The  pre- 
paratory processes  do  not  differ  greatly  from 
those  which  precede  dyeing,  and  may  be  studied 
in  the  Dyeing  section  of  our  course.  Silk  is 
well  scoured,  calico  ordinarily  is  bleached,  not 
only  to  avoid  interference  with  the  brilliance  of 
the  colours,  but  to  give  good  whites  when  these 
form  part  of  the  pattern.  The  textile  printer  is 
contented,  however,  with  a  less  perfect  bleach 
than  the  "  market  bleach "  given  to  goods 
intended  to  be  sold  in  the  white  state.  Wool  is 
chlorinated— that  is,  treated  with  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  bleaching  powder  or  of  a  hypochlorite. 
This  greatly  reduces  the  felting  power  of  the 
wool,  and  makes  the  fibre  more  easily  penet- 
rable by  liquid. 

Block,  or  Hand  Printing.  It  need 
hardly  be  said  that  block  printing  was  the  first 
method  practised  in  this  trade.  The  logical 
progress  of  textile  printing,  in  fact,  has  been 
that  of  typography,  from  hand  printing  to 
machine  printing  on  the  flat,  and  from  that  to 
rotary  printing.  Block  printing  is  still  largely 
used  for  silk,  and  it  is  comparatively  recently  that 
machine  printing  has  been  adapted  to  the  treat- 
ment of  this  fibre. 

Blocks.  The  blocks  are  usually  made  of  pear- 
tree  wood  or  some  other  hard  timber,  and  are  of 
considerable  thickness.  On  the  face  of  the  block 
the  design  is  cut  out  in  relief  or  formed  by  copper 
wire.  When  the  design  is  a  simple  repetition 
of  a  pattern,  it  is  usual  to  make  the  block  large 
enough  to  contain  the  whole  pattern.  If  the 
design  be  large  and  complicated,  it  may  be  divided 
into  sections,  each  block  carrying  a  section,  and 
the  whole  making  a  set.  Designs  of  two  or  more 
colours  require  as  many  blocks  as  there  are 
colours,  unless,  as  often  happens,  the  combina- 
tion of  two  colours  produce  a  third.  Many 
designs  printed  on  heavy  cloths,  such  as  felt 
carpets,  are  vari-coloured  in  such  a  way  that  each 
colour  stands  out  separate  from  its  fellow.  The 
printer's  colour  is  a  kind  of  paste.  In  old- 
fashioned  works  the  paste  is  laid  on  to  the  block 
with  a  palette  knife  ;  but  other  and  better 
means  are  now  generally  used.  A  woollen  cloth 
is  stretched  tightly  over  a  hoop,  and  upon  it  the 
colour  is  spread.  To  give  the  surface  of  the 
sieve,  as  it  is  named,  more  elasticity,  it  is  floated 
on  paste  or  size  in  a  tub.  On  this  sieve  the 
block  is  pressed,  and  receives  its  coat  of  colour. 
The  appliance  for  vari-coloured  blocks  to  which 
we  have  referred,  consists  of  a  wooden  block, 


hollowed  out  hi  parts  the  same  size  and  position 
at  the  pattern  of  the  printing  block.  Into 
these  hollows  the  different  colours  are  laid,  and 
the  woollen  cloth  stretched  over  all.  Between  each 
colour  compartment  pieces  of  thick  cord  are  glued, 
to  prevent  one  colour  from  running  in  to  another 
on  the  cloth.  When  the  printer  presses  his  block 
on  the  cloth,  the  different  colours  come  into  place. 

The  Table.  A  textile  printer's  table  must 
be  very  smooth  and  true.  The  bed  of  the  table 
is  generally  made  up  of  slate  slabs.  At  each  end 
of  the  table  strong  brackets  are  fixed,  and  upon 
the  one  is  slung  the  cloth  beam,  while  on  the 
other  the  taking-on  beam  is  hung. 

Printing.  The  printer  draws  a  length  oi 
the  cloth  on  to  the  table,  and  carefully  smooths 
it  down  to  the  bed,  till  not  a  vestige  of  wrinkle 
remains.  Having  charged  his  block  with  colour, 
he  lays  it  face  downward  on  the  cloth,  and  gives 
it  a  tap  with  his  hand,  or  in  the  case  of  large 
patterns,  with  a  mallet.  After  a  moment,  the 
block  is  lifted,  and  a  clear  impression  of  the 
pattern  is  left  on  the  cloth.  No  matter  what  the 
character  or  length  of  the  design  may  be,  the 
printing  action  is  the  same.  Block  printing  is 
merely  a  repetition  of  these  simple  actions  in 
perfect  register. 

Machine  Printing.  For  the  present,  we 
defer  examining  the  further  treatment  of  hand- 
printed goods,  because  the  finishing  operations  of 
all  printed  cloths  are  the  same,  whether  printed 
by  machine  or  hand  blocks.  Confining  ourselves 
to  the  means  and  methods  of  putting  on  the 
impressions  meanwhile,  we  note  that  textile 
printing  machines  are  divided  into  two  classes. 
The  one  class  is  the  block  printing  machines,  and 
the  other  is  the  cylinder  printing  machines. 

The  Flat  Press.  The  first  step  towards 
the  introduction  of  machinery  was  an  English 
invention  that  imitated  copper-plate  printing, 
calico  being  substituted  for  paper.  It  was  prac- 
tically confined  to  one-colour  printing,  and  we 
believe  that  this  method  is  no  longer  practised. 

The  Perrotine,  A  block  printing  ma- 
chine, capable  of  working  in  three  colours,  was 
the  next  step.  It  is  very  largely  used  in  Alsace 
and  Belgium.  This  machine  has  never  made 
much  headway  with  British  printers,  though 
some  of  the  highest-class  houses  use  it  alongside 
the  cylinder  machines.  The  perrotine  is  a  very 
intricate  piece  of  mechanism,  and  requires  very 
careful  and  detailed  study. 

The  machine  is  contained  within  a  strong 
framework,  semicircular  in  form,  the  fore  end  of 
the  circle  being  continued  in  a  curved  line  up, 
to  hold  the  rollers  which  carry  the  blanket  and 


loth  to  be  printed.  The  simplest'perrotine  prints 
hree  colours,  and  therefore  has  three  blocks, 

4499 


TEXTILES 

!hm.  1>rinting  tables,  and  three  sets  of  colour 
rolll,.St  irfth  apparatus  for  colour  supply.    Ihis, 
,,,  begin  uith.  Miggests  complexity.    Our  atfc 
i,,,,  ;h,u,lcl   first   be   directed   to   the   printing 
Hooka  and  their  accessories.    The  machine .has 
thivt.  ^,,51  ar.ns  joining  at  the  centre,  and  there 
f,,,v  at  right  angles  to  each  other.     On  all  these 
arms  we   find  a  block   holder   into   which   the 
engraved  block  is  fixed.     Each  holder  is  screwed 
on  to  a  sliding  piece  keyed  to  a  pair  o 
beams    moved  alternately  backward  and 
forward  by  shafts  supported  on  the  mam 
ann     The  three  blocks  are  thus  given  a 
to-and-fro  motion,   forward   to   print   the 
cloth,   and  back   to   let   it  pass.     Having 
found  our  blocks,  we  have  next  to  find  out 
how  they  are  supplied  with  coats  of  colour. 
\t    the  side  of  each   arm,   supported  on 
levers,  are  three    colour-boxes,    furnished 
with    rollers.    One  roller  revolves  in   the 
colour-box  and  one  runs  in  contact  with 
but  above  its  fellow,  taking  on  a  supply 
of   colour    from  it.     Screws   regulate   the 
relations  of  the  rollers,  bringing  them  into 
close  contact  when  much  colour  is  desired, 
and  separating  them  if  the  colour  supply 
should  be  light.      Neither  roller,  however, 
ever    touches    the     printing    block.    The 
medium  between  block  and  colour  roller  is 
a    sieve  ingeniously  controlled  by  rods  ex- 
tending   from  a  lever  beam.    The  sieve  is  on 
the  end  o'  the  rod,  and  the  timing  of  its  action 
shows  fine  adjustment. 

We  have  been  working  from  the  outside  into 
the  machine,  and  now  we  are  at  the  very 
centre.  Here  is  the  table  upon  which  the  block 
impresses  the  cloth.  There  are,  of  course,  three 
tables.  For  the  sake  of  simplicity  we  have  con- 
fined attention  to  one  set  of  appliances  ;  but 
the  tables  cannot  be  appreciated  unless  the  three 
are  seen.  Three  iron  bars  of  equal  size  are 
joined  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  on  the 
bead*  of  the  bars  sit  the  smooth  tables.  The 
whole  three  are  cast  as  one  piece,  but  we  separate 
them  to  understand  the  real  character  of  each. 
A  table  faces  every  block.  At  the  four  corners 
of  the  table  frame  sit  four  rollers.  The  tables, 
U'ing  flat,  have  no  power  to  act  on  the 
doth  ;  but  these  rollers  carry  the  cloth  to  be 
printed  over  the  tables,  their  surfaces  being 
\\  ith  little  teeth  to  hold  on  to  the 
fal.ric.  Next,  above  the  first  of  the  rollers  we 
find  a  large  roller  upon  which  the  blanket,  back 
doth,  and  pieces  to  be  printed  join  together. 
Up  above  and  near  to  the  front  part  of  the 
machine  arc  sets  of  tension  rollers  and  carrying 
blocks.  Outside  of  all  sit  the  beams  from  which 
conn-  tin-  three  fabrics  mentioned. 

Working  the  Perrotine.     Wound  on  to  a 

•.111.-  roller,  the  doth  i,  hung  on  the  brackets 

in  front   of  the  machine.      I'p  above,   the  end- 

•     .ml    the   liad;   cloth  are  similarly 

adju.-ti •<!.     Into  the  colour-boxes  the  printer  lays 

hi<   colours,  adjust-   the   screws    which    regulate 

the  supply,   and    puts   the  doctor  knives   over 

the  colour  rollers  to  clear  otT  superfluous  pigment 

lx  for.-  the  sieves  come  into  contact.     The  blocks 

'•d  into  the  holders.     On  the  end 

4500 


of  the  piece  a  few  yards  of  rough  cloth  are  joined 
and  this  is  drawn  into  the  machine.  When 
everything  has  been  put  into  position,  the  perro- 
tine  is  started.  Blanket,  back  cloth,  and  printing 
piece  pass  in  on  their  separate  ways,  and  join 
at  the  central  roller  above  the  table  rollers.  As 
the  three  fabrics  come  together  the  blanket  is 
uppermost,  but  when  going  round  this  roller 
the  positions  become  reversed,  and  the  piece 


208.    BLOCK    PRINTING     MACHINE 
(Mather  &  Platt,  Ltd.,  Manchester) 

cloth  is  uppermost  when  they  pass  on  to  the 
first  table  roller.  Thrust  in  by  the  lever - 
controlled  rod,  the  sieve  has  taken  its  coating  from 
the  colour  roller  and  transferred  it  on  to  the 
block  coming  forward.  Table  and  block  now 
press  in  contact,  with  the  cloths  between  them. 
The  first  colour  has  been  printed.  The  cloths 
next  pass  round  the  second  corner  rollers,  and 
the  machine  again  prints.  A  third  time  the 
operation  is  performed,  and  then  the  piece  cloth 
returns  to  the  outer  world  a  printed  cloth,  to 
pass  on  to  the  drying  rollers. 

Improvements.  The  original  perrotine 
has  been  greatly  modified  and  improved  during 
the  past  twenty  years.  But  the  principles  on 
which  it  works  are  unaltered,  and  we  have 
purposely  selected  the  first  form  of  the  machine 
because  it  exhibits,  even  more  clearly  than  the 
later  developments,  the  essential  characteristics 
of  a  block  printing  machine.  Improvements 
have  chiefly  taken  the  direction  of  adding  to  the 
number  of  colours  which  can  be  perfected  at 
once  on  the  machine.  Some  of  the  newer 
perrotines  print  twelve  colours  at  once  with 
great  speed,  and  twenty  colours  are  occasionally 
obtained  in  one  printing.  The  English  block 
printing  machine,  which  is  illustrated  [208]. 
gives  a  good  idea  of  the  size  and  character  of 
that  class  of  machines, 

Cylinder  Machines.  The  idea  of  de- 
vising a  roller  to  perform  the  same  service  as  a 
flat  surface  has  been  at  the  root  of  many  of  our 
finest  mechanical  inventions.  Application  of 
that  principle  to  textile  printing  has  gone  to  great 
lengths.  Cylinder  printing  machines  for  textiles 
were  invented  by  Bell,  a  Scotchman,  in  1785. 

Single  Cylinder.  This  is  a  simple 
structure.  In  the  middle  of  the  machine  is  the 


wide  cylinder,  called  the  pressure  cylinder  or 
bowl.  Under  it  we  see  the  pattern  roller,  with 
slanting  knives  at  each  side  of  it.  Further  below 
sits  the  colour  roller  in  the  colour  trough. 
Note  these  parts  a  little  more  closely.  The 
roller  in  the  colour  trough  is  clad  with  soft, 
thick  woollen  cloth,  which  enables  it  to  take  up 
the  colour.  The  pattern  roller  runs  in  direct 
contact  with  the  colour  roller,  and  thus  receives 
the  necessary  supply  of  colour.  The  knife  at 
the  inner  side  of  the  pattern  roller  is  called 
the  colour  doctor,  because  it  clears  away  all 
the  superfluous  colour  ;  the  knife  at  the  other 
side  is  named  the  lint  doctor,  its  function  being 
to  take  away  any  threads  which  may  have  been 
deposited  by  the  cloth  on  the  pattern  roller  in 
passing.  Made  of  cast  iron,  the  large  pressure 
cylinder  is  heavily  clad  with  smooth  felt  to  give 
a  finely  smooth  and  elastic  surface.  The  cloth 
apparatus  is  equally  simple.  Up  on  the  front 
of  the  machine  the  cloth  beam  is  hung  ;  adjoining 
hangs  the  blanket  roller,  and  underneath  sits 
the  guide  roller  which  joins  them.  Cloth  and 
blanket  go  down  round  the  pressure  cylinder 
into  contact  with  the  pattern  roller,  and  round 
up  to  the  delivery  rollers  on  the  other  side. 

The  vast  saving  of  labour  and  the  greatly 
accelerated  production  effected  by  the  adoption 
of  the  cylinder  principle  is  here  worthy  of  note. 
Thousands  of  yards  of  cloth  can  be  printed  on 
this  machine  in  a  day. 

Three=colour  Machine.  Progress  from 
the  single-colour  machine  to  the  three-colour 
printing  was  easy  to  our  ingenious  mechanics. 
We  say  ingenious  because  some  difficult  prob- 
lems are  involved.  The  idea  of  placing  pattern 
rollers,  with  doctors  and  colour  apparatus, 
on  the  sides  of  the  pressure  cylinder  was  obvious  ; 


209.   DOUBLE    CYLINDER  PRINTING   MACHINE 
(Mather  &  Platt,  Ltd.,  Manchester) 


TEXTILES 

but  the  problem  of  driving  these  appliances 
could  hardly  be  described  as  very  simple.  More- 
over, there  remained  the  question  of  distributing 
the  pressure  on  the  added  rollers.  These 
difficulties  have  been  met  in  various  ways  by 
different  inventors.  The  simplest  and  most 
obvious  method — namely,  that  of  strengthening 
and  enlarging  the  framing,  and  giving  the  second 
and  third  roller  the  same  gearing  as  the  first, 
has  been  adopted  in  many  machines  with  success. 
In  other  machines  the  principles  of  the  perrotine 
have  been  adopted. 

Printing  Many  Colours.       Every  colour 
must  have  its  own  separate  pattern  roller,  knife 
doctors,    and    colour-boxes  with    rollers.      To 
group  these  round    the    pressure  cylinder    in 
proper   positions    has  been   the   work  of    the 
machinist.    How  this  has  been  accomplished  we 
see  most  clearly  in  a  machine  designed  to  print 
four  colours.     The  pressure  cylinder  is  6  ft.  in 
circumference,  and    sits  in  the    centre    of    the 
machine.     The  gudgeons  of   the  cylinder  rest 
on  bushes,  which  can  be  moved  up  or  down  in 
slots  in  the  side  cheeks,  strong  screws  from  the 
top    of    the    frame    fixing   them    in  position. 
Round  the  cylinder  are  grouped  four  mandrels, 
slotted,  and  fixed  in  strong  bearings  on  slide 
pieces.     On    to    these    mandrils    the    engraved 
pattern  rollers  are  forced  by  means  of  a  screw 
press.     By  this  arrangement    the    changes  of 
pattern  and  colour  can  be  effected  by  merely 
changing  the  pattern  roller.     Colour-box,  roller, 
and  doctors  are  contained  within  the  slide  piece, 
secured  to  the  framing  by  means  of  a  double 
screw.     A  pair  of  arms,  jointed  to  the  inner 
screw  of  the  slide  pieces  and  strengthened  by 
bolts  from  the  machine  frame,  bring  forward  the 
pattern  rollers  to  the  pressure  cylinder.     The 
mechanism  of  all  four  rollers — each  with 
its  equipment  of  colour-box,  colour  roller, 
doctors,  and  controlling  levers — is  practi- 
cally  similar.      From    the  head   of    the 
frame    two    long    arms    curve  out,    and 
between  these  rests  the  cloth  beam ;  while 
from  beams  more  directly  over  the  pressure 
cylinder  come  the  blanket  and  back  cloth. 
The  cloths  meet  on  a  roller  just  above  the 
cjT-hnder,   and   come  down  into  the  ma- 
chine.    A   double  cylinder  machine  [209] 
prints  twice  the  number  of  colours  on  the 
same  principle. 

Mordants  and  Dyestuffs.  These 
will  be  considered  in  detail  in  the  Dye- 
ing section  of  this  course.  It  is  rather 
the  methods  of  application  that  vary  in 
dyeing  and  printing  than  the  mordants 
and  dyestuffs  employed,  although  some 
dyes  are  more  suitable  for  dyeing  than 
printing,  and  vice  versa.  Both  soluble  dyes 
and  insoluble  colours  (pigments)  can  be 
used  in  printing.  The  pigments  are  usually 
coloured  minerals  in  fine  powder — ultra- 
marine, for  instance — and  are  mechani- 
cally fixed  on  the  cloth  with  albumen. 
The  natural  colouring  matters,  especially 
logwood  and  indigo,  are  largely  used,  and 
any  class  of  artificial  dyestuff  may  be 
employed.  As,  however,  in  printing,  the 

4501 


TEXTILES 

fibre  is  not  dyed  so  thoroughly,  and  as  the 
tir-t  necessity  of  prints  is  fastness  to  light,  the 
mordant  colours— the  alizarines,  for  instance— are 
more  largely  employed  than  the  colours  which 
require  no  mordant. 

Styles  of  Work.  The  printer  can  ring 
an  enormous  number  of  changes  in  his  methods 
of  doing  things,  and  he  can  combine  dyeing  very 
effectively  with  printing.  For  instance,  everyone 
is  familiar  with  the  old  pattern  of  indigo  blue 
scarf  with  round  white  spots.  This  was  produced 
by  printing  a  resist  or  reserve  paste  on  the  cloth 
and  then  dyedng  it  in  the  indigo  vat.  The  places 
covered  by  the  resist  were  protected  from  the 
action  of  the  vat  and  consequently  remained 
white.  Or  the  printer  may  reverse  this  process  ; 
he  may  dye  the  cloth  first  and  print  on  a  dis- 
charge. This  has  the  same  effect  of  leaving  a 
white  pattern  on  a  coloured  ground,  and,  by 
adding  to  the  discharge  colouring  matters  not 
acted  upon  by  the  chemical  agent  that  destroys 
the  body  colour  of  the  cloth,  he  can  produce  a 
colour  discharge — that  is  to  say,  for  instance, 
red  upon  a  blue  ground.  Again,  as  in  one  of  the 
oldest  styles,  known  as  the  dyed  or  madder  style, 
he  may  print  a  mordant  on  to  the  cloth,  dyeing 
the  cloth  subsequently  with  a  colouring  matter 
which  will  not  go  on  to  the  fibre  except  in  the 
parts  impregnated  with  the  mordant.  The  result 
is  a  pattern  on  a  white  ground.  The  term  "  mad- 
der style "  is  used  because  this  method  was  em- 
ployed for  madder  long  before  the  introduction 
of  the  artificial  colouring  matters.  Now  madder 
has  gone  entirely  out  of  use— in  calico  printing, 
at  any  rate — and  alizarine  reigns  in  its  stead ; 
but  this  style  is  still  employed  for  alizarines  and 
other  colouring  matters.  Again,  the  printer  may 
print  the  colour  paste  on  to  the  mordanted  cloth, 
or  the  mordant  may  form  a  part  of  the  printing 
colour.  As  it  is  evident  .that  the  printer  may 
combine  these  and  other  styles,  it  will  be  seen 
that  he  has  an  armoury  of  resources. 

Padding.  The  large  firms  of  indigo  dyers 
were  all  printers  to  the  extent  of  producing 
patterns  on  their  goods  by  means  of  printed 
reserves  in  the  manner  we  have  instanced.  The 
printer,  however,  is  frequently  content  with  a 
speedier  form  of  dyeing  known  as  padding.  The 
fibre  is  not  so  thoroughly  impregnated  as  in 
vat  or  beck  dying,  but  the  method  is  practically 
confined  to  calico,  and  for  this  material  it  is 
advantageous.  It  will  be  readily  understood 
that  the  smaller  amount  of  colour,  or  lesser 
impregnation  of  the  fibre,  allows  better  discharge 
effects  to  be  obtained.  In  other  words,  it  is 
easier  to  get  good  sharply  outlined  patterns  by 
printing  a  discharge,  whether  white  or  coloured, 
on  padded  than  on  dyed  material,  and  this 
applies  even  more  particularly  to  slop  padding, 
which  will  IK-  touched  on  later. 

The  Padding  Machine.  This  is  a  very 
simple  apparatus.  It  consists  essentially  of  a 
-Mia II  vessel  in  which  a  concentrated 
Otafeon  «»f  the  mordant  or  dyestuff  is  contained, 
guide  rolleri  within  the  vessel,  by  means  of  which 
th-  doth  is  run  through  the  liquor,  and  squeezing 
directly  over  the  dye  bath,  by  which  the 


surplus  liquor  is  squeezed  out  into  the  dye  bath. 
Attached  to  the  frame  of  the  machine  are 
rollers  to  receive  and  deliver  the  cloth.  The 
necessary  concentration  of  the  bath  for  this 
rapid  form  of  dyeing  must  be  noted.  It  empha- 
sises the  fact  that  in  apparatus  dyeing  generally, 
where  short  baths  have  to  be  used,  the  dyestuff 
must  be  very  soluble. 

Slop  Padding.  When  the  colour  is 
applied  uniformly  to  one  side  of  the  cloth  only, 
the  process  is  termed  slop  padding.  This  is  used 
principally  for  light,  easily  discharged  shades. 
A  single-colour  printing  machine  is  ordinarily 
employed.  The  printing  roller  is  plain — that  is, 
no  pattern  is  engraved  upon  it,  but  the  surface 
is  grooved  with  fine  lines  in  order  to  take  up 
the  colour.  A  felt-covered  wooden  roller, 
revolving  in  the  concentrated  dye  bath,  in  touch 
with  the  printing  roller,  transfers  the  colour  or 
mordant  to  this  latter.  Over  the  printing  roller, 
and  in  touch  with  it,  is  a  large  iron  roller,  which 
brings  the  cloth  into  contact  with  the  printing 
roller.  The  printing  roller  is  provided  with  the 
usual  colour-doctor,  and  in  order  to  give  an 
elastic  print:ng  surface,  a  thick  band  of  felt, 
known  as  the  blanket,  revolves  in  an  endless  band 
between  the  iron  roller  and  the  cloth.  As  a  rule, 
there  is  a  back  cloth  between  the  cloth  and  the 
blanket  to  prevent  the  felt  from  being  soiled. 

Machine  Printing.  It  must  be  noted 
here  that  although  the  mechanical  arrangement 
of  a  machine  to  print  a  large  number  of  colours 
makes  it  appear  complicated,  an  eighteen-colour 
machine  is  merely  a  multiplication  of  the  essential 
parts  of  the  one-colour  machine  described  above. 
Whether  it  be  for  cotton,  woollen,  or  silk,  the 
actual  apparatus  is  a  copper  roller  engraved  in 
lines  or  dots,  with  a  pattern,  one  printing  roller 
being  provided  for  each  colour.  The  main 
difficulty  is  to  make  the  colours  register  properly 
— that  is,  to  fall  into  their  proper  position  in  the 
pattern,  and  this,  of  course,  increases  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  colours  in  the  pattern. 
Each  roller  must  be  in  its  correct  position  on  the 
mandrels,  and  all  the  rollers  must  be  correct  in 
relation  one  with  the  other.  The  edge  of  the 
doctor  must  be  perfectly  level,  and  press  evenly 
against  the  whole  length  of  the  roller.  Many 
other  difficulties  crop  up,  but  each  suggests  its 
appropriate  remedy. 

Printing  Woollen  =  stubbing  and 
Cotton  Yarn.  Unspun  wool  in  the  form 
of  slubbing  is  printed  with  stripes  in  order  to 
produce  fancy  yarns,  and  cotton  yarns,  usually 
in  the  form  of  warps,  are  printed  in  order 
to  produce  variegated  cloths.  The  printing 
machine  already  described  is  used  with  a  number 
of  rollers  corresponding  to  the  required  number 
of  colours.  As  a  rule,  the  printing  roller  is  simply 
grooved,  in  order  to  print  the  yarn  in  stripes. 
The  doctor  is  arranged  so  that  it  clears  off  all  the 
colour,  except  that  in  the  grooves,  before  the 
printing  roller  comes  into  contact  with  the  stuff. 
Especially  for  slubbing,  the  blanket  must  be 
softer  than  usual,  in  order  to  allow  the  stuff  to 
be  pressed  into  the  groove,  and  so  to  take  up 
the  colour. 


4502 


Continued 


ITALIAN-FRENCH-SPANISH-ESPERANTO 

Italian  by  F.  de  Feo  ;  French  by  Louis  A.  Barbe,  B.A.  ;  Spanish  by  Amalia 
de  Alberti  and   H.  S.  Duncan  ;   Esperanto  by   Harald  Clegg,    F.B.E.A. 


-Group  18 

LANGUAGES 
31 


Continued  from 
page  4:!6S 


ITALIAN 


Continued  from 
page  -K560 


By  Francesco  de  Feo 


INTRANSITIVE   VERBS 

When  the  action  or  fact  expressed  by  the 
verb  is  completed  without  an  object  (I  walk,  io 
cammino  ;  I  sleep,  io  dormo)  the  verb  is  intransi- 
tive. Intransitive  verbs,  as  a  rule,  are  conjugated 
with  the  auxiliary  essere  (Example :  E  accaduto,  it 
has  happened) ;  but  some  are  conjugated  with 
avere  (Example  :  ho  viaggiato,  I  have  travelled), 
or  admit  both  auxiliaries  (Example :  sono 
vissuto  or  ho  vissuto,  I  have  lived). 

The  only  rule  that  can  be  given  as  to  which 
auxiliary  should  be  used  is  that  the  verbs  ex- 
pressing an  action  are  conjugated  with  avere, 
and  those  expressing  a  fact  with  essere.  Ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule  are  to  be  learnt  by  practice. 

EXERCISE   XXXV. 

1.  Quando  sono  entrato  essi  erano  gia  par  tit  i. 
2.  Sono  contento  che  siate  riuscito  in  questo 
affare.  3.  Lo  spettacolo  e  durato  piu  di  due  ore. 
4.  Son  caduto  e  mi  son  fatto  male.  5.  Non  ho 
sonno  ;  ho  dormito  tutto  il  giorno.  6.  Aspetto 
mio  fratello  ;  doveva  venire  col  treno  delle 
sette,  e  mi  maraviglio  che  non  sia  ancora 
arrivato.  7.  Se  foste  venuto  dieci  minuti  prima 
vi  sareste  incontrato  col  signor  N.  8.  Una  nave 
da  guerra  e  affondata  nel "  Baltico.  9.  Una 
torpediniera  giapponese  ha  affondato  due  navi 
russe.  10.  Ho  girato  tutto  il  giorno  senza 
conchiuder  niente. 

DEMONSTRATIVE    PRONOUNS 

The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  : 
questi  (koo-ehstee),  this  one 
quegli  (koo-eh-' iee),  that  one 
costui  (costoo-ee),  this  one  (here) 
costei  (costeh-ee),  this  one  (here) 
colui  (coloo-ee),  that  one  (there) 
colei  (coleh-ee),  that  one  (there) 
un  tale  (oon-tdhleh),  such  a  one 
do  (chee-o),  that 

ne  (neh),  of  it,  of  him,  of  them,  etc. 
d  (chee),  in  it,  on  it,  with  it,  etc. 

1.  Questi  and  quegli  are  singular,  ?,nd  are  only 
used  in  speaking  of  persons  ;  but  modern  usage 
prefers  the  demonstrative  adjectives  questo  and 
quello  used  substantively. 

2.  Costui,    costei     (plural     costoro,    for    both 
genders),  and  colui,  colei  (plural  coloro,  for  both 
genders)  are  used  only  in   spea,king  of  persons, 
and  in  familiar  language  nearly  always  imply  a 
shade  of  contempt.     Examples :   Io  non  mi  fido 
di  colui,  I  do  not  trust  that  man  (the  fellow). 
Non  pr estate  danaro  a  costoro,  Do  not  lend  money 
to  these  men. 

3.  Colui  che,  colei  che,  coloro  che,  quelli  che, 
colui  il  quale,  etc.,  are  rendered  in  English  by  he 
who,  she  who,  they  who. 


4.  do  is  singular  and  means  "  this  thing."  Ne 
and  ci  may  be  considered  as  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns, as  in  many  expressions  they  take  the 
place  of  do.  Examples:  Non  ne  (di  do)  capisco 
niente,  I  understand  nothing  of  that.  Che  ne 
pensi  ?  (che  pensi  di  do  ?),  What  do  you  think 
of  that  ?  Non  d  riesco  (non  riesco  in  do),  I 
do  not  succeed  in  doing  that. 

NOTE.  The  student  acquainted  with  French 
should  compare  the  use  of  en  and  y. 

EXERCISE  XXXVI. 

1.  Metteteli  da  parte  ;  ce  ne  serviremo  quando 
ne  avremo  bisogno.  2.  Cio  non  sta  bene.  3. 
Costui  e  tanto  pieno  di  se,  che  pare  che  tutto 
il  mondo  gli  appartenga.  4.  Questi  e  uno  scrit- 
tore  di  gran  merito,  quegli  un  poeta  genialissimo. 

5.  Non  oso  parlare  apertamente,  perche  temo  di 
essere  malinteso  da  questi  e  combattuto  da  quelli. 

6.  Voi  non  sapete  quello  che  dite.     7.  Non  so 
come  andranno  a  finire  le  cose,  per  me  non  ci 
vedo  chiaro  in  questa  faccenda.     8.  Ecco  due 
bottiglie  abbastanza  grandi,  in  questa  ci  met- 
teremo  il  vino,  in  quella  1'acqua.     9.  Non  mi 
parlate    di   coloro,    essi   non   meritano   piu   di 
essere  aiutati.     10.  Ludovico   mirava   piuttosto 
a  scansare  i  colpi  e  a  disarmare  il  nemico,  che  ad 
ucciderlo,  ma  questo  voleva  la  morte  di  lui  ad 
ognicosto(m.).     11.  Colei  parla  solo  per  in vidia,  e 
meglio  non  ascoltarla.     12.  Quelli  che  gridano  di 
piu    hanno   sempre   ragione    a    questo   mondo. 
13.  II   premio    sara   dato   a    quello  che   Favra 
meritato. 

IRREGULAR    VERBS 

Second   Conjugation 
Verbs  in  ere  (long) — continued 

Do  1  ere,  to  ache 

Ind.  Pres. — Dolgo,  duoli,  duole,  dogliamo, 
dolete,  dolgono. 

Past  Def. — Dolsi,  dolesti,  dolse,  dolemmo, 
doleste,  dols'ero. 

Future. — Dorr 6,  dorrai,  dorr  a,  dorremo,  etc. 
Imperat. — Duoli,   dolga,   dogliamo,  dolete,  ddl- 
gano. 

Subj.  Pres. — Dolga,  etc.  ;  dogliamo,  dogliate 
dolgano. 

Condit. — Dorrei,  dorresti,  dorrebbe,  etc. 
Past  Part. — Doluto. 

Parere,  to  seem 

Ind.  Pres. — Paio,  pari,  pare,  paiamo,  parete, 
paiono. 

Past  Def. — Parvi,  paresti,  parve,  paremmo,  par- 
este,  pdrvero. 

Future. — Parr 6,  parrai,  parrd,  etc. 
Imperat. — Pari,  paia,  paiamo,  parete,  pdiano. 
Subj.  Pres. — Paia,  etc. ;  paiamo,  paiate,  pdiano. 

4503 


LANGUAGES-  ITALIAN 

Condit.—Parrei,  parresti,  etc. 

Past  Part.— Parso. 

This  verb  is  mostly  used  impersonally: 
mi  pare,  mi  parve,  mi  e  parso,  etc. 

Sol  ere,  to  be  accustomed 

Ind.  Pres.—Sdglio,  suoli,  suole,  sogliamo,  solete, 
sogliono. 

Imperf.—Solevo,  solevi,  etc. 

Past  Def.—SoUi,  solesti,  etc. 

Subj.  Pres.—Soglia,  etc  ;  sogliamo,  soghate, 
sogliano. 

8wbj.  Imperf.—Solessi,  etc. 

Past  Part.— Sdlito. 

This  verb  is  very  little  used,  except  in  the 
past  participle  (sdlito),  which  is  very  common. 
The  expression  esser  sdlito  is  used  instead. 
Avere,  to  have 

See  pages  2193,  2484. 

Calere,  to  care  for,  to  matter 

This  verb  has  only  the  3rd  persons. 

Ind.  Pres.—Cale. 

Past  Def.—Calse. 

Subj.  Pres.—Cdglia. 

Cap  ere,  to  hold 

This  verb  is  obsolete ;  the  verb  capire  is 
used  instead.  But  the  forms  cape  and  capa 
take  the  place  of  capisce  and  capisca. 

NOTE.  Besides  the  verbs  given  above,  there 
are  only  two  other  verbs  in  ere  (long) — viz., 
temere,  to  fear,  and  godere,  to  enjoy,  both  of 
which  are  regular. 

EXERCISE  XXXVII. 

1.  Godo  di  vedere  che  sta  bene.  2.  Non  mi 
rioordo  di  lei,  ma  mi  pare  di  averla  veduta  in 
qu&lche  posto.  3.  Ebbi  il  piacere  di  conoscerla 
a  Roma  due  anni  fa.  4.  In  campagna  siamo 
soliti  di  fare  una  lunga  passeggiata  prima  di 
colazione.  5.  Non  temete  di  niente,  pensero 
io  al  vostro  av venire.  6.  Mi  duole  di  dovervi 
parlare  in  questo  modo.  7.  Mi  duole  la  testa  ; 
sjvra  meglio  ch'io  rimanga  in  casa.  8.  Mi  era 
parso  che  avessero  suonato  il  campanello.  9. 
Finora  si  e  fatto  sempre  come  avete  voluto  voi, 
ora  mi  pare  che  anche  voi  possiate  fare  come 
vogliamo  noi. 

INDEFINITE    PRONOUNS 

The  indefinite  pronouns  are : 
altri  (dhltree),  somebody  else,  any  other  man, 
nltrni  (altrod-ee),  of  others,  to  others, 
niente,  nulla  (nee-ehnteh,  noollah),  nothing,  and 

the  compounds  of  the  adjective  uno  used 

as  a  substantive : 
ognuno  (onee-oono),  every  one. 
qualcuno,    qualcheduno    (koo-dhlkoono,    koo-dhl- 

keh-doono),  some  one. 
certuno  (chehr-toono),  a  certain  person. 

1.  Altri  is  singular  and  is  used  of  persons 
.•ilnii'- :  La.fcia  che  altri  /x//7t  di  questo,  Let  some- 
"ii'-  fl.se  speak  of  this. 

.  AUrui  is  m  \ci  us.  (1  as  subject,  and  means 
•  »nly  (1)  di  altri  (other  people's),  as  we  have 
;i!n-;i(ly  sr«-n  \\hcii  speaking  of  the  possessive 
.  ami  ('2)  atl  altri  (to  other  people). 
Kvirnpli-:  \,,n  tenere  per  te  quello  che  e  doimto 
iiltrui,  Do  not  keep  for  thyself  what  is  due  to 
others. 

I50J 


3.  Niente  and   nulla   are   real   substantives : 
niente  per  niente,  nothing  for  nothing  ;   il  nulla, 
nothing. 

4.  We  may  consider  such  expressions  as  the  fol- 
lowing to  be  indefinite  pronouns :  Dio  sa  die,  God 
knows  what.     Chi  sa  chi,  Who  knows  who,  etc. 

NOTE.  When  niente,  nulla,  and  the  negative 
adjectives  nessuno,  niuno,  etc.,  come  after  the 
verb,  the  verb  must  be  preceded  by  the  negative 
non  ;  but  when  they  are  placed  before  the  verb 
the  non  is  not  employed.  Example :  Non  c'era 
nessuno  or  nessuno  era  Id,  No  one  was  there. 
EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 

1.  Quel  pover'  uomo  ha  dovuto  mettere 
insieme  una  bella  sommetta,  perche  ognuno 
gli  ha  dato  qualche  cosa.  2.  Io  parlo  in 
generale  e  non  vorrei  che  alto  considerasse  le 
mie  parole  come  dirette  a  lui.  3.  L'iniquita  si 
fonda  spesso  sulla  credulita  e  bonta  altrui. 
4.  Agite  sempre  correttamente  e  non  vi  curate 
di  quello  che  altri  possa  pensare  di  voi.  5. 
Bussate  ancora  ;  qualcuno  dev'  essere  in  casa, 
perche  c'  e  lume  nelle  stanze  disopra.  6.  Cer- 
tuni  pare  che  godano  delle  sventure  altrui.  7. 
Se  non  mi  raccontate  tutto  per  filo  e  per  segno 
(exactly),  non  ne  fa,remo  nulla.  8.  Dite  sempre 
la  verita  se  volete  che  altri  vi  stimi.  9.  Coloro 
che  non  posseggono  nulla  sono  sempre  i  piu 
generosi.  10.  Niente  e  inutile,  ogni  cosa  ha 
la  sua  ragion  d' essere. 

Possessive  Pronouns.  The  possessive 
pronouns  are  possessive  adjectives  used  sub- 
stantively.  [See  pages  2770-1.] 

ESERCIZIO  DI  LBTTTJRA 

Lo  svegliarsi  la  prima  notte  in  carcere1  e  cosa 
orrenda !  Possibile  !  possibile  !  Io  qui  ?  E 
non  e  ora  un  sogno'2  il  mio  ?  leri  dunque  mi 
arrestarono  ?  leri  mi  fecero  quel  lungo  in- 
terrogatorio3,  che  domani,  e  chi  sa  fin  quando 
dovra  continuare  ?  ler  sera,  prima  di  addor- 
mentarmi,  io  piansi  tanto,  pensando  a.i  miei 
genitori !  II  riposo,  il  perfetto  silenzio,  il 
breve  sonno  che  aveva  ristorato  le  mie  forze 
mentali,  sembravano  avere  centuplicato  in 
me  la  potenza  del  dolore.  In  quell'  assenza 
totale  di  distrazioni,  1'affanno  di  tutti  i  miei 
cari,  ed  in  particolare4  del  padre  e  della  madre, 
mi  si  pingeva  nella  fantasia  con  una  forza 
incredibile.  In  quest'  istante5,  mi  dicevo, 
dormono  ancora  tranquilli,  o  vegliano  pensando 
forse  con  dolcezza  a  me,  non  punto  presaghi 
del  luogo  dove  io  sono  !  Oh,  felici,  se  Dio  li 
togliesse0  dal  mondo  prima  che  giunga  loro  la 
notizia  della  mia  sventura  !  Chi  dara  loro  la 
forza  di  sostenere  questo  colpo  ?  Una  voce 
interna  pareva  rispondermi :  Colui  che  tutti  gli 
afflitti  invocano  ad  amano  e  sentono  in  se  stessi. 
Colui  che  da,va  la  forza  a  una  madre  di  seguire  il 
figlio  al  Golgota  e  di  stare  sotto  la  sua  croce.7 
L'Amico  degli  infelici,  1'Am.ico  dei  mortali ! 

Quello  fu  il  primo  momento  che  la  religione 
trionfo  nel  mio  cuore  ;  ed  all'  amor  filiale8  devo 
questo  benefizio.  (Silvio  Pellico,  "  Le  Mie  Pri- 
gioni.") 

NOTES.  1.  Prison.  2.  Dream.  3.  Examina- 
tion. 4.  Especially.  5.  At  this  moment.  6. 
To  remove.  7.  Cross.  8.  Filial  love. 


CONVERSAZIONE 

E  venuto  nessuno  durante  la  mia  assenza  ? 

Sono  venuti  due  signori,  ma  non  hanno  lascir,to 
i  loro  nomi. 

Chi  ha  i  biglietti  ? 

Ecco  il  mio  e  quello  di  mio  fratello. 

Quale  bagaglio  volete  ? 

Quello  del  mio  socio,  perche  e  piu  grande. 

Son  venuto  per  dirle  addio,  perche  pa,rto 
stasera,  e  chi  sa  quando  ci  rivedremo. 

L'accompagnero  alia  stazione. 

Spero  che  il  mare  sia  calmo,  perche  soffro 
molto  quando  il  mare  e  agitato. 

Vuol  mangiare   qualche  cosa  ? 

Si,  se  c'  e  tempo. 

Le  chiedo  scusa,  signore,  non  1'avevo  vista. 

Va  anche  lei  a  Milano  ? 

Tanto  meglio,  faremo  il  viaggio  insieme. 

IMPERSONAL     VERBS 

The  verbs  that  do  not  admit  a  personal  sub- 
ject are  called  impersonal. 

1.  Some  relate  to  atmospheric  phenomena,  and, 
are  only  used  in  the  third  person  singular,  in 
the  infinitive,  gerund,  and  past  participle,  as  : 

albeggia  (ahlbeh-dgee-ah),  it  dawns 
annotta  (ahnnottah),  it  becomes  night 
piove  (pee-oveh),  it  rains 
lampeggia  (lahmpeh-dgee-ah),  it  lightens 
tuona  (too-onah),  it  thunders 
nevica  (nehveecah),  it  snows 
grdndina  (grdhndeenah),  it  hails 
gela  (dgehlah),  it  freezes 

2.  Many  impersonal   expressions  are  formed 
with  the  verbs  fare,  essere,  andare,  valere,  as  : 

fa  caldo,  it  is  hot  e  giusto,  it  is  correct 

fa  freddo,  it  is  cold         va  bene,  things  go  well 
c'e  nebbia,  it  is  foggy      va  male,  things  go  badly 
e  meglio,  it  is  better        vale  la  pena,  it  is  worth 
while 

3.  Other   impersonal  verbs  have    as   subject 
an  infinitive,  with  or  without  preposition,  or  a 
whole   clause    beginning    with  che  (that),   and 
with   the  verb  in  the  subjunctive.     These  are 
verbs  expressing  : 

a.  Necessity,  convenience,  chance,  as : 
accade  (ahccdhdeh),  it  happens 
bisogna  (beesonee-ah),  it  is  necessary 
conviene  (convee-ehneh),  it  is  suitable 
importa  (eemportah),  it  is  of  consequence 
preme  (prehmeh),  it  is  urgent 

basta  (bdhstah),  it  is  enough 

tocca  a  me,  a  te,  etc.,  it  is  my,  your  turn 

b.  Appearance,  satisfaction,  and  other  senti- 
ments, as  : 

pare  (pdhreh),  it  seems 
sembra  (sehmbrah),  it  appears 
risulta  (reesool-tah),  it  results 
place  (peedh-cheh),  it  pleases 
rincresce  (reencreh-sheh),  one  is  sorry 
etc.  etc. 

4.  Some  of  these  verbs  are  also  used  person- 
ally,  as  :    Egli  sembra  ammalato,  He  looks  ill ; 
Sembra  ch'egli  sia   ammalato,  It  seems  that  he 


5.  Other  verbs  have  a  different  meaning  in 
the  two  constructions,  as : 


LANGUAGES-  ITALIAN 

Egli  importa  vino,  He  imports  wine. 
Importa  di  studiare,  It  is  of  consequence  to 

study. 

Egli  conviene  con  me,  He  agrees  with  me. 
Conviene  parlare,  It  is  suitable  to  spea,k. 

6.  Other  impersonal  expressions  are  active  or 
intransitive  verbs  used  in  the  reflexive  form,  as  : 

si  vede,  one  sees  ;  si  e,  one  is  ; 
si  vive,  one  lives;  etc.,  etc. 

7.  Impersonal  verbs  are  conjugated  with  the 
auxiliary  essere.     A  few,   however,   take  avere. 
Those  relating  to  atmospheric  conditions  may 
be  conjugated  with   both  essere  and  avere  :   e 
piovuto  and  ha  piovuto. 

EXERCISE  XXXIX. 

1.  In  quel  paese  nevica  molto  raramente,  ma 
piove  sempre.  2.  Piove  a  dirotto ;  bisogna 
prendere  una  carrozza.  3.  Bisognera  partire  di 
buon'ora,  se  vogliamo  arrivare  in  tempo.  4.  Ha 
grandinato  e  piovuto  tutta  la  notte.  t  5.  Non 
tuona  piu,  ma  lampeggia  ancora.  6.  E  meglio 
non  uscire  oggi ;  c'  e  molta  nebbia.  7.  Andiamo  ; 
non  vale  la  pena  .di  star  qui  a  parlare  di  cose 
inutili.  8.  II  tuo  amico  sembra  molto  contento  ; 
avra  fatto  buoni  affari  in  borsa.  9.  Sembra 
ch'egli  sia  contento,  ma  veramente  non  e  cosi. 
10.  La  Russia  ha  importa  to  una  gran  quantita  di 
grano  quest'anno.  11.  Importa  decidersi  subito, 
perche  non  v'e  tempo  da  perdere.  12.  Lei  ha 
gia  parlato  abbastanza,  ora  tocca  a  me.  13. 
Rincresce  il  vedere  dei  giovani  cosi  indolenti. 
14.  Si  deve  anche  godere  un  poco  in  questa  vita ; 
si  vive  una  volta  soltanto. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXIII. 
1.  Dress  yourself  quickly,  beca-use  we  must  go 
away  (from  here).  2.  Did  you  enjoy  yourself  at 
the  theatre  last  night  ?  3.  Do  not  approach  too 
near  the  cage.  4.  I  begin  to  be  tired ;  let  us 
stop  a  little.  5.  If  you  wish  to  wash  your  hands, 
I  will  give  you  some  hot  water.  6.  The  gentle- 
men of  the  second  floor  ha,ve  complained  about 
the  service.  7.  Wake  me  at  half-past  seven 
to-morrow.  8.  At  what  time  do  you  usually  get 
up  ?  9.  Get  up  ;'  it  is  very  late.  10.  Do  you 
remember  that  lady  who  was  with  us  hi  the 
country  last  summer  ?  11.  I  remember  her 
quite  well.  12.  One  must  never  lose  one's 
courage  in  misfortune.  13.  Sit  down,  madam, 
and  tell  me  everything ;  you  know  that  you  can 
rely  on  me.  14.  Listen  to  me,  sir,  and  may 
Heaven  forbid  that  a  day  should  come  in  which 
you  will  repent  of  not  having  listened  to  me. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXIV. 
1.  This  picture  is  worth  nothing.  2.  Be 
silent,  your  words  are  not  worth  listening  to. 
3.  I  will  be  silent  at  once,  but  it  is  cert?,,in  that 
you  will  never  persuade  me  to  do  what  I  do  not 
like  to  do.  4.  I  w&s  so  sorry  that  you  did  not 
remain  with  us  the  other  evening.  5.  He  fell, 
but  he  did  not  hurt  himself.  6.  Do  not  go  so 
soon;  stay  a  little  longer.  7.  I  cannot  give 
more  ;  here  is  all  I  have.  8.  We  know  how 
much  your  promises  are  worth.  9.  I  persuaded 
him  to  accept  the  employment  which  was  offered 
to  him.  10.  If  you  do  not  like  this  room,  I 
will  give  you  another. 


Continued 


4505 


LANGUAGES     FRENCH 


By  Louis  A.  Barbe,  B.A. 


FRENCH 


ConttBMd  from 
page  4.-WI 


IRREGULAR  VERBS— continued 
Fourth  Conjugation,  1.  BATTRE,  to  beat, 
battant,  battu,  je  bats,  tu  bats,  il  bat,  je  battis.  The 
reflexive  verb  se  battre  means  "  to  fight."  The 
\  n  hs  conjugated  like  battre  are  abattre,  to  knock 
down,  fell ;  se  battre,  to  fight ;  combattre,  to  com- 
bat ;  debattre,  to  debate  ;  se  debattre,  to  struggle  ; 
rabattre,  to  pull  down,  to  lower  (the  price). 

2.  CONCLURE,  to  conclude,  concluant,  conclu, 
je  conclus,  tu  conclus,  il  conclut,  je  conclus. 

3.  CONDUIRE,    to    lead,    conduisant,    conduit, 
je  conduis,  tu  conduis,  il  conduit,  je  conduisis. 

A  number  of  verbs  in  TJIRE  are  conjugated 
in  the  same  way.  The  most  common  of  them 
are  construire,  to  construct ;  cuire,  to  cook, 
kike  ;  instruire,  to  instruct ;  reduire,  to  reduce  ; 
and  traduire,  to  translate. 

4.  CONNAITRE,    to   know,    to   be   acquainted 
with,  connaissant,  connu,  je  connais,  tu  connais, 
il  connait,  je  connus. 

The  "  »  "  of  the  stem  retains  the  circumflex 
accent  wherever  it  is  followed  by  "  t"  Other 
verbs  conjugated  in  the  same  way  are  paraitre,  to 
appear,  seem  ;  apparattre,  to  appear,  comparaitre, 
to  appear  (before  a  tribunal,  etc.),  disparaitre,  to 
disappear  ;  reparaitre,  to  reappear ;  recon- 
noitre, to  recognise. 

5.  CONFIRE,    to   pickle,    preserve,    confisant, 
confit,  je  confix,  tu  con/is,  il  confit,  je  confis. 

6.  COUDRE,  to  sew,  cousant,  cousu,  je  couds, 
tu  couds,  il  coud,  je  cousis. 

7.  CROIRE,  to  believe,  croyant,  cru,  je  crois, 
tu  crois,  il  croit,  je  crus. 

8.  CROITRE,  to  grow,  croissant,  cru,  je  crois, 
l>i  Grots,  il  croit,  je  crus.     In  this  verb  there  is  a 
circumflex  accent  not  only  over  "  i  "  when  it  is 
followed  by  "  J,"  but  over  "  »  "  and  "  u "  in  all 
the  forms  that  would  otherwise  be  identical  with 
those  of  croire. 

9.  £CRIRE,    to   write,    ecrivant,    ecrit,   j'ecris, 
t"  >'rris,  il  ecrit,  j'ecrivis. 

All  derivatives  are  conjugated  in  the  same 
manner.  Those  in  most  frequent  use  are  decrire, 
to  describe  ;  inscrire,  to  inscribe  ;  proscrire,  to 
proscribe  ;  souscrire,  to  subscribe ;  and  transcrire 
10  transcribe. 

10.  JOINDRE,  to  join,  joignant,  joint,  je  joins, 
t"  i»iru,  il  joint,  je  joignis. 

All  verbs  of  which  the  infinitive  ends  in  aindre, 

•  nnlrc,    or    oindre,    are    conjugated    like    this. 

Til--  following  are  some  of  them  :    contraindre, 

"mi  :  ••'•indre,  to  gird  ;  feindre,  to  feign  ; 

li  ;   teindre,  to  dye  ;   enfreindre, 

to    infringe;    /,< indre,   to    paint;    rejoindre,    to 

U«-  :   oindre,  to  anoint  ;   and  the  reflexive 

ran  *  pbindre,  to  complain. 

U.  I. M:K.  to  read,  ii«fl-nt.  In,  ,v  us  lu  ;/.,  # 
hut, 

I-'.  MI.IIKI:.  to  put.  put  on,  mettant,  mis,  jt 
'  iMto,  if  nnf.  f,-  w/.<. 

Tin-  numerous  <|.-riv;it  ivs  «,f  this  verb  follow 
tli'-  MTU.-  conjugation.  Amount  them  are  • 
•tfiMMre,  to  admit ;  cmnw.ftre,  to  commit ;  cam- 


promettre,  to  compromise  ;  omettre,  to  omit  ; 
permcttre,  to  allow ;  promettre,  to  promise  ; 
soumettre,  to  submit. 

13.  MOUDRE,    to   grind,    moulant,    moulu,    je 
mouds,  tu  mouds,  il  moud,  je  moulus. 

14.  NAITRE,  to  be  born,  naissant.  ne,  je  nais, 
tu  nais,  il  nait,  je  naquis. 

This  verb  is  conjugated  with  etre  in  its  com- 
pound tenses  :  je  suis  ne,  I  was  born. 

15.  NTJIRE,  to  injure,  nuisant,  nui,  je  nuis, 
tu  nuis,  il  nuit  (je,  nuisis). 

According  to  the  Academy,  nuire,  and  luire,  to 
shine,  conjugated  like  it,  have  no  past  definite. 

16.  PLAIRE,  to  please,  plaisant,  plu,  je  plais, 
tu  plais,  il  plait  (with  circumflex  accent),  je  plus. 

The  derivatives  complaire,  to  gratify  ;  deplaire, 
to  displease  ;  the  reflexive  verb  se  plaire  a, 
to  delight  in ;  the  verb  taire,  to  conceal,  hush  up  ; 
and  the  reflexive  se  taire,  to  be  silent,  are  all 
conjugated  like  plaire. 

17.  PRENDRE,  to  take,  prenant,  pris,  je  prends, 
tu  prends,  il  prend,  nous  prenons,  Us  prennent, 
je  pris. 

This  verb  doubles  the  "  n  "  before  the  endings 
e,  es,  ent.  It  has  numerous  derivatives  which 
are  conjugated  like  it,  and  amongst  which  are 
apprendre,  to  learn ;  comprendre,  to  understand ; 
entreprendre,  to  undertake ;  surprendre,  to  sur- 
prise. 

18.  REPAITRE,  to  feed,   to  feast,   is  derived 
from  paitre,  to  graze  ;  repaissant,  repu,  je  repais, 
tu  repais,  il  repait,  je  repus. 

This  verb  is  also  used  reflexively :  se  repaitre, 
and  chiefly  figuratively. 

19.  RJSSOUDRE,    to   resolve,    solve,    resolvant, 
resolu,  je  resous,  tu  resous,  il  resout,  je  resolus. 

This  verb  also  means  to  dissolve  from  one 
substance  into  another,  and  then  has  resous, 
resoute,  for  its  past  participle.  Absoudre,  to 
absolve,  saiddissoudre,  to  dissolve,  are  conjugated 
in  the  same  way  ;  but  their  respective  past 
participles  are  absous,  m.,  absoute,  f.,  and  dissous, 
m.,  dissoute,  f.,  Absolu  and  dissolu  are  adjectives 
meaning  absolute  and  dissolute. 

20.  EIRE,  to  laugh,  riant,  ri,  je  ris,  tu  ris, 
il  rit,  je  ris. 

Sourire,  to  smile,  follows  the  same  conjuga- 
tion. 

21.  STJFFIRE,    to    suffice,    suffisant,    suffi,    je 
suffix,  tu  suffis,  il  suffit,  je  suffis. 

22.  SUIVRE,  to  follow,  suivant,  suivi,  je  suis, 
tu  suis,  il  suit,  je  suivis. 

23.  VAINCRE,  to  overcome,  vainquant,  vaincu, 
je  vaincs,  tu  vaincs,  il  vainc,  je  vainquis. 

Convaincre,  to  convince,  is  conjugated  in  the 
same  way. 

24.  VIVRE,  to  live,  vivant,  vecu,  je  vis,  tu  vis, 
U  rit,  je  vecns. 

This  verb  has  two  derivatives,  conjugated 
like  it,  revivre,  to  revive,  and  survivre,  to  survive. 

EXERCISE    XXXII. 

1.  When  the  ancients  besieged  (assieger)  a 
town  they  battered  (beat)  the  walls  with  (a  coups 
de)  rani(s)  (le  beh'er). 


2.  One  is  never  beaten  without  being  struck 
(f rapper)  ;  but  one  may  (pent)  be  struck  without 
being  beaten. 

3.  The  muleteer  (muletier)  who  served  us  as 
'de)  guide,  beat  his  mules  in  a  frightful  (epouvan- 
table)  way  (la  faqori). 

4.  We  have  concluded  nothing,  but  that  is 
not  my  fault. 

5.  He  is  a,n  s,uthor  whose  works  (ouvrage,  m.) 
have    been    translated    into    all    languages    (la 
langue). 

6.  According     to     a     distinguished     writer 
(ecrivain),   if    you   always   translate,   you    will 
never    be    translated ;     and    yet    (cependant) 
another  writer,  just  (tout)  as  distinguished,  has 
said  that  if  you  wish  (voulez)  to  be  translated 
(th?,t  one  translate,  subj.)  some  (un)  day,  you 
must  yourself  begin  by  translating. 

7.  I  have  seen  him  only  once,  but  I  should 
know  him  amongst  (a)  thousand. 

8.  That  young  girl  sews,  sings,   reads ;   that 
is  all  she  needs  to  be  happy. 

9.  Who  is  it  that  used  to  say  that,  wherever 
(partout  ou)  the  lion's  skin  did  not  suffice,  the 
fox's  (renard)  skin  was  to  be  sewn  to  it — that  is 
to  say,  cunning  (la  ruse)  to  be  joined  to  strength 
(la  force)  ? 

10.  There  are  people  who  account   the    rest 
(le  reste)  of  men  as  (pour)  nothing,  and  think 
(believe)  they  are  (to  be)  born  only  for  them- 
selves. 

11.  An  honourable  (honnete)  man  who  says 
yes  and   no  deserves  (meriter)  to  be  believed  ; 
his  character  (le  caractere)  swears  for  him. 

12.  Any  (tout)  author  whom  one  is  obliged 
to   read   twice   to   understand    (entendre)   him, 
writes  badly. 

13.  What  is  written  is  written  means  (veut 
dire)  that  one  can  change  nothing  in  (a)  what  is 
written. 

14.  The  Good  Shepherd    (pasteur)  has   said : 
"  I  know  my  sheep  and  my  sheep  know  Me." 

15.  It  is  admitted  by  all  civilised  (civiliser) 
peoples  that  the  person  of  an  ambassador  is 
inviolable  and  sacred. 

16.  You  depict  (paint)  the  charms  (le  charme) 
of    country  (chatnpe.tr e)  life  so  well  to  us  tha>t 
you  make  us  feel  inclined  to  (donner  Venvie  de) 
go  (and)  live  (kabiter)  in  a  (au)  village. 

17.  The   Gauls    (Gaulois)    used    to    transmit 
(the)  news  (les  nouvelles)  to  each  other  by  (en) 
lighting  .fires  on  the  heights  (la  hauteur). 

18.  The    days     lengthen     (grow)     from     the 
21st  of  December  to  the  21st  of  June  ;    they 
draw  in  (decroitre)  from  the  21st  of  June  to  the 
21st  of  December. 

19.  Men   are   like   the   flowers   which   appear 
and   disappear   with   an   incredible   (incroyable) 
rapidity  (la  rapidite). 

20.  On  the  llth  of  November,  1572,  a  new 
star  appeared  suddenly  (tout  a  coup)  in  the  sky, 
where    it    shone    (briller)    with    (de)    the    most 
vivid  (vif)  brilliancy  (eclat,  m.)  ;   it  disappeared 
in  the  month  of  May,  1574,  after  having  lasted 
16  months. 

21.  We  read  in  Genesis  (la  Genese)  that  the 
ancient  patriarchs  (le  patriarche)  lived  a  very 
long  time,  and  that  Abraham  lived  175  years. 


LANGUAGES— FRENCH 

22.  We  write  from  left  to  right ;    the  Jews 
write  from  right  to  left    (gauche)  ;     the  Arabs 
(Arabe)   write   similarly   (egalement)   from   right 
to  left. 

23.  The     French     overcame     the     Austrians 
(Autrichiens)   at   Jemmapes   and   at   Marengo  ; 
they  were  overcome  by  the  English  at  Waterloo. 

24.  The  ancients  used    to  grind  corn  with 
little  millstones   (la  meule)  worked  (mues)  by 
hand  (a  bras  d'hommes). 

25.  Unjust  actions  always  injure   (to)   their 
authors. 

26.  Cleopatra  (Cleopdtre)  took  a  large  pearl 
(la  perle)  which  she  threw  into  a  cup  (la  tasse), 
and,  when  she  had  seen  it  dissolved,  she  swal- 
lowed (avaler)  it. 

27.  You  laugh,  and  with  reason,  at  (of)  the 
folly  (les  sottises)  of  men,  at  which  I  should  do 
(ferais)  well  to  laugh  also,  and  at  which  I  would 
laugh  if  my  digestion  were  better  (if  I  digested, 
digerer)  and  if  I  slept  better. 

28.  What    (a)    passion    is    (que)    envy !     It 
follows  the  man  of  merit  even  to  (jusqu'a)  the 
brink  (le  bord)  of  his  grave  (la  tombe). 

In  all  verbs  the  endings  of  the  Imperfect 
Indicative,  of  the  Past  Definite,  of  the  Future, 
of  the  Present  Conditional,  and  of  the  Imperfect 
Subjunctive,  are  regular,  whatever  peculiarities 
there  may  be  in  the  stem.  Consequently,  only 
the  first  person  singular  of  those  tenses  will  be 
indicated.  Except  in  special  cases,  the  Impera- 
tive will  not  be  given,  as  its  first  and  second 
persons  are  identical  with  thj3  corresponding 
persons  of  the  Present  Indicative,  and  its  third 
persons  borrowed  from  the  Present  Subjunctive. 

First  Conjugation 

1.  A  Her,  to  go,  allant,  alle. 

Ind  Pres. — je  vais,  tu  vas,  il  va,  nous  allons, 
vous  allez,  Us  vont. 

Imperf. — fallais.  Future. — firai. 

Past  Def, — fallai.          Cond.  Pres. — firais. 

Imperat. — va,  qu'il  aille,  allons,  allez,  qu'ils 
aillent. 

Subj.  Pres.  — que  faille,  que  tu  allies,  qu1  il  aille, 
que  nous  allions,  que  vous  alliez,  qu'ils  aillent. 

Imperf. — que  fallasse. 

The  imperative  va  takes  s  when  followed  by 
y  :  vas-y,  go  there. 

The  compound  tenses  of  aller  are  conjugated 
with  the  auxiliary  etre. 

Idiomatic  Uses  of  Aller.  (a)  Aller  is 
used,  in  connection  with  another  verb  in  the 
Infinitive,  to  express  a  proximate  future,  and 
then  means  "  to  be  going  to,"  "to  be  about  to," 
"  to  be  on  the  point  of  "  :  Je  vais  vous  le  donner, 
I  am  going  to  give  it  to  you  ;  J'allais  vous 
ecrire,  I  was  going  to  write  to  you. 

(b)  Aller  also  means  "  to  suit,"  "  to  fit."     It 
is  frequently  used  instead  of  se  porter,  with  re- 
ference to  the  state  of  health :    Son  habit  ne  lui 
va  pas,  His  coat  does  not  fit  him  ;  Comment  allez- 
vous?   Comment  vous  portez-vous?   How  do  you 
do? 

(c)  Aller  is  used  in  the  following  expressions  : 
aller  se  promener,  to  go  for  a  walk  ;   aller  a  pied; 
to  walk  (go  on  foot)  ;    aller  en  voiture,  to  drive  , 
aller  a  cheval,  to  ride  ;  aller  en  bateau,  to  go  for  a 

4507 


LANGUAGES-FRENCH 

MB;    >,  alh-r  Hr  (impersonal),   to   be  at  stake; 

,7  ,/  ,,t  <!••  I"  '•".  IK.-  is  ut  itake. 

(d)  The    Imperative  of  «//•'•    i-   "*'>l1   «»  tori" 
Interjections:     Fa/    -I//''--'    Believemej  lean 
..-II  vou  :  Suivly.     .!//"»*/    Come!    Come  now  ! 
• 


.4/to»w  '/""'•/    Getaway!     Nonsense! 
•_>.  S'en  aller,  to  go  ft  way,  *'en  allant,  Jen 

etant  allr.  ..     , 

/  pres.—je  rien  rat*,  tn  t  tn  ras,  il  s  en 
va,  rum*  MMU  >'»  nlhn.0.  r<»i*  rous  en  allez,  il 
yen  it  ml.  „, 

Past  Indef.—je  m'en  suis  alle,  tu  t  en  es  alle, 
il  Jen  est  alle,  elle  Jen  est  allee,  nous  nous 
en  sommes  alles,  vous  vous  en  ties  alles,  Us  Jen 
sont  alles,  elles  Jen  sont  allies. 

All  the  other  tenses  are  conjugated  in  this 
way,  by  putting  rien,  fen,  Jen,  nous  en,  vous  en, 
sen  between  the  subject  and  the  verb. 

Imperat.  (positive).—  va-Cen,  qu'il  Jen  aille, 
attons-nous-en,  allez-vou#-en,  qu'ils  Jen  aillent. 

Imperat.  (negative).—  ne  fen  va  pas,  qu'il  ne 
Jen  aille  pas,  ne  nous  en  allons  pas,  ne  vous  en 
allez  pas,  qrfils  ne  sen  aillent  pas. 

The  following  examples  will  show  the  order  of 
the  words  in  interrogative  and  negative  forms  : 

Ten  vas-tu  ?  Are  you  going  away  ?  S'en 
est-il  alle  ?  Has  he  gone  away  ?  Je  ne  rien 
vais  pas,  I  am  not  going  away  ;  Us  ne  Jen 
seraient  pas  alles,  They  would  not  have  gone 
away  ;  Ne  vous  en  irez-vous  pas  ?  Will  you  not 
go  away  ?  Ne  Jen  est-elle  pas  allee  ?  Has  she 
not  gone  away  ? 

3.  Envoyer,  to  send,  envoyant,  envoye, 
fenvoie,  fenvoyai. 

The  only  irregular  tenses  of  this  verb  are  the 
Future  and  the  Conditional. 

Future.  —  fenverrai.     Conditional.  —  fenverrais. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXX. 

1.  La  terre  est  echauffee  par  le  soleil. 

2.  L'egoiste  n'est  aime  de  personne. 

3.  Les  chiffres  ont  ete  inventes  par  les  Arabes. 

4.  La  femme  fut  trompee  par  le  serpent. 

5.  Les  orages  sont  prevus  et  annonces  par  les 
hirondelles. 

L'Amerique  fut  decouverte  par  Christophe 
Coloiuh  <-n  mil  quatre  cent  quatre-vingt-douxe. 
7.  L'imprimerie  fut  inventee  par   Gutenberg 
dans  le  quinzieme  siecle. 

lx»  cap  de  Bonne  -Esperance  fut  double  pour 
1  i  ])r«-rniiTi-  fois  j>  ir  les  Portugui-. 

uu  I  etes-vous  revenu  de  Paris? 

10.  Quel  jour  vos   amis  sont-ils  partis  pour 
Li  mdres  ? 

11.  Dcpuis  que  la  comete  est  apparue  line 
foule  dc  gens  paneni  It  unit  a  la  regarder. 

12.  Quand  nou^  >n\\\\\\t-~.  arrives  a  la  gare  le 
ii    rtait    (l.'-ja    parti. 

I::.  II  >niil)lc  (juc  It-  snlcil  tournc  autour  de  la 
terre,  <|uan<l,  an  i-outraire,  il  est  certain  que 
c'est  ct-llc.  ci  fjiii  tourin'  autour  <lu  siil.-il. 

11.  S'il  irrl,.  1,.  niatin,  il  fait  >ou\ciit  beau 
•••  la  joornfo. 

1.").  11  f;iut  qii'iim-  port.'  s<»it  ouvertc  ou 
frrm<M>.  flit  uu  piuv«-rl)»-  franoais. 

•itimt  dit.  Que  rousfaut-ilde  plug? 

IT    '    >  -•    ii^trriirnt  IT  (u'il  me  faiit 


18.  Ses   amis  sont    des   gens   tres    comme    il 

19.  II  s'en  est  fallu  de.  bien  peu  qu'il  ne  fub 

20.  Pour  bien  parler,  il  faut  dire  ce  qu'il  iaut, 
tout  ce  qu'il  faut,  rien  que  ee  qu'il  faut,  et  le 
dir?  cornine  il  faut. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXI. 

I.  Notre  brigade  assaillira  1'ennemi  dans  ses 
retranchements  demain  matin. 

2.  Quelques  coups  de  feu  partent ;  a  ce  bruit 
Napoleon  tressaille  ;    la  campagne    de    Russie 
est  ouverte. 

3.  Tout  le  monde  sait    que   c  est  Christophe 
Colomb  qui  a  decouvert  1'Amerique. 

4.  II  n'ouvre  jamais  la  bouche  sans  dire  quelque 
sottise. 

5.  Le  bruit   qui  se  faisait  dans   1  assemblee 
couvrait  la  voix  de  1'orateur. 

6.  II  est  certain  que  la  mer  a  autrefois  couvert 
vine  grande  partie  de  la  terre  habitee. 

7.  L'eau  bouillirait  plus  vite  si  vous  allumiez 
un  bon  feu. 

8.  Fran9ois    premier    dormit    sur    un    affut 
la  nuit  de  la  bataille  de  Marignan. 

9.  Nous  nous  endormons  tous  les  soirs  pen- 
dant qu'il  nous  lit  le  journal. 

10.  Lorsque    nous    etions    jeunes    nous    dor- 
mions  douze  heures  sans  nous  reveiller. 

II.  Isaac  ayant  demande  a  son  pere  ou  etait 
la  victime   qui  devait  etre  immolee,  Abraham 
repondit :  "  Dieu  y  pourvoira." 

12.  Charles  le  Temeraire  perit  devant  Nancy, 
trahi    par    un    mercenaire    napolitain,    et    tue 
en  fuyant  apres  la  bataille,  par  un  gentilhomme 
lorrain. 

13.  Fuyons  ensemble    au    fond   des    forets ; 
il  vaut  mieux  se  fier  aux  tigres  qu'aux  hommes. 

14.  II  y  a  des  gens  qui  mentent  simplement 
pour  mentir. 

15.  La  satire  ment  sur  les  gens   de  lettres 
pendant  leur  vie,  et  1'eloge  ment  apres  leur  mort. 

16.  On  lui  a  offert  une  place  a  Paris,  mais 
il  ne  desire  pas  quitter  Londres. 

17.  II    est    utile    aux    superbes    de    tomber, 
parce  que  leur  chute  leur  ouvre  les  yeux. 

18.  On  est  ordinairement  moins  fache  quand 
on  part  que  quand  on  voit  partir. 

19.  Nous  aurions  clu  partir  pour  la  campagne 
hier,  mais  nous  ne  partirons  que  demain. 

20.  Quand  tu   mens,  la  conscience  ne  te  re- 
proche-t-elle  pas  quelque  chose,  et  ne  te  repens- 
tu  pas  aussitot  ? 

21.  Le  juge  qui  est  fidele  a  son  devoir  ne  sent 
ni  regrets  ni  courroux. 

22.  II  y  a  des  gens  qui  semblent  croire   que 
le  bonheur  de  les  servir  est  une  assez  haute 
recompense  pour  ceux  qui  les  servent. 

23.  Sortez  quand  vous  voudrez,  mais  je  vous 
avertis   que   je  ne   sortirai    qu'apres   que   vous 
serez  sortis. 

24.  Est-ce  la  peine  de  vivre  quand  on  souffre  ? 
Oui,  car  on  espere  tou jours  qu'on  ne  souffrira 
pas  demain. 

25.  Le  malheur  de  ces  gens  qui  savent  tout, 
c'est  qu'ils  ne  prevoient  jamais  rien. 


Continued 


1506 


LANGUAGES-SPANISH 


SPANISH 


By  Amalia  de  Albert!  6   H.  S.  Duncan 


IRREGULAR  VERBS— continued 
Third  Class 

This  class  embraces  verbs  of  the  third  con- 
jugation with  a  radicals,  which  is  never  expanded 
to  ie,  but  changes  into  i : 

1.  Throughout  the  present  indicative,  except- 
ing the  first  and  second  persons  plural. 

2.  Throughout  the  present  subjunctive. 

3.  Throughout     the     imperative,     excepting 
the  second  person  plural. 

4.  Throughout  the  rest  of  the  conjugation, 
whenever  the  verbal  termination  contains  the 
diphthong  ie  or  io. 

Servir,  to  serve.     Gerund,   sirviendo.     Ind. 

Pres. — sirvo,  sirves,  sirve,  servimos,  servis,  sirven. 
Past    Def. — servi,    serviste,     sirvio,    servimos, 

servisteis,  sirvieron. 

Imperat. — sirve,  sirva,  sirvamos,  sirvia,  sirvan. 
Subj.    Pres.- — sirva,    sirvas,    sirva,    sirvamos, 

sirvais,  sirvan. 

Subj.  Imp. — sirviera,  sirvieras,  sirviera,  sirvier- 

amos,  sirvierais,  sirvieran,  or  sirviese,  sirvieses,  etc. 
Subj.    Fut. — sirviere,    sirvieres,    tirviere,    sir- 

vieremos,   sirviereis,   sirvieren. 

The  imperfect  and  future  of  the  indicative  and 

the  conditional  are  regular. 

Euphonic  Changes.     Verbs  of  this  class 

ending  in  eir  change  e  into  i  as  usual,  but  drop 

the  i  of   the    diphthong  ie  in  the  verbal  ter- 
minations in  order  to  avoid  the  double  i. 

Reir,  to  laugh.   Gerund,  riendo.    Subj.  Imp. — 

riera,  rieras,  riera,  rieramos,  rierais,  rieran. 
These  verbs  also  follow  the  same  euphonic 

changes  as  the  regular  verbs — viz. :  Those  ending 

in  gir  change  y  into  j  before  a  and  o. 

Regir,  to  rule.     Ind.  Pres.—rijc,  riges,  rige, 

regimos,  regis,  rigen. 

Subj. Pres.— rija,  rijas,  rija,  rijamos,  rijais,  rijan. 
Those  in  guir  drop  the  u  before  a  and  o. 
Seguir,  to  follow.     Ind.  Pres. — sigo,  sigues, 

sigue,  seguimos,  seguis,  siguen. 

Subj.  Pres. — siga,  sigas,  siga,  sigamos,  sigais, 

sigan. 

Verbs  ending  in  nir  drop  the  i  of  the  diphthongs 

ie  and  io  in  the  verbal  termination. 

Cehir,   to  gird.     Gerund,  cinendo. 
This    change   is   optional   with    verbs    whose 

ending  is  ch  ;  thus  the  gerund  of  henchir,  to  fill, 

may  be  either  hinchiendo  or  hinchendo. 

List  of  verbs  of  the  third  class,  changing  the 

radical  e  into  i  : 

cente,  to  gird  investir,  to  invest 

colegir,  to  deduce  inrertir,  to  invert 

compttte,  to  compete  medir,  to  measure 

tjmcebir,  to  conceive  pedir,  to  ask 

conseguir,  to  obtain  persecute,  to  persecute 

constrenir,  to  constrain  prosecute,  to  prosecute 

controvertir,  to  controvert        recenir,  to  re-gird 
derretir,  to  melt  reelegir,  to  re-elect 

desceilir,  to  ungirdle  rendir,  to  render,  surrender 

despedte,  to  take  leave  rente,  to  quarrel 

destenir,  to  discolour  repedir,  to  re-demand 

eleqir,  to  elect  repetir,  to  repeat 

embestir,  to  attack  retenir,  to  re-dye 

expedte,  to  despatch  revestir,  to  dress 

frete,  to  fry  seguir,  to  follow 

gemir,  to  lament  servir,  to  serve 

henchir,  to  fill  tenir,  to  dye 

henir,  to  knead  vestir,  to  clothe 

impedir,  to  prevent 


Fourth  Class 

Irregular  verbs  of  the  fourth  class  end  in  uir 
and  guir.  The  peculiarity  of  these  verbs  is  the 
insertion  of  a  y  before  the  verbal  termination  : 

1.  Throughout  the  present  indicative,  except- 
ing the  first  and  second  persons  plural. 

2.  Throughout  the  present  subjunctive. 

3.  Throughout     the     imperative,     excepting 
the  second  person  plural. 

4.  Throughout  the  rest  of  the  conjugation, 
whenever  the  verbal  termination  should  contain 
the  diphthongs  ie  or  io  a  y  is  substituted  for  the  i. 

Verbs  ending  in  guir  drop  the  diseresis  before  y. 
Huir,  to  flee.     Gerund,  huyendo. 

Ind.  Pres. — huyo,  huyes,  huye,  huimos,  huis, 
huyen. 

Past.  Def. — hui,  huiste,  huyo,  huimos,  huisteis, 
huyeron. 

Imperat. — huye,  huya,  huydmos,  huid,  huyan. 

Subj.  Pres. — huya,  huyas,  huya,  huydmos, 
huyais,  huyan. 

Subj.  Imp. — huyera,  huyeras,  huyera,  huyera- 
mos,  huyerais,  huyeran,  or  huyese,  etc. 

Subj.  Fut. — huyere,  huyeres,  huyere,  huyeremos, 
huyereis,  huyeren. 

Argxiir,  to  argue.     Gerund,  arguyendo. 

Ind.  Pres. — arguyo,  arguyes,  arguye,  aryiiimos, 
argiiis,  argiiyen.  ' 

The  imperfect,  future,  and  conditional  of  the 
indicative  are  regular. 

All  the  following  verbs  are  conjugated  accord- 
ing to  the  above  rule. 


atribuir,  to  attribute 
coneluir,  to  conclude 
constitute,  to  constitute 
construir,  to  construct 
contribute,  to  contribute 
destitute,  to  make  destitute 
destruir,  to  destroy 
dilute,  to  dilute 
disminuir,  to  diminish 
distribute,  to  distribute 
estatute,  to  enact 
excluir,  to  exclude 


A  witch 
Witchcraft 
A  sorcerer 
A  compass 
The  mist 
A  brute 
To  nod 
The  corpse 


Un  brujq 
Una  brujula 
La  bruma 
Un  bruto 
Cabezear 
El  cadaver 


The  locksmith  El  cerrajero 

The  bolt  El  cerrojo 

The  brewer 

The  beer 

The  basket 

A  gift 

A  dagger 

Delight 

To  date 

Weak 

The  tree 

An  apricot- 
tree 

An  acacia 

^n  almond- 
tree 

A  birch-tree 

The  heather 

Box  (shrub) 


A  cedar 


A  cherry-tree  Un  cerezo 
A   chestnut-     Un  castano 

tree 
An  evergreen  Una  encina 

oak 


fluir,  to  flow 
imbuir,  to  imbue 
incluir,  to  include 
institute,  to  institute 
obstrute,  to  obstruct 
prostitute,  to  prostitute 
rtclute,  to  seclude 
rccsnstruir,  to  reconstruct 
redargilir,  to  retort 
refluir,  to  ebb 
restitute,  to  restore 
(institute,  to  substitute 
Vocabulary—  Vocabulario 
Una  bruja      ]  An  oak  Un  roble 

Brujeria  (f.)    A  lemon-tree  Un  limonero 

An  orange-      Un  naranjo 
tree 

A  palm-tree 

A  fig-tree 

An  ash-tree 

A  strawberry 
plant  —  a 
strawberry- 
bed 

A  raspberry-    Un  frambueso 
bush 

A  pomegran-  Un  granado 

ate-tree 

j  The    reeds, 

rushes 

A  laurel-tree 

A  mulberry- 
tree 

A  walnut-tree  Un  nqgal 

An  olive-tree  Uu  olivo 

An  elm  Un  olmo 

A  poplar          Un  alamo 
bianco 

A  pine-tree      Un  pino 

A  pear-tree      Un  peral 

An  apple-tree  Un  manzario 

A  plum-tree     Un  ciruelo 

A  willow 

A  weeping 
willow 

A  lime-tree 


El cervecero 
La  cerveza 
El  canasto 
Una  dddiva 
Una  daga 
Deleite  (m.) 
Fechar 
D6bil 
El  arbol 
Un      alberi- 

coque 
Un  acacia 
Un    almen- 

dro 

Un  abedul 
El  brezo 
Boj 
Un  cedro 


Unapalmera 
Una  higuera 
Un  fresno 
Un  fresal 


Los  juncos 


Un  laurel 
Un  moral 


Un  sauce 
Un  sauce 

lloron 
Un  tilo 


4509 


LANGUAGES-SPANISH 

Bxxmoni  \vi.  (l) 

Translate  the  following  into  Spanish  : 

,    H.  -..iiied  in  serving  one"  country. 

,    fllow    l,ad    e\ani|>4e    i<  evil  :    101    US    alW 


H«  do   n,.t   compete  with  that  firm;  its  prices 
^^''Uns,!,,!,:..,,  colour  comes   out 
•am-i  the  hands. 
«;.  We  rheerfnlly  take  leave  of  a  disagreeable  and 

t"!">llti  SdiffieuK  to  choose  a  travelling  companion 
but    on.,-    ,-hosen,    one    must    be    [on    good    termsl 
n  I  with  him  until  the  end  of  the  journey. 

8  One  must  reflect  before  investing  one  s  patri- 
mony, as  when  invested  one  runs  the  risk  of  being 
unable  to  withdraw  it. 

9.  Let  us  measure  the  cloth  before  cutting  out  the 
d,,ak.  and  ,-ut  it  according  to  the  measure. 

in.  Th.  •>     pursued    the    enemy    until    they    c 
proceed  no  further. 

11.  To  quarrel  with  one's  friends  is  the  action  oi 

'T.'!  Let  us  contribute  good  works  for  the  pood  of 
our  neighbours,  but  let  the  contribution  be  judicious. 

EXERCISE    XVI.  (2) 
Translate  the  following  into  English  : 
I  .   Ks  tan  vieja  y  fea  que  parece  una  bruja. 
2.  i  Lastimo  a  ese  nino,  es  un  bruto  ! 
:{.  Ese   hombre   es    un    cervecero,    ha    ganado   su 
fortuna  vendiendo  cerveza. 

4.  Me  enseno  una  daga  muy  antigua,  es  de  un 
trabajo  hermoso. 

5.  El  fresal  de  mi  jardin  tiene  de  extension  media 


. 

in  el  huerto  hay  arboles  frutales  muy  hermosos. 
7.  Los  higos,  las  peras,  y  las  manzanas  son  muy 
id  lidosos. 

I  brezo  crece  en  los  montes. 

9.  Los  limones  y  naranjas  que  crecen  en  nuestros 
limoneros  y  naranjos  tienen  fama  por  lo  bueno  que 

Tambien  nuestros  fresales  crian  fresas  de  gran 
tumano. 

10.  La  flor  del  granado  es   tan   bonita  como  su 
fruta. 

11.  Es  la  moda  de  hacer  muebles  de  junco,  son 
Imnitos  pero  poco  duraderos. 

12.  El  noj  de  la  Alcazar  de  Sevilla  es  celebrado  por 
KU  antipuedad  y  hermosura. 

1:5.  Con  almendras  y  avellana  se  hacen  en  Espafia 
mi  dnlee  <|up  Hainan  turron  que  es  muy  bueno. 

14.  Los  olivares  son  tristes  y  melancolicos,  el  verde 
'!••  in  folia  je  es  cnsi 


KKY  TO  EXERCISE  XV.  (1) 

1.  Hemos    cerrado    todos    las    puertas,    y   ahora 

.  dl  la-;  vi-ntanas. 

!••  la  pena  rogar  que  lo  perdonen  ;  ruegen 
ren. 
:{.   HI  olor  (l<i  esas  flores  es  un  verdadero  perfume. 

4.  !•'.-<    <lili''il    adijuirir    t'iima,    y    aim    mas    difiril 

i  despues  de  adquirM  i. 

5.  Es  bueno  alentar  a  la  juventud  ;  yo  la  aliento 


8.  E*  ditieil  aprobar  cuando  un  amigo  nos  critica 
con  \  iprobacion  de  los  que  nos  rodean  es 

neceaaria  para  nuestra  felicidad. 

,M'-  atender  a  nuestros  negocios  ! 

ndado  al  atravesar  la  plaza  ;  yo  la 
i-s(i   xi.-mj.rc    mirando   a   la   dereeha,   y     a     la 
i/.«|ii 

'|ii'-  no  liny  jicur   ciego  que  aquel 
T.      El  s.-r  oiego  ae.-n-a  de  nuestros 
Oral. 

I".   .\M..,tr,i    amistad    fn.'-    ciiu.-ntada  hace     anos- 
Minto-t.    La-i  trikilaciones  son  buenas 
para  cimcntar  lni.-i..i-  i  v|,i<  i<  ,n>  •>. 

1  '     l''st''  •  '.i  <|iu-  se  cnliente,  y  hay  que 

cal.-ntar  taml>i»n  .1  alnm.-r/'  .. 


KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XV.  (2) 

1  The  political  exile  to  which  he  was  condemn. •< I 
ade  his  fortune    when  his  party  returned  to  power. 

2  To  awaken  the  anger  of  a  passionate  person  i» 
dm.'erous;  once  awakened  it  is  difficult  to  appease. 

3  It  is  more  difficult  to  man  to  govern  his  passions 
than  to  govern  a  nation. 

4.  I  absolutely  deny  having  said  such  a  thing,  and 
when  they  confront  me  with  him,  he  will  not  be  able 

to^6lf  i^said  that  it  is  better  to  patch  one's  cloak 
in  time  than  to  let  the  patch  be   bigger  than  the 

6    He  who  sows  thorns  cannot  expect  flowers    to 
spring  up  ;  it  is  better  to  sow  good  seed  than  to  sow 

7.  The  fool  dreams  what  he  will,  and  the  wise  man 
what  lie  can.     Dreaming  cannot  be  commanded. 

PROSE  EXTRACT  XIII. 
From  a  short  story  by  Juan  Ochoa,  entitled  : 


Liberty." 
Shade,  shade  of  green 


Libertad." 

Sombra,      sombra      de 

leaves,  was  what  .both  hojas  verdes,  era  lo  que 
sought  for  in  their  hours  buscaban  ambos  en  las 
of  love. 

sang     to- 
spring  ! 


horas  de  amor. 

;  Cuanto  cantaron  jun- 
tos aquella  primavera. 
i  Cuantas  ternezas  se 


How  they 
gether  that 
What  tender  things  they  . 

said  to  each  other  on  a  dijeroii  los  dos  en  la  copa 
tree-top  swayed  by  the  de  un  arbol  agitado  por 
breeze  !  la  brisa  ! 

If  looking  up  at  the  sky          Si  ella  mirando  al  ciel 
she  burst  into  ecstatic  song 
he    would     listen    atten- 
tively with  his  tiny  quiver 


ing  head  on  one  side,  and 
when  the  last  notes  died 
away  upon  the  beak  of 


se  arrobaba  en  su  cancion 
oiala  el  atento,  ladeando 
un  poco  la  cabecita 
temblorosa  ;  y  cuando 
morian  las  ultimas 
notes  en  el  pico  de  su 


his  mate  he  would  shake  companera,  sacudiase  las 
his  feathers,  draw  him-  plumas,  se  erguia  con 
self  up  prettily,  and  in  gentileza  para  entonar 
lii<  turn  intone  the  la  of  tambien  la  trova  del 
amor  ardiente  j  Gilguero 
de  mas  inspiracion  a  mas 
fachenda  !  Era  grande  y 
tenia  el  plumaje  limpio 
y  hermoso.  Habia 

pasado  en  la  vida  sus 
aventuras  serias  y  graves. 
Una  mauana  cayo  preso 
en  liga  ;  vio  correr  hacia 
el  cuatro  chiquillos  locos 

ithgleerunniiigtowards  de  gozo  ;  hizo  entonces 
un  esfuerzo  supremo  y 
escape,  dejo  alii  plumas, 
com  pro  con  sangres  la 
libertad  de  sus  alas, 
pero  logro  huir  a.  la 
espesura,  a  los  rincones 
sombrios  del  follaje,  al 
hogar  de  hojas  de  sus 


ardent  love.  The  most 
magnificent  and  long- 
winded  of  linnets  !  He 
was  large  and  beauti- 
fully sleek  of  plumage. 
He  had  suffered  grave 
and  perilous  adventures 
in  his  life.  One  morning 
ho  fell  into  a  snare  ;  he 
saw  four  children  wild 

*un 

him  ;  then  he  made 
supreme  effort  and  es- 
caped ;  leaving  feathers 
behind,  he  bought  the 
liberty  of  his  wings  with 
blood,  but  he  succeeded 
in  flying  to  the  thicket, 
to  the  dark  nooks  of  foli- 
age, to  the  leafy  home  of  suefios. 
his  dreams.  He  flew  far  Aquel  dia  volo  mucho, 
that  day,  eagerly  tlrink-  bebio  con  ansia  la  dicha 
ing  in  the  joy  of  liberty,  de  ser  libre,  y  a  una 
and  with  a  blow  of  his  a  ran  a  que  sorprendio  ace- 
beak  slew  a  spider  whom  chando  a,  una  mosca, 
he  surprised,  lying  in  am- 
bush for  a  fly. 

What  labour  love  laid 
upon  him  and  his  mate  ! 
Luckily  she  turned  out 
the  most  industrious  and 
wisest  bird  ever  seen.  She 
was  up  to  everything. 
Thread,  shreds,  fluff, 
horsehair — she  carried 


matola    de    un    picotazo. 


j  A  cuantos  afanes  les 
llevo  el  amor,  a  el  y  a  su 
companera  !  Gracias  que 
esta  salio  la  pajara  mas 
hacendosa  y  sabihonda 
que  se  habia  visto.  Es- 
taba  en  todo.  Hilos, 
brignos,  tamo,  cerdas, 

everything   home    in  her     todo  se  lo  colgabadel  pico, 

beak   to   make   the  nest, 

and      while      her      lover 

twisted   and  wove  these 


y  lo  traia  a  casa  para  el 
nido  ;  y  mientras  su 
amante  emaranaba  y 


LANGUAGES— ESPERANTO 


materials,  she  watched 
him  lovingly,  twittering 
softly,  and  suggesting 
her  own  plans  also. 

Thus  they  raised  a 
temple  to  their  love,  and 
therein  were  happily 
united,  hidden  in  mys- 
terious foliage,  having  the 
blue  of  heaven,  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  the  caresses 
of  the  breeze,  and  the 
music  of  leaves  for  their 
wedding  present. 

They  had  a  family,  four 
rapacious  imps  who  were 
transformed  into  mouths 
as  soon  as  they  smelt  food ; 
they  had  to  be  fed — ex- 
peditions must  be  made 
in  search  of  food  ;  they 
spent  the  whole  day  at 
it.  The  warmth  of  their 
feathers,  the  bread  out  of 
their  mouths — nothing 
sufficed  the  gluttons. 
What  drudgery  ! 

One  day  when  feathers 
had  begun  to  grow  on  the 


tejia  aquellos  materialep, 
ella  le  contemplaba  en- 
amorada,  charloteando  en 
voz  baja  y  dando  tambien 
sus  planes. 

Asi  elevaron  a  su  amor 
un  templo,  y  en  el  se 
unieron  f  el  ices,  escon- 
didos  en  la  fronda  mis- 
teriosa  teniendo  como  re- 
galo  de  bod  as  aquel 
cielo,  rayos  de  sol,  cari- 
cias  de  la  brisa,  musica 
de  hojas. 

Tuvieron  hijos  ;  cuatro 
diablejos  tragones,  que 
todos  se  volvian  boca  en 
cuanto  olian  comida  ; 
habia  que  cebarlos — habia 
que  salir  y  buscar  alimen- 
tos.  En  esto  se  pasaban 
el  dia.  El  calor  de  sus 
plumas,  el  pan  de  sus 
bocas  —  todo  era  poco 
para  aquellos  golosos. 
;  Que  fatigas  ! 

Cuando  los  pequeiiue- 
los  comenzaron  a  echar 


little  ones,  and  the  tree 
was  enlivened  by  their 
twitter,  their  parents 
went  out  in  search  of  food. 
They  returned  at  night- 
fall— they  found  no  nest 
nor  birds  in  the  tree, 
there  were  none  to  feed. 
Then  came  mournful  love, 
the  wailing  song,  the 
measureless  lament, 

which  lost  itself  in  the 
solitude  of  the  grove. 
When  night  drew  in  they 
kept  the  vigil  of  their 
sorrow  together  above 
the  ruins  of  the  nest ; 
they  never  closed  their 
eyes,  and  they  had  no 
song  to  greet  the  light  of 
dawn  that  day. 

Juan  Ochoa  (1864- 
1 899),  a  young  author  and 
journalist  whose  early 
death  was  a  great  loss  to 
Spanish  literature.  He 
is  renowned  for  the  deli- 
cate beauty  of  his  short 
stories. 


pluma  y  alegraban  el 
arbol  con  su  charla,  sa- 
lieron  un  dia  los  padres  en 
busca  de  alimento.  Vol- 
vieron  al  obscurecer.  No 
hallaron  en  el  arbol  nido 
ni  pajaros,  no  tuvieron 
a  quien  cebar.  Entonces 
comenzo  el  amor  triste,  el 
cantar  llorando,  la  queja 
inmensa  que  se  perdio  en 
la  soledad  de  la  arboleda. 
Cuando  cerro  la  noche, 
velaron  juntos  su  dolor, 
sobre  las  ruinas  del  nido  ; 
no  pegaron  los  ojos,  y  a  la 
luz  del  alba  de  aquel  dia 
no  la  saludaron  cantando. 


Juan  Ochoa  (1864- 
1899),  un  joyeii  autor  y 
periodista  cuya  temprana 
muerte  fue  una  gran 
perdida  para  la  literatura 
espanola.  Es  afamado 
por  la  delicada  hermo- 
sura  de  sus  cuentos. 


Continued 


ESPERANTO 


By  Harald  Clegg,  F.B.E.A. 


Esperanto  is  an  artificial  language 
perfected  in  1887  by  Dr.  Louis 
Zamenhof,  an  oculist  and  linguist 
of  Warsaw,  and  is  so  called  from 
his  pen  name,  "  Dr.  Esperanto  " 
(the  hoping  one).  It  is  intended 
to  serve  the  purpose  of  an  auxiliary 
language  for  international  use,  and 
possesses  the  advantages  of  extreme 
simplicity,  logical  construction, 
flexibility,  and  adaptability  to 
present  and  future  requirements,  as 
well  as  ease  of  oral  comprehension. 

The  language  is  now  taught 
at  many  continental  universities, 
lycees  and  military  colleges,  and  is 
rapidly  gaining  favour  at  grammar 
schools  and  colleges  in  this  country. 
The  London  County  Council  has 
made  it  a  subject  for  instruction 
in  its  schools. 

The  lessons  appearing  in  this 
course  have  been  carefully  gradu- 
ated, it  being  assumed,  however, 
that  the  student  knows  already  the 
meanings  of  ordinary  grammatical 
terms.  He  should  aim  first  at 
reading,  then  at  writing,  and  finally 
at  spea'ki'ng  the  language  with  ease. 


THE 


The  Esperanto 
letters— viz.  : 

A  (a)  B  (bo) 

D  (do)  E  (e) 
&(<jo) 

JO'o)  Jtfc. 

M  (mo)  N  (wo) 

R  (ro)  S  (so) 

U  (u)  U  («o) 


ALPHABET 

Iphabet  ]i 


C(co) 


S  (So) 


C  (co) 

G(go) 

I(i) 

L(lo) 

P(po) 

T(to) 

Z(zo) 


The  consonants  are  pronounced 
exactly  as  in  English,  with  the 
following  exceptions  : 


c  as  ts  in  its 
c    ,  ch  „  church 
g    „  gun  or  mug 
g    „  gent  or  dg  in  edge 
h    „  hot  (always  aspirated) 
ch  „  loch  (or  German  ch) 
This  is  the  sound  of  the  ordinary 
h  gutturally  pronounced,  and  with 
considerable  aspiration.   It  is  repre- 
sented phonetically  by  kh. 
j  as  y  in  you,  yet 
j    „  zh,  or  like  s  in  pleasure 
s  „  s  in  sit  or  bus 
s  „  sh  in  show,  shift 
u.     This  letter,  which  is  a  con- 
sonant  and   equivalent   to    the 
English  w,  can  never  stand  alone. 
It  is  always  preceded  either  by 
e  or  a,  and  pronounced  approxi- 
mately thus : 
au  as  ow  in  cow  ;  eu  as  ay-oo  in 

gray-ooze, 

the  sounds  being  uttered  close 
together,  with  one  emission  of 
the  voice,  so  as  to  produce  a 
single  syllable.  It  must  be  under- 
stood that  this  example  (gray- 
ooze)  is  not  perfect— the  true 
sound  of  eii  not  being  found  in 
any  English  word. 

The  five  vowels  are  pronounced 
as  follows,  all  being  pure  sounds 
and  of  medium  length  : 

a  as  ah. 

e  as  eh. 

i  as  ee  in  teem. 

o  as  oh  (very  round  and  entirely 
avoiding  any  approach  towards 
ow.) 

u  as  oo  in  boot. 


Every  vowel,  no  matter  where 
placed  in  a  word,  is  always  clearly 
pronounced. 

Besides  the  two  combinations 
above  there  are  four  others,  a/, 
ej,  of,  and  uj.  Remember  that  the 
;'  here  still  retains  the  sound  of  the 
English  y  as  before  stated,  so  that 
these  combined  letters  become  : 
ahy  (ah-y),  ehy,  ohy, "and  ooy,  the 
sounds  being  found  in  :  pie,  play, 
boy,  and  quill.  Each  of  these  four 
combinations  represents,  of  course, 
but  one  syllable. 

Every  word  is  pronounced  as 
written.  There  are  no  silent  letters. 
The  tonic  accent  in  every  word  which 
is  not  a  monosyllable  falls  on  the 
penultimate  (last  syllable  but  one). 
Give  every  letter  its  full  sound  and 
pronounce  nacio  nah-tsee'-oh,  alia 
ah-lee'-ah;  notnahf-s-yoh&ndahl-yah. 
Slightly  roll  the  letter  r  so  that  no 
ambiguity  will  arise  when  such 
words  as  karto  and  kato  are  pro- 
nounced. 

Imitated  Pronunciation.  Read 
aloud  the  following  words,  carefully 
observing  the  pronunciation  printed 
by  each  : 

(The  stressed  syllables  are  indi 
cated  by  accents.) 

buso  (boo'-shoh),  multaj  (mool'- 
tahy),  tridek  (tree'-dehk),  Novem- 
bro  (Nok-vehm'-broh),  naskita 
(nahs-kee'-tah),  infanojn  (een-fah' 
nohjn),  amuze  (ah-moo'-zeh),  ho- 
diau  (hoh-dee'-ow),  klerulo  (kleh- 
roo'-loh),neuzi  (neh-oo'-zee),  Euro- 
po  (Ehoo-roh'-poh),  monaho  (moh- 
nah'-kho),  *scienca  (stsee-ehn'- 
tsah)  pezilo  (peh-zee'-loh),  senigi 
(cheh-nee-gee),  laciga  (lah-tsee- 

4511 


LANGUAGES     ESPERANTO 

.  fnriru  (fnh-ree'-roo),  crluntr 

•  •ii'H'-t>li).   nrninn  (in'h-nee- 

!;inuj<>  (kliri-niMi'-f/nli).  sip;i- 

/Miii-iitili'-rnli).    plena- 

-11  In  (pkh-nak-dgoo'-loh),  jurintaj 

tnlii/),  ie  (ce'-eh),  maja 

(tnnh'-i/a/i),     ivvolucio     (reh-roh- 

loo-tsee'-oh),    tiuj    (tee'-ooy),   iliaj 


*  The  exact  sound  of  sc  is  found 
in  the  last  three  letters  of  "  mists  " 
(mists). 

THE    ARTICLE 

There  is  but  one  article  in 
:unto  —  la  (the),  which  remttins 
the  same  for  all  genders,  cases,  and 
number*.  The  indefinite  articles, 
/;.  an,  are  not  translated.  The 
use  of  the  definite  article  in  Es- 
peranto is  very  much  the  same  as  in 
Kii^lish.  It  is  used  when  the  noun 
which  follows  must  be  distinguished 
from  others  of  the  same  species. 
l.\.  ;  1  have,  the  (la)  money  (the 
money  which  has  been  previously 
mentioned  or  referred  to),  which 
id  different  in  meaning  from  I  have 
money.  I  sold  the  (la)  horse  (a  horse 
which  must  be  distinguished  from 
nt  hers).  Nouns  of  abstract  quality 
take  the  article  la,  as  La  fiereco 
(pride)  ;  so  do  all  the  arts  and 
sciences,  as  :  La  zoologio  (zoology), 
la  kantarto  (singing).  The  same 
remark  applies  to  nouns  indicating 
n  whole  species,  as  :  La  homaro 
(humanity),  la  bestaro  (the  animal 
kingdom).  Generally  speaking,  the 
sense  of  a  phrase  determines  the 
-ity  for  employing  the  definite 
article,  but  in  all  cases  of  doubt 
it  should  be  omitted. 

THE    NOUN 

A-  will  l,r  se,-n  by  reference  to  the 

vocabularies,  Esperanto  words  are 

built  up  from  roots  which  are  given 

n    dffinite    meaning,    and    to    this 

particular  attention  must  be  paid. 

Some  of  the  roots  are   by  nature 

essentially  substantival,  others  ad- 

jfctival  or  verbal,  and  in  adding  o 

to  form  the  substantive,  a  to  form 

the   adjective,    etc.,    care   must   be 

e  that  the  word  so  con- 

irs  a  translatable  mean- 

mi:.     The  force  of  this  remark  will 

i    later  when   the  terminations 

bMB   fully  dealt  with. 

N'-uns  are  formed  by  adding  o 
t  .  thu  root,  when  singular  and  in 
tin-  nominative  case. 

Thus  :  Infan-o,  dom-o,  patr-o, 
pord-o. 

To  form  the  plural,  add  ;  to  the 
o,  thus  making  the  words  tnfanoi, 
domoj,  patroj,  pordoj. 


When,  however,  tin-  noun  (siniru- 
lar  or  plural)  is  in  the  accusative 
case— i.e..  when  it  is  affected  by 
some  transitive  verb  of  which  it  is 
the  direct  object— a  final  X  is  added. 
K\.  :  I  have  a  fine  house  (domon); 
He  sold  me  two  doors  (pordojn). 

Jn  the  latter  phrase,  me  is  the 
indirect  object  of  the  verb,  and  in 
INperunto  is  governed  by  a  pre- 
position. Here  it  may  be  advisable 
to  explain  why  Esperanto  uses  an 
accusative  case,  and  thus  adopts 
an  apparent  complication  which 
other  languages  have  abandoned 
as  unnecessary.  In  English,  how- 
ever, we  see  it  in  the  pronouns  : 

I  (nominative),  me  (objective), 
they  (nominative),  them  (objective), 
and  so  on,  but  nouns  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  objective  cases  are  alike. 
In  a  phrase  auch  as  "  Father  likes 
mother  more  than  you  "  we  can- 
not  tell  whether  father's  liking  for 
mother  excels  yours,  or  whether 
father  prefers  mother  to  you.  There 
is,  moreover,  another  use  for  the 
Esperanto  accusative  which  will  be 
dealt  with  in  a  subsequent  lesson. 
This  one  simple  principle,  while 
allowing  freedom  to  the  order  of 
words  in  a  phrase,  permits  a  single 
conjugation  of  the  verb  and  does 
away  with  the  necessity  for  dupli- 
cating pronouns.  As  a  consequence, 
Esperanto  is  more  supple  than  any 
natural  language,  and  far  more 
precise  in  the  meanings  it  has 
to  convey.  Confusion,  such  as 
the  above  English  phrase  exhibits, 
can  never  arise  in  Esperanto, 
thanks  to  the  adoption  of  one 
general  rule,  which,  after  all,  is 
easily  grasped. 

Nouns  in  Esperanto  have  no 
possessive  case,  this  being  rendered 
by  de  (of).  Sometimes  a  possessive 
noun  may  be  conveniently  trans- 
lated by  an  adjective. 

Ex. :  tiafa  felo  (sheep's  skin). 

THE    VERB 

The  whole  of  the  moods,  tenses, 
and  participles  of  Esperanto  verbs 
are  formed  by  the  addition  of 
twelve  terminal  particles  to  the 
roots.  Their  conjugation  is  ab- 
solutely regular. 

The  infinitive  mood  of  the  verb  is 
formed  without  exception  by  add- 
ing t  to  the  root.  Ex. :  Kuri,  to 
run  ;  fermi,  to  shut.  The  sole 
auxiliary  verb  is  esli  (to  be)  which 
entirely  displaces  the  use  of  equiva- 
lents for  the  English  auxiliaries 
to  have  and  to  do. 

The  present  tense  is  formed  by 
the  addition  of  as  to  the  root  word, 

Continued 


and  this  form  is  used  for  1st,  2nd, 
and  3rd  persons,  both  singular  and 
plural.  Ex.  :  Infants  sing,  are 
singing,  do  sing,  infanoj  kantas  ; 
the  father  sells,  is  selling,  does  sell, 
la  patro  vendas. 

VOCABULARY 

The  words  in  each  vocabulary 
should  be  thoroughly  learned  by 
uttering  them  aloud  before  pro- 
ceeding with  the  exercise.  Those 
which  are  indeclinable  are  distin- 
guished by  an  asterisk. 
acet',  buy  hav',  have 

admir',  admire        (possess) 
agl',  eagle  *kaj,  and 

akcept',  accept    kol',  neck 
bak',  bake  kuz',  cousin 

baston',  stick  (male) 

(cane)  labor,  work  (v.n.) 

best',  animal        man',  hand 
bird',  bird  onkl',  uncle 

bov',  ox  paper',  paper 

brul',  burn  (v.n.)  pip',  pipe 
capel',  hat  (tobacco) 

cas',  hunt  pun',  punish 

(pursue)  saf,  sheep 

dank',  thank       se<j',  chair,  seat 
dent',  tooth          skrib',  write 
edz',    married    star',  stand 

person   (hus-    (v.n.) 

band)  tabl',  table 

ferm',  shut  (furniture) 

fenestr',  window  vast',  tail 
gazet',  gazette     vid',  see  (v.) 
vir',  man 

EXERCISE  I. 

Translate  into  Esperanto  and 
repeat  the  words  aloud  when 
written : 

Uncle,  sheep,  the  stick,  the 
windows,  to  write,  to  thank,  to 
punish,  to  shear,  to  see.  The  cousin 
works.  The  husband  writes.  The 
sheep  stands.  Uncle  punishes.  The 
sheep  run.  The  husband  buys  some* 
gazettes.  Father  admires  the  eagle. 
The  child  clips  the  paper.  The  eagle 
is  a  bird.  b  Uncle  has  a  chair,  a 
table,  and  a  stick.  Sheep  and  oxen 
are  animals  *.  The  father  shuts  the 
windows.  The  husband  has  a  hat 
and  the  sheep  have  tails.  The  eagle 
sees  the  children.  The  child  thanks 
the  father.  The  man  bought  a 
table  and  some*  chairs.  The  man 
accepts  the  hat. 

a  Not  translated. 

&  When  the  predicative  com- 
plement is  identical  with  the  sub- 
ject  of  the  sentence,  it  is  in  the 
nominative 


4f>19 


ir.i  i 


ADAPTING  EARTH  TO  OUR  NEEDS 

Man,  the  Trader.      Utilising-  the  Earth's  Raw  Materials.     Transport  by  Land 
and  Sea.  Power  and  Manufacture.  Canals.  Rivers.  Railways.  Towns  and  Ports 


Group  13 

COMMERCIAL 

GEOGRAPHY 

2 

Continued  trom 
page  4498 


By  Dr.  A.  J.  HERBERTSON,  M.A.,  and  F.  D.  HERBERTSON,  B.A. 


TTHE  chief  barriers  to  communication  by  sea 
are  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea,  necessitating  the 
long  voyage  round  the  Cape  ;  and  the  isthmus 
of  Central  America  between  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Pacific,  entailing  the  rounding  of  Cape  Horn. 
The  first  has  been  overcome  by  cutting  the 
Suez  Canal.  The  cutting  either  of  the  Panama 
or  the  Nicaragua  Canal  across  the  second  is  only 
a  question  of  time.  The  stormy  route  round 
Denmark  is  avoided  by  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
Canal  across  the  base  of  Jutland,  and  the 
Corinth  Canal  saves  the  long  route  round  the 
Morea.  A  ship  canal  between  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  would  give  a  short  route  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  North  Sea. 

The  natural  regions  of  tundra,  temperate  forest, 
steppe,  desert,  and  tropical  forest  have  already 
been  described.  These  are  not  arranged  in 
parallel  zones,  but  according  to  variations  of 
configuration  and  climate.  Each  zone  has  its 
special  products,  the  general  nature  of  which  has 
already  been  indicated. 

Adapting  the  World  to  Man's  Needs. 
Man  differs  from  all  other  animals  in  his 
higher  intelligence  and  his  more  complex  wants. 
Only  in  the  earliest  stages  of  civilisation  has 
he  been  contented  to  take  the  world  as  he 
found  it,  witKout  attempting  to  adapt  it  to 
his  needs.  If  we  look  at  the  lowest  existing 
races,  we  see  in  them  the  germs  of  that  in- 
genuity arid  inventiveness  which  has  made  the 
highest  races  what  they  are.  In  the  course  of 
ages  man  has  done  much  to  change  the  world  he 
originally  found.  He  has  modified  vegetation 
and  animal  life,  diverted  rivers,  drained  lakes, 
tunnelled  mountains,  and  cut  canals  from  sea 
to  sea.  In  all  this  he  has  had  one  main  end  in 
view,  the  desire  to  obtain  a  fuller  command  of 
the  world  and  its  resources. 

The  first  stage  was  when  men  lived  exclusively 
on  what  they  could  find — dead  animals,  fish  left 
by  the  receding  tide,  and  the  fruit,  leaves,  and 
roots  of  plants.  It  is  difficult  to  find  examples 
of  peoples  at  this  stage  so  immediately  do  men 
begin  to  invent  devices  for  improving  their  food 
supply.  Mere  collecting  of  this  kind  is  still 
the  chief  resource  of  the  people  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  of  the  South  African  Bushmen,  and  of 
many  Australian  tribes. 

Man,  however,  soon  becomes  a  hunter,  and 
makes  weapons.  Some  of  these — the  Australian 
boomerang,  which  returns  to  the  thrower,  or 
the  Eskimo  harpoon,  for  example — are  extremely 
ingenious.  Civilised  man  has  the  same  instinct, 
and  invents  weapons  of  diabolical  precision 
and  destructiveness  with  which  to  achieve  his 
ends. 


Hunters  in  the  Old  and  New  Worlds. 

Hunting  is  essentially  a  destructive  occupation. 
It  is  continually  reducing  the  food  supply,  and 
making  existence  more  difficult.  As  small  areas 
are  soon  cleared  of  game,  hunting  peoples  require 
a  very  large  range  of  country,  and  as  they  have 
to  pursue  their  prey,  they  rarely  have  settled 
homes.  The  lowest  hunting  tribes  build  rude 
shelters  where  they  may  happen  to  want  them. 
Similarly,  the  wealthy  sportsman  who  goes  far 
afield  in  search  of  sport  carries  elaborate  tents 
and  outfits.  In  both  cases  it  is  impossible 
always  to  return  to  the  same  spot  at  nightfall. 

When  Europeans  discovered  North  America 
the  prairies  fed  great  herds  of  bison,  which  were 
hunted  by  Indian  tribes.  The  Australian  tribes 
hunted  the  kangaroo  and  other  animals.  The 
pygmy  tribes  of  the  tropical  forest  are  skilled 
hunters.  The  Eskimo  hunts  the  seal  and  walrus, 
making  the  sea  his  hunting  ground.  Among  more 
advanced  peoples  hunting  is  only  one  among 
many  occupations.  The  trapping  of  fur  animals 
is  important  in  the  temperate  forests  of  the  Old 
and  New  World,  but  it  is  for  exchange,  and  no 
longer  for  food.  The  Eskimo  are  true  hunters,  but 
the  crews  of  whaling  and  sealing  vessels  are  in  a 
transition  stage.  In  the  long  run  both  classes  die 
out.  Generally,  it  is  because  the  game  is  extermi- 
nated, for  this  is  the  penalty  which  Nature  exacts 
from  those  who  destroy  without  renewing.  Often 
the  end  is  accelerated,  as  in  the  American  prairies, 
or  in  Australia,  by  the  advent  of  a  more  advanced 
race  with  superior  weapons,  who  deliberately 
exterminate  the  game  to  put  the  land  to  more 
profitable  uses.  Deprived  of  their  hunting 
grounds,  the  aboriginal  people  quickly  perish. 

Man  as  a  Creative  Agent.  It  is  far 
otherwise  when  man  begins  to  create.  This  he  has 
done  by  domesticating  and  breeding  animals, 
and  by  practising  agriculture.  The  shepherd  or 
the  farmer  is  obviously  a  more  useful  type  than 
the  hunter,  and  one  likelier  to  become  rich.  In 
the  great  grass  lands  of  the  world  the  pastoral 
peoples  predominate.  Agriculture  of  a  more  or 
less  complex  kind  is  practised  wherever  there  is 
the  least  chance  of  success.  Even  the  majority 
of  hunting  peoples  have  -some  rudimentary 
knowledge  of  agriculture,  which  has  become  the 
mainstay  of  the  highest  races.  Both  agriculture 
and  the  breeding  of  animals  become  more  and 
more  scientific  as  a  race  increases  in  civilisation, 
ensuring  a  larger  and  more  certain  return  for 
the  labour  expended. 

Man's  control  of  Nature  is  thus  continually 
increasing,  though  there  are  innumerable  agencies 
ever  liable  to  undo  his  work.  Some  of  these 
are  climatic  ;  others  are  of  plant  or  animal 
origin.  Untimely  frost,  rain,  hail,  or  drought 

4515 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

i  niiii  his  crops  and  involve'  the  loss  of 
Iiis'  livestock.  Lower  forms  of  plant  life 
may  cause  blight,  mildew,  and  other  plant 
dlMMeS,  The  animal  toes  range  from  micro- 
Mopie  organisms  to  highly  organised  animals. 
I'll,  former  are  the  unseen  causes  of  disease, 
malaria,  yellow  fever,  ete.  The  ravages  of  the 
phylloxera  insect  have  caused  immense  loss  to 
nearly  all  vine-growing  countries.  The  mosquito 
renders  large  districts  uninhabitable  by  carrying 
the  germ  of  malaria.  The  African  tee-tee  fly 
niinates  cattle  over  the  areas  it  haunts. 
The  locust,  the  scourge  of  South  Africa  and  other 
dry  lands,  annihilates  every  trace  of  vegetation 
in  the  line  of  advance.  The  rabbit  has  become 
an  equally  serious  plague  in  Australia,  where  it 
does  great  damage  both  to  crops  and  pasture. 
Many  other  examples  will  doubtless  suggest 
themselves. 

Man's  Utilisation  of  Raw  Materials. 
A  society  which  breeds  animals  or  practises  agri- 
culture has  a  constant  supply  of  raw  materials. 
The  shepherd  peoples  have  immense  quantities 
of  wool  and  hair,  out  of  which  they  make  felt 
tents,  wool  carpets,  leather  bottles,  saddlery,  and 
so  forth.  The  agricultural  peoples  have  bursting 
barns  and  laden  fruit  trees  in  autumn.  Fruit 
must  either  be  used  immediately  or  wasted. 
Thus  begin  such  industries  as  the  making  of 
wine.  It  is  needless  to  follow  out  the  process  in 
detail,  or  to  mention  the  manifold  ways  in  which 
the  raw  materials  of  the  entire  world  are  utilised 
in  a  complex  society  like  our  own. 

Originally,  all  power  was  hand  power,  as  it 
still  is  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Labour 
may  be  so  cheap  that  hand  power  is  the  most 
economical,  as  in  China ;  or  a  region  may 
be  so  remote  that  labour-saving  devices  have 
not  penetrated  to  it,  as  in  the  hand  grinding  of 
cereals  in  many  African  villages,  or,  in  exceptional 
cases,  such  as  lacemaking,  the  hand  may  give 
a  finer  result.  Animal  power  probably  developed 
next.  A  common  example  of  it  is  the  use  of 
animals  in  ploughing.  Horse  power  remains 
our  unit  of  measure,  though  we  now  employ 
mechanical  power  wherever  possible. 

Power  —  Water,  Steam,  and  Elec= 
tricity.  Water  power  was  the  first  mechanical 
power  employed,  and  the  command  of  it  was 
of  prime  importance  until  the  introduction 
of  steam  power  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Steam  power  enormously  increased  output, 
and  the  impetus  thus  given  to  manufactures 
led  the  conveniently  -  situated  coalfields  of 
F.urope  and  North  America  to  specialise  in 
inaniita.  turcs  to  the  almost  complete  exclusion 
of  agriculture.  Steam  power  is  now  being 
rapidly  displaced  by  electric  power,  which  is 
I-  -'"ring  the  command  of  water  power  to  its 
•  >ld  importance.  The  fact  that  it  can  be  cheap'y 
itted  by  water  power,  transmitted  for  long 
'•<•-.  and  put  to  the  most  varied  uses,  gives 
it  a  superiority  to  every  other  form  of  power 
with  \\  hii-h  we  are  yet  acquainted.  Its  increasing 
IIM-  is  one  of  the  gn-at  secrets  of  civilisation, 
.ml  it.s  in  iv  .sing  application  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  will  almost  inevitably  lead  in  the  long  run 
to  redi>t'ilmtion  of  population. 

4514 


The  geographical  and  human  factors  togethei 
produce  great  diversity  of  raw  and  manufac- 
tured products.  Some  system  of  exchange 
early  begins,  and  increases  in  complexity  a^ 
societies  develop. 

Exchange  and  Transport.  For  ex- 
change two  things  are  necessary— a  surplus 
of  some  commodity  and  the  means  of  putting 
it  on  the  market.  Without  the  latter  the 
former  is  useless.  Transport  will  therefore  be 
briefly  considered  before  commodities. 

Transport  is  carried  on  either  by  land  or  water. 
Transport  by  land  is  carried  on  first  by  road,  and 
much  later  by  rail.  In  transport  by  road  goods 
are  carried  by  human  porters  or  by  beasts  of 
draught  or  burden  and  recently  by  mechanical 
power.  In  transport  by  rail  a  locomotive  is 
driven  by  mechanical  power,  or  carriages  are  pro- 
pelled by  electricity.  By  water,  oars,  sails,  steam 
or  other  mechanical  powers  are  employed,  and 
on  inland  waterways  haulage — usually  by  horses. 

Women  are  the  oldest  beasts  of  burden  in  the 
world,  and  stiS  do  most  of  the  carrying  among 
savage  -  tribes.  Slave  labour  is  notoriously 
associated  with  the  ivory  trade,  carrier  and 
burden  being  sold  together  at  the  end  of  the 
journey.  Slave  labour  is  being  eliminated  by 
the  progress  of  civilisation,  but  human  carriage 
is  by  no  means  at  an  end.  On  a  limited  scale, 
it  survives  among  ourselves.  It  may  be  the 
only  form  of  transport  possible  under  certain 
conditions,  as,  for  example,  in  those  parts  of 
Africa  ravaged  by  the  tse-tse  fly,  whose  bite  is 
fatal  to  animals.  In  the  tropical  forests  to  make 
and  keep  roads  open  is  almost  impossible,  and 
human  carriage  must  frequently  be  resorted  to. 

Human  Carriers.  Human  transport  is 
slow  and  dear.  A  slave  must  be  bought  as  well 
as  fed,  and  as  he  may  die  on  the  march,  a  specu- 
lative risk  is  incurred.  A  free  portei  requires 
wages  in  addition  to  food,  which  an  animal  does 
not.  Limitation  is  also  set  by  human  strength. 
A  man  can  carry  only  a  given  load.  If  part  of 
this  consists  of  his  own  food,  the  expense  becomes 
still  more  prohibitive.  Always  dear,  human 
transport  is  only  practicable  in  fertile  regions,  and 
then  only  on  a  very  limited  scale.  Hence,  such 
a  region  as  our  Colony  of  Nigeria  develops  very 
slowly.  There  is  abundance  of  valuable  produce 
in  the  interior,  but  it  cannot  be  got  down  to  the 
coast.  The  time  would  be  prohibitive,  and  the 
cost  at  the  present  rate  would  work  out  at  about 
£10  per  ton  per  100  miles. 

Transport  by  human  carriers  therefore  greatly 
hampers  the  rapid  growth  of  trade,  and  can 
only  be  applied  to  goods  which  are  not  perishable, 
and  where  bulk  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
value.  Such  a  trade  is  that  in  brick  tea 
across  the  high  mountains  separating  China 
from  Tibet.  In  no  country,  however,  is 
human  labour  so  cheap  as  in  the  rice  lands 
of  China  and  India,  and  nowhere  is  human 
carriage  so  common.  An  economy  is  effected 
when  man  is  made  into  a  draught  animal,  for 
he  can  pull  larger  loads  than  he  can  lift.  In 
China  wheelbarrows  are  largely  used.  Sails  are 
s-mv -times  attached  to  them,  but  rather  to 
increase  the  load  than  to  lessen  the  labour. 


Animal  Carriers.  Animal  transport  is 
also  a  very  ancient  mode  of  transport,  though  still 
in  daily  use  among  ourselves.  It  is  both  quicker 
and  cheaper  than  the  preceding,  especially  if 
draught  are  substituted  for  pack  animals.  The 
reindeer  in  the  tundra  of  the  Old  World,  the  horse 
in  temperate  Europe,  the  mule  in  southern  Europe, 
the  ox  in  South  Africa,  the  camel  in  the  hotter, 
drier  regions,  are  among  the  draught  and  pack 
animals  of  the  world.  The  yak  crosses  the  high 
passes  of  Tibet,  and  the  llama  those  of  the  Andes. 
There  are,  however,  the  same  limitations  as  in 
the  case  of  human  labour.  Expense  is  enor- 
mously increased  if  part  of  the  animal's  load 
consists  of  its  own  food.  Hence  the  value  of  the 
camel  where  it  can  be  used.  This  animal  has 
fat-storing  cells  in  its  humps  and  water -storing 
cells  in  the  coats  of  its  stomach.  Cases  are 
recorded  of  camels  remaining  without  water  for 
two  months.  The  average  load  is  from  6  cwt. 
to  8  cwt.  The  cost  of  camel  transport  in  Man- 
churia has  recently  been  given  at  from  l^d.  to  2d. 
per  ton  per  mile,  while  transport  by  mule  or 
pony  cart  comes  out  rather  cheaper. 

Before  the  introduction  of  railways,  nearly  all 
the  transport  of  the  world  was  done  by  animals. 
Great  trade  routes  crossed  the  Old  World,  many 
of  which  are  now  followed  by  railways.  At 
the  present  time  animal  transport  is  chiefly 
used  to  get  goods  to  the  nearest  railway  or 
waterway.  It  may  cost  the  American  farmer 
as  much  to  haul  his  grain  to  the  railway  as  will 
be  paid  for  the  rest  of  its  transport  to  Europe. 
Hence,  farming  does  not  pay  beyond  a  certain 
distance  from  a  railway. 

Transport  by  Rail.  Transport  by  rail 
is  quick,  reliable,  and  particularly  suitable  for 
perishable  commodities.  Though  dearer  a^  a 
rule  than  water  carriage,  it  is  far  cheaper 
than  either  of  the  preceding. 

Three  principal  elements  enter  into  the  question 
of  cost — (1)  The  initial  cost  of  constructing  the 
track  ;  (2)  the  cost  of  the  locomotive  and  other 
rolling  stock  ;  and  (3)  the  working  expenses. 
The  examination  of  these  in  detail  does  not  fall 
under  the  scope  of  geography.  It  may  be 
pointed  out,  however,  that  the  question  of 
gradient  and  distance  are  of  prime  importance 
in  determining  working  expenses.  It  requires 
more  power  to  lift  a  weight  up  an  incline  than 
to  draw  it  on  the  level.  Hence,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  route  with  the  easiest  gradient 
will  be  chosen.  An  example  of  this  is  seen  in 
the  case  of  the  recently-finished  Simplon 
Tunnel. 

It  was  decided  to  pierce  a  long  tunnel  at  a 
lower  elevation  rather  than  a  much  shorter 
tunnel  at  a  higher  elevation.  The  extra  cost 
involved  in  hauling  every  ton  to  the  higher 
level  would  in  the  end  have  more  than  counter- 
balanced the  initial  economy  in  the  cost  of  the 
tunnel.  Where  a  steep  gradient  is  unavoidable, 
the  rate  charged  is  often  prohibitively  high. 
The  cost  of  ascending  Vesuvius  by  rail  is  £1 
for  a  journey  of  a  few  miles.  Here,  no  doubt, 
the  element  of  monopoly  comes  in,  but  the 
working  expenses  on  such  a  line  are  necessarily 
exceptionally  high. 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

The  shortening  of  the  distance  to  be  traversed 
is  almost  as  important  as  the  easing  of  gradient. 
A  longer  route  means  an  increased  consumption 
of  fuel  on  every  journey,  as  well  as  loss 
of  time.  Hence,  to  reduce  distance  is  to 
reduce  cost.  Economy  of  time  is  rapidly 
becoming  the  only  real  economy,  and  from  this 
point  of  view  such  costly  engineering  works  as 
tunnels  through  the  Alps  and  the  Andes  pay 
in  the  end.  Tunnels  are  even  carried  below 
estuaries  and  narrow  arms  of  the  sea  to  avoid 
the  time  and  expense  of  unloading  and  reloading. 

Another  element  in  reducing  cost  is  the  dis- 
tance hauled,  long  hauls  costing  relatively  less 
than  short  ones.  The  cost  of  loading  and  un- 
loading is  the  same  in  both  cases,  so  that  this  is 
another  example  of  economy  everywhere  effected 
under  modern  conditions  by  economy  of  time. 

Transport  by  Land  and  Water.  The 
total  mileage  of  the  world's  railways  is  over 
500,000  miles,  by  far  the  greater  part  being 
in  Europe  and  North  America.  A  through  line, 
though  not  on  a  uniform  gauge,  crosses  Europe 
and  Asia  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 
Several  lines  cross  North  America,  and  in  South 
America  a  transcontinental  line  is  in  process  of 
completion.  A  Cape  to  Cairo  railway  is  projected. 

Transport,  like  manufacture,  is  passing  into 
the  electric  stage.  Both  trams  and  railways 
are  now  driven  by  electricity. 

Transport  is  carried  on  by  river,  canal,  lake,  and 
sea.  The  boat  or  ship  replaces  the  animal  or  the 
locomotive.  It  is  the  cheapest  form  of  carriage — 
(1)  Because,  except  in  the  case  of  canals,  no  roads 
have  to  be  made  and  kept  in  repair  ;  (2)  because 
a  smaller  power  will  move  a  given  tonnage 
through  the  water  than  would  suffice  on  the 
most  perfectly -graded  railway  ;  and  (3)  because 
it  is  less  easy  to  create  a  monopoly,  and  com- ; 
petition  tends  to  reduce  rates.  Very  heavy  and 
bulky  goods  can  often  be  carried  more  cheaply 
by-  water  than  by  land  when  both  methods  are 
available.  In  the  case  of  ocean  commerce,  there 
is,  of  course,  no  alternative  to  water  carriage, 
though  there  may  be  a  choice  between  the  use  of 
wind  power  and  steam  or  electric  power. 

The  Commercial  Value  of  Rivers. 
Rivers  are  natural  roads  between  the  sea  and 
the  interior  of  a  country.  Their  upper  courses 
are  often  too  swift  and  steep  for  navigation, 
but  in  the  lowlands  they  are  generally  navigable. 
Their  commercial  importance  increases  as  a 
country  develops.  It  would  be  impossible  to 
overestimate  the  value  of  the  Rhine  to  Germany, 
the  Danube  to  Austria,  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
Canada,  or  the  Yangtse  to  China. 

Various  causes  lessen  the  value  of  a  river  as  a 
means  of  transport.  Its  current  may  be  too 
swift,  as  in  the  Hwang-ho.  It  may  be  liable  to 
floods,  as  the  Loire.  It  may  be  too  shallow,  as 
the  Elbe,  which  is  not  navigable  in  its  upper 
course  in  dry  summers.  Its  bed  may  be  broken 
by  falls  or  rapids,  as  at  the  Iron  Gates  of  the 
Danube,  now  made  navigable  by  blasting  away 
some  obstructions,  and  making  a  canal  to  avoid 
others.  All  the  African  rivers  suffer  in  this 
respect.  Africa  is  a  high  plateau,  falling  by 
steep  terraces  to  the  sea.  Over  these  the  rivers 

4517 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

fall  to  tin'  coastal  plains,  forming  falls.    They  are 
able  above  and  below  these,  but  they  are 
not  natural  routes  from  the  sea  to  the  interior. 

taothct  drawback  is  the  tendency  of  rivers 
to  form  bars  at  their  mouths.  This  is  well  seen 
in  the  MM  of  the  Rhone.  It  has  a  large  delta, 
.md  bars  are  formed  at  the  mouth  of  all 
distributaries.  Ai«rues  Mortes,  once  a  flourishing 
p,,rt.  is  now  inland,  and  the  port  of  the  Rhone 
valley,  Marseilles,  is  cast  of  the  delta. 

Thirdly,  a  river  is  of  little  us»  for  transport 
if  the  approaches  to  it  arc  not  good.  This  is 
illustrated  by  the  Danube.  The  Rumanian 
bank  is  lo\v  'and  marshy,  while  the  Bulgarian 
I. a nk  is  high  and  above  flood  level.  Hence, 
Rumania  makes  much  less  use  of  the  Danube 
for  transport  than  does  Bulgaria. 

Again,  it  is  a  disadvantage  if  a  river  be  ice- 
bound in  winter,  as  transport  must  cease. 
When  the  St.  Lawrence  is  frozen  much  trade  is 
dixrrted  from  Canadian  to  American  ports. 
.M..st  of  the  rivers  of  Eastern  Europe,  including 
the  Danube,  are  icebound  in  winter.  Siberia 
is  handicapped  in  the  same  way,  and  the  Amur, 
the  other  great  river  of  Asiatic  Russia,  is  closed 
to  navigation  from  November  to  April. 

Transporting  Timber.  A  very  primitive 
mode  of  rirer  transport  may  still  be  seen  on 
the  Rhine,  and  on  most  of  the  rivers  of  Europe 
which  flow  from  forested  regions.  The  timber 
is  made  up  into  great  rafts,  which  are  towed 
or  floated  down  stream.  This  mode  of  trans- 
porting timber  is  practised  all  over  the  world — 
in  Canada,  where  the  Ottawa  is  the  busiest 
timber  river  ;  in  Brazil,  where  mahogany  is 
floated  down  stream  ;  on  the  rivers  of  Burma, 
which  cany  teak  ;  on  the  Amur,  where  timber 
is  floated  down  from  the  forests  of  Manchuria ; 
and  on  the  Yangtse,  from  the  dense  forests 
between  China  and  Burma.  On  the  last  named 
river  logs  are  floated  down  in  January,  and  take 
about  six  months  to  travel  600  miles. 

Few  goods,  however,  would  stand  such  rough 
handling,  and  the  usual  method  of  transport  is 
by  boats,  which  assume  innumerable  forms  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  chief 
commercial  countries  river  transport  is  carried 
on  by  steamers  of  suitable  draught.  The 
estuaries  of  many  rivers  admit  ocean-going 
steamers  far  into  the  interior.  The  Seine  is 
navigable  for  ocean  liners  to  Rouen,  and  to 
coasting  steamers  even  to  Paris,  the  Rhine  to 
( 'oln,  and  to  coasting  steamers  to  Mannheim. 
Compare  this  with  the  Rhone,  which  is  inaccessible 
to  ocean-going  vessels. 

Lakes.     Lakes  are  of  all  sizes,  the  largest 
••liny  tin-  dimensions  of  inland  seas.     When 
\  si/.-  they  are  generally  utilised  for  trans- 
port, which  may  be  chiefly  passenger  traffic,  as 
<>M    Loch    Lomond,    or    may    include    freight. 
Whether  freight  can  be  profitably  carried  depends 
(Hi     various     considerations,    one    of    which    is 
tran  hipment.     Where  lakes  do  not  communi- 
cate with  the  sea  the  traflic  i>  necessarily  local. 
In   a  country   \\here  road-   are   few  the  naviga- 
•ni    Iftkei    may    lie    .,f    ,rn. ilt     importance. 
<'.,n>c(|uently  we  find  steamers  plying  on  Lakes 
and  Tanganyika  in  the  heart  of  Africa. 

i:.|s 


Where  lakes  are  connected  with  the  sea  by  a 
navigable  river,  the  advantage  for  transport 
is  obviously  greater.  No  better  example 
can  be  found  than  the  Great  Lakes  of  the 
St.  Lawrence. 

The  Commercial  Use  of  Canals. 
Canals  are  artificial  waterways.  They  include 
inland  canals  for  river  traffic  and  ship  canals 
for  ocean  traffic. 

Inland  canals  are  made  to  improve  existing 
rivers,  to  connect  navigable  rivers  with  each 
other,  or  to  avoid  obstructions.  The  rivers  of 
England  and  the  Continent  have  been  exten- 
sively canalised,  and  connected  with  each 
other  by  canals.  Sometimes  the  canalisation 
and  deepening  of  a  river  bed  calls  a  new  port  into 
existence.  The  deepening  of  the  Clyde  and  the 
rise  of  Glasgow  is  a  case  in  point.  At  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were  only 
15  inches  of  water  at  Glasgow  at  high  tide.  To- 
day it  is  a  port  for  the  largest  liners  afloat. 
Similarly  Montreal  has  been  artificially  made 
into  an  ocean  port. 

Canals  are  frequently  made  to  avoid  obstruc- 
tions to  navigation.  The  navigation  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  above  Montreal  is  obstructed  by 
the  Lachine  Rapids,  three  miles  long,  now 
avoided  by  the  Lachine  Canal,  from  Montreal 
to  Lachine.  This  is  nine  miles  long,  and  rises 
45  ft.  by  means  of  five  locks.  There  are  alto- 
gether 42  miles  of  canals  between  Montreal  and 
Lake  Ontario.  Other  canals  avoid  the  ob- 
struction between  lake  and  lake.  The  Welland 
Canal,  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  avoids 
the  Niagara  Falls. 

Canals  versus  Railways.  At  the  pre- 
sent time  the  canal  question  is  exciting  much 
interest.  In  this  country  the  canals  have 
suffered  from  railway  competition.  Very  primi- 
tive methods  of  canal  transport  are  used, 
chiefly  barges  towed  by  horse  power,  and  so 
small  that  goods  cannot  be  handled  in  bulk,  a 
factor  in  reducing  expenses.  The  rate  is  very 
slow,  and  can  be  profitably  applied  as  a  rule  only 
to  bulky  goods  not  of  a  perishable  kind,  such  as 
coal,  or  building  stone.  In  view  of  the  often 
repeated  axiom  that  time  saved  is  money  saved, 
cana,l  transport  must  be  accelerated  if  it  is  to  pay. 
A  possible  change  of  method  is  illustrated  by 
a  short  canal  just  opened  in  Prussia. 

The  Teltow  Canal,  which  is  about  24  miles  long, 
passes  through  the  forests  and  lakes  to  the  south 
and  south-west  of  Berlin,  and  connects  the 
upper  Spree  with  the  Havel  near  Potsdam. 
It  shortens  the  distance  for  barges  passing 
from  east  to  west  by  the  canals  connecting 
the  Elbe  and  Oder,  and  relieves  the  congestion 
of  the  river  traffic  through  Berlin.  The  special 
feature  of  this  canal,  which  is  all  but  unique 
in  Europe,  is  the  mode  of  traction.  Electric 
locomotives,  supplied  with  power  from  over- 
head wires,  run  along  the  banks,  and  tow  the 
boats  in  either  direction.  Each  can  tow  1,500 
tons  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  an  hour.  [See  4, 
page  2275.]  The  rates  at  present  charged  for 
towing  are  high,  one  penny  per  ton  per  kilo- 
metre (jjth  mile).  The  result  of  this  new  ex- 
periment in  canal  transport  remains  to  be  seen. 


Canals  have  declined  owing  to  the  competition 
of  railways.  For  this  geographical  causes  are 
to  some  extent  responsible.  A  region  suited 
for  the  construction  of  a  canal  is  also  well 
adapted  for  the  construction  of  a  line  of  easy 
gradient,  which  is  inexpensive  both  in  con- 
struction and  working.  Before  the  develop- 
ment of  railways  many  hundreds  of  miles  of 
canals  were  made  along  the  valleys  of  eastern 
Pennsylvania  to  carry  coal  down  to  the  markets. 
None  of  them  are  now  important,  for  the  whole 
route  being  on  the  down  grade,  the  railways  can 
carry  it  very  cheaply,  as  well  as  more  quickly, 
and  in  greater  bulk. 

Ship  canals  are  made  either  to  shorten  routes, 
as  in  the  Suez  Canal,  or  to  bring  inland  towns 
into  direct  communication  with  the  sea.  The 
Manchester  Ship  Canal  was  constructed  at  a 
cost  of  £15,000,000  to  make  Manchester  a  port 
and  to  avoid  transhipment  at  Liverpool. 

Transport  by  Sea.  Transport  by  sea  is 
of  unknown  antiquity.  At  the  dawn  of  history 
we  find  the  Phoanicians  on  the  Syrian  coast 
possessed  of  a  great  navy,  and  trading  with 
all  parts  of  the  known  world.  Their  ships  were 
propelled  by  rowers,  and  sails  were  used  only 
as  an  auxiliary  means  of  power.  Up  to  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  world's 
ocean  commerce  was  carried  on  entirely  by  sail- 
ing vessels.  The  first  steamer  crossed  the  Atlantic 
hi  1819,  and  ever  since  there  has  been  a  steady 
increase  in  the  ratio  of  steam  to  sailing  vessels. 

Steam  transport  is  initially  costly.  In 
addition  to  the  cost  of  the  vessel,  which  is  much 
more  than  a  sailing  vessel,  there  is  the  fact  that 
machinery  wears  out  rapidly  or  becomes  out  of 
date,  so  that  the  life  of  a  steamer  is  shorter 
than  that  of  a  sailing  vessel.  Further,  there  is 
the  permanent  charge  for  fuel.  The  fastest 
liners  consume  nearly  400  tons  of  coal  a  day. 
This  expense  has  not  to  be  met  by  sailing 
vessels.  To  counterbalance  the  heavier  work- 
ing expenses  it  must  be  remembered  that  a 
steamer  can*  carry  far  more  per  annum,  which 
makes  for  economy.  As  in  the  case  of  locomo- 
tives, improvements  in  the  construction  of 
engines  have  resulted  in  a  great  economy  of 
fuel,  thus  lowering  rates.  In  some  cases  these 
are  only  half  what  they  were  25  years  ago. 

Where  Steamers  Beat  Sailing  Vessels. 
In  addition  to  their  greater  carrying  power, 
steamships  possess  another  great  advantage 
over  sailing  vessels.  The  latter  are  dependent 
on  winds,  and  must  often  shape  a  longer  course 
to  get  a  favourable  wind.  The  steamer  is 
practically  independent  of  wind,  and  can 
choose  the  shortest  route.  Nowhere  is  this 
better  illustrated  than  in  the  case  of  ships 
on  their  way  from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the 
Atlantic.  The  rates  for  towing  in  the  Suez 
Canal  are  so  high  that  most  sailing  vessels  take 
the  route  round  the  Cape,  though  it  is  3,000 
miles  longer.  A  steamer,  of  course,  does  not 
require  towage.  The  acceleration  in  delivery 
makes  steam  carriage  the  most  economical  for 
all  perishable  commodities. 

The  introduction  of  steam  transport  has 
caused  a  certain  oscillation  in  the  situation  of 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

ports.  Originally,  when  all  vessels  were  sailing 
craft  of  limited  size,  the  ports  tended  to  be  at 
the  head  of  tidal  navigation.  As  steam  came 
into  use  and  vessels  increased  in  size  they  were 
no  longer  always  able  to  reach  the  inland  port, 
and  ports  nearer  the  mouth  of  the  river  rose  in 
importance.  The  advantage  of  penetrating  as 
far  as  possible  into  th^  interior  was,  however, 
ot  such  great  commercial  importance  that  the 
more  important  rivers  of  Europe  were  deepened 
and  dredged  to  make  them  accessible  to  ocean- 
going steamers  for  the  longest  possible  distance. 
Thus  commerce  flowed  back  again  to  the  port 
nearest  to  the  interior,  which  rose  at  the  expense 
of  its  former  rival  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  Beginning  of  Towns.  The  earliest 
settlements  of  man  were  determined  by  ease  of 
access  to  certain  commodities,  without  which  life 
is  impossible.  The  two  most  fundamental  are 
water  and  food.  Next  to  these  comes  the  pre- 
sence of  some  material  for  making  weapons. 
In  our  own  country  primitive  man  made  his 
weapons  of  flint,  and  traces  of  early  settlement 
are  found  all  over  the  chalk  counties  of  Britain. 
A  second  important  consideration  was  ease 
of  defence.  This  led  to  the  forming  of  settlements 
on  hills  (Edinburgh),  or  on  islands  in  a  river 
(Paris),  or  on  firm  ground  surrounded  by  marshes 
(Ely).  So  long  as  each  settlement  was  small 
and  relatively  self-sufficient,  these  two  con- 
siderations were  probably  all  important.  Some 
simple  form  of  exchange  early  developed,  and 
along  with  it  there  was  an  irresistible  tendency 
for  settlements  to  grow  up  at  certain  points  of 
vantage.  Broadly  speaking,  these  were  con- 
cerned with  the  control  of  routes.  A  good 
example  is  the  growth  of  a  village  at  a  point  where 
a  river  could  be  forded  (Oxford),  or  bridged 
(Cambridge).  The  nucleus  of  what  has  become 
the  greatest  city  in  the  world  was  the  ford  of 
the  Thames  at*  Westminster,  and  the  bridge 
across  the  river  a  mile  or  so  below  it.  Another 
obviously  good  site  is  the  confluence  of  two 
rivers.  Duisberg,  Coblenz,  and  Mainz  are  all 
confluence  towns  on  the  Rhine.  At  Nizhni 
Novgorod,  at  the  junction  of  the  Volga  and  the 
Oka,  an  annual  fair  is  held,  at  which  the  business 
of  two  continents  is  transacted.  Where  a  river 
changes  its  direction  an  important  town  frequently 
grows  up,  owing  to  the  convergence  and  diver- 
gence of  routes  in  different  directions.  Such  a 
town  is  Basel,  where  the  Rhine  turns  north  across 
the  Upper  Rhine  Plain. 

The  command  of  land  routes  is  equally  im- 
portant. London  had  not  merely  its  ford  and 
bridge,  but  it  was  at  the  end  of  the  only  prac- 
ticable routes  across  the  otherwise  impassable 
marshes.  Towns  naturally  arise  at  the  mouths 
of  valleys  (Heidelberg),  especially  when  these  lead 
to  important  passes  (Turin,  Milan,  Verona). 
Towns  also  sgrow  up  at  the  mouth  of  gaps  or 
depressions  across  mountain  ranges  (Salisbury, 
Winchester).  Basel  is  at  the  end  of  the  impor- 
tant route  by  the  Burgundian  Gate,  so  that 
two  distinct  causes  have  promoted  its  growth. 

The  Beginning  of  Ports.  Another  series 
of  towns  is  associated  with  the  change  from  one 
form  of  transport  to  another.  The  most  obvious 

4519 


COMMERCIAL     QEOQRAPHV 

illustration  is  the  ordinary  seaport,  where  land 
and  water  root«  meet.  A  large  and  important 
t..wn  almost  inevitably  grows  up  at  the  head 
..f  nav  iuation  for  large  vessels,  where  freight  must 
he  transhipped  from  or  to  smaller  steamers, 
or  to  the  rail.  This  explains  the  rapid  growth 
..t  Mannheim.  There  will  also,  for  a  similar 
:|.  I,,.  ;,  ,-,,,1-idei  able  port  at  the  head  of  tidal 

1 1  ion,  the  limit  for  any  smaller  vessels, 
th-  river  l>e  interrupted  by  rapids,  transhipment 
may  l>e  ne.-rs-arv.  a  nd "  consequently  a  town 
will  grow  u])  (St.'  Paul  in  Minnesota,  Detroit, 
Montreal).  Kven  under  more  primitive  condi- 
tions the  same  law  holds  good.  Ta-chien-lu,  the 
•  •ent  re  of  the  tea  trade  between  China  and  Tibet, 
owes  much  of  its  importance  to  the  fact  that 
here  the  tea  is  transferred  to  yaks,  the  beasts 
of  burden  on  the  high  passes  of  Central  Asia. 

The  Position  of  Manufacturing 
Towns.  The  position  of  manufacturing 
towns  is  due  to  a  different  set  of  conditions. 
Anciently  they  tended  to  grow  up  where 
raw  material  and  control  of  water  power  were 
both  available,  as  in  the  woollen  towns  of 
the  Tweed  valley,  Yorkshire,  the  Cotswold, 
the  Ardennes  and  Saxony.  The  existence  of 
some  other  favourable  circumstances  might  be 
the  determining  cause.  Thus  many  of  the 
Flemish  rivers  have  special  bleaching  properties, 
and  towns  engaged  in  the  linen  manufacture 
grew  up  along  the  Lys  and  other  rivers.  The 
most  striking  case  is  the  rise  of  manufacturing 
towns  on  the  coalfields  of  Britain,  Europe,  and 
the  United  States  after  the  discovery  of  steam 
power.  The  cotton  towns  of  Lancashire  possess 
three  advantages  of  position.  Two  of  them  are 
obvious — proximity  to  coal  and  to  the  cotton- 
shipping  ports  of  the  United  States.  The  third 
is  climatic.  The  humid  atmosphere  enables 
a  fine  thread  to  be  spun,  and  gives  a  better  result 
than  the  artificial  dampening  of  the  air  in 
drier  districts. 

Where  several  of  these  advantages  are  present 
the  prosperity  of  a  town  is  more  likely  to  be 
permanent  than  where  there  is  only  a  single  one. 
forbids  an  analvsis  of  the  advantages  of 
posit  ion  possessed  by  the  chief  cities  of  the  world, 
but  in  almost  every  case  it  would  show  that 
these  are  very  numerous. 

The  Advantages  of  Seaports.  Unless 
the  hinder-land  Ix)  poor,  the  balance  of  advantage 
lies  with  seaports.  A  large  population  finds  em- 
ployment in  handling  the  merchandise  brought  in 
and  out.  Every  grade  of  labour  is  represented, 
from  the  merely  manual  tasks  of  loading  and 
unloading,  through  the  various  agencies  of  dis- 
M-iluition  to  the  highest  forms  of  administra- 
tive ability,  \\hieh  shape  tin-  destiny  of  whole 
communities  by  regulating  the  amount  of  capital 
engaged  and  the  mode  of  its  employment.  As 
raw  material  and  coal  can  be  cheaply  obtained 

a,  manufactures  tend  to  develop,  cans  inn 

a    further    in.-rease   of   wealth    and   population. 

This   again   reacts  on    the   agencies   engaged   in 

oollecting     raw    material    and    distributing    the 

d  product.     Thus  the  seaport  city  tends 

.uii-.-  an  ever  inen-axing  momentum.     New 


Continued 


lines  of  railway  are  built  to  it,  new  lines  of 
steamers  make  it  a  port  of  call,  steadily  increasing 
the  prosperity  which  originally  attracted  them. 

One  more  aspect  of  the  interesting  question 
of  position  may  be  noted.  The  greatest  towns 
may  have  their  vicissitudes,  and  unforeseen 
causes  may  for  a  time  neutralise  their  indis- 
putable advantages  of  position.  A  famous  case 
is  that  of  Genoa  and  Venice,  which,  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages,  were  on  the  great  highway  between 
Asia  and  Northern  Europe.  The  Turkish  con- 
quests in  the  fifteenth  century  interrupted  this 
trade,  and  struck  a  deadly  blow  at  their  pros- 
perity. The  discovery  of  the  Cape  route  trans- 
ferred the  advantage  of  position  to  the  Atlantic 
ports,  and  Lisbon,  Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  and  the 
British  ports  successively  secured  the  greater 
part  of  the  world's  trade.  The  cutting  of 
the  Suez  Canal  again  made  the  Mediterranean 
the  highway,  and  led  to  the  rapid  growth  of 
Marseilles,  Genoa,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  of  Venice. 
There  are  those  who  maintain  that  its  opening 
has  been  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  British 
ports,  but  this  cannot  be  taken  yet  as  proved. 

The  Drawing  of  Maps/  The  illustra- 
tion on  page  4514  shows  three  different  maps  of 
the  world  on  which  the  British  Empire  is  indi- 
cated by  shading. 

1.  TheMercator  projection  is  that  most  fami- 
liar.    It  has  this  advantage,  that  a  straight  line 
drawn  between  any  two  places  on  it  represents 
the    correct  direction   between    them.     It    has 
many  disadvantages.     The  size  of  countries  is 
greatly   distorted.     Compare    Australia,    nearly 
3,000,000  square  miles,  with  Greenland,   some 
700,000  square  miles. 

2.  To   get   rid   of   this   distortion   the   oval- 
shaped  map  above  it  has  been  drawn.     Australia 
and  Greenland  are  shown  in  proper  proportions. 
On  it  we  may  compare  the  size  of  different  parts 
of  the  British  Empire.     Notice  that  the  distance 
between  the  meridians  at  the  equator  is  equal. 
The  meridians  of  90°  W.  and  90°  E.  of  Greenwich 
form  the  circumference  of  a  circle*.     One  dia- 
meter   of     this    represents    the    equator ;    the 
diameter  at  right  angles,  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich.    The   parallels   are   now   drawn   so   that 
the  area  between  two  parallels  is  proportional 
in  the  scale  of   the  map  to  the  area  between 
these  two  parallels  on  the  earth.    The  equator  and 
each  parallel  is  divided  into  eighteen  equal  parts, 
nine    west   and  nine   east  of   the   meridian   of 
Greenwich,  each  representing  10°  and  numbered 
0°  to  90°  W.,  and  0°  to  90°  E.     Then  the  equator 
and  each  parallel    is  prolonged  east  and  west 
until  the  distance  beyond  the  circle  is  equal  to 
that  from  the  meridian  of  0°  to  the  circumference. 
Each    part   beyond   the   circle   is   divided   into 
nine  equal  parts,  numbered  from  90°  to  180°  W., 
and  from  90°  to  180°  E.     The  curves  are  now 
drawn  through  all  points  with  the  same  numbers, 
and  the  network  is  complete.     This  equal-area, 
or  equivalent   projection,  is  called  Mollweide's, 
and  was  invented  in  1805. 

3.  The  western  and  eastern  hemispheres  are 
not  equal  area  projections,  but  the  distortions  are 
not  nearly  so  great  as  in  the  Mercator  projection. 


DRAWING  FOR  SHEET-METAL  WORKERS 

Envelopes  of  Bodies.       Plane  Figures.      Non-plane  Figures.      Pro- 
jections.      Pyramids—  Right    Figures.       Pyramids — Oblique  Figures 


Group  8 

DRAWING 
32 


i  II\[(  AT.    T)RAWIN( 

continued  from 
page  44-28 


By    JOSEPH    G.    HORNER 


""THIS  course  does  not  deal  with  problems  in 
practical  geometry,  which  are  treated  earlier. 
It  only  embraces  the  actual  development  of  the 
envelopes  of  solid  bodies.  Although  the  problems 
involved  in  this  subject  are  those  of  marking  out 
with  compasses,  rules,  and  scales,  more  than  this 
is  required  in  order  to  translate  these  into  practice. 
Joints  of  many  forms  occur  continually,  and 
suitable  allowances  have  to  be  made  for  these 
beyond  the  edges  obtained  by  the  geometrical 
outlines.  Then,  again,  allowances  have  to  be 
made  for  some  other  matters  which  do  not  admit 
of  exact  calculation,  and  which  have  -not  been 
and  cannot  be  formulated,  but  which  can  only 
come  by  experience  in  the  shops.  These  include 
the  influences  of  bending,  flanging,  raising,  and 
allied  operations  in  which  sheet-metal  undergoes 
coercion,  so  that  its  fibres  move  one  over  the  other 
— some  being  compressed,  others  extended.  In 
very  thin  sheets  the  influences  of  these  may  be 
nearly  neglected,  but  as  sheets  increase  in  thick- 
ness, as  in  the  plates  of  the  boilermaker,  the 
results  sometimes  become  puzzling  to  the  work- 
man. For  actual  metal  work  is  not  like  making 
a  drawing  that  you  may  rub  out  and  redraw.  An 
error  means  a  waste  of  valuable  material,  as 
well  as  of  time. 

Envelopes  of  Bodies.  We  will  preface 
this  article  with  remarks  on  the  subject  men- 
tioned above  as  being  a  fundamental  one — • 
namely,  the  envelopes  of  solid  bodies.  That 
is  the  same  thing  as  the  envelopes  of  hollow 
bodies,  with  which  all  sheet-metal  workers  are 
concerned.  In  other  words,  solids  are  enclosed 
by  envelopes,  the  forms  of  which  can  be  produced 
on  plane  sheets  and  wrapped  around  the  solids, 
or  enclose  hollow  spaces  identical  in  form  and 
dimensions  with  the  solids. 
.  We  can  here  lay  down  two  leading  statements  : 

(1)  The  shapes  of  the  envelopes  of  bodies  or 
of  geometrical  solids  can  in  all  cases  be  arrived 
at  by  the   application  of  geometrical  problems, 
combined    with    the    principles    of    projection  ; 

(2)  all  these  envelopes,  of  whatever  form,  can 
be  obtained  by  the  preparation  and  union  of 
sheet-metal    or  alloy  originally  in  plane  forms, 
as  sheet  tin,  copper,  brass,  zinc,  iron,  and  steel, 
as  used  by  tin  and  coppersmiths,  zinc  workers, 
and  boilermakers.      This  is  obvious  in  the  case 
of    cubical    bodies,  but  the   difficulties,  real  or 
apparent,    exist   when    bodies     are   of    conical, 
spherical,  or  flaring  outlines,  and  when  combina- 
tions of  these  occur,  and  junctions  of  various 
figures  with  each  other.     Frequently,  when  work 
such  as  hammering  has  to  be  done  on  sheets  to 
cause  them  to  assume  other  than  plane  surfaces, 
the  number    of    joints  has  to    be  increased  in 
thick  plates  more  than   is  nece'ssary  in  thinner 
sheets. 


Joints.  Next,  with  regard  to  the  allowances 
for  joints.  The  general  rule  is,  first,  to  have  as 
few  joints  as  possible  ;  next,  to  adopt  the 
simplest  joint  that  is  consistent  with  efficiency. 
Within  this  range  we  have  many  kinds,  from 
the  simple  union  by  soft  solder  to  the  treble- 
riveted,  double-butted  joints  of  the  largest 
steam  boilers. 

The  question  of  allowance  for  joints  is  not 
usually  difficult,  but  it  must  not  be  overlooked. 
Generally,  it  involves  a  simple  addition  to  the 
developed  pattern  of  so  much  for  overlap,  or  for 
wiring  in  some  cases.  In  others,  something 
more  has  to  be  considered,  as  when  flanges  have 
to  be  turned  with  more  or  less  of  radius,  and 
when  flanging  has  to  be  done  in  two  directions 
on  the  same  plate,  as  in  the  firebox  sheets  of  loco- 
motive boilers.  Sometimes  no  allowance  is  made, 
as  in  thinned  corners  for  boiler  plates,  or  but 
little,  as  in  the  thinned  edges  of  cramped  joints. 
In  butt  joints,  again,  no  extra  is  required.  So 
that  all  through  the  work  the  craftsman  who 
marks  out  must  also  keep  in  mind  the  methods 
of  jointing  as  well  as  the  allowances  for  puckering 
and  drawing  in  concave  objects. 

Machine  versus  Hand  Work.  At  the 
present  time  much  of  the  work  of  the  tinsmith 
and  coppersmith  has  been  appropriated  by 
machinery,  in  which  articles  of  steel  are  stamped 
at  one  operation  or  more,  instead  of  being 
tediously  marked  out  and  shaped  by  hand 
hammering.  But  for  all,  except  comparatively 
simple  articles,  the  service  of  the  worker  in 
sheet-metals  are  still  in  request,  and  to  all  such  a 
knowledge  of  drawing  lies  at  the  basis  of  the 
craft. 

To  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  this  work 
it  must  sometimes  be  a  matter  for  surprise  how 
sheet-metal  work  is  produced  in  such  an  infinity 
of  forms.  Neither  is  it  all  simple  to  the  crafts- 
man. But  when  difficulties  arise,  they  are 
seldom  those  due  to  marking  out  the  geometrical 
patterns,  but  they  generally  lie  in  the  making  of 
suitable  allowances  for  raising  by  hammering 
processes.  Generally,  patterns,  however  elab- 
orate in  appearance,  are  composed  of  simple 
elementary  forms  in  repetition,  or  in  combina- 
tion. It  is,  therefore,  essential  to  grasp  the 
elementavy  problems  before  attempting  those 
examples  which  include  combinations  of  the 
same. 

Plane  Figures.  Considering  in  brief  the 
forms  of  the  envelopes  of  solid  bodies,  we  see 
that  large  numbers  of  them  have  plane  faces. 
These  give  us  the  first  object  lesson  in  our  course. 

Take  any  polygonal  solid,  and  you  see  that 
by  separating  each  side  the  figure  really  develops 
itself.  As  many  sides  as  the  figure  possesses,  so 
many  individual  planes  will  there  be.  Any 

4521 


DRAWING 

square  [1]  or  oblong  body  would  have  six  planes 
.1  its  envelope  ;  top,  bottom,  and  four  sides. 
This  may  be  made  by  cutting  from  a  single  sheet, 
as  in  2.  then  turning  up  the  four  sides,  and  turn- 
ing over  the  top;  or  each  piece  may  be  cut 
i  itely.  A  hexagonal  body  [3]  would  have 
plant's  [4];  top  and  bottom,  octagonal  in 
plan,  and  six  sides,  each  of  rectangular  outline. 
Tiiis  (.in  be  developed  either  as  in  4,  or  as 
in  5.  tin-  relations  of  each  of  which  to  the  body 
are  obvious.  The  can  with  tapering  sides,  a 
prismoidal  figure  [6]  is  enveloped  as  in  7.  The 
complete  envelope  [8]  of  an  octagonal  pyramid 
ia  a  simple  form.  The  envelopes  of  the  sides  have 
their  lengths,  A,  equal  to  the  slant  height  of  the 
pyramid,  and  the  widths,  B,  at  the  base  are  equal 
to  the  length  of  a  side  of  the  base.  In  obtaining 
the  shapes  of  the  envelopes  in  1  to  8,  the  im- 
portant point  to  be  sure  of  is  the  dimensions 
of  length  and  width,  and  correct  angles — right 
and  octagonal,  and  so  forth.  It  is  just  a  case  of 
plain  measurement  with  rule  or  compass. 

The  development  of  a  truncated  pyramid  is 
shown  in  9.  The  pyramid  is  first  completed  as 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  then  a  length  is 
marked  off  equal  in  length  to  the  slant  height 
required.  The  top  and  bottom  octagonal  sheets 
are  exactly  the  same  as  those  of  a  truncated 
pyramid  in  plan  view.  The  construction  in  9 
would  completely  envelop  the  body. 

In  working  out  these,  every  face  is  a  plane 
face,  and  the  outlines  are  those  of  the  faces 
looked  at  in  a  direction  perpendicular  thereto. 

Slant  Height.  This  manner  of  looking  at 
a  figure  is  of  cardinal  importance,  as  we  shall 
see  subsequently.  It  will  occur  continually  in 
speaking  of  the  slant  height  of  an  object— that  is, 
the  dimension  taken  along  the  plane  of  its  face, 
instead  of  along  the  axis  of  the  body.  The  two 
only  coincide  in  figures  having  their  sides  parallel, 
as  in  rectangular  and  cylindrical  bodies,  and  not 
at  all  in  pyramidal  and  conical  figures  and  those 
derived  therefrom. 

In  working  out  many  developments  it  is 
essential  to  bear  in  mind  this  difference  in 
dimensions  in  the  perpendicular  and  in  the  slant, 
or  sloping  portions  of  figures  of  which  6,  7,  8, 
9,  10,  and  11  are  typical.  Taking  a  pyramid  for 
example,  it  hardly  needs  demonstration  to  show 
that  the  perpendicular  height  is  different  from 
the  slant  height.  The  perpendicular  height  is 
shorter,  the  slant  height  of  the  edge  is  longer, 
and  the  slant  height  of  the  faces  is  different  from 
that  of  the  edges.  In  obtaining  the  development 
of  the  envelopes  of  such  figures,  the  perpendicular 
height  has  no  permanent  place.  It  is  only  used 
as  an  element  in  the  work  of  development,  but 
both  of  the  slant  heights  are  required  for  the 
euttmg  of  the  actual  sheet  of  metal.  The  rela- 
«.f  these  will  differ  considerably  with  the 
proportions  of  figures. 

Non-plane      Figures.       Looking    now   at 

(inures  that  are  not  plane,  we 

".  that  bending  has  to  be  done.     For  a  cone  [10], 

the  envelope!  are  a  sector  of  a  circle,   and  a 

(iieular  base.     For   a  conic   frustum  [11]   they 

BgOMftl   of   a  «  in  le,  and   two  circles  for 

4522 


base  and  top  respectively.  For  a  cylinder  [12] 
the  envelope  is  one  rectangular  sheet  bent  to 
form  the  cylindrical  body,  and  two  plane  ends, 
which  are  circles. 

The  envelope  of  a  globe  is  a  complete  sphere 
also.  But  such  bodies  are  formed  by  taking  two 
circular  discs  and  beating  or  pressing  them  to 
hemispherical  shapes,  or  by  preparing  small 
pieces  called  gores,  and  bending  and  uniting  them. 

Methods  of  Bending  and  Hollowing. 
The  question  of  bending  and  hollowing  affects 
different  trades  in  different  ways.  While  a 
coppersmith  easily  hammers  a  sheet  into  a 
spherical  form,  the  engineer  has  to  bring  power- 
ful hydraulic  machinery  to  do  such  work  on  steel 
plates.  In  the  absence  of  such  aids  he  increases 
the  number  of  joints,  and  so  lessens  the  amount 
of  dishing  required  on  a  single  sheet. 

It  might  seem  as  though  it  would  be  easy  to 
hollow  a  sheet  of  metal  to  any  extent  if  the  work 
be  done  at  a  high  temperature.  But  such  is 
not  the  case.  In  all  work  where  metal  or  alloy 
is  subjected  to  severe  treatment,  with  much 
extension  of  its  fibres,  frequent  annealings  are 
necessary.  To  this  rule  there  is  no  exception, 
either  in  thin  sheets  or  in  thick  plates.  Extreme 
examples  are  cartridge  cases  used  for  ammunition. 
These  are  drawn  from  solid  sheets,  but  the  work 
is  spread  over  several  stages  with  alternate 
annealings.  It  is  in  such  work,  of  which  this  is 
an  extreme  though  common  illustration,  that 
the  shape  and  dimensions  of  the  sheet  cannot  be 
obtained  correctly  by  simple  draughtsmanship, 
but  previous  experience  of  similar  work  is 
essential. 

Projections.  The  drawing  of  the  worker 
in  sheets  and  plates  is  essentially  that  of  pro- 
jection, superadded  to  plane  geometry.  It  is  so, 
too,  in  engineers'  drawing  in  general,  but  with 
this  difference — the  projections  of  the  engineer 
are  largely  those  of  plans,  elevations,  and  sections 
in  directions  perpendicular  to  each  other.  But 
those  of  the  worker  in  sheets  as  often  take  place 
in  planes  perpendicular  to  sections  taken  at 
various  angles  with  main  axes.  And  what 
appears  to  the  beginner  to  complicate  matters 
is  that  many  of  the  patterns  of  the  tinman  and 
coppersmith,  zinc  worker,  and  engineers'  plater, 
are  not  symmetrical,  or  right  figures,  but  are 
unsymmetrical,  oblique,  or  slant  figures,  and 
these  again  have  their  projections  of  sections 
taken  at  various  angles.  And  then,  further,  many 
objects  of  manufacture  combine  right  with  oblique 
figures,  and  portions  of  the  envelopes  of  different 
groups  of  solids.  If  the  separate  sheets  be  not 
marked  correctly  they  will  neither  joint  correctly 
as  separate  pieces  nor  connect  up  to  each  other. 

Once  more,  many  cases  arise  in  which,  though 
it  is  known  that  an  edge  must  be  an  arc  of  a  circle, 
and  though  one  could  see  how  to  strike  it  with 
compass  or  trammel,  yet  the  radius  is  far  too 
large  to  permit  of  this  method.  Then  other 
devices  are  available,  those  of  intersecting  lines 
or  of  triangulation,  by  which  accurate  curves 
can  be  obtained  step  by  step  by  constructive 
methods.  And  once  the  leading  principles  of 
development  and  projection  are  grasped,  new 
problems  are  readily  solved  by  a  little  thought. 


ENVELOPES,    SECTIONS    AND    DEVELOPMENTS    OF    BODIES 

1.  Cubical  body  2.  Envelope  of  same  3.  Hexagonal  body  4.  Envelope  of  same  5.  Alternative  envelope  6.  Can 
with  tapering  sides  7.  Envelope  of  same  8.  Envelope  of  octagonal  pyramid  9.  Envelope  of  truncated  octagonal 
pyramid  10.  Envelope  of  right  cone  11.  Envelope  of  conic  frustum  12.  Envelope  of  cylinder  13.  Cylinder  projected 
in  end  view  and  diagonal  section  14.  Square  figure  projected  15.  Projection  of  oblique' conic  frustum  16.  Projection 
of  oblique  cone  17.  Projection  of  conic  frustum  18.  Projections  of  hexagonal  prism  19.  Elliptical  section  of  cone 
20.  Projection  of  truncated  octagonal  pyramid  21.  Projection  of  diagonal  section  of  pyramid  22,  23.  Effect  of 

differences  in  slant         24.  Oblique  pyramid       25.  Octagonal  tray         26.  Pattern  for  same         27.  Square  oblique  pyramid 
28.  Development  of  same         29.  Development  of  oblique  truncated  pyramid        30.  Oblique  truncated  pyramid 

4523 


DRAWING 

Examples  of  Projection.  Some  ele- 
m.-ntury  illustrations  of  the  principles  of  pro- 
i  hey  apply  to  the  envelopes  of  bodies, 
will  I.,-  ,  t  value  before  beginning  practical  pro- 
blems. They  are  simpler  in  some  respects  than 
t!,,,,,-  which  deal  with  projection  as  a  whole,  in 
which  thicknesses  are  constantly  occurring, 
because  sheet -metal  may  be  considered  from  this 
point  of  view  to  have  no  thickness,  and  therefore 
one  surface— an  exterior  one— only  has  to  be 


. 

The  spheiv  is  the  only  object  which  appears  the 
same  from  all  points  of  view  and  in  all  sections. 
Tin-  same  remark  applies  to  the  cube  looked  at 
perpendicularly  to  either  face.  In  all  other 
figures  the  projections  are  different. 

A  cylinder  [13]  has  two  external  develop- 
ments, that  of  the  body  [12]  and  that  of  the 
ends,  circles.  But  if  cut  obliquely  [13]  its 
•  l.-velopment  is  an  ellipse.  A  square  figure  [14] 
sho\vs  plane  faces  if  viewed  perpendicularly  to 
its  sides,  but  angular  faces  if  projected  from 
the  angles.  An  oblique  conic  frustum  [15]  has 
two  projections,  that  of  its  circular  base,  and  that 
of  a  smaller  circle  corresponding  with  the  plane 
of  truncation,  besides  the  foreshortened  plan 
view.  An  oblique  cone  [16]  projected  has  the 
appearance  shown  ;  here,  as  in  15,  we  see  at  a 
glance  that  the  projected  plans,  being  fore- 
shortened, do  not  give  actual  lengths  of  the 
mvelopes,  which  must  be  obtained  on  slant 
heights.  A  conic  frustum  [17]  projected  gives 
two  concentric  circles  corresponding  with  base 
and  top,  and  the  slant  in  plan  view.  A  hexagonal 
prism  [18]  has  its  true  form  projected  parallel 
with  the  axis,  but  the  equal-sided  proportions 
do  not  appear  if  a  projection  be  made  perpen- 
dicular to  a  diagonal  section.  A  cone  has  the 
conical  form  in  elevation,  the  circle  in  plan,  and 
the  ellipse  if  cut  diagonally  across  [19],  besides  the 
parabola  and  hyperbola  if  cut  in  other  directions. 
The  truncated  octagonal  pyramid  [20]  gives 
octagonal  figures  in  plan,  as  shown,  and  tapering 
sides.  The  development  of  this  was  shown  in  9. 
An  octagonal  pyramid  cut  in  oblique  section  [21] 
develops  an  irregular  octagon. 

The  point  to  be  noted  in  these  figures  is  the 
alteration  in  form  which  the  projections  at 
different  planes  indicate.  With  every  increase 
in  angle  there  results  an  elongation  of  form,  and 
when  joints  have  to  be  made  to  fit  at  certain 
angles  the  importance  of  exact  methods  of 
development  on  the  projected  planes  is  obvious. 

Simple    Examples.     We  will  now  begin 

work   on   pome  of  the  simpler  examples    that 

arise.     However  varied  are  the  shapes  in  which 

metal    and    plated  work  occur,  they  are 

ible  to  a  few  elementary  forms  and  com- 

1  .iiiat  ions  of  the  same.    These  are  parallelepipeds, 

prtsms,  pyramids,  cylinders,  cones,  polygons,  and 

spheres.      The  prisms,  pyramids,  cylinders  and 

cones  may  be  right  or  oblique  figures. 

Pyramids—Right      Figures.      WTe    may 

Mimarily  of  parallelopipeds  and  prisms 

DM  tin-  dimensions  as  well  as  the  forms  of 

tli.-ir   i-nvrlopes    are   obvious   [1   to   5].     Right 

; IK lil    forms    are    also    simple,    but    some 

•int ions   are   necessary   here.     A   pyramid 

1824 


may  be  defined  as  a  solid  bounded  by  three  or 
more  triangles  which  meet  at  a  point,  and  by 
the  base,  which  is  of  polygonal  form,  having  any 
number  of  sides.  The  height  of  the  triangles 
must  be  taken  on  the  slant  lines,  and  a  com- 
parison of  the  two  figures  [22  and  23]  shows 
how  essential  is  the  amount  of  slant  in  deter- 
mining the  .forms  of  the  triangular  envelopes. 
If  the  pyramids  be  cut  across  the  planes  aa, 
we*  have  truncated  figures,  and  then  the  dimen- 
sions are  required  in  the  plane  of  truncation, 
and  these  are  given  by  the  projections  in  plan, 
In  these  figures  each  triangle,  or  wedge-shaped 
piece  around  the  pyramids  is  like  the  rest, 
because  the  apex  is  situated  perpendicularly 
over  the  centre  of  the  base.  But  if  located 
elsewhere,  the  pyramid  is  an  oblique  one  [24], 
and  the  triangles  are  of  unequal  lengths,  ex- 
cepting those  that  correspond  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  figure  taken  in  the  plane  of  the 
paper.  The  methods  of  marking  out,  therefore, 
differ  in  the  case  of  right,  and  oblique  pyramids, 
and,  of  course,  of  complete,  and  truncated 
pyramids,  8  and  9  respectively. 

Truncated  Pyramids.  Complete  pyra- 
midal figures  are  seldom  wanted,  but  truncated 
pyramids,  or  pyramidal  frusta,  and  portions  of 
the  same,  occur  constantly,  alone  or  in  combina- 
tion with  other  figures.  Thus,  taking  one  example 
by  way  of  illustration,  the  pattern  for  a  common 
octagonal  tray  with  tapering  sides  is  related  to  the 
truncated  pyramid.  Fig.  25  illustrates  such  a 
tray  in  plan  and  elevation,  to  be  made  in  one 
piece,  and  though  of  polygonal  outline,  having 
small  angular  corners  only.  The  centre  lines, 
db  and  cd,  divide  it  at  right  angles  ;  e,  is  the 
vertical  height  of  the  tray.  Lay  out  one  half 
the  base  [26]  to  the  same  dimensions  as  in  25, 
and  draw  through  its  centre,  c,  centre  lines 
db  and  cd.  Draw  centre  lines,  hi,  hi, 
through  the  corners,  corresponding  with  hi, 
hi  in  25.  Now  take  the  slant  length  fg 
[25]  and  transfer  it  to  26,  to  ag,  bg,  and 
dg.  Draw  the  lines,  aj,  bj,  dj,  dj,  per- 
pendicular to  the  main  centre  lines.  Next 
take  the  lengths  aj,  bj,  dj  in  25,  and 
transfer  them  to  aj,  bj,  dj,  dj  in  26,  which  gives 
the  lengths  of  the  top  edges  of  the  tray  sides. 

To  obtain  the  lengths  of  the  corner  pieces, 
project  the  vertical  height,  e  [25],  to  the  small 
diagram  on  the  right ;  measure  off  the  horizontal, 
or  plan  length,  ih,  in  the  upper  figure  and 
transfer  to  ih.  Then  the  length  of  the  slant 
line,  fh,  transferred  to  hi,  hi  in  26  will 
give  the  actual  lengths  of  the  corner  pieces. 
Through  hi  the  lines  jj,  jj,  drawn  at  right  angles 
with  the  centre  lines  hi,  hi,  will  give  the  top 
edges  of  the  corners.  To  get  their  length, 
measure  off  in  25,  hj,  hj,  and  transfer  it  to  hj 
in  26,  and  draw  the  lines  shown  to  the  corre- 
sponding lines  that  give  the  bottom  of  the  tray. 

Pyramids — Oblique  Figures.  Taking 
now  a  few  oblique  examples,  we  must  extend 
some  of  the  fundamental  facts  already  noticed 
as  to  the  difference  in  perpendicular  and  slant 
heights  of  faces  and  edges. 

Fig.  27  shows  a  square  oblique  pyramid,  the 
development  of  which  is  shown  in  28.  The 


DRAWING 


real  lengths  are  not  ab,  ac,  but  the  dotted 
lengths  ab',  ac',  obtained  by  taking  off  the 
slant  lengths  in  plan,  a'b  and  a'c  respectively, 
and  transferring  them  to  the  upper  figure  from  a" ' . 

The  development  shown  in  28  is  obtained  as 
follows :  As  the  corners,  A  and  B  [27],  have 
different  lengths,  measured  from  the  apex,  a, 
two  radii  are  taken  for  these — the  projected 
ones,  ab',  ac',  and  struck  from  a  in  28.  Take 
the  length  of  one  side,  be,  or  ce  [v27],  arid  set 
it  off  four  times  [28],  cutting  the  radii  just 
struck,  starting  from  ed,  thence  from  db, 
be,  and  ce.  Joining  these  intersections  with 
lines,  and  also  ae,  and  e  at  the  extreme  right 
and  left,  will  complete  the  outline  of  the  figure, 
while  the  lines  dotted  joining  ad,  be  corre- 
spond with  the  three  angular  corners  of  the 
figure,  where  the  sheet-metal  is  bent  from  the  solid. 
The  seams  will  be  added  down  the  sides  ae,  ae. 

Oblique  Truncated  Pyramids.  The 
envelope  of  an  oblique  truncated  pyramid 
[30]  with  square  base  is  illustrated  in  29.  The 
essential  construction,  so  far  as  the  base  and 
the  slanting  corners  are  concerned,  is  exactly 
like  that  in  27  and  28,  and  the  same  reference 
letters  are  retained,  so  that  recapitulation  is 
unnecessary.  The  top  of  the  figure  is  determined 
by  the  cutting  of  the  pyramid  by  the  plane  CC 
at  a  definite  height,  that  of  truncation. 

Clearly,  now,  nothing  more  is  necessary, 
having  the  complete  pyramid  already  produced, 
than  to  take  off  a  set  of  measurements  on  the 
plane  CC,  in  addition  to  those  on  the  base 
line.  The  set  corresponding  with  the  base  of 
the  pyramid  is  obtained  first  as  in  28,  to  which 
the  same  reference  letters  apply.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  top  edge  can  be  got  either  by  taking 
lengths  from  ab",  ac"  [30],  or  by  measuring  up 
from  b'b"  and  c'c"  [30].  With  these  remarks 
the  construction  in  29  is  clear.  The  seams  are 
added  from  c"e  [29]. 

Oblique  Pyramids.  The  oblique  pyra- 
mid with  octagonal  base  [31]  resembles  27  in  the 
manner  of  its  development.  It  is  necessary  to 
have  the  base  outlined  correctly  in  plan,  as  in  the 
lower  portion  of  the  figure.  The  real  lengths  of 
the  slant  angles  of  the  corners  of  the  figure  are  not 
the  full  lines  in  the  elevation  (upper  figure),  but 
the  longer  dotted  ones  adjacent,  obtained  by 
measurement  from  the  plan  view  (lower  figure), 
thus  :  a'e,  transferred  to  Ae',  a'd  to  Ad',  and 
a'c  to  Ac',  and  the  same  lines,  of  course,  answer 
for  the  length  from  a'g,  h,  and  i  respectively. 
The  lengths  A&'  and  A/'  are  the  same  as  a'b  and 
a' f  below,  because  obviously  these  do  not  slant 
away  from  the  observer,  but  only  in  one  direction, 
that  in  the  perpendicular  plane. 

To  obtain  the  development  in  32,  take  the 
successive  radii  [31] — namely,  ab',  ac',  ad', 
ae' ,  and  af,  and  strike  these  radii  in  the 
manner  shown  in  32  ;  the  seam  in  this  case  has 
to  be  added  on  the  inner  angle  ab'  of  the 
pyramid,  though  not  shown.  Then  take  the 
length  of  any  side  of  the  octagon,  as  be  [31], 
and  step  that  round  six  times  between  successive 
arcs,  as  shown  in  32,  b'c',  c'd',  etc.  Unite 
the  points  of  intersection  with  straight  lines, 
which,  with  the  lines  ab',  complete  the  boun- 


DEVELOPMENTS    OF    PYRAMIDAL  BODIES 
31.  Octagonal  oblique  pyramid        32.  Development  of  same 
33.  Truncated  oblique  pyramid       34.  Development  of  same 

35.  Truncated  pyramid  to  be  developed  by    trian^ulation 

36.  Development  of  same        37,  38.  An  alternative  method 
39.  Oblique  truncated  pyramid  to  be  developed  by  triangu- 

lation         40.  Development  of  same 

daries  of  the  enveloping  sheet.  The  dotted 
lines  from  a  to  the  points  of  intersection  are  the 
seamless  angles  where  bending  is  done. 

The  truncated  oblique  pyramid  with  octagonal 
base  [33]  requires  little  explanation,  following 
the  previous  examples,  which  include  the 
essential  features  in  its  development.  The  base 
of  33  is  developed  in  34,  as  that  of  32  is  from  31, 
the  same  reference  letters  being  retained.  The 
truncated  pprtion  is  treated  like  that  in  29  and 
30  modified  only  by  the  difference  in  the  rect- 

4525 


DRAWING 

angular  and  octagonal  forms.  A  ,  omparison  of 
th,.  ivf.-r.-nce  letters  in  29  and  30  with  the  in- 
structions already  given  will  render  the  con- 
st,-... -ti..n  of  tin-  developed  outline  in  34  clear, 
without  repetition  of  details. 

Pyramidal       Figures,      with       Apex 

Inaccessible-Right       Figures.        Many 

ftriae  in  which  the  taper  is  so  slight  that 

th.-  upex  is.  for  practical  purposes,  inaccessible. 

We    now,   therefore,   give    attention    to   other 

methods  adopted,  by  obtaining  certain  points  in 

-alar  figures,  which  can  be  best  explained 

l»v  a  concrete  example. 

The  method  of  triangulation  is  based  upon 
the  fact  that  the  perpendicular  height  of  A, 
and  the  slant  height  B  [35],  and  the  diagonal  0, 
are  mutually  related,  so  that  one  can  be  obtained 
from  the  other.  In  this  case,  as  in  25,  the  slant 
height  can  be  obtained  by  direct  measurement. 
But  if  there  were  no  elevation  it  can  be  got  from 
tin-  plan,  thus: 

The  slant  edge,  ab,  seen  in  plan,  the  real 
length  of  which  corresponds  with  B  in  elevation, 
is  taken  as  a  base  line.  On  this  the  perpendicu- 
lar be  is  raised,  and  upon  this  the  vertical 
height  be,  equal  to  the  vertical  height  of  ab, 
To  obtain  the  length  of  the  diagonal,  C,  draw 
the  diagonal  de  on  the  plan  view.  On  it 
raise  the  perpendicular  df,  and  measure  on 
that  df,  equal  to  the  vertical  height  A  of  the 
pyramid,  and  draw  the  diagonal  ef,  which  will 
give  the  true,  or  slant  length  of  de;  orC  in  the 
elevation.  These  lengths,  ac  and  ef,  are 
now  employed  to  develop  the  envelope  of  the 
truncated  cone  thus  :  In  36,  a  is  a  starting  point 
in  which  the  compass  is  set  to  mark  the  length 
of  the  slant  height  ac,  taken  from  ac  in 
35,  and  the  length  also  of  a  side  of  the  base 
ae,  ae,  equal  to  the  length  ge  in  35.  The 
length  fe  of  the  diagonal  face  [35]  is-taken,  and 
set  off  from  ce  and  e  in  36.  The  lines  ae,  ae, 
will  be  drawn  to  intersect  the  distances  ae  with 
ce.  From  e  and  e,  set  off  arcs  //  equal  in  radius 
to  ac,  equal  to  B,  the  slant  height  of  the  figure 
35.  Take  the  length  bd  of  a  side  of  the  upper 
f.u<-  [35],  and  set  that  off  from  cf,  /.  Draw 
lines,  cf,  cf,  through  the  points  of  intersection. 
The  remainder  of  the  envelope  is  obtained  by 
repeating  these  operations. 

An  Alternative  Method.  Another 
method,  in  which  the  essential  development  by 
triangulation  is  similar,  is  illustrated  hi  37  and  38. 
In  37  a  line,  ab,  is  drawn  equal  in  length  to  the 
base  length  of  a  side  of  the  pyramid,  and  pro- 
d  to  right  and  left.  From  a  as  centre,  and 
radius  ab,  describe  a  semicircle  and  divide  it 
into  half  as  many  equal  parts,  by  c,  d,  as  there  are 
faces  to  the  pyramid— three  for  a  hexagon,  four 
for  an  octagon,  etc.  Draw  the  line  ac  through 
one  (»f  t IK-SI-  |H)ints  of  division  ;  ab,  ac 
now  represent  the  lengths  of  two  base  lines  and 
cab  is  the  angle  which  they  make.  The  length  of 
the  boondmg  lines  on  the  upper  or  smaller  end 
..f  th.-  frustum  of  the  pyramid  is  obtained 
l.y  M-tting  off  tin-  length  of  a  side  from  ae, 
and  drawing  a  line  ef  parallel  with  ad.  From 


/  the  line  fy  is  drawn  parallel  with  ae,  and  fg  is 
the  length  of  a  side  on  the  smaller  end  ;  cjh 
being  drawn  parallel  with  ab,  and  equal  in  length 
to  qf  gives  the  length  of  the  side  adjacent.  The 
figure  bacfgh  is  a  plan  view  of  two  sizes  of  the 
figure  required,  but  it  does  not  as  yet  give  the 
slant  height  of  the  sides  and  edges.  These  are 
obtained  by.  the  triangulations  of  the  previous 

gTo  obtain  the  slant  height  of  the  faces,  let 
fall  a  perpendicular  from  gj,  set  off  jk  equal 
in  length  to  the  perpendicular  height  of  the 
frustum  of  the  pyramid.  Then  the  length  kg 
will  give  the  slant  height  of  the  face,  indicated 
in  plan  by  gj.  To  obtain  the  slant  height  of  the 
edges,  draw  gl  perpendicular  to  ag,  and  equal  in 
length  to  the  perpendicular  height  jk.  Then  al 
joined  will  be  the  slant  height  of  the  edge  ag. 

The  developed  pattern  [38]  is  obtained  thus : 
Draw  the  line  al  equal  in  length  to  the  line  al 
in  37.  Then  from  a  as  centre,  and  radius  aj,  set 
off  the  arcs  /,  j  in  38.  With  I  as  centre,  and 
radius  equal  to  kg  [37],  draw  arcs  intersect- 
ing jj,  at  jj,  and  draw  lines  from  a  through 
these  points,  prolonging  them  to  b  and  c.  Measure 
the  length  ab,  ac,  equal  to  the  lengths  ab,  ac, 
and  If,  Ih,  equal  in  length  to  gh,  gf,  in  37,  com- 
pleting the  development  of  two  sides  of  the 
required  frustum. 

Pyramids— Oblique  Figures.  If,  for 
any  reason,  a  truncated  oblique  pyramid  cannot 
conveniently  be  developed  to  the  apex,  as  in 
39  and  40,  Viangulation  is  available  which  we 
have  just  applied  to  right  figures.  Fig.  39 
illustrates,  we  will  suppose,  such  a  pyramid  in 
plan,  and  of  which  we  know  the  height  of  the 
figure.  A  line  ij  is  drawn  on  the  front  slant, 
and  on  it  another,  jk,  is  raised,  equal  in  height 
to  the  height  of  the  figure.  The  diagonal, 
ik,  then  equals  the  slant  height  of  the  frustum 
on  the  outer  face  A.  For  the  slant  height  of 
the  faces  B,  draw  the  diagonal  bg,  on  it 
raise  the  perpendicular  yl,  also  equal  in 
height  to  jk.  The  diagonal  bl  then  equals  the 
slant  height  of  the  faces  B  and  B.  To  obtain 
the  slant  height  of  the  face  C — that  is,  the  face 
bounded  by  the  corners,  a,  b,  e,  / — draw  the 
diagonal  a/,  on  it  raise  the  perpendicular  fm 
equal  in  height  to  jk,  and  the  diagonal  am  will 
equal  in  length  that  of  the  slant  face  C. 

The  development  is  shown  in  40.  Draw  a 
line  ik  equal  in  length  to  ik  in  39,  and  draw 
two  lines  at  its  terminations  at  right  angles 
with  it.  On  these  lines  set  off  the  lengths 
cd  and  gh,  corresponding  with  those  in  39. 
Take  the  diagonal  bl  in  39,  and  strike  radii 
with  it  from  gh  [40]  to  ab.  Measure  the  length 
of  the  sides,  ad  and  cb,  and  strike  radii  with  these, 
cutting  those  just  struck  at  ab.  Join  ad  and 
cb.  Draw  eh  parallel  with  ad,  and  gf  parallel 
with  cb  and  equal  in  length  to  gf  and  he  in  39. 
Take  the  diagonal  am  in  39,  and  strike  an  arc 
from  fm  [40].  Draw  bm  of  length  cd  to  inter- 
sect, and  draw  fe  parallel  with  bm.  The  lines 
me,  ae,  will  complete  the  boundary  of  the  pat- 
tern outlines,  and  the  dotted  lines  bf,  eg,  and 
dh  are  the  angles  for  bending. 


4526 


Continued 


THE    NATURAL   MAN 

The  Three  Aspects  cf  Man.     Perfect  Health.     The  Effect  of  Occupation.     The 
Great    Gain    of   Life    in    our    Generation.      Town   Life  and  the   Death   Rate. 


Group  25 

HEALTH 
14 


Continuedfr< 
page  4"?91 


By    Dr.    A.    T.     SCHOFIELD 


'JHl 


[E  normal  man,  like  "  the  average  man," 
is  a  being  often  heard  of  but  seldom  seen, 
because  he  rarely  exists.  Like  pure  air  or  pure 
water,  he  is  supposed  to  be  a  commonplace, 
whereas  in  reality  he  is  a  great  rarity. 

There  seem  to  be  sound  psycho-physiological 
and  even  anatomical  grounds  for  the  tripartite 
division  of  man  into  spirit,  soul,  and  body. 
The  brain  itself  has  naturally  a  threefold 
division  anatomically,  as  pointed  out  by  Dr. 
Hughlings  Jackson.  There  is  the  cortex  or  surface 
of  the  brain  in  hemispheres,  the  mid-brain, 
composed  mainly  of  two  great  masses  respec- 
tively concerned  in  motion  and  sensation,  and 
then  there  is  the  third  and  lowest — the  medulla 
and  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord.  That  these 
three  regions  are  broadly  connected  with  three 
parts  of  man  is  shown  by  experiments  on  frogs 
and  pigeons.  It  is  found  that  a  pigeon  from  which 
the  cortex,  or  seat  of  the  intelligence,  or  spirit, 
has  been  removed  can  still  perform  all  the  func- 
tions of  animal  life  and  physical  existence, 
but  it  has  lost  the  directing,  guiding  intelligence. 
It  flies,  but  cannot  direct  its  flight,  and  acts  more 
or  less  like  an  automaton. ,  If  the  mid-brain  be 
removed,  the  animal  life  goes,  and  bare  existence 
remains.  The  bird  can  no  longer  fly  or  seek 
food,  but  if  fed,  can  exist. 

The  Three  Parts  of  Man.  We  may 
thus  anatomically  and  physiologically  and 
psychologically  say  that  with  the  cortex  we  live 
(spirit  life),  with  the  mid-brain  we  move  (animal 
life),  and  with  the  medulla  we  exist  (body  life), 
or,  in  the  words  of  the  great  Christian  apologist 
on  Mars  Hill,  "  In  Him  we  live  and  move  and 
have  our  being."  A  man,  therefore,  must  be 
regarded  as  a  tripartite  being.  While  mainly 
concerned  with  physical  health,  we  seek  to  give 
due  weight  to  intellectual  and  moral  health, 
and,  taking  a  broad  view,  deem  no  man  in 
health  whose  spirit  or  soul  is  sick,  though  the 
tody  may  be  sound. 

"  In  good  health,"  says  one  well-known 
hygienist,  broad  enough  to  survey  man  as  man, 
"  there  must  be  the  capacity  and  desire  for  every 
kind  of  prolonged  physical  exertion  with  skill, 
ease,  and  pleasure.  But  this  is  not  enough. 
There  must  be  the  capacity  and  desire  for  every 
kind  of  prolonged  intellectual  exertion  with  skill, 
ease,  and  pleasure.  But  this  is  not  enough. 
There  must  be  the  capacity  and  desire  for  every 
kind  of  prolonged  spiritual  activity  with  skill, 
ease,  and  pleasure,  and  there  must  be  evidence 
that  all  three  divisions  are  in  health." 

Not  that  the  three  divisions  are  equal.  Mr 
Eustace  Miles  has  graphically  shown  their  true 
relations  somewhat  after  this  manner  : 

In  health,  spirit  controls  the  soul,  vbich  con- 
trols the  body. 


In  ill-health,  body  controls  the  soul,  which 
controls  the  spirit. 

In  other  words,  a  strong  body  obeys  the  mind, 
a  weak  one  rules  it. 

The  Healthy  Man.  In  full  health  a  man 
lives  as  simply  and  cheaply  as  he  can.  There 
is  self-control  and  purity,  patience,  candour, 
altruism,  contentment,  and  happiness.  He  is 
healthy  in  all  circumstances,  and,  even  if  the 
balance  be  upset  by  bad  environment,  the 
healthy  man  soon  unconsciously  compensates, 
and  the  balance  is  restored  with  ease. 

Health,  it  has  been  well  said,  is  a  constant 
equibration  rather  than  a  constant  equilibrium — 
that  is  to  say,  there  are  daily  variations,  and 
constant  oscillations,  and  not  a  fixed  condition. 
Health  is  like  a  block  of  wood  with  many  sides  ; 
so  that  whichever  way  it  is  pushed  over,  it 
stands  equally  well.  The  healthy  man  controls 
his  circumstances,  and  is  not  controlled  by  them. 
Ideal  health  is  largely  independent  of  condi- 
tions. The  athlete  is  not  a  healthy  man,  nor 
the  student,  nor  the  saint.  Each  one  has  a 
tendency  to  develop  one  part  of  himself  at  the 
expense  of  the  other  two.  The  recent  develop- 
ment of  colour  photography  is  a  good  illustration 
of  this.  There  are  three  colours  in  nature, 
as  there  are  three  parts  in  man,  and  any  scene 
that  has  to  be  photographed  in  colours  has  to 
have  three  exposures,  each  one  made  by  cut- 
ting off  two-thirds  of  the  light,  which,  of  course,  is 
itself  made  up  of  all  three  colours.  These  ex- 
posures are  then  printed  in  red,  yellow,  and  blue, 
and  when  one  is  shown  on  a  screen  we  get  the 
landscape  in  shades  of  red,  when  the  yellow  is 
superimposed  we  get  the  orange  and  yellow 
tints  added,  but  all  is  glaringly  unlike  Nature. 
But  the  moment  the  third  part,  the  blue,  is 
added,  all  falls  into  perfect  harmony,  and  we 
get  the  browns  and  greys,  and  all  the  subdued 
half  tints  of  Nature  herself.  So  with  man ; 
it  is  not  until  we  get  the  three  parts — spirit,  soul, 
and  body — superimposed,  and  all  in  healthy 
development,  that  we  can  see  and  know  what 
is  a  true  man. 

The  Physical  Man.  What,  then,  is  a 
human  being  physically  ?  If  a  man,  he  is,  in 
the  perfection  of  civilised  life  in  this  twentieth 
century,  an  individual  six  feet  high,  weighing 
thirteen  stone.  In  certain  manufacturing  districts 
he  is  only  five  feet  one  and  a  half  inches,  and 
averages  seven  and  a  half  stone  in  weight.  All 
averages,  however,  are  being  now  constantly 
exceeded,  and  must  soon  be  raised.  At  birth, 
if  a  man,  he  will  now  expect  to  live  only  for 
45  years,  if  a  woman,  for  47  years,  although  it 
is  believed  that  his  full  span  of  life  should  be 
105,  or  five  times  the  period  of  his  growth.  He 
is  essentially  a  unity,  and  yet  a  unity  in  diversity. 

4527 


HEALTH 

A  Unity  in  Diversity.  It  will,  of 
course,  occur  to  all  that  he  is  a  trinity  in 
unity.  ;i  compound  of  body,  soul,  spirit,  and 

y.-t  Inn  on.-  ni.iu,  one  personality.  A  collection 
i>t  di\ri>  ma-  liincs  of  complex  structure,  and 
.  oiMni.-tfd  of  heterogeneous  materials,  all 
<  rumbling  away  at  different  rates,  he  yet  moves, 
and  acts  as  an  independent  unit,  governed  as 
regard-  tlie  lite  of  his  body  by  the  one  unify- 
ing factor,  the  unconscious  mind  ;  as  regards  its 
actions  by  his  conscious  mind,  the  two  forming 
l>ut  one  mind,  one  character,  one  ego,  and  the 
\\hole.  with  the  body,  forming  one  person — man. 

This  man,  if  he  survives  the  first  two  or  three 

years  of  his  life,  will  probably  live  to  75  instead  of 

•  ;    and  his  life  would  then  be  divided  into 

t  hree  stages  of  about  25  years  each,  the  first  being 

growth,  the  second  maturity,  and  the  third  decay. 

The  height  and  minimum  weight  of  those  men 
who  do  not  reach  the  high  standard  of  six  feet 
and  13  stone,  if  in  perfect  health,  are  as  follows  : 
.">  ft .  f>  in.  =  10|  stone.  5  ft.  9  in.  =  1 1£  stone. 
.-)  ft.  7  in.  =  lOJf  „  5  ft,  10  in.  =  12 
5  ft.  8  in.  =11  „  5  ft.  11  in.  =  12|  „ 

The  points  to  look  for  in  man  are  height 
in  relation  to  weight,  perfection  of  movement, 
and  sensation. 

The  Slaughter  of  Life.  As  to  physique, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  measurements 
we  have  given  are  far  in  excess  of  those  of 
ancient  times,  for  the  race  is  supposed  to  in- 
crease, as  we  have  already  said,  in  stature  in 
civilised  countries  at  the  rate  of  1J  in.  in  every 
1,000  years.  Not  only  so,  but,  low  as  the 
average  of  45  years  out  of  a  possible  105  may 
appear,  it  is  really  a  very  great  advance  over 
that  of  36  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth, 
or  20  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  is  mainly 
due  to  the  increase  of  private  and  public  hygiene 
everywhere.  It  is  probably  an  understatement 
to  say  that  hygiene  saves  now  some  120,000 
lives  every  year.  And  yet  to-day  the  needless 
mortality  .amongst  infante  (some  50,000)  is 
terrible  and  shameful,  for  the  low  average  of 
45  years  is  mainly  due  to  the  enormous  infant 
mortality  that  persists.  Whenall  babies  under  six 
months  old  drink  nothing  but  clean  milk  infant 
mortality  will  at  once  be  reduced  by  one-half 

Occupation  hag  a  bearing  upon  the  health  and 
longevity  of  the  man,  as  this  table  shows : 


t  w,.l  be  Men  that  clerks  of  all  sorts  are  the 
•»lv  peopk  who  In-  th,  right  time  according 
I"1'  -vorage;  that  is.  that  they  die  at 

•  te  of  100  per  cent.,  and  at  45  years  of  age 


Why  People  Die.  The  clergy  head  the  list 
and  live  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  average. 
They  come  of  a  good  stock,  are  temperate 
in  habits,  and  have  a  small  but  assured  income. 
Free  Church  ministers  die  a  little  faster.  Farmers 
live  long,  but  would  show  up  better  if  they 
spent  less  money  in  drink.  The  agricultural 
labourer's  favourable  lot  in  life  (only  three- 
fourths  of  the  average  death-rate)  is  all  the 
more  striking  when  contrasted  with  that  of  the 
town  labourer  (the  lowest  but  one),  who  dies  just 
twice  as  fast  as  he  should.  Grocers  owe  their 
higher  death-rate  to  the  spirits  they  consume. 
Lawyers  are  well  off,  but  it  is  found  that  after 
45  they  die  off  more  quickly  than  they  used  to 
do,  probably  from  increased  strain  of  life. 

Drapers  die  mainly  from  consumption,  owing 
to  the  amount  of  dust  in  their  trade,  which 
makes  it  less  healthy  than  that  of  a  grocer.  The 
health  of  coal  miners,  which  is  surprising,  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  fact  that  only  strong  men  enter 
the  colliery,  and  to  the  harmlessness  of  coal  dust. 
Artists  owe  their  higher  mortality  to  the  fact 
that  with  thwn  are  included  engravers  and 
sculptors,  among  whom  the  death-rate  is  high. 
Bakers  die  usually  from  drink  and  suicide. 
Clerks  occupy  the  average,  as  we  have  seen,  and 
their  death-rate  is  much  lower  than  it  used  to 
be,  owing  probably  to  better  ventilation  of 
offices  and  increased  exercise. 

The  table  ranges  from  the  clergyman,  with  a 
mortality  of  55  per  100,  to  the  pot-boy,  with 
220 — a  difference  that  needs  no  words  to  show 
the  value  of  hygienic  influence.  Nevertheless, 
as  a  whole,  this  table,  composed  in  1885,  shows 
an  improvement  over  previous  ones  that  is 
equivalent  to  an  addition  of  2,000,000  years 
of  life  annually  to  the  nation.  Since  then  the 
improvement  has  continued  steadily. 

The  Perfect  Man.  A  man  "in  order"  is, 
then,  as  a  whole,  one  free  from  disease,  func- 
tional or  organic,  whose  weight  bears  a  certain 
relation  to  his  height  and  general  physique  ; 
who  leads  a  healthy  life,  and  pursues,  if  needed, 
some  healthy  calling  ;  who  is  temperate  in  all 
things,  avoiding  intoxication,  physical,  mental, 
or  moral ;  who  gives  due  balance  of  work  to 
both  physical  and  psychic  natures  ;  to  whom 
every  morning  is  a  resurrection,  and  whose 
life  is  one  of  perfect  personal  ease  and  action 
both  in  mind  and  body.  All  his  three  natures 
are  in  perfect  harmony,  so  that  internal  discord 
is  unknown ;  and  lastly,  but  above  all  the  rest, 
he  is  "  in  tune  with  the  Infinite." 

The  personal  appearance  of  this  man  will  be 
the  mean  between  fat  and  thin ;  his  shoulders 
will  be  broad  ;  his  hips  lean  ;  his  chest  well 
developed;  his  hair  probably  brown  in  this 
country— for,  comparing  the  proportion  of  the 
different  shades  of  hair,  there  are  about  eight 
brown  to  every  six  either  light  or  dark  brown, 
or  four  fair,  or  two  either  black  or  flaxen,  or  one 
red.  He  will  have  a  clear,  bright  eye  ;  a  frank, 
noble,  pure  expression  ;  a  clear,  soft,  unwrinkled 
skin;  elastic  arteries,  with  good  heart,  lungs,* 
and  liver,  good  digestion,  and  perfect  sight  and 
hearing. 


The  best  time 


Manhood  in  its  perfection  may  be  said  to 
extend  from  25  to  55  years  of  age,  the  whole  of 
which  time  should  be  a  period  of  perfect  health, 
equally  free  from  the  dangers  and  diseases 
attending  youth  and  growth  on  the  one  hand, 
and  those  attending  old  age  and  degeneration 
on  the  other.  Absolute  perfection  may  be  said 
to  be  attained  about  40. 

Marriage  and  Health. 
for  marriage  is — for  woman, 
from  21  to  28,  the  limits  being 
20  to  35  ;  for  a  man,  28  to 
35,  the  limits  being  24  to  40. 
For  a  happy  marriage  there 
should  be  some  contrast 
between  the  pair,  but  not  too 
great  a  difference  in  tastes, 
position,  temperament,  age, 
size,  and  race.  Neither 
should  be  seriously  diseased, 
and  if  healthy  up  to  the  age 
of  marriage,  the  fact  of  being 
the  offspring  of  diseased 
parent  or  parents  is  not  a 
sufficient  bar  to  union.  The 
marriage  of  healthy  cousins 
is  sometimes  detrimental  in 
one  generation,  but,  if  per- 
sisted in  for  several,  results  in 
a  dwarfed  and  deteriorated  race.  A  town  dweller 
of  three  generations  should  certainly  marry  into 
a  country  stock.  The  health  of  the  parents  is  of 
the  utmost  value  to  the  offspring.  Hence  nerves 
should  be  kept  in  order  in  married  life,  not  only 
for  selfish,  but  for  altruistic  reasons.  All  ex- 
excesses  of  body,  soul,  or  spirit  should  be  carefully 
avoided,  and  moderation  and  temperance  in 
all  things  should  be  practised.  When  the  food 
is  scanty  and  poor,  boys  are  likely  to  prepon- 
derate ;  where  plentiful  and  generous,  girls  are 
most  numerous. 

Marriages  are  not  so  fruitful  if  the  man  is 
younger  than  the  woman,  or  more  than'  10 
years  older.  The  boy  and  girl  unions  amongst 
the  less  educated  are  the  great  cause'  of  the 
infant  mortality.  A  woman  reaches  her  "per- 
fection at  thirty-five  years  of  age,  a  man  at 
forty.  At  this  period  of  life  many  .of  the 
rules  of  hygiene  have  to  be  radically  changed. 
As  long  as  the  body  was  growing,  one 'could 
'hardly  eat  too  much  food,  but  now  abstinence 
is  the  rule,  and  the  weight  once  fixed  shoukl 
be  by  no  means  exceeded.  ,  > 

The  table  on  this  page  gives  the  approximate 
weight  of  men,  women  and  children  at  different 
ages  (clothes  average  7  lb.,  or  0  lb.,  without 
shoes). 

With  regard  to  food,  the  majority  of  us  eat 
too  much.  A  man  should  be  most  strict  hot  to 
exceed  his  settled  weight  as  shown  by  the- scales. 

What  we  Should  Eat.  It  is  well  to 
eat  a  good  breakfast,  a  good  luncheon,  and  a 
plain  and  somewhat  scanty  dinner.  Both  the 
digestion  and  assimilation  get  Aveaker  as  the  day 
goes  on.  The  French  breakfast  at  twelve  or  one 
o'clock  is  too  late  for  English  habits,  and  the  early 
roll  and  coffee  is  not  enough  by  itself  to  do  ;i 
morning's  work  on.  It  has  been  found  that 


HEALTH 

on  the  coffee  and  roll  a  French  workman  does 
only  some  250  to  300  foot -tons  of  work  as 
compared  with  the  Englishman's  500  on  a  better 
breakfast. 

But  it  is  not  only  the  habit  of  eating  too 
much  that  has  to  be  resisted  at  this  age :  there 
is  the  question  of  drinking.  Strict  moderation 
is  increasingly  imperative  in  the  wear  and  tear 
of  modern  life,  and  a  very  careful  watch  should 


All  Classes. 

BOYS. 
Upper  Classes  only. 

GIRLS. 
All  Classes. 

Women 

Height. 

(with 
clothes) 

Men  (with 
clothes) 

Age. 

Height. 

Weight, 

Height. 

Weight. 

ft.  in. 

St.   Ill, 

st.  lb. 

Chest 

Years. 

ft.  in. 

st.  lb. 

ft.  in. 

st,  lb. 

4  10 

7     0 

Measure- 

4 

3     2fc 

3     2 

4  11 

7     4 

ment. 

5 

3     5 

8     8 

3"5 

2*i2 

5     0 

7     7 

s"o 

33J 

6 

3     8 

3  12 

3     7J 

3     1 

5     1 

7  12 

8     4 

34 

7 

3  10 

4     1 

3     »} 

3     5 

5     2 

9     0 

35 

•     8 

3  11 

4     3 

3  10i 

3  10 

5     3 

8     9 

9     7 

35  } 

9 

4     If 

4     6 

4     Oi 

4     1 

5     4 

9     2 

9  13 

36 

10 

4     5 

4  11 

4     3 

4     6 

5     5 

9     9 

10     2 

37 

11 

4     6i 

5     2 

4     5* 

4  12 

5     6 

9  13 

10     5 

37* 

12 

4     8i 

5  10 

4     8 

5     6 

5     7 

10     8 

10     8 

38 

13 

4  10i 

6     4 

4  10 

6     4 

5     8 

11     4 

11      1 

38  J 

14 

5     1 

7     1 

5     0 

6  12 

5     0 

11     8 

39 

15 

5'  3i 

7  12 

5     1 

7     8 

5  10 



12     1 

39i 

16 

5     6J 

9     2 

5     H 

8     1 

5   11 



12     6 

40 

17 

5     8 

10     1 

5     2J 

8     3 

6     0 



12   10 

40  1 

18 

5     8i 

10     6 

5     3 

8     9 

6     1 



13     0 

41 

19 

5     8f 

10     8 

5     3i 

8  12 

6     2 

— 

13     7 

«i 

20 

5     9 

10  12 

5     3} 

8  12 

be  kept  against  the  growth  of  any  habits  at 
this  period  ;  for  it  needs  but  one  or  two  evil  ones 
to  wreck  fatally  the  most  promising  life. 

As  to  dress,  a  flannel  belt  is  of  value,  and  is  a 
protection  in  many  ways.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  fat  does  not  lessen  the  risk  of  taking 
cold  but  rather  increases  it. 

Bathing  in  ice-cold  water  is  not  advisable 
after  35  or  40,  but  the  coldest  water  is  always 
safe  when  standing  in  hot.  The  hair  should  not 
be  constantly  wetted,  as  this  tends  to  baldness  ; 
but  the  whole  body  should  be  bathed  every  day, 
and  washed  with  soap  once  a  week. 

The  bodily  powers,  as  measured  by  the  force 
of  respiration  and  circulation,  vary  very  much  in 
the  twenty-four  hours,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  is  the  weakest 
time  of  the  twenty-four.  It  is  the  hour  of 
most  births  and  most  deaths. 
.  These  diagrams  show  the  varying  force  of 
respiration  and  circulation  through  the  day : 


DAY  CYCLE  IN  HEALTH 


NOON 

DAY  CYCLE  IN  PHTHISIS 


In  these  diagrams  the  dot  represents  death 
or  the  stoppage  of  life  ;  the  inner  line  is  that 
of  respiratory  force,  the  outer  the  circulatory. 

The  life  should  be  conducted  so  that  theie 
is  neither  gain  nor  loss,  but  an  even  weight  for 

4529 


HEALTH 

30  years  at  least.  A  long  journey  every  day  by 
train  is  eertainly  bad,  and  a  great  strain  on  t In- 
ner vous  system.  For  sedentary  occupations 
it  is  of  great  value  to  be  able  to  walk  to  and 
from  business.  If  there  is  difficulty  about 
going  to  sleep  at  night  a  good  plan  is  to  rise 
half  an  hour  earlier  each  day  until  you  go  to 
sleep  as  soon  as  you  go  to  bed. 

The  Three  Dangerous  Ages. 
Avoid  all  irregularities  and  excesses,  strains 
on  the  heart,  worry,  loss  of  sleep  and  obesity. 
There  are  said  to  be  three  periods  when  one 
is  prone  to  sickness— at  36,  when  the  lean  tend 
to  get  fat,  and  the  fat  lean ;  from  45  to  50  the 
climacteric ;  and  at  61  another  crisis  occurs, 
when  the  powers  of  life  may  suddenly  fail. 

In  spite  of  the  rush  of  people  from  country 
to  town,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  size  of  London 
and  the  growth  of  all  our  cities,  every  generation 
at  the  present  day  lives  in  the  aggregate  millions 
more  years  than  in  the  "  good  old  times." 

The  difference  between  the  present  time  and 
fifty  years  ago  may  be  well  shown.  Out  of  a 
million  men  born  62,000  are  alive  at  20  years 
of  age  who  would  then  have  been  dead  ;  at 
50  the  same  number  ;  while  even  at  70  we  have 
over  15,000  to  the  good.  Surely  this  shows  the 
solid  value  of  health  laws  in  adult  life ! 

It  may  be  said  that  in  this  country,  at  the 
age  of  20,  over  2,500,000  people  are  living  now 
who,  50  years  ago,  out  of  a  similar  number  of 
the  same  age,  would  have  been  dead ;  and 
when  we  know  that  each  person  on  an  average  is 
said  to  be  worth  £156,  this  represents  an  addition 
of  nearly  £400,000,000  to  the  assets  of  the  nation. 
So  that  hygiene  pays  its  way. 

We  are  constantly  being  warned  of  the  ill 
effects  of  the  present  rush  of  life.  Diseases  of 
the  nervous  system  are  increasing,  and  diseases 
of  heart  and  lungs  and  liver  are  rife  ;  but  zymotic 
diseases  arc  much  fewer,  so  that  we  die  now  more 
from  wearing  out  some  part  of  the  body  than 
by  a  premature  poisoning  by  germs. 

Town  Life  and  Health.  On  the  whole, 
life  was  never  so  safe  from  fatalities  as  at  present. 
At  any  single  year  up  to  79  there  are  more  sur- 
vivors out  of  any  given  number  than  formerly ; 
but,  curiously  enough,  over  this  there  are  fewer, 
and  this  is  said  to  be  mainly  due  to  the  modern 
preference  for  town  life.  The  increase  of  mortal- 
ity due  to  this  cause  is  amazing.  If  a  labourer 
comes  to  town  he  takes,  on  an  average,  20  years 
off  his  life.  At  65  years  of  age,  out  of  100,000 
persons  born,  nearly  20,000  more  are  alive  in  the 
country  generally  than  in  a  large  town. 

Afl  hygiene  lengthens  our  days,  we  cut  them 

short  by  our  town  lives ;  and  it  would  be  greatly 

to  be  regret  t  ed  if  mere  length  of  life  represented  the 

"'••"-'  'l«'sid«Tatum.    I'.m  this  is  far  from  bone 

tie  case,  and,  doubtless,  a  large  number  of  those 

'spend  their  years  in  town  can  show  how 

""'I'  'l"-y  and  others  have  benefited  in  other 

ways  even  if  they  have  lost 

L      There  is.   llouvv.-r. 


can  be  no  doubt  that  the  modern  appliances  for 
saving  time  and  wear  and  tear  have  greatly 
lessened  the  evils  produced  by  the  greater  rush 
of  life. 

Care  of  Old  Age.  Now,  as  to  the  care 
of  old  age,  the  chief  points  are  moderate 
and  digestible  food,  sufficient  warmth,  and  an 
even  and  quiet  life.  The  chief  of  the  three  is 
the  food,  or  fuel  for  the  lamp  of  life.  While  all 
fixed  dieting  is  bad  where  it  can  possibly  be 
avoided,  a  few  hints  can  be  given  that  may  prove 
of  value.  The  older  a  person  is  after  50,  the 
less  food  he  requires.  Luigi  Cornaro,  who  livei 
to  100,  though  of  a  feeble  constitution,  took 
12  ounces  of  solid  food  and  14  ounces  of  fluid 
daily  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life  ;  and  his 
most  severe  illness  was  caused  by  his  increasing 
his  allowance,  through  the  continual  entreaties 
of  his  friends.  Very  little  proteid  or  animal 
food  is  required,  and  though  in  many  respects 
false  teeth  are  a  great  boon  to  the  aged,  they 
may  lead  to  too  great  a  consumption  of  animal 
food.  It  is  not  the  amount  of  coals  we  put  in 
a  grate  that  warms  the  room,  but  the  amount 
that  can  be  burnt;  and  the  great  point  is  to 
avoid  choking  the  digestive  and  excretory 
organs  with  excess  of  food.  The  food  of  the 
nursery  is  the  best  in  old  age.  Bread-and-milk 
and  honey  is  a  capital  diet.  Milk  agrees  with 
nearly  all.  Hot  milk  with  a  little  Mellin's 
Food  forms  an  admirable  drink  at  night,  and  can 
be  kept  warm  in  a  hot- water  jug  covered  with 
a  cosy.  Fruit  is  wholesome  if  ripe  or  well 
cooked.  Fat,  as  cream  or  fresh  butter,  is 
good.  Warm  food  is  very  suitable.  Soup 
enriched  with  cream  or  marrow  is  light  and 
nourishing.  All  meals  should  be .  regular,  and 
all  excesses  avoided.  If  weight  is  being  gained 
the  diet  should  be  decreased.  In  addition  to  the 
after-dinner  nap,  as  years  creep  on,  a  doze  after 
breakfast  and  before  dinner  is  often  helpful. 

Clothing  and  Warmth.  Clothing  should 
be  both  warm  and  light.  The  underclothing 
should  be  of  wool.  Fur  is  an  admirable 
material.  A  sealskin  waistcoat  is  useful,  and 
the  feet  and  hands  should  be  well  and  warmly 
clothed.  An  eider-down  quilt  on  the  bed, 
which  should  be  warmed  in  winter,  is  a  good 
covering.  No  aged  person  should  be  suffered  to 
get  cold  in  bed.  The  warmth  of  the  bed  is  of 
great  importance  in  old  age.  A  warm  bath  should 
be  taken  every  day,  and  a  warmer  bath,  with 
plenty  of  a  pure  mild  soap  to  keep  the  skin 
supple  and  soft,  should  be  used  twice  a  week. 
It  is  better  for  old  people  who  have  the  oppor- 
tunity to  winter  in  the  South  of  Europe,  if 
possible.  If  not,  the  aged  should  shut  them- 
selves up  in  a  well  warmed  house  at  this 
season. 

The  rooms  should  be  at  a  temperature  of  65° 
to  70°.  The  habits  of  old  people  should  not  be 
lightly  altered.  Whatever  excites  exhaustion 
rising  is,  therefore, 
is  not  good,  as  it 


,-..,,, 


Continued 


GLASS   AND   GLASS-MAKING 

Nature  and  Properties  of  Glass.     Manufacture  of  Glass  Pots.     The  Furnaces. 
A  Series  of  Recipes.     Annealing  and  Hardening.     Crown  and  Sheet  Glass 


Group  2 

GLASS 


Following  on  ART 
from  page  439«"> 


I T  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article  to  trace 
the  history  of  the  manufacture  of  glass.  It 
will  suffice  to  note  that  the  first  window  glass  was 
made  in  England  at  Crutched  Friars,  London, 
in  1557,  and  fine  articles  of  flint  glass  soon 
afterwards  at  Savoy  House.  The  first  sheets  of 
blown  glass  for  looking-glass  and  coach  windows 
were  made  in  1673,  at  Lambeth,  by  Venetian 
workmen.  The  abolition  of  the  Excise  duties  on 
glass,  in  1845,  may  be  considered  the  starting- 
point  of  the  modern  glass  industry  in  England, 
which  at  once  expanded  into  an  enormous 
trade. 

What  is  Glass  ?  Glass  may  be  defined  as 
a  non-crystalline,  transparent,  solid  substance 
produced  by  melting  at  a  high  temperature 
silica,  or  a  similar  body,  with  an  alkali.  In 
place  of  silica  Iterates  and  phosphates  have  been 
used,  and  the  term  alkali  must  be  taken  in  its 
most  elastic  sense  to  include  alkaline  earths 
such  as  lime  and  baryta. 

It  is  usual  to  regard  glass  as  insoluble  in 
water,  although  it  is  not  so,  strictly  speaking, 
infinitesimal  amounts  being  soluble.  Alkarine 
solutions  have  a  slightly  greater  solvent  power  on 
glass  than  water,  but  acids  act  but  little  on 
glass  with  the  exception  of 
hydrofluoric  acid. 
"Age  and  Weather  Affect 
Glass.  The  weathering  of 
ancient  glass  in  cathedral  win- 
dows is  due  to  the  decomposing 
action  of  atmospheric  moisture, 
and  a  special  "  disease  "  of  old 
glass  has  been  traced  to  a  fun- 
|oid  growth.  The  iridescence  TO**^£D 
of  old  glass  is  due  to  exposure 
to  moist  air  or  damp  earth  for  long  periods.  Sir 
William  Crooks  has  traced  a  curious  lavender 
coloration  of  glass  to  the  action  of  ozone  in  the 
air.  The  brittleness  of  glass  will  occur  to  the 
reader  as  one  of  its  most  characteristic  features  ; 
but  curiously  enough,  glass  drawn  out  into  fine 
threads  is  quite  flexible,  and  a  mixture  of  glass 
and  silk  has  been  used  to  make  a  fabric  of 
exquisite  sheen.  When  hot  glass  is  rapidly 
cooled  it  often  breaks,  because  it  is  a  bad  con- 
ductor of  heat.  The  exterior  surface  of  the  glass 
cools  more  rapidly  than  the  inner  portions,  un- 
equal contraction  and  usually  fracture  resulting. 
The  thinner  a  glass  vessel  is  the  less  liable  it  is 
to  break.  It  is  quite  usual  for  chemists  to  put 
boiling  water  into  thin  blown  vessels  without 
any  untoward  results  ;  but  as  soon  as  thick- 
walled  vessels  are  submitted  to  similar  treatment 
trouble  begins.  When  newly- made  gkss  is  allowed 
to  cool  quickly  great  tension  is  put  upon  the 
various  strata  of  glass  so  that  if  such  a  vessel 
be  scratched  it  flies  to  pieces.  This  effect  of 
tension  is  overcome  by  cooling  glass  slowly,  the 


1.    OPEN    POT 


whole  process  being  known  as  annealing.  Glass 
is  impervious  to  gases  and  is  a  bad  conductor 
of  electricity. 

Glass  Pots.  The  crucibles  in  which  the  glass 
materials  for  making  pots  are  melted  are  made  of 
fireclay  and  require  the  greatest  care  in  the  manu- 
facture, as  imperfections  lead  to  fracture  of  the 
pot  and  consequent  waste  of  glass.  In  Great 
Britain  the  most  famous  fireclays  are  those 
from  Stourbridge  and  Glenboig,  near  Glasgow. 
Other  famous  fireclays  are  obtained  from 
Forges -les-Eaux  in  France,  Namur  in  Belgium, 
Sargenau  in  Switzerland,  and  Schwarzenfel  in 
Bavaria.  In  the  United  States  the  Missouri 
plastic  clays  are  chiefly  used.  The  composition 
of  fireclay  is  mainly  silica  and  alumina  com- 
bined with  a  small  percentage  of  water,  which 
last-named,  being  expelled  in  the  drying  and 
annealing  process  causes  a  considerable  amount 
of  shrinking  in  the  pot. 

Preparing  Fireclay.  The  virgin  fireclay 
is  carefully  picked  over  to  remove  impurities, 
dried,  ground,  and  sifted.  To  counteract  the 
shrinking  of  the  pots  a  proportion  of  old  glass 
pot  or  ground  burnt  clay  is  always  mixed  with 
the  raw  fireclay.  A  mixture  such  as  the  follow- 
ing is  used  :  Ground  pot  scrap,  3  parts  :  ground 
burnt  clay,  4  parts ;  ground  raw  clay,  6  parts. 
These  ingredients  are  carefully  mixed  and  sifted 
and  measured  into  a  lead  or  zinc-lined  trough. 
The  mass  is  then  damped  with  water,  allowed 
to  stand  for  two  days  and  kneaded.  This 
kneading  is  accomplished  by  workmen  tramp- 
ling in  the  clay  from  side  to  side  of  the  tank,  the 
warmth  and  elasticity  of  the  naked  feet  being 
considered  better  for  developing  the  plasticity 
of  the  clay  than  the  pug  mill  sometimes  em- 
ployed. The  treading  is  repeated  at  intervals, 
some  months  being  allowed  for  the  material  to 
mature.  There  results  finally  a  dense  plastic 
clay  from  which  the  pots  are 
fashioned.  The  workman  makes 
the  clay  into  rolls,  taking  care 
that  no  air  cavities  are  left,  and 
begins  modelling  the  pot  on  a 
board  or  stone  covered  with 
granulated  pot  scrap  or  burnt 
2.  CLOSED  POT  clay.  The  roll  of  clay  is  laid  in 
FOR  FLINT  GLASS  a  spiral  manner,  the  edges  being 
scored  to  promote  adhesion 
of  the  separate  layers,  the  bottom  and  sides 
of  the  pot  being  in  this  way  gradually  built 
up.  The  two  kinds  of  pots  are  illustrated  in  1 
and  2,  the  former  being  the  open  pot  used 
for  plate  and  sheet  glass,  the  covered  pot 
being  the  kind  used  for  flint  glass-making. 
The  drying  of  the  pots  is  very  carefully  regulated, 
the  process  occupying  from  four  to  21  months. 
The  final  process  consists  in  annealing  the 
pots  by  heating  them  for  a  few  days  gradually 

4531 


GLASS 

to  red  heat  and  glazing.   The  interior  of  the  pot      obtained  by  heating  coal.      These   furnaces   are 
is  glazed  by  throwing  in  a  quantity  of  broken       also  constructed  in  connection  with  a   Siemens 
just  before  use.     The  coating  thus  given 

pr..teet*    the   el;;y    fiolil    t  »'C   action   of   the    alkali 

used  in  meltings. 

Melting  Glass.     Glass  is  melted  in  a  modi- 
tied  form  of  reverberatory  furnace,  gaseous  fuel 
being  employed.     The  furnaces  are  constructed 
upon    the    p-neral    principles    of   obtaining   the 
most  intense  heat  possible,  regularity  in  main- 
taining     this       heat,     and 
economy     of    fuel.       Silica 
bricks,  which  are   quite    in- 
fusible   if    kept    free    from 
.ilkali,     are     used  for     the 
most   exposed   parts  of  the 
furnace,  but   fireclay  bricks 
of  the  most  refractory  kind 
are  the  general  material   of 
which   the  furnace   is  built. 


3    -ECTION  OF 


and    they    are 


The  fireclay  is  mixed  with 
ground  flint  before  being 
ro.uie  into  bricks,  and  the  bricks  are  used 
u  thout  previous  drying.  The  bricks  are  bound 
together  with  iron.  After  building,  the  furnace 
is  left  to  dry  for  some  months,  and  then  the 
drying  is  completed  by  firing.  A  furnace  lasts 
from  two  to  five  years. 

The  Furnace.  The  older  dome-shaped 
type  of  furnace  [4]  consists  of  two  parts— the 
combustion  chamber  and  the  cave  or  draught 
chamber  beneath.  Between  the  two,  in  the  centre, 
is  the  grate,  which  is  sunk  a  few  feet  below  the 
siege,  or  bench  upon  which  the  glass  melting- 
pots  are  placed  [3].  From  4  to  18  pots  are 
accommodated  on  the  siege 
reached  for  working  or 
charging  by  a  small  arched 
opening  situated  directly 
over  each  pot.  In  the 
case  of  the  covered  pots 
used  for  flint  glass  the 
mouth  of  the  pot  is 
exposed  on  the  outside  of 
the  furnace  walls.  The 
combustion  chamber  is 
surmounted  by  a  low 
flattened  arch  for  the 
purpose  of  reverberating 
the  tlarne.  The  products 
of  combustion  are  led  by 
i"' aiis  of  short  flues 
situated  beside  each  of 
the  pot*  into  the  large 
chimney  surmounting  the 
farnaoe,  A  doul.le-arched 
roof  is  arranged  in  some 
kinds  of  furnace.  The 
draught  needed  t.,  pro- 
note  combustion  of  the 

OOal  i-  obtained  by  means  of  thecave,  which 

s   EreqwmUv    an-an-red   in  two   MUMaget  at   i-ijrh, 

•hat  advantage  can    be    taken  of  the 

•""'  "»  the  wind.     As  a  good  deal  depends 

•  M  the  regularity  with  which  the  fuel  is  supplied. 

mechanical  feeders  are  employed.         'I'll, 

"  type 


regenerator,  the  air  and    gas    entering  through 
the  bench  of  the  furnace  within  the  circle  of  pots. 
The  Siemens  Furnace.     In  1861,  0.  W. 
Siemens    and    F.    Siemens    obtained    a    patent 
for  a  glass  furnace  in  which  regenerators  are 
applied  to  receive  the  waste  heat  of  the  products 
of  combustion  and  conduct  it  to  the  air  needed 
for  supporting  combustion.     The  solid  fuel  is  de- 
composed or    gasified  in    a 
separate     apparatus,       and 
heated  to    a  high  tempera- 
ture   before    it    enters   the 
glass  furnace.      Since  then, 
notably   in  1870  and  1872, 
further  improvements  have 
been  patented. 

The  Siemens  type  of  fur- 

GLASS-MAKING  FURNACE  nace  is  now  very  general,  but 
has  been  altered  in  many 
ways  since  its  first  intro- 


SHOWING    MELTING-POTS 


4.     <!  LASS-MAKING     FURNACE 


duction.  The  gas  producer,  for  instance,  is  now 
made  as  part  of  the  furnace,  and  the  expense  is 
lessened,  because  the  regenerator  is  omitted. 

In  the  newer  furnaces  the  ordinary  glass 
melting-pots  are  replaced  by  tanks,  and  as  the 
melting  is  generally  continuous,  great  economy 
of  fuel  is  effected  over  the  older  kind.  There  is 
also  an  intermittent  type  of  tank  furnace 
which  is  necessary  for  some  kinds  of  work.  In 
the*  continuous  tank  furnace  a  capacity  of  12 
to  20  tons  each  24  hours  is  usual,  such  a  furnace 
being  worked  with  two  shifts  of  men.  A  furnace 
of  this  description,  having  a  capacity  of  12 
tons,  uses  about  8  tons  of  bituminous  gas  coal 
each  24  hours,  the  12  ton 
production  being  the  net 
product  over  and  above  all 
v«,aste  and  breakage.  The 
furnaces  are  more  durable 
than  the  old  furnaces,  be- 
cause in  keeping  up  the 
heat  the  firebricks  are  not 
so  strained  by  being  sub- 
jected to  great  changes  of 
temperature. 

Electric  Furnaces. 
Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  use  the  heat  of  an 
electric  arc  for  melting 
glass  materials,  two  of  the 
most  promising  electric 
furnaces  being  figured  in 
5  and  6.  In  the  Voelker 
furnace  [5]  the  hopper  feeds 
the  material,  which  passes 
in  succession  between  car- 
bon arcs.  Direct  current 
generated  by  a  360-ampere 

dynamo  with  a  voltage  of  120  is  passed  through 
the  carbons.  The  intense  heat  of  the  first  arc 
melts  the  raw  material  and  causes  it  to  trickle 
downwards,  bringing  it  under  the  influence  of 
the  second  arc,  and  then  of  the  third  arc.  The 
melted  glass  collects  in  the  cup  beneath  and 


,- 


furnace  bottles  can    be  blown    within  half  an 

hour  of  charging  the  hopper.      Referring  to  the 

illustration  of  the  Becker  furnace  [6],  the  three 

small  circles  represent  the  carbons,  the  passage 

of  the  raw  material  being  indicated  by  the  dotted 

lines.     From    the    left-hand    tank    the    melted 

glass  passes  over  a  bridge  into  the  right-hand 

side  and  is  free  from  bubbles  of  gas  and  ready  for 

use. 

Glassmakers'         Recipes. 

The    following     standard    recipes 

for  making  various  kinds  of  glass 

are  intended    to    give    a   general 

idea     of       the      proportions      of 

materials   employed.     In  practice 

the    number    of    recipes    is    very 

great,  different  makers  preferring 

certain  mixtures  of  ingredients. 
CROWN    GLASS.      1.    Silica    (sand), 

600  parts  ;  chalk,    65   parts;    sodium 

carbonate,   400  parts  ;   cullet  (broken 

glass),  500  parts.    2.  Silica,  400  parts  ; 

quicklime,  64  parts  ;  sodium  sulphate. 

200  parts  ;  charcoal,  16  parts. 

WINDOW     GLASS.       1.    Silica,    1  -20 
parts  ;       potassium      carbonate,      60 
parts  ;  arsenic,  1  part ;  borax,  2  parts. 
2.   Silica,  100  parts  ;  chalk  25  parts  ;  sodium  sulphate, 
35  parts  ;  cullet,  100  parts  ;  arsenic,  1  part  ;   charcoal, 

1  \  parts  ;   manganese  oxide,  £  part. 

PLATE  GLASS.  1.  Silica,  400  parts  ;  sodium 
carbonate,  250  parts,  chalk,  30  parts,  2.  Silica. 
100  parts;  quicklime,  12  parts  ;  potassium  carbonate, 
6  parts;  sodium  carbonate,  33  parts:  cullet,  100 
parts  ;  manganese  oxide,  J  part  ;  potassium  nitrate 
(nitre),  2  parts. 

LEAD,    FLINT,    OB    CRYSTAL    GLASS.      1.       Silica, 
336   parts;     potassium    carbonate,    112    parts;     red 
lead,  224  parts  ;   manganese  oxide,  J  part  ;   potassium 
nitrate,  20  parts.    2.  Silica,  300  parts  ;  chalk,  60  parts  : 
potassium  carbonate,   105  parts  ;  red 
lead,    160   parts;     cullet,    100   parts; 
manganese  oxide,  1J  parts. 

BARYTA  GLASS.  Silica,  350  parts  ; 
sodium  carbonate,  100  parts  ; 
barium  carbonate,  300  parts  ;  lead 
oxide,  230  parts. 

LIME  FLINT  GLASS.  Silica,  400 
parts  ;  chalk,  35  parts  ;  sodium 
carbonate,  155  parts  ;  potassium 
nitrate,  .20  parts  :  arsenic,  2  parts  : 
manganese  oxide,  2  parts. 

BOTTLE  GLASS.  Silica,  100  parts  : 
chalk,  5  parts  ;  potassium  carbonate, 
20  parts  ;  sodium  sulphate  (Glauber's 
Salts),  15  parts. 

AMBER  BOTTLE  GLASS.  Silica,  100 
parts  ;  chalk,  ?8  parts  ;  sodium 
sulphate,  40  parts  ;  cannel  coal. 
14  parts  ;  charcoal,  8  parts. 

OPAL  GLASS.  Silica,  100  parts  ; 
potassium  carbonate,  30  parts  ;  red 
lead,  120  parts  ;  arsenic,  4  parts  : 
borax,  4  parts  ;  calcium  phosphate, 
14  parts. 

WHITE  ENAMEL  GLASS.  Silica, 
240  parts  ;  sodium  nitrate,  64  parts  ; 
manganese  oxide,  1  part  ;  red  lead. 


GLASS 

36   parts ;     red   lead,    10   parts  ,-     cullet,    200   parts  ; 
cobalt  oxide,  |  part ;   copper  oxide,  7  parts. 

GREEN  GLASS.  Silica,  100  parts  ;  chalk,  20  parts  ; 
sodium  carbonate,  33  parts  ;  iron  oxide,  3  parts  ; 
copper  oxide,  5  parts ;  potassium  bichromate,  l| 
parts  ;  potassium  nitrate,  5  parts. 

YELLOW  GLASS.  Silica,  125  parts ;  potassium 
carbonate,  37  parts  ;  red  lead,  52  parts  ;  potassium 
nitrate,  7  parts  ;  uranium  oxide,  2  parts. 

Preparing  and    Melting    the     Batch. 
The  various  ingredients  for  the  batch  of  glass  are 
ground   and  sifted,  each  of  the  materials  having 
been    carefully  weighed  to  ensure  an  uniform 
composition.     The  mixing  is  done  either 
with  a  shovel  or  more  often  now  in  a  special 
mixing    machine.      Formerly  a    calcining 
process   called    fritting  was    em- 
ployed   before  filling  the  "  melt  " 
into  the  glass  pots,  but  the  superior 
purity  of  the  ingredients  now  em- 
ployed has  rendered   this    opera- 
tion unnecessary.      The   material 
is   charged   into  the    pots,  which 
are   already    strongly    heated    in 

VOELKER'S  ELECTRIC         the  furnace,  and  as  the  ingredients 
FURNACE  sink  with  fusion  more  material  is 

introduced    until    the  pot  is  full, 
each  of  the  additions  being  allowed  to  melt  com- 
pletely before  the  fresh  introduction  of  material. 
This  first  part  of  the  process — the  melting— takes 
from  10  to  12  hours.     Gases  are  given  off  from 
the  mass  as  it  melts,  these  answering  the  purpose 
of  stirring  the  semi-fluid  mass  and  also  helping 
the  fusion.     A  potato,  apple,  or  stick  of  green 
wood    i$    sometimes    introduced    to    generate 
additional  gas  during  this  stage.     When  melting 
is  complete  a  scum  rises  to  the  surface,  which  is 
known  as  sandiver  or  glass  gall.      This  scum  is 
removed  by  means  of  a  ladle.  The 
temperature  meanwhile  has  been 
increased  to  make  the  glass  more 
fluid  and  facilitate  the  refining  or 
plaining.      The     exact    stage    of 
refining  is  ascertained  by  taking 
samples   of  the  glass  and  noting 
whether  the  glass  is  homogeneous 
and  free  from  colour.     When  the 
glass  is   found  to  be   quite  plain, 
the  temperature  is  reduced  so  as 
to   make    the  glass  more  viscous 
and  ready    for   use   by  the  glass- 
blower.     This    is   known    as  cold 
stoking    or    standing    off,     and  is 
brought  about  by  the  introduction 
of   a  cold-air    blast,    so    that    the 
temperature  of  the  furnace  is  con- 
tinued for    the    benefit   of    other 
pots.  The  temperature  is  reduced 
gradually  so  that  the   impurities 
can  rise  to  the  surface. 


BECKER  S     ELECTRIC 
FURNACE 


:>."><>  parts  : 
arsenic,  23  parts  ;  antimony  oxide,  1  part. 

ALABASTER  GLASS.  Silica,  100  parts  ;  potassium 
carbonate,  40  parts  ;  borax,  5  parts  ;  French  chalk, 
5  parts. 

BED  GLASS.  Silica,  128  parts  ;  potassium  nitrate. 
64  parts  ;  manganese  oxide,  i  part  :  red  lead  144 
parts;  antimony  oxide,  J  part;  dissolved  gold, 
i  part, 

BLUE  GLASS.  Silica,  100  parts  :  chalk,  25  parts  ; 
potassium  nitrate.  6  parts  ;  sodium  carbonate, 


In  the  case  of  tank  furnaces  only  the  space 
inside  the  floating  fireclay  rings  is  cleared  of 
scum.  The  various  temperatures  are  judged  by 
the  workmen,  but  accurate  work  in  this  direction 
is  done  by  means  of  porcelain  cones,  which  soften 
at  known  temperatures.  The  temperature  of 
the  glass  furnace  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
1200°  F.  to  3600°  F.  The  refining  process  takes 
from  four  to  six  hours. 

4533 


GLASS 

Annealing.     The    process  of  annmliiKj  is 

to  impart   strength  and  durability  to 

glass     The  method  simply  consists  of  heating 

lass  and  cooling  it  gradually,  so  as  to  make 

. l.iss  nearly    or  quite    homogeneous.     The 

in    which    the   annealing   is   done   are 

,  ailed  leers  or   Ithr*.  and  vary  in  construction 

•  Imp  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  used. 
For  sheet  glass  the  ordinary  leer  consists  of  an 
arched  tunnel  kept  heated  from  one  end  by  suit- 
:.».!«•  furnaces,  and  through  which  the  sheets  of 
glass  to  be  annealed  are  caused  to  travel  with  an 
intermittent  motion.  For  annealing  small  glass 
articles,  such  as  tumblers  and  jugs,  a  train  of 
trucks  is  caused  to  travel  slowly  along  a  leer, 
which  is  about  30  ft.  long.  The  heat  becomes 
less  and  less  as  the  leer  is  traversed,  the  rate  of 

i  1..  ing  arranged  so  that  the  annealing  is 
tinished  by  the  time  the  articles  reach  the  far  end. 

Hardening 
Glass.  Many 
attempts  have 
been  made  to 
render  glass  less 
fragile,  and  so  to 
increase  its  use- 
fulness. In  1874, 


rod,  called  a  pontil  or  punty  rod,  is  applied  to  the 
bullion  point,  and  the  blowing  tube  detached  by 
touching  it  with  cold  water  at  its  juncture  with 
the  glass.  A  hole  is  left  at  the  point  where  the 
blowing  tube  was  attached,  and  this,  by  rotation 
and  heating,  is  enlarged  until  finally,  by  centri- 
fugal force,  the  edges  flap  outwards  and  form 
a  perfectly  flat  plate  of  uniform  thickness  except 
in  the  centre  where  the  iron  rod  was  attached, 
the  lump  of  glass  being  known  as  the  bullion  or 
bull's-eye.  When  cooled  sufficiently  the  plate 
of  glass  is  cut  free  from  the  punty  rod  by  shears 
and  then  lifted  by  means  of  an  iron  fork  into  the 
annealing  furnace.  There  the  temperature  w 
gradually  lowered  for  from  24  to  48  hours,  and 
the  plates  taken  out  and  cut  up  for  sale.  Owing 
to  the  bull's-eye  in  the  centre,  squares  of  glass 
of  the  size  of  38  by  24  in.  or  35  by  25  in.  only 
can  be  cut,  and  it  is  this  limitation  that  has 
tended  to  displace 
crown  glass  by 
other  processes  by 
which  larger  sheets 
are  obtained. 


7.    STAGES  IN    THE   MANUFACTURE    OF    CROWN   GLASS 


l 


French  engineer,  Bastie, 

discovered     that    by    plunging     glass    vessels 
heated  to  their  softening  point  into  melted  fat 
or  heated  oil,  the  glass  was  rendered  so  tough 
that  a  diamond  would  not  scratch  the  surface. 
The  glass  so  treated  is,  however,  liable  to  explode 
or  fly  to  pieces.     Other  processes,  modifications 
of  Bastie's  method,   have  been  suggested,  and 
the  Siemens  method  of 
rapid    cooling    between 
metal  plates  is  used  with 
some  success.    A  modern 
development,  the  result 
of      investigations      by 
Schott,  consists  in  flash- 
a  glass  of  smaller  co- 


another  form  of  window  glass,  and  is  made  by 
blowing    a   cylinder     and    flattening    out    the 
cylinder  into  a  sheet.     A  larger  piece  of  glass 
can    be  obtained   by    this    process    than   from 
crown  glass,  as  there  is  no  loss  of  glass  due  to 
the  bull's-eye.    The  manufacture  may  be  divided 
into  two  chief  operations :  (1)  blowing  the  cylinder 
and  (2)  flattening.     The  workman  gathers  a  lump 
of  glass  as  in  the  process 
of  making  crown  glass, 
and    by     rotating     on 
the    marver,   reheating, 
swinging,   and   blowing, 
forms  the  cylinder,  the 

8.    STAGES  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHEET  GLASS    Stages   being    showTl      in 

8.       The    end    of    the 


efficient  of  expansion  upon  a  glass  of  a  known 
coefficient,  thus  reducing  the  tension  resulting 
from  the  sudden  application  of  heat  and  cold. 
This  glass  is  known  as  compound  glass  or  ver- 


Crown   Glass.     Crown  glass  is  the  oldest 

kind  of  window  glass,  but  is  now  almost  replaced 

by  sheet  glass.     This  kind  of  glass  is  produced 

from  melted  glass  by  blowing  it  into  the  form  of 

a  globe,  and  tin  -n  the  globes  are  thrown  open 

into  flat  circular  plates  called  tables,  by  means 

of  the  operation  called  flashing.     The  workman 

takes  a  metal  pipe  6  to  7  ft.  long,  and,  dipping 

it  several  timen  into  the  melted  glass,  gathers 

from   Hi  to  20  Ib.  of  glass   upon  the  end.     By 

-  iny  the  pipe  or  holding  it  in  a  perpendicular 

ion  the  glass  is  collected  in  a  lump  beyond 

tin-  end  of  the  rod.     The  operator  then  rolls  the 

metal  on  an   iron   plate  called  a  marver  until  it 

i    taperiiiL'  cylindrical  shape,   the  end 

..ppnsjtr   the    pipe    Ix'intf   known    as   the   biilltnn 

H<-    then     l)|()\vs    through     the    iul)e    to 

produ.  «•  the  >hape  shown  in  th<-  third  figure  of 

the    diiiirram.    the    ula>s    l>eing   rotated    in    the 

.  i  ime  1  7  1.     The  glass  is  reheated,  and  an  iron 


Continued 


cylinder  is  opened  by  applying  a  piece  of  hot 
glass  to  soften  the  end  and  then  blowing.  The 
burst  edges  are  trimmed  off  with  a  pair  of 
shears,  and  the  gathering  rod  is  cracked  off  by 
applying  a  cold  iron.  The  top  part  of  the 
cylinder  is  broken  off  by  putting  a  hot  thread 
of  molten  glass  round,  and  then  applying  a 
cold  iron,  or  by  first  touching  the  part  with  a 
semicircular  piece  of  hot  iron,  and  following 
this  by  a  drop  of  water,  when  the  fracture 
takes  the  line  where  the  heated  iron  was 
applied.  The  cylinder  is  then,  while  still  hot, 
cut  from  end  to  end  with  a  diamond  cutter. 
The  cylinder  is  then  transferred  to  the  flattening 
furnace,  where  it  is  softened  by  the  heat,  opened 
out  flat,  and  passed  on  to  the  annealing  chamber. 
An  instrument  called  a  flattener  or  polissoir  is 
used  for  smoothing  the  cylinder  when  it  has 
opened.  The  annealing  process  lasts  three  or 
four  days.  In  this  process  a  sheet  of  glass  of 
the  ordinary  size  of  50  by  36  in.  is  made,  but 
larger  sheets  are  made.  The  standard  weights 
of  sheet  glass  range  from  15  oz.  to  42  oz.  per  foot. 
When  sheet  glass  is  subsequently  polished  it 
is  known  as  patent  plate  glass. 


THE  IDEAL  MARRIAGE 

Amateur  Critics  of  Marriage.     False  Systems.     The  Oldest  Human  Institu- 
tion.     Its  Triumph  and  its  Supreme  Importance  to  the  World.     The  Family 


Group  3 

SOCIOLOGY 
6 

Continued  from 
page  437a 


By  Dr.  C.  W.  SALEEBY 


IT  has,  unfortunately,  become  a  recent  fashion 
for  novelists,  writers  of  plays,  and  other 
men  who  earn  their  living  by  more  or  less 
imaginative  literature,  to  invade  the  realms  of 
sociology,  to  pose  as  authorities  upon  it,  and 
to  lay  down  propositions  which  the  public  is 
expected  to  accept.  Nothing  could  be  better 
than  that  the  vital  questions  of  society  and 
human  life  should  engage  the  attention  of 
serious  people  by  means  of  illustrations  in 
fiction  and  on  the  stage.  But  grave  disaster 
is  liable  to  ensue  when  men  who  are  unequipped 
for  the  study  of  sociology,  whether  by  reading 
or  by  mental  training  or  by  temperament, 
permit  themselves  to  advise  the  public  upon 
matters  of  the  most  serious  moment.  The 
quack  doctor  of  the  individual  body  is  an  evil ; 
the  quack  doctor  of  the  body  politic  is  a  far 
worse  evil. 

A  Pestilent  Propaganda.  Now,  it  is 
no  less  a  social  institution  than  marriage 
that  has  lately  furnished  material  for  copy 
to  a  number  of  contemporary  writers.  Thus, 
we  have  the  problem  play  and  the  problem 
novel.  It  would  be  easy  to  exaggerate  the 
harm  that  these  do,  for,  after  all,  we  do 
not  take  the  theatre  or  even  our  fiction  very 
seriously — and  in  this  we  show  a  rare  degree  of 
wisdom.  But  serious  harm  must  ensue  when 
men  like  Mr.  Bernard  Shaw,  Mr.  H.  G.  Wells, 
and  even  Mr.  George  Meredith,  who  have  gained 
popularity,  or  even  the  homage  of  the  wise,  as 
imaginative  writers,  use  the  influence  thus 
obtained  for  the  purpose  of  propagating  views 
upon  social  questions  which  can  be  described  only 
as  puerile,  superficial,  and  pestilent.  This,  of 
course,  is  strong  language.  It  is,  indeed,  our 
intention  to  make  this  protest  against  the 
wholly  amateur  and  irresponsible  contributions 
of  these  writers  to  the  subject  as  strong  as 
we  can  conveniently  make  it.  In  certain  grave 
social  subjects  we  plainly  must  be  prepared 
with  scientific  warrant  for  the  doctrines  which 
serious  and  responsible  sociologists  have  for- 
mulated and  the  truth  of  which  they  have 
proved. 

The  Only  Authority  is  Truth.  We 
must  enter  upon  our  study  with  no  pre- 
possessions in  any  direction.  We  may  be 
on  the  side  of  established  religion — and  estab- 
lished religion  is  an  upholder  of  marriage.  That 
ground  is  not  sufficient  for  our  upholding 
of  marriage.  We  cannot  accept  any  social 
doctrine  upon  authority.  In  science  there  is 
no  authority  but  Truth,  and  each  man  must 
find  her  for  himself.  On  the  o>her  hand,  we 
may  be  antagonistic  to  established  religion, 
as  are,  in  general,  the  writers  who  are  now 


criticising  marriage.  This,  however,  is  no  ade- 
quate reason  for  any  prejudice  of  ours  against 
marriage.  We  must  rid  ourselves  equally  of 
theological  and  anti-theological  bias.  There 
is  some  excuse  for  both  in  the  study  of  this 
question,  according  as  we  look  at  it  from  one 
side  or  another ;  but  there  is  no  adequate 
excuse  for  bias  in  the  search  for  truth,  and  if 
there  were  it  would  not  redeem  the  search  from 
failure. 

Marriage  is  Older  than  the  Human 
Race.  Our  only  scientific  method,  evidently, 
is  the  historical  method.  What  is  the  origin 
of  marriage  ;  what  are  its  forms  in  different 
places  and  different  ages  ;  what  are  the  social 
phenomena  with  which  any  particular  form  is 
constantly  found  associated  ;  and  what,  if  any, 
are  the  social  phenomena  which  the  various 
forms  of  marriage  actually  cause  ? 

In  this  country  we  are  familiar  with  marriage 
as  a  civil  institution  and  as  a  religious  institu- 
tion ;  it  is  regarded  here  as  a  civil  contract, 
and  there  as.  a  divinely  ordained  sacrament. 
Now,  the  first  fact  which  we  have  clearly  to 
recognise  is  that  no  Church,  living  or  dead, 
is  or  was  the  inventor  or  originator  of  the 
institution  of  marriage.  This  institution  is 
definitely  older  than  any  existing  Church  or  any 
historical  Church  ;  it  is  definitely  older  than 
even  the  most  primitive  of  all  primitive  religions  ; 
nay,  more,  it  is  older  than  the  human  race  itself. 

This  is  a  fact  worth  noting  on  every  ground. 
There  is  some  humour  in  it,  too,  for  it  at  once 
makes  absurd  the  opposition  of  many  persons 
to  marriage,  and  exposes  their  ignorance.  A 
vast  deal  of  contemporary  opposition  to  marriage 
in  this  country,  and  more  especially  on  the 
Continent  of  Europe,  is  really  engendered  by 
opposition  to  established  religion.  It  is  thought 
that  any  blow  struck  at  marriage  is  a  blow 
struck  at  the  Church,  and  it  is  quite  definitely 
supposed  that,  practically,  marriage  is  a  product 
of  the  Church,  and  cannot  very  well  exist  without 
it. 

Marriage  is  Not  an  Institution  of  the 
Church.  Now,  for  this  absurd  error  there  is  con- 
siderable excuse.  It  is  the  case  that  the  Church, 
which  long  ago  recognised  the  importance  of  mar- 
riage, took  this  ancient  institution  under  its  own 
protecting  wing.  It  is  true  that  the  Church  has 
sometimes  taken  upon  itself  to  deny  the  validity 
and  even  the  reality  and  decency  of  any  marriage 
that  has  been  made  under  the  control  of  any 
other  body  than  the  Church  itself.  Here, 
however,  we  must  gain  a  clear  and  final  recog- 
nition of  the  historical  fact  that  marriage  is 
older  than  any  Church,  present  or  past.  How 
far  back,  then,  must  we  go  before  we  come  to 

4535 


SOCIOLOGY 

,!„.     origin    of    an    institution    whirl.,    however 
,,1,1  it   he    nnM   r«-rtainly  have  had  a  beginning 
lomehow  and  someuhen.  ?     We  have  no  record 
,1,,'  nf  the  ways  and  doings  of  man  when  first 
1,,.  mad.-  his  undistinguished  appearance  upon 
the  earth      The  most  we  can  do  in  the  way  o 
,(.,Ual  observation  is  to  study  the  lowest  types 
(,f  man  that  are  now  to  be  found.     This  vastly 
interesting  and   important  study  is  now  being 
nm-ued   on   a  comparatively   large   scale— and 
only  ju<t  in  time  ;  for  the  contact  of  these  rude 
tribes  with  higher  civilisation— that  is  to  say,, 
with    whisky— very    soon    exterminates    them. 
Hnu, -v.-r.    we   find  that  marriage  is  practised 
by   man  everywhere,   even   amongst  the   very 
low, -i  races  that  are  now  passing  their  last  year 
on  the  earth. 

The  Beginnings  of  Human  Progress. 
Now,  one  of  the  most  important  generalisa- 
tions that  have  emerged  from  the  modern  study 
of  the  lowest  races  constitutes  a  denial  of  the 
old  view  that  such  races  very  fairly  represent 
for  our  own  eyes  the  earliest  remote  stages  of 
human  history.  We  now  believe  that  the  lowest 
race  of  which  any  record  has  been  or  is  now  being 
made  is  very  far  removed  indeed  from  anything 
like  the  beginning  of  human  progress.  The 
most  primitive  of  primitive  races  that  we  know 
has  really  no  claims  whatever  to  primitiveness. 
These  races  are  primitive  and  lowr  compared  to 
ourselves,  certainly.  But  the  more  we  come  to 
know  them — their  customs  and  traditions  and 
languages,  their  gestures  and  their  magic,  and 
their  social  institutions  in  general — the  more 
clearly  we  recognise  the  all  but  obliterated 
M  of  a  long  and  eventful  past  at  which  we 
can  now  only  guess. 

If  this  be  so,  then,  we  may  still  conceive  of 
early  stages  in  the  history  of  humanity— stages 
earlier  than  any  represented  or  hinted  at  by  any 
contemporary  savages — when  marriage  was 
unknown.  Let  us,  then,  outline  as  briefly  as 
possible  the  orderly — too  orderly — history  of 
marriage  which  the  knowledge  of  his  time 
.-11 1  need  for  Spencer  to  write.  We  shall  not 
strictly  adhere  to  Spencer's  words  or  opinions, 
but  shall  merely  state  what  might  be  supposed 
be  the  history  of  marriage  and  what  is, 
indeed,  very  commonly  supposed  to  be  its 
history. 

Forms  of  Marriage.  It  used  to  be 
thought,  then,  that  in  the  beginning  there 
prevailed  a  state  of  what  is  technically  called 
promiscuity.  The  modern  term  for  this  is 
"free  love" — the  worst  debasement  of  two 
noble  words  with  which  the  present  writer 
has  any  acquaintance.  Then,  after  a  time, 
a  certain  amount  of  order  would  begin  to 
difplay  itself.  There  might,  for  instance,  be, 
as  indeed  there  certainly  were,  some  more  or 
less  severe  restrictions  upon  this  freedom  or 
promiscuity.  Then,  in  certain  societies  where 
f'  T  some  reason  there  was  a  scarcity  of  women, 
there  illicit  possibly  be  instituted  the  form  of 
primitive  matrimonial  institution  which  is 
railed  jnlyanflry— literally,  the  existence  of 
many  Im-bands.  1'oUandry  has  certainly  been 
a  fact  in  various  pirfs  of  the  world  at  certain 
4536 


times.  Perhaps  the  commonest  form  it  has 
taken  is  where  one  woman  is  possessed  by 
two  or  more  brothers  in  common. 

Much  more  frequent  and  important  is  another 
ancient  matrimonial  form,  known  as  polygamy, 
and  familiar  to  most  of  us  in  consequence  of  its 
revival  by  the  Mormons.  It  is  true  of  polygamy, 
however,  as  of  all  other  marriage  forms  except 
one,  that  it  has  played  a  very  much  smaller 
part  in  human  life  than  used  to  be  supposed. 
It  may  be  said  that  polygamy  has  never  been  the 
rule  anywhere.  It  may  have  been  permitted, 
which  is  a  very  different  thing.  Generally 
speaking,  among  peoples  where  polygamy  has 
been  permitted  it  has  been  practised  only  by  the 
wealthy  few. 

A  Theory  that  Ignores  Human 
Nature.  In  our  imaginary  history  of  marriage, 
then,  we  may  suppose  that,  in  course  of  time,  the 
forms  we  have  named,  and  many  others,  were 
all  superseded  among  progressive  peoples  by  the 
form  which  is  known  as  monogamy — the  union  of 
one  husband  with  one  wife.  During  the  historic 
period  this  is  the  form  of  marriage  that  has 
generally  obtained  the  approval  of  established 
religion,  and  during  the  Christian  era  it  has,  of 
course,  been  the  only  form  of  legal  marriage. 

Now,  the  modern  view  is  that  this  supposed 
imaginary  history  of  marriage  needs  very  con- 
siderable revision  —  and  a  revision  all  in  one 
direction.  It  is  every  day  being  more  clearly 
recognised  by  serious  students  that  the  norm,  or 
normal  type,  of  marriage  is  none  other  than 
monogamy,  and  that  all  the  other  forms  of  marital 
relation  must  be  regarded  as  mere  local  and 
relatively  unimportant  deviations  or  aberrations 
from  the  normal  type.  It  is,  further,  most 
positively  and  warrantably  believed  that  in  the 
course  of  the  history  of  man,  whether  under  the 
tropical  sun  or  amid  the  Polar  snows,  there  never 
was  arfy  stage  of  promiscuity.  The  writers  who 
believed  in  a  primitive  promiscuity  not  only  had 
no  positive  evidence  in  their  favour,  but  were 
running  right  in  the  teeth  of  human  nature. 
The  key  to  all  human  institutions  is  human 
-nature,  and  the  theory  of  promiscuity  ignored 
the  facts  of  human  nature — facts  so  deeply 
rooted  in  it  that  they  are  shared  by  sub-human 
nature«-that  is  to  say,  by  the  lower  animals. 
The  mere  mention  of  the  word  jealousy  is 
sufficient  to  make  anyone  a  sceptic  so  far  as 
this  theory  of  promiscuity  is  concerned. 

The  Triumph  of  the  Only  True 
Marriage.  And  as  regards  the  other  forms 
of  marital  relation,  we  find  that  their  import- 
ance has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  The  truth, 
indeed,  is  that  in  all  times  and  in  all  places 
the  dominant  tendency  has  been  towards 
monogamy,  and  it  is  monogamy  that  has  played 
the  great  part  for  which  the  word  marriage 
stands  in  the  development  of  humanity. 

We  are  not  concerned  for  the  moment  to  assert 
any  superiority  of  monogamy,  but  merely  to  state 
the  historical  fact  that,  superior  or  inferior, 
natural  or  unnatural,  ecclesiastical  or  civil  in 
origin,  monogamy  has  been  the  dominant  form 
of  sex  relation  in  the  history  of  mankind.  It  may 
be  permitted,  however,  to  inquire  into  the  causes 


of  this  general  dominance  of  monogamy  at  such 
various  times,  in  such  various  places,  among 
such  various  peoples.  There  are  certain  familiar 
facts  which  might  be  expected  to  militate,  and 
do  indeed  militate,  against  the  dominance  of 
monogamy.  Of  these  the  most  important  is 
the  known  character  of  the  amatory  passions  in 
man.  Thus  it  is  undoubtedly  a  half-truth,  but 
no  more,  that  the  human  male  is  naturally  a 
polygamous  animal.  Now,  certainly,  man,  rather 
than  woman,  in  virtue  of  his  superior  physical 
strength  and  endurance,  has  determined  the 
form  that  marriage  has  taken  ;  and  thus  it  might 
almost  be  supposed  that  polygamy  would  have 
become  the  dominant  form  of  marriage  every- 
where, and  certainly  so  wherever  the  number 
of  women  considerably  exceeded  the  number  of 
men.  Now,  it  is  true  that  the  practice  of  poly- 
gamy is  found  to  have  been  most  extensive 
among  purely  military  peoples  of  a  low  order  of 
civilisation — as,  of  course,  a  purely  military 
people  must  necessarily  be.  In  consequence  of 
perpetual  war,  the  number  of  men  in  such 
communities  is  disproportionately  small,  and 
thus  is  established  a  state  of  affairs  especially 
advantageous  to  the  practice  of  polygamy. 

The    Secret   of   the    Triumph.       But 

the  survival  of  any  social  institution  is  not 
to  be  explained,  and  is  not  determined,  by  the 
wills  of  individual  men.  It  is  determined  by  the 
needs  of  the  race.  Many  forms  of  matrimonial 
or  semi-matrimonial  institutions  may  be  named, 
besides  polygamy,  which  offer  marked  attractions 
— some  to  men  of  one  type,  some  to  men  of 
another  type.  But  these  institutions  have 
played  no  part  of  any  note  in  the  history  of  man- 
kind, because  they  did  not  make  for  the  survival, 
but  instead  made  for  the  death,  of  the  peoples 
who  accepted  them.  The  writer  believes  that 
the  true  cause  of  the  dominance  and  triumph  of 
monogamy,  as  opposed  to  other  marriage  forms, 
is  to  be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  children. 

The  current  theories  of  the  success  of  mono- 
gamy will  not  hold  water.  There  is,  for  instance, 
the  theory  that  monogamy  is  a  creation  of  the 
Church,  which  substituted  it  for  pagan  forms  of 
sex  relation.  The  valid  answer  to  this  theory  is 
that  monogamy  flourished  and  succeeded  long 
prior  to  any  Church.  Another  theory  states  that 
the  success  of  monogamy  has  been  determined  by 
Nature,  which  ordains  that  the  numbers  of  boy 
babies  and  girl  babies  are  approximately  equal 
at  all  times  and  places,  there  thus  being  one 
member  of  each  sex  for  each  member  of  the 
other  sex.  But  this  theory  is  not  valid,  for,  in  the 
first  place,  the  fact  of  the  average  numerical 
equality  between  men  and  women  might  just  as 
well  be  used  as  an  argument  in  favour  of  promis- 
cuity ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  man  everywhere 
dominates  his  fellow- man,  so  that  polygamy, 
among  those  who  have  power,  is  always  possible. 
Doubtless  the  natural  fact  of  numerical  equality 
between  the  sexes  may  be  admitted  as  a  condition 
that  is  admirably  consonant  with  the  institution 
of  monogamy  ;  but  this  fact  does  not  begin  to  be 
an  adequate  explanation  of  the  triumph  of 
monogamy  as  against,  for  instance,  promiscuity. 


SOCIOLOGY 

Marriage  and  Character.  The  theory 
of  the  present  writer,  to  which  he  will  return, 
is  that  monogamy  has  triumphed  because  it 
provides  the  best  conditions  for  the  children, 
produces  the  best  children,  who  grow  up  to 
be  the  best  men  and  women,  and  who  survive 
in  the  struggle  for  existence  as  compared  with 
their  neighbours  who  practise  polygamy — let 
alone  polyandry  or  promiscuity.  On  super- 
ficial examination  it  might  be  thought  that  in 
the  course  of  the  struggle  for  existence  between 
two  neighbouring  peoples,  one  practising 
polygamy  and  another  practising  monogamy, 
the  polygamous  peoples  would  tend  to  outlive 
their  neighbours  because  of  their  presumably 
higher  birth-rate.  Now,  doubtless  polygamy 
does  make  for  a  high  birth-rate,  but  it  also 
makes  for  an  infantile  mortality  compared 
with  which  our  infantile  mortality,  disgraceful 
though  it  be,  seems  almost  decent.  In  this 
instance  we  see  illustrated  the  general  pro 
position  of  the  writer  that  it  is  in  terms  of 
the  life  and  health  and  character  of  the  children 
that  we  must  express  the  condition  which  leads 
to  the  triumph  of  monogamy  over  its  rivals. 

The  Heresy  of  Mr.  George  Meredith. 
The  reason,  therefore,  why  we  find  so  scanty 
a  record  of  forms  of  marriage  other  than  mono- 
gamy in  human  history  is  that  these  forms  have 
handicapped  the  races  which  adopted  them  as 
against  the  monogamous  races.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  hear  much  of  monogamy  because  it  is 
the  monogamous  races  that  have  made  human 
history. 

Some  special  contemporary  interest  attaches 
to  a  particular  form  of  matrimonial  relation 
which  is  very  expressively  termed  leasehold 
marriage.  Its  interest  for  us  depends  upon  the 
fact  that  one  of  the  greatest  living  men  of 
letters,  Mr.  George  Meredith,  lately  gave  definite 
form  in  the  pages  of  the  "Daily  Mail"  (Sept. 
24th,  1904)  to  the  views  which,  -as  readers 
of  his  novels  will  know,  he  has  long  held.  Said 
Mr.  Meredith :  "  Certainly,  however,  one  day  these 
present  conditions  of  marriage  will  be  changed. 
Marriage  will  be  allowed  for  a  certain  period — 
say,  ten  years."  This  statement  of  opinion 
naturally  attracted  a  very  great  deal  of  attention 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  and  also  on  the 
Continent  of  Europe.  Indeed,  it  has  been 
intimately  discussed  all  over  the  world  during  the 
past  two  years  ;  and  it  has  found  favour  in 
many  quarters,  though  it  need  hardly  be  said 
that  no  one  with  the  smallest  pretensions  to  be 
regarded  as  a  sociologist  has  been  found  to 
express  anything  but  richly  deserved  contempt 
for  Mr.  Meredith's  opinions. 

Mr.  Meredith's  Experiment  is  Con= 
demned  by  History.  We  saw  in  an  earlier 
part  of  our  course  that  there  is  one  point  of 
view  from  which  history  may  be  conceived  as  a 
series  of  vast  and  varied  sociological  experiments, 
conducted  by  our  forefathers  for  our  benefit. 
We  also  saw  that,  if  history  be  read  aright, 
certain  definite  conclusions  may  be  reached, 
these  conclusions  being  strictly  scientific  generali- 
sations derived  by  a  rigid  inductive  process  of 
reasoning  from  the  experiments  of  history. 

4537 


SOCIOLOGY 

Here  isaca-c  in  point.  There  is  no  need  to  try 
M,  Meredith's  proposed  experiment,  though  it 
inuvt  lamentably  be  admitted  that  the  experi- 
ment is  lM-ing  tried,  or  something  very  nearly 
,-,,uivalcnt  to  it.  under  the  conditions  in  the 
Tinted  States  which  permit  of  divorce  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  contracting  parties.  But  apart 
from  this  contemporary  and  disgraceful  experi- 
ment, which  is  alarming  the  most  thoughtful 
and  least  prejudiced  of  observers,  we  can  fall 
back  upon  the  experiments  of  ages  long  past ; 
we  can  point  to  the  condition  of  tribes  which 
in  modern  times  practise  leasehold  marriage 
—degraded,  degenerate,  worthless,  and  rapidly 
disappearing.  But  it  is  not  even  necessary 
to  condemn  leasehold  marriage  by  pointing 
to  facts  of  observation  and  experiment.  The 
a  priori  method  of  reasoning  is  quite  adequate 
alone  to  serve  for  its  utter  condemnation. 
The  sociologist  has  a  criterion  by  which  he  is 
enabled  to  judge  of  marriage  methods.  What, 
he  asks,  will  be  the  consequences  for  the  coming 
race  ? 

Marriage  and  Society.  The  funda- 
mental character  of  the  sociological  point  of 
view  is  that  it  looks  ahead.  To  the  sociologist  the 
individual  is  nothing  as  an  individual,  though 
\\e  must  discuss  this  from  another  point  of 
view  in  a  subsequent  chapter  ;  he  is  con- 
cerned with  the  life  of  society,  which  outlives 
many  generations  of  individuals.  This  it  is 
which  endows  marriage  with  its  supreme  im- 
portance for  him.  He  leaves.it  to  the  psycho- 
logist to  inquire  as  to  the  comparative  worth  of 
marriage  and  other  forms  of  sex  relation  to  the 
individual  ;  but  he  must  inquire  as  to  its  in- 
fluence upon  the  future  life  of  the  society  in 
which  it  occurs.  Marriage  vindicates  itself  in 
1 1  is  eyes  because  it  furnishes  the  one  perfect 
condition  for  the  young  generation  whose 
business  it  is  to  continue  the  life  of  society. 

Thus  the  sociologist  looks  with  entirely  distinct 
interests  upon  the  two  kinds  of  marriages.  The 
childless  marriage  is  doubtless  of  interest  to  the 
psychologist — the  student  of  character  ;  but 
it  matters  scarcely  anything  at  all  to  the  socio- 
logist, for  it  signifies  nothing  for  the  future. 
True,  it  is  a  social  relation,  but,  so  far  as  he  is 
i  ned.  it  amounts  to  nothing  more  than  that 
u\o  persons,  who  happen  to  be  of  opposite 
sexes,  live  in  the  same  house  and  arrange  their 
finances  jointly.  It  is  the  appearance  of  a  baby 
that  vitally  interests  the  sociologist,  for  now  he 
has  to  consider  not  merely  a  marriage,  but  a 
marriage  leading  to  the  family.  In  this  respect 
he  is  like  Nature.  She,  also,  is  "  careless  of  the 
single  life,"  and  for  tnose  who  are  not  parents, 
whether  they  1K>  married  or  unmarried,  she  cares 
little  or  nothing.  "  Her  supreme  interest,"  as 
th«-  present  writer  has  said  elsewhere,  "is  with 
thus.-  chosen  individuals  upon  whose  characters 
an. I  iH-haviour.  as  upon  no  other  factor  in 
the  universe,  the  whole  future  of  the  race 

depends," 

The  True  Test  of  Marriage  is  the 
Family.  The  fertile  marriage  is  of  supreme 
importance  to  the  sociologist  because  i,  |,.a,|s 
to  the  establishment  of  the  family.  The  type 


of  the  family,  historically  considered,  has  varied 
in  dependence  upon  the  type  of  marriage, 
and  we  may  lay  down  the  proposition,  as 
sociologists,  that"  the  value  of  any  form  of 
marriage  may  be  judged  by  the  quality  of 
the  type  of  family  which  it  tends  to  produce. 
It  is  this  fact,  in  the  present  writer's  opinion, 
which  explains  the  observed  preponderance  of 
monogamy  in  the  history  of  man.  Monogamy 
produces  the  best  type  of  family  ;  the  best  type 
of  family  produces  the  best  type  of  society; 
and  thus  the  races  which  have  used  other  forms 
of  sex  relation  in  preference  to  monogamy  have 
played  no  part  of  moment  in  history,  and  have 
left  scarcely  any  records  at  all  behind  them. 

As  the  arrangement  of  this  and  the  allied 
courses  indicates,  we  are  attempting  to  base 
sociology  upon  "the  solid  ground  of  Nature." 
We  can  have  no  more  certain  warrant  for 
any  social  institution  than  that  we  find  it 
sanctioned  by  the  facts  of  biology.  Now, 
it  is  an,  extremely  noteworthy  fact  that  the 
biological  sanctions  for  marriage  are  actually 
older  than  the  human  race  itself.  In  many  of 
the  lower  animals  we  find  that  institution  called 
the  family — a  family  produced  by  a  monogamic 
union  of  less  or  greater  permanence.  This  fact 
of  animal  marriage  is  of  the  utmost  interest  to 
the  sociologist,  who  builds  upon  biology.  It 
furnishes  him  with  yet  another  of  the  many  in- 
stances where  institutions  supposed  to  have  been 
invented  by  man,  by  the  law,  or  by  the  Church, 
are  found  to  have  played  their  part  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  life  even  before  the  emergence  of  man. 

The  Ideal  Family.  The  ideal  family  is 
that  produced  by  monogamy.  Not  very  far 
behind  it,  perhaps,  is  the  type  of  family  produced 
by  a  qualified  polygamy,  such,  for  instance,  as 
we  observe  in  the  patriarchs  of  the  Bible. 
Relatively  to  these,  and  especially  to  the  former, 
all  other  kinds  of  marriage  stand  condemned  ; 
and  this  constitutes  the  ultimate  warrant  for 
monogamy.  Contemporary  practice  and  ex- 
perience may  be  quoted  in  proof  of  the  assertion 
that  the  monogamic  family  constitutes  the  best 
condition  of  environment  for  the  rising  genera- 
tion. The  best  kinds  of  family  of  this  type  con- 
stitute the  realisation  of  the  ideal.  We  are 
incapable  of  conceiving  anything  better.  Those 
who  advocate  "  leasehold  marriage,  with  State 
care  of  the  children,"  or  those  who  advocate  the 
"nationalisation  of  the  children,"  as  a  general 
principle,  may  be  counselled  to  consider  the 
experience  of  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  make  pro- 
vision for  pauper  orphans  or  other  children  who 
are  necessarily  thrown  upon  the  State  even  under 
present  arrangements.  Many  different  plans  have 
been  tried  for  dealing  with  such  children.  These 
range  from  the  most  unnatural  to  the  most 
natural.  The  first  description  surely  applies  to 
the  herding  together  in  large  institutions  of 
children  all  of  one  sex,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
all  of  one  age.  This  plan  is  as  remote  as  pos- 
sible from  Nature's  indications,  having  nothing 
but  (false)  economy  to  recommend  it.  At  the 
other  extreme  is  the  boarding  out  of  these 
children  under  conditions  as  nearly  as  possible 
approaching  those  of  the  normal  family. 


The  Supreme  Value  of  True  Mar= 
riage  to  the  Race.  In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  "the  nearer  our  provision  goes  towards 
the  establishment  for  those  children  of  condi- 
tions simulating  those  of  the  family,  the  better 

are  the  results Indeed,  what  sane 

person  will  dispute  that  the  best  prospect  for  an 
orphan  is  afforded  when  it  is  adopted  by  some 
parental-hearted  pair  who  will  treat  it  as  if  it 
were  one  of  their  own  children  ?  "  No  one  who 
has  paid  the  smallest  attention  to  these  facts  can 
hesitate  to  admit  that  the  proposals  for  lease- 
hold marriage  and  nationalisation  of  the  children 
touch  the  ultimate  bottom  for  ignorance  and 
short-sighted  stupidity.  The  more  we  study  the 
family,  and  substitutes  for  the  family,  the  more 
clearly  we  see  that  the  institution  of  monogamic 
marriage  has  the  final  warrant  of  Nature. 
Monogamy  has  survived,  not  because  of  the 
injunctions  of  any  Church,  but  because  it  has 
supreme  "  survival  value."  This  it  has  "partly 
because  it  implies  a  due  control  of  male  passion 
and  a  due  limitation  of  female  endurance  ; 
partly  because  it  promotes  the  development 
of  the  higher  sentiments  and  represses  the  lower  ; 
but  pre-eminently  because  it  provides  for  the  coming 
race  a  peerless  environment." 

Why  Other  Systems  Fail,  Communal, 
or  collective  marriage,  group  marriage,  lease- 
hold marriage,  and  "  pooling  the  children," 
have  all  been  the  subjects  of  experiment  by 
man  in  the  past.  They  have  all  failed,  and 
all  for  the  same  reason,  because  they  did  not 
work.  "  They  had  no  survival  value,  and  the 
societies  which  adopted  them  are  no  more. 
They  had  no  survival  value  because  they  pre- 
vented the  formation  of  the  family,  upon  which 
alone  must  be  founded  any  human  society 
that  is  to  endure." 

Now,  it  is  true  that  oaks  survive  and  multiply, 
and  flourish  without  the  aid  of  the  family.  It 
is  true  also  that  there  are  some  sub-human 
societies,  such  as  those  of  the  social  insects, 
which  flourish  without  any  institution  that 
really  corresponds  to  our  family.  It  is  true 
also  that  among  birds  the  family  lasts  for  only 
a  short  period,  and  birds  still  flourish,  even  though 
monogamy,  as  practised  by  them,  may  be  an 
extremely  brief  affair.  If  leasehold  marriage, 
so  to  speak,  be  an  efficient  social  institution 
among  birds,  why  not  also  amongst  men  ? 

The  Key  Fact  of  Marriage.  The 
answer  is  that  there  is  a  fundamental  difference 
between  the  early  stages  of  the  life-history 
of  man  and  those  of  the  life-history  of  any 
other  animal,  not  to  say  plant.  If  the  young 
acorn  falls  upon  good  soil,  it  is  quite  independent 
of  any  care  on  the  part  of  the  oak  which  bore  it. 
The  young  insect  may  need  much  care  for  a  short 
period,  but  very  soon  it  is  able  to  find  its  own 
living.  The  young  bird  must  be  fed  at  first 
by  its  parents,  but  only  a  short  time  need  elapse 


SOCIOLOGY 

before  it  is  able  to  fly  away,  and  depend  for  life 
upon  its  own  activities.  But  the  young  of  the 
human  species  are  different ;  they  pass  through 
an  extremely  prolonged  stage  of  dependence  in 
youth.  Not  only  is  this  longer  than  in  the  case 
of  any  lower  animal,  but  the  degree  of  depend- 
ence is  much  greater.  It  is  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  paradox  in  the  whole  of  living 
nature  that  of  all  young  beings  the  young 
of  the  dominant  animal,  the  "  lord  of  creation," 
should  be  the  most  helpless,  and  the  longest 
helpless.  This  fact  undoubtedly  has  a  great 
meaning,  even  a  greater  than  the  meaning  on 
account  of  which  we  have  here  referred  to  it, 
which  is  that  the  family  and  the  due  exercise 
of  parentage,  more  or  less  important  in  most 
of  the  lower  animals,  are  of  supreme  importance 
for  man.  So  long  as  man  retains  this  character — 
that  at  birth  he  is  utterly  helpless,  and  that  for 
many  years  afterwards  he  is  incapable  of  fighting 
his  own  battles — so  long  will  the  survival  value  of 
marriage  be  supreme,  and  so  long  will  the  empire 
of  the  earth  be  given  to  those  societies  which 
avail  themselves  of  that  value. 

Marriage  will  Survive  all  Criticism. 
We  may  speak  indignantly  of  amateur  critics  of 
marriage  at  the  present  day,  and  our  indignation 
is  warranted,  but  if  we  were  able  to  take  a  quite 
impartial  view,  caring  nothing  for  any  one  society 
rather  than  another,  we  should  have  no  need 
to  concern  ourselves.  No  institution  that 
makes  for  life  is  really  in  danger  or  in  need  of 
our  assistance.  There  is  a  natural  automatic 
process  which  has  been  at  work  since  the  begin- 
ning, and  which  will  continue  working  to  the  end : 
it  is  the  process  which  Darwin  called  "  natural 
selection,"  and  Spencer  "  the  survival  of  the 
fittest,"  and  it  ensures  that  whatever  individual 
character  or  social  institution  makes  for  life 
will  survive.  Marriage,  as  we  have  demonstrated, 
is  such  an  institution,  and  it  will  be  practised 
upon  the  earth  a  hundred  thousand  years  hence. 
Here  and  there  a  society  may  try  something  else, 
forgetful  of  the  fact  that  it  is  not  worth  while 
to  repeat  any  of  the  old  experiments  which  have 
already  been  made ;  but  the  society  which 
abandons  marriage  will  simply  go  under  before 
•  the  society  which  does  not.  Thus  fell  the  "  glory 
that  was  Rome,"  and  the  same  cause — a  decline 
in  this  'fundamental  morality — would  assuredly 
tend  to  the  destruction  of  an  empire  greater 
still.  It  is  at  the  heart  that  empires  rot. 

The  two  chief  works  upon  marriage  in  the 
English  language  are — excepting,  of  course,  that 
part  of  Herbert  Spencer's  "  Principle  of  Socio- 
logy," which  deals  with  the  subject — Professor 
Westermarck's  "  History  of  Human  Marriage," 
carrying  the  investigation  onwards  from  the 
stage  where  Spencer  left  it;  and,  secondly, 
the  "  History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions," 
by  Professor  G.  E.  Howard,  of  the  University 
of  Chicago  (Fisher  Unwin  1904). 


Continued 


4539 


Group  20 

LEATHER 
13 


1-oiitiin. 


BOTTOMING  &  HEELING  BOOTS 


^^ 


Cutting  the  Stuff. 

for  the  Loot  factory  is  a  trade  by  itself,  at 
which  a  man  may  find  useful  employment  for 
both  head  and  hands.  When  the  leather  comes 
from  th,- stores  into  this  department,  the  hides 
ate  ranged,  trimmed,  and  rolled.  No  doubt, 
the  mm  uho  puts  the  butts  and  side  pieces 
together  thought  he  had  done  his  work  pretty 
thoroughly,  and  so  far  as  leather  classing  goes, 
he  may  have  done  the  best  possible  ;  but  we 
have  something  more  to  ask  from  the  leather. 
The  cutters  need  pieces  of  such  shape  and  size 
M  they  can  put  them  into  the  machines  in 
Latches.  All  the  leather  to  be  cut  has,  there- 
to be  sorted.  Sorting  is  not  merely  a 
case  of  putting  hides  of  the  same  size  together, 
or  getting  them  trimmed  or  shaved  to  requisite 
dimensions.  Before  starting  on  that  job  you 
had  better  make  yourself  well  acquainted  with 
the  various  tannages  and  classes  of  leathers. 
\YrL.-l  directions  in  this  matter  are  useless. 
Th.it  is  to  say,  you  have  to  learn  the  trade  by 


By  W.  S.  MURPHY 

xrttom  stuff  dies  [50J  and  presses  ranging  in  size  and  power 
from  the  foot-driven  press  that  cuts  lilts  or 
side  pieces  to  the  heavier  presses  that  stamp 


wv  the  strongest  soles.  Revolution  presses  do 
not  demand  that  the  leather  be  ranged  ;  but  it 
can  be  cut  up  in  whole  sides  or  butts  [51].  If  we 
are  to  get  the  best  results  from  these  mechanical 
cutters,  the  leather  must  be  of  such  uniformity 
as  will  enable  us  to  go  ahead  without  stopping 
to  adjust  and  alter  to  suit  variations  in  size 
and  grade  of  leather.  The  edge  of  each  knife 
blade  is  exactly  the  shape  of  the  piece  of  leather 
to  be  made.  Look  along  the  edges  of  a  sole 
knife,  and  you  see  that  the  shape  is  a  sole,  and 
so  with  all  the  others.  Fix  the  leather  under 
the  press,  lay  on  the  knife,  and  put  the  driving 
belt  into  action.  In  a  moment  there  is  a  crunch, 
and  the  soles  are  cut. 

In  principle  all  the  die-cutting  machines  are 
the  same  ;    after  having  learned  to  work  one, 
it  is  easy  to  take  up  the  others.     One  thing  must 
be  constantly  borne  in  mind — those  machines 
need  the  assistance    of  the 
operator ;      they      are    not 
automatic,     and     to     work 
them  a  man  must  give    his 
whole  attention   to  what  he 
is   doing.      A   leather -cutter 
is  a  skilled  workman,  though 
not  always  rewarded  as  such. 
Insoles     and     Welts. 
An    insole   comes   from  the 
cutting-room   a   plain   piece 
of  leather  shaped  to  the  sole 
of    the    last  ;    but    it  could 
50    KNIVES  FOR  «  (TUN..  HOTTOM  STUFF  (B.  U.  Shoe  Machine  Co.,  Leicester)  hardly  be  sewn  in  that  form, 

even  by  hand.      The  edge  ot 


pr  ictical  experience,  step  by  step.     Having  put 
th«-  hides  of  each  class  together,  we  range  them 

•  m  the  cutting  machines,  which  may  be  either 
guillotine  <u    horizontal,  according  to  the  class 
<.f  It-it  her  \\ith  which  we  are  dealing. 

Rolling.     When  the  hides  and  pieces  come 

from  the  ranger,  they  are  square -sided.      But 

\\e  do  not   hand  them  over  to  the  cutters  yet. 

i.  as    it    conies   from   the  tanner,  is  not 

•  if    the   <-lo<e    film-    we    nerd    for    boot-making. 
To  stiffen  and  „ close  it,  we  pass  the  leather, 

u-it MIL',  through  a  pair  of  heavy  rollers. 
Frnm  the  pressure  of  the  rolls  the  stuff  comes 
out  cl'-ar  iind  firm. 

Cutting    Soles.     Tin-    different    kinds    of 
le-ither  are  nou   distributed  among  the  various 

•  •utters,      l.ijiht    tl-ink   piece*  <_ro  to  the  cutters 
of    stitTeniir_r^.    >houldi-rs    to    the    insole    cutters. 
Lutts  of  m-.ided  sorts  to  the  sole  cutters,  and 

pi  of  he-i\v  le-ither-  to  the  heel  lift   makers. 
N'ou  be   Lenetit    of  the  ranging.     For 

<«t  I  ioot   we  have  ,i  -pe.'ial  set  of  cutting 

1840 


the  insole  which  lies  under  the  top  is  pared  away, 
leaving  a  corner  into  which  the  sewing  holds  ; 
this  is  technically  called  the  lip.  Forming  a  lip 
is  a  delicate  operation  ;  but  our  mechanics  have 
got  over  it.  One  of  the  best  is  the  "  Goodyear" 
channelling  machine,  the  cutting  parts  of  which 
are  a  slanting  circular  blade  working  on  a  flat  disc. 
Lay  the  insole  on  the  disc,  and  the  knife  cuts 
round,  forming  a  clean  lip  in  a  very  short  time. 

Cutting  Welts.  Welts  in  the  factory  are 
long  continuous  strips  of  split  leather.  The 
short  strips  of  leather  have  been  cut  from 
the  hides,  and  now  we  run  them  through  the 
welt-splitter,  which  levels  them  neatly  with 
wedge-shaped  sides.  The  ends  of  the  parts  are 
neatly  spliced  and  joined  with  cement  to  form 
a  continuous  ribbon  of  the  length  required  for 
the  machines.  They  are  also  cut  with  an  in- 
genious tool  e.-vlled  a  welt-stripper  from  shoulders 
dressed  specially  for  the  purpose. 

Lasting.  Our  materials  are  now  shaped, 
and  \ve  assemble  them,  to  begin  making  up. 


The  uppers,  the  lasts,  the  insoles,  are  here,  and 
now  begins  that  arduous  and  difficult  operation, 
the  lasting.  Up  till  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  hand  lasting  [53]  was  carried  on  in  the 
best  equipped  factories  ;  it  made  a  gap  in  the 
mechanical  organisation  of  the  factory ;  the 
hand  laster  could  paralyse  the  greatest  factory 
in  the  world. 

Machine  Lasting.  Between  about  1898 
and  1903  no  fewer  than  six  efficient  machines 
were  placed  on  the  market,  and  improvements 
have  been  constantly  going  on  since.  The 
method  of  the  bsst  of  these  machines  [52]  is  an 
imitation  of  the  hand  lasting  action.  Last  and 
insole  are  inserted  into  the  upper,  so  as  to 
hold  easy,  and  then  put  into  the  mechanical 
laster.  Presented  to  the  machine  in  a  slanting 
position,  with  the  insole  uppermost,  so  that 
we  can  see  exactly  what  is  being  done,  the 
top  is  gripped  by  a  pair  of  power-worked 
pincers  that  pull  it  upwards,  drawing  it  tightly 
on  to  the  last.  The  pincers  are  adjustable,  so 
as  to  work  upon  any  size  of  upper.  Wipers 
now  come  into  operation  and  lay  the  upper 
close  to  the  insole,  and  five  tacks  are  driven 
in  simultaneously  to  make  the  work  secure. 
This  operation  of  putting-over,  as  we  name  it, 
is  begun  and  completed  in  fifteen  seconds. 


51.     SOLE    LEATHER    CUTTING 

w  a  hide  is  cut  up  with  little  waste 


LEATHER 

Series  of  Lasters.  Among  the  other 
lasting  machines  there  is'  a  series  with  which 
the  worker  should  be  acquainted,  the  set  grading 
in  degrees  of  complexity.  Taking  the  common 
laster  first,  we  find  it  to  be  a  rather  complex 
mechanism,  though  not  difficult  to  work,  the 
parts  being  strong  and  automatic.  Our  second 
machine  [52]  has  a  twist  motion  that  brings  the 
top  on  all  sides  close  up  to  the  feather  of  the 
insole,  and  a  slanted  tack-driving  arrangement 
that  drives  in  the  tack  and  fastens  the  upper. 

Joining  Insole,  Welt,  and  Top.  We 
are  ready  to  begin  what  has  been  described  as 
the  "  impossible  '*  mechanical  operations  of  the 
boot  factory.  Handicraft  bootmakers  used  to 
ask,  How  was  it  possible  for  a  machine  to  put  a 
thread  through  welt,  upper,  and  insole  all  at 
once  ? — convinced  that  it  could  not  be  done.  But 
the  machinists  of  the  boot  factory  offer  us  a 
choice  of  machines  for  the  purpose,  each  one 
advertised  as  capable  of  doing  perfect  work.  One 
thing  helps  another,  at  Arkwright  is  reported 
to  have  said  when  he  organised  the  cotton  fac- 
tory. The  mechanical  lasters  are  designed  to 
make  the  work  of  the  sewing  machines  easy.  The 
springs  and  levers  of  even  the  least  complex  of 
these  machines  are  so  numerous  as  to  render 
description  unintelligible  even  to  the  worker. 
Yet  the  action  is  perfectly 
harmonious.  Set  the  boot  in 
place,  and  see  how  the  work 
goes  on.  Through  welt  and 
upper  and  insole  the  stitches 
are  made  by  the  cunningly- 
devised  mechanism,  [54],  and 
as  each  stitch  is  made  the  boot 
moves  forward  the  length  of 
the  stitch  [27]. 

On  this  machine  is  a  ball  of 
white  thread,  and  at  the  side 
is  a  coil  of  welt.  When  the 
boot  is  placed  on  the  flange: 
under  the  needle,  the  thread 
comes  through  a  bath  of  wax 
kept  constantly  at  melting 
point  by  the  steam  heater, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  welt 
uncoils  to  the  boot.  Both  are 
manipulated  by  the  needle, 
which  draws  the  thread 
through  welt,  insole,  and 
upper,  and  firmly  binds  them 
together. 

Preparing  for  the  Out= 
sole.  As  we  have  taken  it 
from  the  welt-sewing  machine, 
the  boot  would  hardly  make 
a  good  foundation  for  the 
outsole.  The  seams  are  rough, 
and  between  the  surrounding 
welt  and  the  insole  there  is  a 
hollow  space. 

Filling.  Very  light  boots 
are  packed  with  felt  soles 
thinly  covered  with  cement ; 
but  for  strong  boots  the  pack- 
ing is  scraps  of  fine  leather, 
graded  to  the  thickness  of  the 
4541 


welt.  For  this  purpose  we  have  a  small 
-having  machine,  in  which  a  boy  put>  Lit- 
of  leather,  and  brings  them  out  neat  packing 
At  hi>  >ide  is  a  -mall  self -heat  ing  vessel 
full  of  melted  rubber  solution,  and  with  the 
liru-h  attaclu-d  he  sticks  the  insoles  and  put-> 
in  the  pieces  of  packing. 

Levelling.  When  the  solution  is  dry,  we 
take  the  boots  to  the  inseatn  leveller,  which 
trim>  the  weh  and  lays  the  seams  at  the  same 
time.  Like  the  rest  of  our  machines,  the  seam 
trimmer  is  very  complex  in  the  mechanism  and 


WOUDATBD    ii\M.-MKTHOD    LVSTIX: 
v  \MH\I:  <r..  r.  - Machine  Co.,  Leicester) 

"''I'l'-  ««>  operation.  All  we  need  to  do  is 
"  hold  the  hoot  in  th-  jaw  of  the  machine  and 
m  it  thn.l,  round  the  MUM,  >mc..,thin»  each 
':ti  I'  down  .1-  it  goes  along. 

Soling.     The    Ixmt    BOtel   ai.-   passed  on  to 
I1"'   l'l'"*»>-    •  I'air   by    pan    th,-  pieces   of 

I  leather  are   f,,l   jn   ,,n    the   top  of    the   foot- 


moulding  blocks,  and  over  them  comes  down 
the  matrix,  to  lift  again,  and  let  out  a  pair  of 
finely-modelled  soles. 

Cementing.  Sole-laying  is  our  next  im- 
portant work  ;  but  before  that  can  be  done  we 
have  a  choice  to  make.  The  question  now  is 
whether  the  soles  are  to  be  pegged  on  for  sewing 
or  cemented. .  The  best  and  most  satisfactory  is 
the  cementing,  and  for  this  we  have  a  fine  ma- 
chine. Within  a  jacketed  pan,  heated  according 
to  the  general  system  of  the  factory,  rubber- 
solution  is  kept  soft,  and  within  the  pan  revolves 
a  round  brush.  Over  this  brush  the  soles  are  fed. 
and  it  smears  the  flesh  or  inner  side  with  the 
solution. 

Sole=laying.  We  have  to  be  smart  now, 
for  the  rubber  cement  dries  quickly.  At  the  side 
is  the  turret  sole  layer.  There  are  several,  but 
we  can  work  only  one.  Fixed  on  a  revolving  plat- 
form, this  little  tower  of  mechanism  holds  six 
iron  soles  lined  with  pads  of  soft  rubber,  and 
on  the  platform  under  each  movable  holders 
that  let  in  the  lasted  boots  and  hold  them  tight. 
With  one  hand  take  the  clasping  levers,  and  with 
the  other  set  hi  the  boot  with  the  sole  on  it. 
Now  fix  the  grips  on  toe  and  last,  and  the  top 
pads  of  rubber,  come  down  to  make  the  whole 
fast  in  a  firm  grip.  The  turret  moves  round,  and 
offers  another  station  for  your  boot  ;  you  repeat 
the  operation.  When  the  six  stations  have  been 
filled,  the  boot  first  fixed  comes  round  ready  to 
be  taken  offy  and  its  place  is  filled  with  another 
boot.  You  can  lay  a  thousand  soles  per  day 
with  this  machine.  There  are  other  sole-laying 
machines  equally  serviceable.  Another  inter- 
esting model  has  a  vertically  revolving  motion, 
with  four  stations.  As  the  machine  slowly  goes 
round,  the  station  at  the  top  automatically  re- 
laxes, the  action  of  turning  clamping  the  laying 
press  down  on  the  newly  inserted  boot.  The 
variety  of  sole-laying  machines  is  considerable, 
and  the  effort  of  machinists  is  to  render  them 
as  gentle  and  firm  and  automatic  as  possible. 
The  maximum  capacity,  so  far  as  we  have  seen, 
of  the  best  of  these  machines  is  about  1,200 
per  day  of  actual  working. 

Sole  Rounding  and  Channelling. 
Sewn  soles  are  channelled  to  hide  and  protect  the 
stitching.  Channellers  are  called  upon  to  work 
any  variety  of  machines.  Some  are  merely  little 
knives  held  in  the  grip  of  a  motor,  with  a  stand 
for  the  boot ;  others  are  more  complex  and  aim 
at  rounding  the  sole  while  making  the  channel ; 
but  none  is  difficult  to  understand.  The  chief 
thing  to  watch  in  these  machines  is  the  adjust- 
ment, A  thin  sole  will  not  stand  the  depth  of 
channel  that  a  heavy  sole  requires. 

Stitching.  The  soles  are  now  stitched  to 
ihe  welt  by  a  machine  which  is  called  the 
'•  rapid  stitcher"  [55],  the  boot  being  laid  to  the 
machine  without  removing  from  the  last. 

BlaKe  Sewers.  Boots  are  often  made 
without  a  welt  by  sewing  with  a  "  Blake,"  already 
described.  This  machine  is  still  in  general  use. 
No- boot  factory  sewer  can  afford  to  be  in  ignor- 
ance of  the  working  of  this  machine.  On  the 
head  of  a  tall  standard  the  complicated  mechan- 
ism is  set.  while  from  the  platform  in  front 


OPERATIONS    IN    BOOTMAKING 
53.  Lasting  by  hand    54.  Sewing  in  a  welt  on  the  Goodyear  welting  machine     55.  Working  the  Goodyear  rapid  stitcher 
56.  Bottoming,  or  levelling  the  sole  to  shape  of  the  last    57.   Attaching  the  heel  by  heeling  machine    58.    Trimming  the 

sole  edge  by  machine 

4543 


59.     FOREPART  CUTTERS 


LEATHER 

protrude^  a  horn.  Over  this  horn  the  sewer  puts 
the  hoot,  and  needle  and  thread  make  stitch  after 
-titch.  piercinu  through  sole  and  insole,  making 
.,  ti,lr  BOMB  m  a  channel  cut  in  the  sole  by  a 
sole-channelling  machine  as  though  it  were  only 

thin  doth  that    was  b.-inii  >ewil. 

Pegging.  The  sewn  boot  is  still  the  favour- 
ite :  but.  curiously  enough,  the  first  machine- 
made  boots  were  pegged  in  the  soles.  It  may  be 
admitted  that 
the  early  boot- 
makers by 
machiii'-iy  did 

not     under- 

-  t  a  nd  the 
I'.ritMi  eli- 
niiite.  and  in- 
troduced a 
kind  of  pegg- 
ing .-iiit'-donly 
to  a  d' 
equable  cli- 
mate, or  a 
po  p  u  1  a  t  i  o  n 
that  never 
walked  in  the 
\\et  without 
indiarubber  overshoes.  By  pegging  we  mean 
that  the  soles  are  secured  to  the  uppers  by  small 
pegs.  Stitches  may  seem  to  grip  firmer,  but 
threads  cannot  last  as  long  as  wood  or  brass. 
Nothing  daunted  by  their  first  failure,  the 
inventors  of  the*  pegging  machines  have  worked 
v.  and  now  have  produced  many  contrivances 
\\  Inch  make  really  good  work.  We  hardly  think 
the  pegged  sole  will  ever  displace  the  sewn  one 
in  this  country  ;  but  a  trade  of  some  dimensions 
has  sprung 'up.  The  idea  which  revolution- 
i-ed  the  pegged  trade  was  the  substitution  of  a 
-en-\\  rivet  for  the  ordinary  peg.  The  pegging 
machine  most  familiar  to  us  resembles  in  general 
ippe  nance  a  kind  of  "Blake"  sewing  machine. 
On  the  horn  in  front  the  boot  is  set,  but  instead 
of  the  M'-edle  u  screwing  punch  containing  a 
>crew  tapped  wire  comes  down  and  drives  the  peg 
through  welt  and  sole,  automatically  cutting  off 
and  rivet inu'  what  is  practically  a  wood  nail  in 
the  boot.  Swift  and  etVective.  the  action  is  re- 
peated automatically.  Spacing  between  the  pegs 
e  by  the  ma  hine,  and  the  intervals  may  be 
made  as  small  or  as  wide  as  the  operator  desires. 
Heeling.  Hand-working  bootmakers  build 
the  heel  on  the  boot,  lift  by  lift  ;  but  in  the 
factory  the  heel-builder  is  'a  specialist.  The 
wid-  variety  of  heels  Mr  arc  called  upon  to  make 
has  rend-. red  thi-  inevitable.  Square  heels. 
"Hind  he,. |s.  pe-Mnp  |lre|s.  low  and  hi^h.  broad 
MM  narrow,  the  \.niations  nm  through 

the  whole  range  of  Boea  and  classes.  If  any 
speed  \\ .  re  t  o  be  a  1 1  a  ined  in  t  his  department. 
some  method  of  simplification  was  bound  to 
"I'l"-  end  ww  gained  by  making  the    • 

'iidthen    fa^tcnini:   them  to  the 
boot.       We  admit    that   these  heels  havenot 
•'ingot'  the  hand-built    heels  ;    but  the 
difference    is    Mn;ill    and    cannot    be    helped.  g,) 

ror  the  highest  class  oi  hoot>\\e  make  split 

M-.     and     produce    ;,    |,,.,.|   equal     in    i-verv  <[ 

r.i  i 


respect  to  the  best  hand-made  ;  the  consumer, 
therefore,  lias  it  in  his  own  hands — he  can  get 
the  article  if  he  will  pay  the  price. 

Building  the  Heel.  The  bottom  course, 
or  foundation  of  the  heel,  is  called  the  seat. 
This  is  made  level  with  the  sole  and  usually 
comes  off  the  same  hide.  Next  is  the  bottom 
lift,  also  solid.  The  two  lifts  above  may  be 
split  with  inside  packing,  in  the  approved  hand- 
made way.  The  lifts  are  cemented  together  by 
a  solution  of  rubber  or  other  paste,  and  built  on 
ingenious  machines,  the  most  common  models 
of  which  resemble  miniature  hydraulic  presses 
in  construction  and  principle. 

Putting  on  the  Heel.  Heels  are  attached 
to  boots  by  various  machines  [57],  the  greater 
number  by  merely  riveting  presses,  which 
clench  the  wire  nails  left  protruding  from  the 
heel-seat  into  the  sole  and  insole.  A  machine 
much  favoured  by  manufacturers  of  heavy  boots 
works  on  a  peculiar  plan.  Into  a  disc  the  nails 
are  fed  head  downwards  ;  heel  and  boot  are 
placed  together  in  position  ;  the  press  comes 
down  and  the  hammer  comes  up,  driving  the 
nails  into  the  boot  and  heel.  The  top  pieces  of 
the  heel  are  nailed  by  a  special  machine  [61]  that 
drives  the  "  nails  "  regularly  and  at  a  very  rapid 
rate. 

Sole=levelling.  When  we  get  the  boot 
from  the  making-up  department,  the  channelling 
of  the  sewn  seams  gapes  and  the  sole  may  not 
lie  quite  flat.  Obviously,  if  you  can  pass  a  roller 
firmly  enough,  and  yet  yielding  to  the  proper 
shape  of  the  boot, 
over  the  sole,  it  will 
be  levelled.  On  this 
idea  the  best  level- 
ling machines  [53] 
are  constructed. 
The  rollers  are  hung 
on  spring  attach- 
ments ;  alterna- 
tively, the  stand  of 
the  boot  is  spring- 
seated,  and  the 
rollers  move  firmly 
over  the  soles. 

Finishing  the 
Boot.    Heeled  and 
soled,  the  boot  has 
been  built  together ; 
but     it    must    not 
yet  pass  out  of  our 
hands,   for  it    is    a 
rough     production. 
Most     factories   do 
not   class    the   de- 
partments    as     we 
do ;       they     make 
some        of       those 
I      -workers    whom   we 
§  consider       finishers 
f  work  in  the  soling 
and      heeling      de- 
^^^mmHIHHB^        part  ments.  This 

••>MITII"    HEEL-TRiM.MiM.       matters  little;  but 
MACHINE  a  more  rigid  method 

U.  Sliop  Machine  Co.,  Leicester)          of      division,      such 


as  we  propose,  would  help  all  parties.  When  the 
sole-sewers  and  heel-fixers  have  put  the  boot 
together,  the  work  of  that  department  of  the 
factory  is  done.  The  rest  belongs  to  the  finishers. 
It  seems  ridiculous  that  sole-levelling  should  be 
included  in  soling  while  edge -trimming  belongs 
to  the  finishing  division. 

HeeUtrimming.  Though  finely  cut  to 
shape  when  laid  on  the  boot,  the  heel  has 
margins  which  can  be  dispensed  with  only  after 
it  has  been  seated  on  the  boot  [60].  The  front,  or 
breast,  of  the  heel  has  been  left  rough  for  shaping 
to  the  level  of  the  shank.  Breasting  is  very  hard 
work,  and  needs  a  sharp,  strong  knife.  Over  a 
dozen  kinds  of  breasting  machines  are  regularly 
employed,  but  the  best  are  very  simple.  A 
knife  the  shape  of  the  breast  required  is  fixed 
on  the  head,  of  a  press  ;  the  boot  is  set  in  the 
stand,  and  the  knife  shears  down,  cutting  a  clean 
breast. 

To  give  our  heel  a  solid  appearance,  we  take 
it  to  the  scouring  machine,  and  on  flat  sand- 
paper, running  on  spindles,  the  heel  is  smoothed 
to  a  fine  level. 

Edge=trlmming.  Like  the  heel,  the  sole 
has  been  left  with  rough  edges,  and  for  trimming 
these  we  have  the  machine  cutters.  Here  the 
special  character  of  bootmaking  machinery  comes 
out  strongly.  The  edge-trimming  machines  are 
nothing  more  than  mechanically-driven  knives 
1 59],  shaped  to  suit.  Instead  of  the  flat  blades  we 
use  by  hand,  the  cutters  are  grooved  blocks 
of  steel,  cast  in  a  wheel  and  fixed  on  a  spindle. 
Against  the  revolving  cutters  the  boot  is  held 
[58],  and  a  fine  edge  is  the  result. 

Buffing.  In  most  trades,  buffing  implies 
polishing ;  but  with  us  the  meaning  is  the 
opposite.  The  object  of  buffing  is  to  take  off  the 
old  surface  of  the  leather  of  sole  and  heel,  and 
prepare  it  for  receiving  a  new  surface.  But  we 


61.   NAILING     ON    THE    TOP    PIEC 

26 


62.     BUFFING,     OR     SANDPAPERING 

use  buffing  wheels,  like  other  workers,  the 
difference  being  that,  while  wood  and  steel  are 
smoothed  by  the  rough  surface,  the  leather  is  made 
rough.  On  the  rims  of  the  wheels  bands  of 
coarse  emery  are  fixed.  By  applying  the  sole 
and  heel  to  the  running  wheel  [62],  we  scour  off  the 
surface  of  the  leather  in  a  regular  manner.  One 
thing  has  to  be  specially  watched,  and  that  is 
the  work  of  the  emery  on  the  sides  of  the  soles, 
or  the  edges  so  carefully  cut  will  be 
ground  down.  Simple  as  it  looks,  buffing 
can  not  be  learned  in  a  moment. 
Nothing  can  obliterate  the  streaking  and 
scudding  of  defective  buffing.  Dust  flies 
from  the  buffing  wheel  at  a  great  rate. 
To  keep  the  air  of  the  workshop  clean 
and  preserve  the  health  of  the  operator, 
the  wheels  are  hooded  over  with  covers, 
through  which  attached  fans  suck  the 
leather  dust  into  closed  receptacles. 

Sandpapering.  Similar  in  con- 
struction, the  sandpapering  machines 
begin  to  build  smoothness  on  the  rough 
work  of  the  emery  buffing  wheels.  The 
rollers  are  made  to  resemble  in  feel  and 
elasticity  the  human  fingers,  being 
composed  of  felted  material  under  the 
sandpaper. 

Blacking,  Edge=setting,  and 
Polishing.  In  this  division  the  skill  of 
the  workman  counts  for  more  than  the 
speed  and  structure  of  the  machines. 
So  long  as  the  present  fashion  of  boots 
maintains  its  hold  on  the  popular  taste, 
no  other  system,  it  seems  to  us,  is 
possible.  The  routine  of  the  hand- 
working  bootmaker  is  preserved.  First, 

4545 


LEATHER 

I  hi-   hoi    iron--    a  iv   run   over  the  edges 

of    tin-    M>!<>  |63|.  tin-  bark  of  the  heel, 

;iii'l  tin-  >kiviiitf  of  the  waist  or  shank  ; 

the  l.l.-H-Uiiuz  or  ink  is  brushed  on; 

I  setting  irons  run  round 

and  o\vi.  making  the  dark  places  shim- 

like  mirror-  :  and  then,  withgrras.-  and 

Marking,  brushes  and  cloths,   the  whole 

boot  is  made  beautiful. 

\\V  work  with  machine  tools  in  the 
factory;  that  is  the  sole  difference 
between  the  ancient  and  the  modern 
practice.  Where  the  bootmaker  heats 
his  irons  at  a  gas  jet,  we  have  the  gas 
stove,  or  patent  ring  ;  we  fix  the  irons 
in  a  machine  and  hold  up  the  work, 
ii!>t«-:ul  of  grasping  the  handle  of  the 
iron>  in  our  hands  and  leaning  down 
to  give  pressure  on  the  polisher.  For 
the  little  ink- brush  we  have  the  patent 
circular  brush,  and  for  the  cleaning 
cloth  a  pneumatic  felt  pad.  One  great 
and  important  difference  remains,  and 
it  explains  why  machinery  has  been 
adopted  for  hand  labour  in  this,  the 
delicate  touching-up  of  our  work.  In 
ten  minutes,  without  stress,  we  can 
turn  out  as  much  work  as  a  boot- 
maker, working  hard,  could  do  in  two 
hours. 

Tying.  When  finished,  the  boots 
pass  in  pairs  on  to  the  tying  machine, 
which,  with  one  stitch  in  each,  links 
them  together.  Then  they  pass  into 
the  treeing  department  [64],  By  the 
treeing  device  we  have  been  enabled  to 
dispense  with  the  last  during  the 
finishing  processes.  Formed  of  several 
pieces,  the  tree  goes  into  the  boot,  and 
is  screwed  up  to  the  size  of  the  last,  shaping 


4546 


TREEING    THE    BOOT 

the  boot  again,  and  fixing  it  in  the  proper  form. 
The  boot  has  been  mads  ready  for  the 
wearer  ;    who  that  may  be  cannot  be 
guessed,  but  we  have  done  our  best  to 
give  a  good  boot. 

Technical     Trade     Teaching. 

With  all  its  limitations,  the  bootmaking 
machine  factory  produces  good  work, 
and  handicraft  can  never  again  obtain  a 
strong  hold  on  the  boot  market.  It  is 
satisfactory,  therefore,  to  find  our  tech- ' 
nical  schools  in  London,  Leicester,  Leeds 
and  Glasgow  teaching  machine  boot- 
making  instead  of  confining  their  efforts 
to  imparting  a  craft  which  has  sunk  into  a 
subsidiary  though  artistic  branch  of  the 
industry.  Handicraft  bootmaking  is 
the  foundation  of  the  trade,  and,  as  such, 
should  be  taught,  but  knowledge  of 
machinery  is  indispensable  to  the  work- 
man of  the  present  day. 

Many  of  the  photographic  illustrations 
in  these  articles  were  taken  in  the 
factories  of  the  Trueform  Boot  Company 
of  Northampton  and  London. 

BOOTS  AND  SHOES  concluded ; 

ffilloirtd  hi/ 

SADDLERY    AND    HARNESS  MAKING 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL 

Sewage    Outfalls.       River    Pollution    and    Purification. 
Utilisation  of  Sewage.     Different  Systems  of  Treatment 


Group  11 

CIVIL 

ENGINEERING 
32 

SI-.WKRAGE 

Continued  from  page -Her, 


By  Professor  HENRY  ROBINSON 


VY/E  now  consider  the  question  of  the  disposal 

of  the  sewage  from  a  town.     This  must 

be    effected    without    causing    a    nuisance    by 

polluting  the  air,  the  water  of  a  river,"  or  the  sea. 

If  the  town  be  situated  near  the  sea  or  *a  tidal 
river,  there  is  a  natural  tendency  to  assume  that 
the  sewage  can  be  got  rid  of  by  discharging  it 
there.  Before  this  can  be  safely  done,  it  is 
essential  to  take  careful  float  observations  [see 
page  1016],  to  ascertain  whether,  under  every 
condition  of  tide,  the  sewage  will  be  carried  away 
without  causing  a  nuisance  by  polluting  the 
foreshore,  either  near  the  outfall  or  elsewhere. 

In  determining  what  standard  of  effluent 
should  be  required  at  any  sewage  outfall,  each 
case  must  be  considered  with  reference  to  its 
own  special  conditions.  To  insist  on  a  perfectly 
pure  effluent  would,  in  most  cases,  be  unreason- 
able. In  past  years  it  was  unattainable,  but  is 
now  possible,  as  was  the  case  at  Maidenhead,  by 
electrozone,  a  sterilising  fluid  produced  by  passing 
a  current  of  electricity  through  saline  solutions. 

Management  of  Outfalls.  Another 
matter  deserves  mention,  and  that  is  in  reference 
to  the  management  of  sewage  outfalls.  Even 
supposing  the  most  suitable  system  has  been 
carried  out,  the  anticipated  results  may  not  be 
attained  owing  to  the  want  of  care  or  intelli- 
gence in  managing  the  outfall. 

In  some  places  where  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  discharge  the  sewage  only  at  certain 
tides,  to  ensure  fluid  filth  being  carried  away  at 
ebb  tides  and  not  returned  at  the  following 
flood  tides,  storage  chambers  have  been  made 
at  the  outfall  to  retain  the  sewage  until  the 
proper  time  for  its  discharge  has  arrived,  when, 
by  raising  a  sluice,  either  by  hand  or  automati- 
cally, the  stored  sewage  is  let  out  from  the 
chamber.  This  arrangement  is  liable  to  failure 
in  the  event  of  heavy  rainfall  following  a  period 
of  dry  weather,  when  the  sewers  are  flushed  and 
the  quantity  arriving  at  the  outfall  is  more  than 
can  be  retained  there  until  the  right  time  for 
its  discharge  into  the  sea  or  estuary.  In  cases 
where  such  an  outfall  sewer  receives  storm  water 
the  storage  chamber  may  be  a  very  costly  work. 
An  alternative  method  of  dealing  with  this 
temporary  excess  is  to  lift  it  by  centrifugal 
pumps  the  few  feet  necessary  to  discharge  it 
above  the  top  of  the  tide  when  there  is  a  coinci- 
dence of  a  high  tide  and  a  heavy  rainfall.  Such 
an  arrangement,  however,  requires  to  be  worked 
almost  automatically,  as  the  coincidence  may 
happen  only  once  a  year,  and  then  in  the  middle 
of  the  night.  Anyone  desiring  to  follow  this 
matter  further  can  study  two  recent  cases  of 
pollution  which  were  decided  in  the  Courts. 
One  is  "  Lord  Gifford  v.  Chichester  Corporation," 
where  the  action  was  based  on  the  pollution  of 


the  air  and  foreshore  in  an  estuary.  The  other 
is  "Foster  v.  the  Warblington  Urban  District 
Council,"  where  the  plaintiff's  oyster-beds  were 
polluted  by  the  discharge  of  sewage  near  them 
and  his  oyster  trade  interfered  with.  Both  the 
cases  were  decided  against  the  authorities 
responsible  for  the  sewage  outfalls,  and  they  will 
serve  as  a  precedent  for  future  reference. 

River  Pollution.  The  Rivers  Pollution 
Prevention  Act,  1876,  was  passed  to  meet  the 
well-founded  demand  for  such  legislation  as 
would  prevent  the  injury  and  pollution  of  rivers 
by  the  discharge  into  them  of  refuse,  putrid  solid 
matter,  or  other  waste  or  noxious  or  polluting 
liquid  or  solid  sewage  matter.  The  Act  deals  with 
the  evils  under  three  heads  :  (1)  solid  matters  ; 
(2)  sewage  pollution  ;  (3)  manufacturing  and 
mining  pollution.  The  prohibition  as  to  putting 
solid  matters  into  rivers  is  absolute.  The  prohi- 
bition as  to  the  discharge  of  sewage  or  poisonous 
noxious  polluting  liquids  from  manufactories  or 
mines  into  rivers  is  accompanied  by  the  proviso 
that  no  offence  shall  be  deemed  to  have  been  com- 
mitted where  the  fluid  is  conveyed  by  a  channel 
used,  constructed,  or  in  process  of  construction 
at  the  passing  of  the  Act,  if  the  best  practicable 
and  available  (or  reasonably  available)  means 
has  been  used  to  render  harmless  the  sewage 
matter  or  polluting  liquids.  In  1893  the  fol- 
lowing important  amendment  was  enacted  in 
explanation  of  Section  3  of  the  Act : 

''Where  any  sewage  matter  falls  or  flows  or  is 
carried  into  any  stream  after  passing  through  or 
along  a  channel  which  is  vested  in  a  sanitary  autho- 
rity, the  sanitary  authority  shall,  for  the  purposes 
of  Section  3  of  the  Rivers  Pollution  Prevention 
Act,  1876,  be  deemed  knowingly  to  permit  the 
sewage  matter  so  to  fall,  flow,  or  be  carried." 

The  result  of  legislation  to  protect  our  rivers 
is  not  very  satisfactory. 

Self=purification  of  Rivers.  While 
referring  to  the  avoidance  of  river  pollution 
by  discharging  foul  matters  into  it,  we 
may  mention  that  there  may  be  cases  where 
slight  pollution  may  be  tolerated  owing  to  the 
amount  of  matter  discharged  and  the  point 
where  it  reaches  the  river,  together  with  the 
relation  between  the  volumes  of  both,  preventing 
appreciable  injury.  It  was  once  thought  that 
"  a  river  once  polluted  remained  always  pol- 
luted." Those  who  have  to  advise  about 
sewage  disposal  recognise  that  a  river  can  be 
self-cleansing  within  certain  limits.  The  number 
of  minute  organisms  and  plants  which  are  found 
in  a  river  are  instrumental  in  destroying  organic 
impurities  and  afford  under  the  microscope  a 
means  of  determining  the  character  of  the  water. 
These  organisms  are  found  to  multiply  and  thrive 
in  a  sewage-polluted  stream  to  an  extent  enor- 
mously greater  than  they  would  in  the  same 

4547 


CIVIL     ENGINEERING 

stivam  if  unpolluted,  although  tliev  rxist  in 
in -h  water.  They  may  be  said  to  act  as  scaven- 
gers ;  but.  if  tke  amount  of  impurity  be  too 
great,  the  organisms  are,  it  is  thought,  less  able 
,  it  tliis  beneficial  action.  Minute  plants 
also  help,  by  giving  off  oxygen  when  exposed  to 
the  light,  and  thus  assist  to  oxygenate  the 
water. 

Liquid  Refuse  from  Manufactories. 
The  admission  of  liquid  manufacturing  refuse 
into  sewers  has  often  increased  the  difficulties 
attending  the  treatment  of  sewage  at  outfalls, 
I  »ut  it  is  to  be  anticipated  that  these  facilities 
will  !>e  very  much  curtailed.  The  local  authority 
may  refuse  to  allow  trade  effluents  to  enter 
sewers  on  any  of  the  following  grounds :  (1)  that 
thev  would  injure  the  sewer;  ,(2)  that  they 
would  prejudicially  affect  the  disposal  of  the 
sewage  ;  (3)  that  their  volume  is  too  great  for 
the  capacity  of  the  sewers  ;  and  (4)  that  their 
admission  to  the  sewer  would  interfere  with 
some  order  of  a  Court  of  competent  jurisdiction. 

The  admission  of  trade  wastes  to  sewers  in 
large  quantities  causes  difficulty  in  treating 
the  sewage  at  the  outfall,  especially  when  the 
waste  is  not  admitted  at  regular  intervals 
coinciding  with  the  varying  volumes  of  sewage, 
and  when  undesirable  solids  are  not  removed. 
If  the  conditions  as  to  the  admission  of  the  waste 
be  observed,  there  is  no  trouble  in  dealing  with 
it,  when  it  is  associated  with  sewage  in  reasonable 
quantities,  as  the  sewage  sets  up  the  necessary 
putrefactive  ehange  if  the  waste  is  either  acid 
or  alkaline,  unless  in  excess,  when  it  should 
be  neutralised  before  admission  to  the  sewer. 
The  Sewage  Commission  are  of  opinion  "  that  the 
law  should  be  altered  so  as  to  make  it  the  duty 
of  the  local  authority  to  provide  such  sewers  as 
are  necessary  to  carry  trade  effluents  as  well  as 
domestic  sewage,  and  that  the  manufacturer 
should  be  given  the  right,  subject  to  the  ob- 
servance of  certain  safeguards,  to  discharge  trade 
effluents  into  the  sewers  of  the  local  authority, 
'  if  hi;  wishes  to  do  so.'  " 

Tidal  Waters.  The  requirements  of  the 
Public  Health  Act  with  reference  to  the  purifica- 
tion of  foul  fluids  before  then*  discharge  into 
rivers,  etc.,  has  not  been  considered  as  applying 
io  tidal  waters,  and  the  Rivers  Pollution  Act 
has  only  very  rarely  been  put  into  force.  Inasmuch 
as  it  is  illi-gal  under  the  common  law  to  pollute 
the  air,  or  the  rainfall  after  it  reaches  the  earth, 
it  is  equally  illegal  to  cause  a  nuisance  by 
polluting  the  tidal  water  of  an  estuary,  or  the 
foreshores  adjoining,  as  the  Courts  have  held 
in  the  eases  to  which  we  have  referred. 

Compulsory  Provisions.  The  further 
powers  now  conferred  on  county  councils,  joint 
eoiiuiiittees.  ;Uid  river  boards'  will  lead  to  a 
dOMC  ><  i  ut  in v  of  rivers  and  streams,  and  to  the 
detection  and  abatement  of  pollutions. 

In  in-ranging  srwagr  disposal  works  it  must 
lie  home  in  mind  that  the  Local  Government 
Hoard  at  the  present  time  require  provision 
to  l>e  made  for  dealing  with  the  dry  weather 
flow,  and  a  further  live  volumes,  or  -o.\ 
volume-  altogether.  If  the  town  l.e  drained  on 
the  combined  system,  three  volumes  must  be 


treated  as  sewage  proper,  and  the  further  three 
volumes  has  to  be  disposed  of  on  specially- 
prepared  filters  or  on  land.  If  the  town  be  drained 
on  the  separate  system,  two  volumes  must  be 
treated  as  sewage  proper,  and  the  further  four 
volumes  has  to  be  disposed  of  on  filters  or 
land. 

Quality  of  Sewage.  The  quantity  of 
sewage  delivered  to  an  outfall  has  been  regarded 
too  much  as  the  governing  factor,  without 
reference  to  the  quality.  The  facts  which  are 
now  available  with  respect  to  the  results  of 
treating  sewage  by  bacterial  action  will  no 
doubt  be  productive  of  elasticity  in  the  Local 
Government  Board's  requirements,  and  will 
entail  a  more  intelligent  consideration,  based 
upon  detailed  expert  information  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  sewage  of  the  town  in  question. 
At  present  too  little  attention  has  been  devoted 
to  this,  resulting  in  the  enforcement  or  adoption 
of  unnecessarily  costly  works  at  sewage  outfalls. 
After  the  sewage  arrives  at  the  outfall  it  is 
passed  through  a  chamber  in  which  is  arrested 
floating  substances  such  as  corks,  paper,  and 
the  like,  which  must  not  be  allowed  to  pass  to 
disposal  works  of  any  kind. 

Irrigation.  If  suitable  land  be  available 
near  a  town,  and  the  sewage  can  be  conveyed 
to  it  without  any  engineering  difficulties,  its 
utilisation  for  agricultural  purposes  is  possible. 

Sewage  farming  has  too  frequently  been  re- 
garded only  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view, 
whereas  it  must  be  treated  as  a  combination  of 
both  sanitary  and  agricultural  interests.  These 
two,  however,  can  be  successfully  combined  only 
where  a  sufficient  area  of  suitable  land  is  acquired 
to  enable  the  crops  cultivated  on  it  to  receive 
the  sewage  only  when  they  want  it,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  sewage  is  purified  on  other  areas 
when  it  is  not  wanted  by  crops.  When  this 
cannot  be  accomplished,  the  agricultural  part 
of  the  matter  must  be  disregarded,  and  the 
filtration  and  purification  of  the  sewage  as  a 
sanitary  necessity  should  be  alone  kept  in  view. 

It  is  now  clearly  established  that  the  changes 
that  have  to  take  place  in  sewage  to  effect  purifi- 
cation, or  that  are  necessary  to  enable  the 
manurial  ingredients  in  it  to  be  best  adapted  to 
the  requirements  of  plant  life,  are  due  to  the 
nitrifying  action  of  micro-organisms.  Where  the 
land  under  treatment  is  open  and  pervious, 
the  most  solid  part  of  sewage,  as  well  as 
the  dissolved  and  finely  suspended  organic 
matters,  admit  of  being  liquefied  in  the 
interstices  of  the  soil,  and  of  being  converted 
into  .the  harmless  nitrates  and  nitrites  which 
are  so  beneficial  to  plant  life.  Where  the 
land  is  impervious  this  can  be  only  partially 
effected,  and  in  such  cases  the  liquefaction  of 
the  solids  by  bacteriological  influences  has  to  be 
brought  about  by  methods  that  are  described 
elsewhere,  so  that  the  fluid  that  is  applied  to 
the  land  is  both  free  from  what  would  clog 
the  pores,  and  is  at  the  same  time  highly  charged 
with  the  nitrates  and  nitrites  which  are  available 
for  vegetation.  If  they  are  not  required  by 
the  crops  they  are  in  a  form  that  can  pass  away 
without  causing  pollution  or  miisance. 


Land   for  Sewage  Purification.      The 

most  unsuitable  soils  for  sewage  purification 
are  stiff,  tenacious  clays,  peaty  or  boggy  land, 
and  certain  conditions  of  coarse,  gravelly  soils, 
which  contain  hard  conglomerate  layers  often 
very  dense  and  impervious.  Clay  lands  can 
be  rendered  more  fitted  for  filtration  by  preparing 
specially  the  surface  to  some  depth  by  ploughing 
or  digging  in  ashes  or  other  materials. 

The  land  must  be  prepared  so  that  it  will 
absorb  the  sewage  uniformly  over  its  surface, 
without  flooding  or  overflowing.  This  can  be 
done  by  laying  out  the  area  in  slopes  according 
to  the  contour  of  the  surface,  and  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

After  the  sewage  is  delivered  on  to  the  land  at 
the  outfall  it  is  distributed  by  main  carriers, 
either  of  earthenware  or  concrete,  or  of  bricks 
in  cement.  These  are  placed  in  contour,  and  are 
regulated  by  sluices  and  stops  so  as  to  command 
the  area  to  be  irrigated,  the  sewage  being  dis- 
tributed over  the  surface  by  carriers  made  in 
the  ground.  Any  pipe  carriers  underground 
which  convey  the  sewage  from  one  point  to 
another  should  be  kept  low  enough  to  prevent 
disturbance  when  the  surface  is  being  manipu- 
lated either  with  the  plough  or  otherwise. 

Systems  of  Sewage  Distribution. 
There  are  several  methods  for  distributing 
sewage  over  the  surface  of  land. 

In  the  ridge  and  furrow  system  the  land  is 
prepared  in  beds  with  ridges  about  40  ft.  apart, 
having  slopes  of  about  20  ft.  on  each  side  with 
an  inclination,  according  to  the  ground,  of  from 


3.  CANDY'S  TANK  ARRANGEMENT 

A  .  Water  level  B.  Overflow  channel    C.  Worm  gear  E.  Screw- 
down  valve      F.   Sludge  sight-box     G.   Sludge  pipe  to  well 


or  lagoon 


J.  Squeegee  for  cleaning 


II.  Sludge  exit  pipe 

wall    K.  Centre  sewage  inlet    L.  Patent  adjustable  spreader 

M.   Perforated  revolving  sludge  pipe  with  hood  and  scraper 

N.  Pivot    O.  Hood    P.  Concrete 

1  in  50  to  1  in  150,  or  even  more  if  the  ground 
be  very  impervious.  The  ridges  have  dis- 
tributing channels  formed  so  that  the  sewage 
flows  over  "them  down  the  slope  of  the  plot  or 
field  to  the  furrow  in  a  uniform  layer  or  film, 
and  any  which  is  not  absorbed  passes  to  a  lower 
plot. 

The  catchwater  system  is  used  more  for  very 
sidelong  and  irregular  ground.  A  carrier  is  laid 
to  command  the  area  to  be  treated,  and  the 
sewage  overflows  from  it  at  any  part  by  tem- 
porarily stopping  up  the  carrier.  It  then  passes 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

to  a  lower  level,  where  a  catehwater  gutter,  made 
to  the  contour  of  the  land,  passes  it  over  a  still 
lower  part  of  the  area.  Main  carriers  vary  in 
size,  but  are  generally  about  1  ft.  to  2  ft.  wide, 
and  about  6  in.  to  10  in.  deep.  The  fall  should 
be  about  1  in  500  or  1  in  600. 

Crops  for  Sewage.  Italian  rye-grass  is 
one  of  the  best  crops  for  sewage,  as  its  capacity 
for  absorption  is  enormous,  and  it  occupies 
the  soil  so  as  to  choke  down  weeds,  which  are 
a  source  of  trouble  and  expense  on  sewaged 
land.  Osiers  are  very  useful  plants  to  absorb 
the  organic  impurities  in  sewage. 

There  are  other  plants  which  are  capable  of 
absorbing  organic  impurities,  such  as  duckweed, 
sedges,  common  reed,  flowering  rush,  white 
and  yellow  lilies,  frogbit,  water  ranunculus, 
liverwort,  sunflower,  and  watercress. 

Precipitation.  Where  land  cannot  be 
obtained  for  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  broad 
irrigation,  one  way  of  dealing  with  it  is  by 
chemical  precipitation,  that  is,  by  adding  to 
the  sewage  chemicals  which  have  a  deodorising 
and  precipitating  effect,  so  that  on  a  small 
area  of  land  the  foul  fluid  from  the  outfall  sewer 
can  be  converted  into  an  inodorous  effluent. 
Many  years  ago  this  was  thought  to  be  the 
solution  of  the  sewage  difficulty,  but  the  bacterial 
treatment  of  sewage  (which  will  be  referred  to 
later)  has  afforded  an  alternative  method. 

Where  a  considerable  part  of  the  rainfall  is 
received  into  the  sewerage  system,  provision 
should  be  made  for  a  tank  capacity  of  at  least 
50  per  cent,  of  the  average  daily  dry  weather 
flow,  which  will  give  a  workable  margin  for 
contingencies.  Several  small  tanks  are  better 
than  a  few  very  large  ones,  as  there  is  less  risk 
of  difficulties  arising  when  the  tanks  have  to 
be.  stopped  for  cleaning  out  or  for  repairs. 

In  England,  shallow  tanks,  having  a  depth 
of  about  4  ft.  to  5  ft.  at  one  end  and  about  6  ft. 
at  the  other,  are  generally  used.  The  bottom 
should  have  a  fall  towards  the  inlet  end,  to 
which  the  sludge  can  be  swept  with  facility. 
The  tank  is  emptied  by  means  of  a  floating 
arm  which  falls  on  drawing  off  the  supernatant 
water  and  insures  its  being  taken  from  the 
upper  layer  of  fluid  in  the  tank.  A  valve  con- 
trols this  drawing  off,  so  that  as  soon  as  there  is 
any  appearance  of  floating  matter  in  the  water 
being  let  off  the  valve  is  closed  and  the  sludge 
remains. 

Candy's  System.  A  recent  arrangement 
*of  tank  [36]  by  Mr.  Frank  Candy  deserves 
mention.  The  bottom  of  the  tank  is  made 
flat,  and  in  the  centre  is  pivoted  a  horizontal 
perforated  pipe  which  reaches  to  the  side  of  the 
tank.  This  is  pivoted  on  another  pipe,  which  is 
carried  up  to  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  full 
water-level  of  the  tank,  and  at  that  point  the 
sludge  is  discharged  without  pumping.  The 
pivoted  pipe  is  revolved  by  hand  from  the 
outside  of  the  tank  when  it  is  being  cleaned. 
The  perforations  in  the  pipe  being  on  the  under 
side  of  it,  and  only  a  few  inches  apart,  and  the 
pipe  itself  being  but  a  little  above  the  bottom 
of  the  tank— enough  to  clear  it — the  rotation 
of  the  pipe  covers  the  bottom,  and  the  sludge 

4549 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

is  draun    IT    >ucked    away  from  the  whole  of 


rod  actuated   by  compressed   air   or  steam,  so 
that,  as  the  piston  rod  drew  the  crosshead  for- 
ward, it  was  followed  by  the  whole  string  of  discs. 
Sludge   Treatment.      The  sludge,  before 


*  •  1  1 

,h,  Btrfeoe,    'I'll'-  pressure  «.f  water  m  tlu-  lank 
-    the  sludge  through  the  connecting  pipe 
anil  ...it    to  a  higher  level,  whence  the  sludge 


into  the  tank,  and  when 


is  thicker  than  the  sludge  usually  drawn  from 
other  precipitation  tanks.  The  removal  of  the 
sludge  by  this  arrangement  does  not  interfere  with 

the  tit. w'  of   the    M-wa.iT 

the  tank  i>  >tarled 
it-  working  is  con- 
tinuous. The  usual 
prccipitants  that  are 
or  have  been  em- 
ployed are  lime,  sul- 
phate of  alumina, 
protosulphate  of  iron 
(copperas),  alum,  sul- 
phate of  iron,  ferro- 
zone. 

Lime  being  a 
cheaper  precipitant 
than  sulphate  of 
alumina  and  other 
chemicals,  it  may 
seem  that  its  use 
necessarily  produces 
economic  results. 
This  is.  however, 
not  always  the  case, 
as  any  saving  in 
the  purchase  of  the 
clicnper  precipitant 
may  be  more  than 
(ou  nter  balanced  in 
dealing  with  the  large  volume  of  sludge  produced. 

The  sludge  that  is  the  result  of  precipitation 
has  to  be  got  rid  of,  after  the  tanks  are  cleared  of 
it.  and  if  it  can  be  dug  into  some  waste  land  the 
•  •\pt-iise  of  putting  up  and  operating  what  are 
known  as  sludge  presses  will  be  avoided. 

Sludge.  Sewage  sludge  is  usually  converted 
into  a  portable  material  in  filter  presses  [37], 
made  by  Johnson  &  Co.,  Manlove,  Alliott  &  Co., 
and  others.  The  principle  of  construction  consists 
generally  of  a  series  of  circular  or  square  iron 
.  the  faces  of  which  are  grooved  and  recessed, 
and  are  covered  with  a  filter  cloth.  The  plates 
-lidi-  on  guides,  and  when  they  are  close  together 
they  form  a  nearly  cylindrical  mass  of  discs,  with 
hollow  spaces  between  them  into  which  the  wret 
sludge  is  forced,  generally  by  compressed  air. 
The  fluid  passes  through  the  filtering  material 
to  the  grooved  surfaces  of  the  plates,  whence  it  is 
conveyed  by  holes  at  the  bottom  of  the  inner 
part  of  the  plate  to  the  outside  of  the  press. 
The  H.I  ids  an-  retained  in  the  space  between  the 
from  which  they  are  removed  by  sliding 
the  plates  away  from  each  other  on  the  guides 
by  hand.  The  writer,  some  years  ago,  devised 
a  plan  for  rapidly  opening-  presses  of  this  kind 
by  eonnert ing  the  >.-rics  of  discs  together  with 
link-  and  attaching  the  whole  to  a  crosshcad. 
Thi-  \\as  drawn  along  the  guide-,  cither  by  a 
knuckle-joint  lever  worked  by  hand  or  by  apiston 


exhausting  the 

sludges  a  little  lime  is  added  for  the  purpose  of 
assisting  the  water  to  filter  through  the  cloths. 
The  sludge  is  generally  forced  from  this  receiver 
into  the  interstices  of  the  discs  of  the  filter 


37.    8.    H.    JOHNSON   &    CO.'S    SLUDGE    PRESSES  (Pneumatic  system) 


presses  by  compressed  ak — at  from  60  Ib.  to 
100  Ib.  per  inch — which,  being  turned  into  the 
receiver,  displaces  the  sludge.  It  is  sometimes 
pumped  direct  from  the  sludge  pits  without  a 
receiver.  The  cost  of  converting  fluid  sludge 
into  this  pressed  cake  is  from  2s.  to  2s.  6d. 
per  ton  of  cake  containing  about  50  per  cent, 
of  moisture,  in  which  state  it  represents  approxi- 
mately one-fifth  of  its  original  bulk. 

Sludge  consists  of  about  90  parts  of  water  to 
10  parts  of  solid.  As  it  dries  its  weight  dimin- 
ishes, and  the  following  simple  rule  defines  this  : 

Let  X  =  weight  of  sludge  to  be  ascertained  ; 
S  =  weight  of  solids  in  the  sludge  (which  is 

constant)  ; 

P  =  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  sludge. 
Then  _  S  x  100 

100  -F 

For  instance,  to  ascertain  what  weight  25 
tons  of  sludge  containing  90  per  cent,  of  mois- 
ture would  be  reduced  to  when  it  is  dried  to  15 
per  cent,  of  moisture  :  ^ 

Twenty-five  tons  of  sludge  with  90  per  cent, 
of  moisture  contains  2 '5  tons  of  solids  (which 
is  constant)  ;  therefore,  applying  the  formula, 

X  -  2-94  tons. 

Detailed  descriptions  of  various  sewage  dis- 
posal works  are  <,'iven   in  the  writer's   book  on 
"  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Disposal." 
( 'on tinned 


4550 


CHARLES  STUART  &  HIS  TIMES 

James  I.  and  Charles  I.     Gowrie  Conspiracy  and  Gunpowder  Plot.     The 
Civil  War.     Hampden   and  Cromwell.     The  King's  Trial  and  Execution 


Group  15 

HISTORY 
32 


By  JUSTIN  MCCARTHY 


w] 


rE  must  now  return  for  a  time  to  the  history 
of  our  own  country,  which  we  have  followed 
up  to  the  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign. 

Queen  Elizabeth  was  succeeded  by  James, 
the  only  son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and 
.Darnley.  But  James  succeeded  not  as  the  son 
of  the  Queen  of  Scots,  but  as  the  great-great- 
grandson  of  the  English  Princess  Margaret,  wife 
of  James  IV.  James  I.  of  England  and  VI.  of 
Scotland  had  received  much  of  his  education  from 
George  Buchanan,  the  celebrated  Scotch  scholar, 
writer,  and  reformer.  James  remained  in  a 
guardianship  which  became  a  sort  of  imprison- 
ment because  of  his  extreme  youth  and  the 
ambition  of  those  who  had  charge  of  him  to 
govern  according  to  their  own  ideas  ;  but  in  1578 
the  Regency  was  taken  from  the  Earl  of  Morton, 
and  James  became — at  least,  nominally — King 
of  Scotland. 

;  He  had  many  quarrels  with  the  clergy  and 
the  nobles  dining  his  reign,  and  showed  a  strong 
dislike  both  for  the  Presbyterians  and  for  the 
Catholics.  He  seemed,  for  a  time,  determined 
to  restore  Episcopacy  to  Scotland,  and  did 
indeed  establish  bishops  there.  In  1585  he 
made  a  treaty  with  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  he 
co-operated  with  the  English  against  the  Spanish 
Armada.  In  1589  he  married  the  Protestant 
Princess  Anne  of  Denmark,  thus  allying  himself 
with  the  Protestant  Powers. 

The  Gowrie  Conspiracy.  In  1600 
occurred  the  famous  Gowrie  conspiracy,  the  story 
of  which  is  that  the  young  King  was  hunting  in 
Falkland  Park  on  August  5th,  when  Alexander 
Ruthvin,  brother  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie,  met 
him,  and  induced  James,  who  was  always  in 
need  of  money,  to  go  to  Gowrie  House  by  telling 
him  that  a  Jesuit,  with  a  large  sum  of  money, 
was  a  prisoner  there.  When  James  arrived  he 
found  only  an  armed  retainer  of  the  earl,  and 
no  Jesuit.  Ruthvin  then  tried  to  kill  James 
in  revenge  for  the  execution  of  the  Earl  of 
Gowrie,  Ruthvin's  father,  in  1584.  But  the 
King  managed  to  call  to  his  aid  Sir  John  Ramsay, 
who  stabbed  Ruthvin  twice,  and  he  and  his 
brother,  the  Earl  of  Gowrie,  were  afterwards  killed 
by  two  other  followers  of  the  King.  This  story, 
however,  was,  and  still  is,  much  disputed.  Some 
said  at  the  time  that  James,  wishing  to  get  rid  of 
the  Ruthvins,  had  arranged  the  whole  affair ;  but 
it  seems  certain  that  there  was  a  conspiracy  among 
them  to  carry  off  or  kill  the  King.  It  was  said, 
also,  that  Queen  Elizabeth  was  privy  to  the  plot. 

When  James  came  to  the  throne  of  England, 
in  1603,  he  was  well  received  by  the  people  in 
general,  but  he  soon  made  himself  disliked. 
Mr.  Green  says:  "No  Sovereign  could  have 
jarred  against  the  conception  of  an  English 


ruler,  which  had  grown  up  under  the  Tudors, 
more  utterly  .  .  .  His  big  head,  his  slobber- 
ing tongue,  his  quilted  clothes,  his  goggle  eyes, 
stood  out  in  as  grotesque  a  contrast  ....  as 
his  gabble  and  rhodomontade,  his  want  of  per- 
sonal dignity,  his  coarse  buffoonery,  his  drunken- 
ness, his  pedantry,  his  contemptible  cowardice  ;" 
but  "  under  this  ridiculous  exterior  was  to  be 
found  a  man  of  much  natural  ability,  with  a  con- 
siderable fund  of  shrewdness,  mother  wit,  and 
ready  repartee." 

He  had  much  literary  ambition,  and  wrote 
various  essays  and  tracts,  one  being  the  famous 
"  Counterblast  to  Tobacco,"  a  treatise  published 
in  1604,  and  intended  to  discourage  the  practice  of 
smoking,  then  recently  introduced  into  England. 

Gunpowder  Plot.  James  was  always 
under  the  influence  of  some  favourite,  the 
best  known  being  the  Duke  of  Buckingham. 
On  them  he  lavished  titles,  offices,  peerages, 
and  emoluments  of  every  kind,  while  to 
relieve  his  own  immediate  wants  he  degraded 
the  prerogative  of  the  Crown  by  the  actual 
sale  of  titles  to  rich  and  ambitious  men.  In 
1604  the  abortive  Gunpowder  Plot  was  devised, 
its  object  being  to  spring  a  mine  under  the 
Houses  of  Parliament  on  a  day  when  the  King 
would  be  present  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
when  the  Commons  also  would  be  assembled, 
and  thus  to  annihilate  the  King,  Lords,  and 
Commons  at  one  fell  swoop.  The  plot  was 
devised  by  Robert  Catesby,  a  Catholic  of  good 
family  and  fortune,  who  had  been  fined  and  im- 
prisoned for  his  faith.  Several  other  men  of 
high  family  were  undoubtedly  concerned  in  the 
plot,  which  was  discovered  in  time  by  an  anony- 
mous letter  written  to  Lord  Mounteagle.  A 
search  was  made,  and  Guy  Fawkes  was  dis- 
covered in  some  vaults  under  the  House  01 
Lords,  which  had  apparently  been  hired  for 
some  supposed,  and  not  unlawful  purpose,  and 
in  which  the  mine  had  been  prepared  to  explode 
at  a  given  signal.  Catesby  and  some  others  fled 
on  the  discovery  of  the  plot  and  sought  refuge, 
but  were  pursued  by  soldiers  and  killed.  Guy 
Fawkes  and  some  others  were  executed  in  the 
January  of  the  following  year. 

"  The  Wisest  Fool  in  Christendom." 
The  reign  of  James  was  made  up  of  continual 
struggles  against  his  Parliaments,  and  against 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  Ho  was  an 
advocate  of  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings,  and 
though  he  often  spoke  and  wrote  in  favour  of  con- 
stitutional liberty,  he  was  in  practice  an  opponent 
of  all  such  theories.  Sully,  the  great  French 
statesman,  soldier,  and  author,  called  James 
"the  wisest  fool  in  Christendom."  Macaulay, 
in  one  of  his  flashing  epigrams,  describes  him 

4551 


HISTORY 

as  "  made  up  of  two  men — a  witty,  well-read 
scholar.    \vho   wrote,   disputed,  and    harangued, 

tirr\i>iis,  drivelling  idiot  who  acted." 
met  died  on  March  -J7th.  1<>2.~>.     His  reign 
in  almost  eveiy  sense,  unfortunate  for  his 
country  as  well  as  for  himself,  and  the  utmost 
an  do  is  to  excuse  him  because  of  his  bring- 
ing up,  because  of  the  unsuitable  position  to 
\\hii-h  his  elevation  to  the  throne  brought  him, 
;.ii,|    bei  uise    of    the    fatal    weaknesses    of   his 
int. -ileei    and   character.     He   might  have   had 
a  meiitnrious  career  if  he  had  never  been  caKed 
to  a  throne. 

Charles  I,  His  son,  Charles  I.,  was  born 
in  Scotland  on  November  19th,  1600.  In  his 
childhood  and  early  boyhood  he  was  delicate. 
however,  he  soon  outgrew,  and  became 
not  only  proficient  in  all  physical  exercises, 
I  >ut  a  scholar  of  much  distinction.  He  became 
Prince  of  Wales  in  1616,  and  negotiations 
were  soon  in  progress  for  his  marriage  with  a 
Spanish  princess,  and  it  was  for  this  reason 
that  Charles,  under  the  influence  of  his  father's 
favourite  and  his  own,  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
made  his  romantic  expedition  to  Madrid  in  the 
disguise  of  an  ordinary  traveller  to  see  for 
himself  whether  the  princess  was  likely  to  prove 
to  his  taste.  He  found  that  the  Spanish  Court 
and  the  Papal  Government  would  never  allow 
a  Spanish  princess  to  become  the  wife  of  any  but 
a  Catholic,  and  Charles  would  not  accept  these 
conditions.  We  may  assume  that  devotion  to 
IIN  own  faith  was  the  main  cause  of  this  resolve. 

<  'harles  came  back  to  England  filled  with 
bitter  resentment  against  Spain.  The  English 
people  gave  him  a  generous  welcome  when 
he  returned,  on  account  of  his  devotion  to  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation.  But  the  public 
sentiment  was  soon  changed  by  the  news  of  his 
betrothal  to  the  French  Princess,  Henrietta 
Maria,  sister  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  and  the 
discovery  that  the  marriage  articles  made  it  an 
obligation  on  h:m  to  allow  his  intended  Queen 
t  he  free  exercise  of  her  religion  and  the  care  of  any 
children  of  the  marriage  until  each  had  reached  the 
age  of  thirteen.  The  marriage,  which  was  carried 
our  MM  in  after  his  a"ccssion  to  the  throne,  was  a 
happy  one.  But  Charles  became,  as  years  went 
on,  more  and  more  dependent  on  the  counsels 
and  the  influence  of  his  wife. 

The  Duke  of  Buckingham.  He  had 
1. 1 -en  fora  long  time  under  the  influence  of  the 
'>;ike  of  Buckingham,  but  Buckingham  made  so 
ma MV  mi-takes  in  home  and  foreign  policy  that  he 
became  intolerable  to  the  English  people,  and  in 
V.iyu>t  ii:inl,  K1-2.S.  he  was  assassinated  at  Ports- 
mouth by  John  Felton.  a  dismissed  officer.  This 
act  was  partly  one  of  fanaticism  and  partly  of 
private  vengeance. 

After  the  death  of  Buckingham,  Charles  was 
'h.'ii  ever  under  the  influence  of  the  Queen 
in  hi-  public  policy,  and,  mainly  under  her  direc- 
tion. In-  tried  to  make    himself  absolute  ruler  of 
lll(l  v  D  when  in  the  conditions  of  the 

times  some  course  he  proposed  to  take  might  in 
i-tili'-l.   he   made   the   mistake  of  en- 
deav urine    to     <-arry     it     by    his    o\\n    decision 
instead  of  through  tin-  authority  of  Parliament. 

4552 


During  the  first  lour  years  of  his  reign  three 
Parliaments  were  summoned  and  dissolved. 

The  Petition  of  Right.  In  the  last  of 
these,  that  of  1628,  Cha,rles  was  compelled,  after 
a  long  struggle,  to  assent  to  the  famous  Petition 
of  Right,  demanding  four  things:  "(1)  That 
no  freeman  should  be  obliged  to  give  any 
gift,  loan,  benevolence,  or  tax  without  common 
consent  by  Act  of  Parliament.  (2)  That  no 
freeman  should  be  imprisoned  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  the  land.  (3)  That  soldiers  and  sailors 
should  not  be  billeted  in  private  houses.  (4)  That 
commissions  to  punish  soldiers  and  sailors  by 
martial  law  should  be  revoked,  and  no  more 
issued."  To  this,  Charles  at  first  replied  eva- 
sively, but  was  in  the  end  compelled  to  assent. 
Then  followed  an  interval  of  eleven  years,  during 
which  he  summoned  no  Parliament,  but  ruled 
according  to  his  own  authority,  supported  by 
subservient  Ministers,  judges,  and  courts  of  law. 

His  greatest  difficulty  was  to  get  sufficient 
money  to  maintain  his  Court  and  his  policy.  He 
allowed  himself  to  be  drawn  into  some  futile 
quarrels  with  France  and  Spain,  which  ended 
in  a  patched-up  peace,  but  cost  him  a  consider- 
able amount  of  money,  and  from  which  he  tried  to 
retrieve  himself  by  increased  taxation  at  home. 

One  of  these  taxes  was  that  of  Ship  Money, 
which  imposed  on  various  cities  and  counties 
of  England  the  obligation  of  providing  funds 
to  maintain  a  certain  number  of  ships  and 
men.  It  was  an  old  tax  which  had  been  levied 
to  maintain  a  navy  to  oppose  the  Danes,  and 
had  passed  out  of  use  for  many  generations. 
Charles  revived  it  on  his  own  authority,  and  the 
Court  of  the  North  and  the  Star  Chamber  fined 
and  imprisoned  those  who  resisted  demands  the 
legality  of  which  was  doubtful,  although  Charles 
obtained  in  1635  from  ten  of  the  judges  the 
opinion  that  the  tax  was  lawful.  It  was  met  with 
a  determined  resistance  by  John  Hampden,  a 
distinguished  patriot,  whose  trial  for  refusing  to 
pay  the  tax  began  in  1637. 

Beginning  of  the  Civil  War.  At  the 
same  time  that  this  tax  made  the  King 
unpopular  he  was  pursuing  an  ecclesiastical 
policy  which  was  contrary  to  the  feelings  of  the 
people  in  general,  and  his  attempt  to  impose  an 
English  Church  Service  on  the  Scotch  Presby- 
terians led  to  risings  in  that  country.  The 
attempted  arrest  of  the  five  members  of  Parlia- 
ment—Hollis,  Hazlerig,  Hampden,  Pym  and 
Strode — on  an  accusation  of  high  treason, 
in  January,  1642,  combined  with  these  other 
causes  to  bring  about  a  rebellion.  [See  FRONTIS- 
PIECE, Part  31.]  Charles  left  London  to  prepare 
for  war,  and  on  August  22nd  he  raised  the 
Royal  Standard  in  Nottingham,  and  thus 
the  great  Civil  War  began.  Charles  led  his 
army  in  person,  and  showed,  great  courage 
with  some  military  skill.  But  he  had  set  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  against  him  by  his  auto- 
cratic conduct ;  and  soon  there  came  into  the  field 
against  him  Oliver  Cromwell,  the  man  who  was 
destined  to  be  his  mrst  formidable  antagonist. 

(  YoMnvell,  like  Hampden.  had  sat  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  and,  although  he  had  no  gift  of 
eloquence  and  never  became  a  Parliamentary 


orator,  his  opposition  -was  powerful.  But  his 
real  gifts  came  out  when  he  entered  the  army 
and  fought  as  captain  of  a  troop  of  horse  at 
Edgehill  and  in  other  battles. 

Cromwell's  Ironsides.  Then  it  was 
that  he  organised  his  famous  Ironside  troops, 
whom  he  taught  to  combine  rigid  discipline 
and  resistless  military  force  with  strict  personal 
morality  and  with  political  enthusiasm.  At  the 
battle  of  Marston  Moor,  near  York,  on  July  2nd, 
1644,  he  opposed  Prince  Rupert,  who  com- 
manded the  right  wing  of  the  Royalist  army, 
himself  a  brilliant  and  reckless  cavalry  leader. 
Cromwell,  at  the  head  of  the  army  trained  and 
disciplined  by  himself,  won  a  complete  victory 
over  his  opponent,  and  from  this  defeat  the  cause 
of  Charles  never  really  recovered.  The  battle  of 
Naseby  (June  14th,  1645),  in  which  Charles  him- 
self took  part,  ended  in  the  hopeless  destruction 
of  his  army  and  his  cause,  and  in  less  than  a  year 
he  surrendered  to  the  Scottish  army  at  Newark, 
and  by  them  was  handed  over  to  Parliament. 
He  was  imprisoned  for  a  time,  but  escaped  ; 
was  again  made  captive,  shut  up  in  Carisbrooke 
Castle  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  finally  brought 
to  trial  at  Westminster. 

Charles  behaved  then,  as  at  many  other  periods 
of  his  eventful  reign,  with  dignity  and  courage. 
Three  times  he  refused  to  plead,  declaring  that 
the  Court  had  no  authority  or  capacity  to  try 
him.  But  such  a  declaration  was  futile  before  a 
court  that  had  been  created  for  the  distinct 
purpose  of  his  condemnation.  He  was  in  the 
hands  of  his  enemies,  whom  he  had  made  such  by 
his  arbitrary  conduct;  but  it  must  have  been 
evident  to  everybody  that  no  pleading,  and  no 
defence  which  he  could  have  made,  would  in  any 
case  have  affected  the  decision  of  his  judges. 

A  Great  Declaration  in  Parliament. 
Behind  the  Court,  and  all  the  civil  authorities,  was 
the  army  which  had  fought  against  and  conquered 
him.  The  House  of  Commons,  where  there  was 
still  a  majority  of  members,  in  favour  of  Charles, 
had  been  put  through  a  process  ever  since 
knowTi  as  "  Pride's  Purge."  Colonel  Pride, 
with  a  list  of  names  in  his  hand,  prevented 
those  known  to  be  in  favour  of  the  king  from 
entering  the  House,  and  imprisoned  any  who 
resisted  him.  One  hundred  and  forty  members 
were  forcibly  expelled,  and  it  was  then  that 
the  resolution  was  passed  to  bring  Charles  to 
trial,  and  to  nominate  the  Court.  The  House 
of  Commons,  thus  newly  constructed,  passed  a 
resolution — "  That  the  people  are,  under  God, 
the  original  of  all  just  power  ;  that  the  Commons 
of  England  in  Parliament  assembled — being 
chosen  by,  and  representing,  the  people — 
have  the  supreme  power  in  this  nation ;  and 
that  whatsoever  is  enacted  and  declared  for 
law  by  the  Commons  in  Parliament  assembled 
has  the  force  of  a  law,  and  all  people  of  this 
nation  are  concluded  therebye,  although  the 
consent  and  concurrence  of  the  King  or  House 
of  Peers  be  not  had  thereunto." 

This  declaration  foreshadowed  the  coming  of 
that  Commonwealth  which  was  for  a  time  to  set 
aside  the  monarchy.  But  it  was  not  a  Parlia- 


HISTORY 

mentary  declaration  in  the  true  sense,  and  only 
came  from  a  House  of  Commons  reduced  by 
force  to  the  necessity  of  adopting  it.  The  power 
behind  the  tribunal  which  tried  Charles  was 
not  that  of  Parliament,  but  of  the  army. 
Charles  had  committed  actions  which  no  Parlia- 
ment and  people  worthy  of  freedom  could  pos- 
sibly endure  ;  but  the  declaration  exacted  from 
the  House  of  Commons  was  in  its  meaning  a 
demand  for  the  foundation  of  a  republic,  and 
the  demand  was,  for  the  time,  soon  to  be  satisfied. 

The  Trial  and  the  End.  Charles  faced 
his  judges  with  calm  and  dignified  courage. 
It  was  one  of  the  finer  qualities  of  his 
nature  that  upon  a  really  great  occasion 
he  was  able  to  shake  off  the  hesitancy  and 
vacillation  which  he  so  often  showed  in  the 
ordinary  business  of  life  ;  and  when  he  stood 
before  the  tribunal  constituted  to  pronounce 
his  sentence  of  death  he  presented  as  picturesque 
and  dignified  a  figure  as  the  art  of  the  painter  or 
the  sculptor  could  have  reproduced.  Although 
Charles  had  denied  the  competence  of  the  Court 
and  had  refused  to  plead,  the  trial  lasted  for 
several  days,  and  numbers  of  witnesses  were 
examined  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  charges  made 
against  him.  Charles  was  found  guilty  and  was 
sentenced  to  death  as  a  tyrant,  traitor,  murderer, 
and  enemy  of  his  country.  On  January  30th, 
1649,  he  ascended  the  scaffold  which  had 
been  erected  at  Whitehall,  and  was  awaited 
there  by  two  masked  executioners.  He  bore 
himself  with  stately  and  superb  composure, 
and  one  stroke  of  the  axe  brought  his  death. 
On  February  7th,  1649,  he  was  carried  to  his 
grave  hi  Henry  VIII. 's  vault  at  Windsor. 

The  King's  Mistakes.  The  whole  story 
of  Charles's  reign  was  a  struggle  between  the 
principle  of  absolute  monarchy  and  the  principle 
of  republican  government.  Charles  committed 
many  errors  as  a  ruler  and  as  a  man,  but  he  was 
not  a  worse  sovereign  than  many  of  his  pre- 
decessors who  were  never  brought  to  trial.  He 
had  miscalculated  his  own  powrer  when  he  asserted 
himself  the  master  of  his  Parliaments,  while  he  did 
nothing  to  conciliate  the  great  mass  of  his  people. 
He  turned  against  him  an  army  which  a  more 
judicious  despot  might  have  found  means  to 
hold  for  ever  on  his  side.  He  had  the 
will  but  not  the  capacity  to  be  an  absolute 
despot.  He  allowed  himself  to  be  ruled  by 
favourites  ;  but  where  the  policy  of  the 
favourite  failed,  as  in  the  case  of  Straff ord,  he 
had  not  the  nerve  to  stand  by  him  to  the  last. 
Charles  sacrificed  Stratford— who,  whatever  his 
faults,  was  at  least  devoted  to  his  Royal  master — 
to  his  fears  of  a  popular  rising.  He  turned 
Churchmen  and  Dissenters  against  him  ;  he  made 
Scotland  and  Ireland  hostile  to  his  rule ;  he  failed 
to  appreciate  the  genius,  popularity,  and  the 
rising  power  of  Cromwell,  and  brought  upon 
himself  the  ruin  which  he  might  have  diverted 
by  displaying  a  spirit  of  fairness  and  of  justice. 

He  left  six  children  behind  him,  two  of  whom, 
Charles  and  James,  were  destined  to  succeed 
him  when  the  Commonwealth  of  Cromwell 
had  passed  out  of  existence. 


Continued 


4553 


Group  16 

FOOD  SUPPLY 
11 


continued  from  page  4455 


SUGAR  ANALYSIS  &  GLUCOSE 

The  Polariscope  and  How  to  Use  it.     Making  and  Refining:  Glucose 
or  Starch  Sugar.      Testing.    Plant  Required.      Commerce  of  Sugar 


~THK  diief  analytical  operations  required  deal 
with  the  density  of  juices  and  syrups,  the 
amount  of  sugar  in  a  given  sample  of  sugar,  the 
proportion  of  glucose,  the  moisture,  the  soluble 
and  insoluble  ash,  and  the  rendement. 

Density.  Density  is  conveniently  taken  by 
means  of  an  instrument  known  as  a  hydrometer, 
the  method  in  which  a  specific  gravity  bottle  is 
employed  being  too  lengthy  for  general  use.  The 
two  hydrometers  in  ordinary  use  are  the  Baume 
and  the  Brix,  or  Balling.  The  latter  is  preferred, 
as  the  graduations  of  the  scale  give  close  approxi- 
mations to  the  percentage  of  total  solids  present ; 
10°  Brix,  for  example,  in  a  clean  juice  indicates 
10  per  cent,  of  sugar.  The  hydrometer  is  a  long 
glass  bulb  with  a  slender  spindle  so  weighted 
with  mercury  at  the  lower  end  that  it  main- 
tains the  upright  position  when  immersed  in  a 
liquid.  The  spindle  is  graduated  and  the 
instrument  sinks  or  rises  in  the  liquid  in  relation 
to  the  density;  the  point  at  which  the  liquid 
cuts  the  spindle  being  read  off  on  the  scale  indi- 
cates the  degree. 

Principles   of   the    Polariscope.      The 
amount  of  sugar  in  raw  sugar  is  determined 
I'V    the    jxtlariscope,  the  degree  of   polarisation 
being    the    basis    upon  which  sugar    is   bought 
and   Customs   duty    levied.      A    ray    of    light 
is    capable    of    being    reflected    or 
refracted    in    any    direction  ;     but 
if  a  ray  of  light  be  placed  under 
such    conditions    as    will     restrict   «« 
it<    vibrations    to     one    particular 

direction  it  is  said  to  be  polarised,  IN  THE  *OLARISOOPB 
There  are  several  ways  by  which  light  can 
be  polarised  ;  in  the  instrument  with  which 
we  are  dealing  the  method  adopted  is  that 
of  double  refraction.  There  are  certain  sub- 
-t.inces — Iceland  spar,  for  example — which  have 
the  power  of  splitting  up  a  ray  of  light  into 
t  \\  o  others  of  equal  intensity,  the  phenomena 
being  known  as  double  refraction.  [See  PHYSICS.] 
In  acry-tal  of  l<  eland  spar  the  line  connecting  the 
points  at  which  the  three  obtuse  angles  meet 
is  the  principal  axis  ;  if  a  ray  of  lig.it  be  passed 
through  the  crystal  parallel  to  this  axis,  it  is  not 
split  up  :  if.  however,  the  position  of  the  crystal 
bo  altered,  the  cm< TL'ingray  is  found  to  be  divided 
into  t  wo.  The  degree  of  separation  depends  upon 
nult-  through  which  the  crystal  has  been 
tinned  ;  \\licn  this  angle  amounts  to  a  right 
anglr.  the  >e|,aiation  is  at  its  greatest,  and  if  the 
crvM.d  l,e  .still  further  turned  through  another 
-1"'1'  '  they  coincide  1 26|.  For  polarimetic 


riuht 


i.l-ei  vation-.  only  one  of  the  rays  is   used,   the 

other  one    being    tlirmvn    complet'ely  out    of   the 

tield  of  vieu   l.y  means  of  a  dfaftoT*  arimt.     This 

is  a  ery.vtjil  of  Iceland  spar  the  terminal  face-  ,,t' 

which   are  cut   obliquely   >o   as   to  give  the   new 

•  in  inclination   of  V,s  .     The  whole  crystal 

4.V.4 


is  then  divided  into  two  at  right  angles  to  the 
new  faces,  and  the  faces  are  then  polished  and 
cemented  together  with  Canada  balsam. 

Polariser  and  Analyser.  In  examining 
a  polarised  ray  it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of 
a  second  Nicol's  prism,  placed  in  such  a  position 
that  its  optical  axis  is  in  a  line  with  that  of  the 
first.  The  two  prisms  are  then  termed  the 
polariser  and  the  analyser.  If  an  ordinary 
ray  of  light  be  passed  through  the  polariser 
and  then  through  the  analyser,  it  is  refracted 
in  the  direction  of  an  extraordinary  ray,  and 
emerges  from  the  analyser  in  that  condition. 
If  the  plane  of  polarisation  or  analyser  be  so 
adjusted  that  it  is  at  right  angles  to  the  plane 
of  the  polariser,  no  light  will  leave  the  analyser, 
because  the  ray,  after  passing  through  the  polar- 
iser and  entering  the  analyser,  takes  the  direc- 
tion of  the  ordinary  ray,  which  is  absorbed  in 
the  case  of  the  prism.  If  the  analyser  be 
rotated  to  the  extent  of  180°,  the  same  thing 
happens  ;  at  intermediate  positions  the  field  of 
vision  becomes  more  or  less  illuminated. 

If  a  ray  of  light  be  passed  through  a  plate  of 
quartz  (cut  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
crystal)  it  is  separated  into  two  rays,  which  pro- 
ceed in  opposite  circular  directions  ;  such  a  ray 
is  said  to  be  circularly  polarised,  and  is  designated 
right-handed  or  left-handed,  as  the 
case  may  be.     If  a  plate  of  quartz 
be  displaced    between    two   Nicol's 
prisms  when  their  planes  of  polarisa- 
tion  are    at    right    angles    to    each 
other,    a  red   light    is    seen ;     the 
angle  through  which  it  is   necessary  to  rotate 
the   analyser   to   make    the    field    again    non- 
luminous     is    termed    the    angle    of    rotation. 
Of    the  several    types  of  polariscope  the  half 
shadow  instrument  is  the  one  preferred.     The 
principal  feature  of  this  type  is  the  division  of 
the   circular   field   of   vision   into   two   halves. 
When  the  vernier  is  placed  at  zero  the  two  halves 
of  the  field  are  uniform  in  shade.     If  an  obser- 
vation tube  be  filled  with  an  optically  active 
liquid  such  as  a  solution  of  sugar  and  placed 
between  the  polariser  and  analyser,  the  equili- 
brium is  destroyed,  the  result  being  that  one 
half  of  the  field  becomes  dark  and  the  other 
half  bright ;   the  analyser  is  then  turned  to  the 
right  of  the  right  half  beshaded,  or  to  the  left 
of  the  left  half  beshaded,  until  the  field  is  once 
more  of  a  uniform  shade  ;    the  rotation  is  then 
read  from  the  scale. 

Schmidt  and  Haensch's  Polariscope. 
The  form  of  polariscope  or  saccharimeter  in 
use  in  the  British  Customs  Department  and 
the  I'n i ted  States  Internal  Revenue  Bureau' 
is  that  of  Schmidt  and  Haensch,  Berlin.  This 
instrument  is  adapted  for  use  with  white  light 
illumination  from  coal  gas.  It  is  convenient 


and  easy  to  read,  requiring  no  delicate  dis- 
crimination of  colours  by  the  observer.  It  is 
adjusted  to  the  Ventzke  scale,  which  may  be 
defined  as  "  such  that  the  degree  of  the  scale 
is  one-hundredth  part  of  the  rotation  produced 
in  the  plane  of  polarisation  of  white  light  in  a 
column  200  mm.  long  ;  by  a  standard  solution 
of  chemically  pure  sucrose  at  17 '5°  C.,  the 
standard  length  of  sucrose  in  distilled  water 
being  such  as  to  contain  at  17'5°  C.  in  100  Mohr's 
c.c.  26'048  grammes  of  sucrose."  The  instrument 
should  be  adjusted  by  means  of  control  quartz 
plates,  three  different  plates  being  used  for  com- 
parative adjustments,  reading  approximately 
100,  90,  and  80  degrees  on  the  scale,  respectively. 

A  Description  of  the  Polariscope. 
The  illustration  [27]  shows  the  latest  form  of 
this  polariscope.  The  tube  B  contains  the  illu- 
minating system  of  lenses  ;  the  polarising  prism 
is  at  P,  and  the  analysing  prism  at  G.  F  carries 
a  small  telescope  through  which  the  field  of 
the  instrument  is 
viewed,  and  just 
above  is  the  read- 
ing tube  M,  which 
is  provided  with  a 
mirror  and  magni- 
fying lens  for  read- 
ing the  scale.  The 
tube  containing  the 
sugar  solution  is 
marked  R.  To  use 
the  instrument  the 
operator  seats  him- 
self with  his  eye 
level  with  the  tube 
F,  which  tube  is 
moved  in  and  out 
until  the  proper 
focus  is  secured  so 

as  to  give  a  clearly  defined  image,  wThen  the  field 
of  the  instrument  will  appear  as  a  red  luminous 
disc,  divided  into  two  halves  by  a  vertical  line 
passing  through  the  centre,  and  darker  on  one 
half  of  the  disc  than  on  the  other.  If,  now,  the 
milled  head  A  be  rotated  first  one  way  and  then 
the  other,  the  appearance  of  the  field  changes, 
and  at  a  certain  point  the  dark  half  becomes 
light  and  the  light  half  dark.  By  rotating 
the  milled  head  delicately  backwards  and  for- 
wards over  this  point,  the  exact  position  when 
the  field  is  neutral  or  of  the  same  intensity  of 
light  in  both  halves  can  be  found.  When  the 
milled  head  is  set  at  the  point  which  gives  the 
appearance  of  the  centre  disc  in  figure  the 
eye  of  the  observer  is  raised  to  the  reading  tube 
M  and  the  position  on  the  scale  noted.  On  each 
side  of  the  zero  line  of  the  vernier  a  space 
corresponding  to  nine  divisions  of  the  movable 
scale  is  divided  into  ten  equal  paits  enabling 
fractional  parts  of  a  degree  to  be  indicated. 

Method  of  Manipulation.  Begin  by 
weighing  out  26 '048  grammes  of  sugar,  dissolving 
it,  clarifying  the  solution,  making  it  up  to 
standard  volume  (100  c.c.),  and  filtering  and 
filling  the  observation  tube,  regulating  the 
illumination  and  making  the  polariscope  reading. 
The  sugar  is  conveniently  weighed  in  a  counter- 


27.    SCHMIDT    AND    HAENSCIl's    POLARISCOPE 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

poised  nickel  or  German  silver  flask  with  a  large 
lip,  whence  it  is  readily  washed  into  the  flask. 
The  solution,  before  being  filled  up  to  the  ir  ark, 
is  clarified  by  the  addition  of  lead  subacetate 
or  phospho-tungstic  acid  until  no  further 
precipitate  takes  place.  Filtration  and  clarifi- 
cation may  often  be  made  easier  by  adding  a 
few  drops  of  suspended  aluminic  hydrate  after 
the  lead.  The  flask  is  filled  with  pure  water 
until  the  lower  line  of  the  meniscus  coincides 
with  the  mark  on  the  neck.  The  mouth  of  the 
flask  is  closed  and  its  contents  well  shaken 
and  poured  on  to  a  folded  filter ;  the  first  few 
cubic  centimetres  of  the  filtrate  are  rejected. 
The  subsequent  filtrate,  if  not  perfectly  clear, 
is  returned  to  the  filter  until  it  shows  no  cloudi- 
ness. The  polariscope  tube  is  then  filled  and 
placed  in  the  polariscope,  the  scale  of  which, 
after  neutralising  the  rotation  produced  by 
the  sugar  by  turning  the  analytical  prism  of 
moving  the  quartz  wedge,  will  give  the  percent  - 
age  of  sucrose  in 
the  sample  taken. 
A  dark  solution  may 
either  be  read  in  a 
100  mm.  tube  or 
decolorised  by  bone 
black.  A  weak  solu- 
tion may"  be  read  in 
a  longer  tube. 

Estimation  of 
Glucose.  The 
reagent  required  for 
estimating  reducing 
sugar  is  known  as 
Fehling's  solution. 
Take  34 '64  grammes 
of  pure  crystallised 
sulphate  of  copper, 
and  dissolve  it  in 

200  c.c.  of  distilled  water.  Also  take  187 
grammes  of  tartrate  of  soda  and  potash  and  78 
grammes  of  caustic  soda,  and  dissolve  in  500  c.c. 
of  distilled  water.  Add  the  copper  solution  to 
the  second  solution,  and  make  up  to  1,000  c.c. 
with  distilled  water.  The  copper  in  10  c.c. 
of  this  solution  is  completely  reduced  by 
0'05  gramme  of  glucose,  which  is  shown  by 
the  blue  copper  "solution  turning  red  and 
throwing  down  a  precipitate  of  red  copper 
oxide.  To  make  the  estimation,  place  10  c.c.  of 
the  Fehling  solution  in  a  flask  over  a  Bunsen 
burner,  and  make  it  boil.  Then  from  a  graduated 
tube  (burette)  run  in  a  few  cubic  centimetres 
of  the  sugar  solution,  again  boil,  and  note  if  any 
blue  colour  remain  in  the  liquid.  If  there  be 
still  some  blue  liquid  over  the  red  precipitate, 
run  in  more  sugar  solution  until  all  the  blue 
colour  has  disappeared.  From  the  number  of 
cubic  centimetres  of  sugar  solution  required, 
the  amount  of  glucose  is  determined  by  calcu- 
lation. The  best  results  are  obtained  when  not 
less  than  10  c.c.  or  more  than  50  c.c.  of  sugar 
solution  are  needed  for  100  c.c.  of  Fehling 
solution,  and  after  making  a  rough  estimation 
the  strength  of  the  solution  is  adjusted  to 
conform  with  these  requirements.  The  strength 
of  the  copper  solution  can  be  checked  or 

45.15 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

Urdised  l>y  comparing  it  with  a  solution 
of  pure  invert  sugar,  prepared  by  heating  cane 
sugar  solution,  \\ith  ;i  few  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid  to  invert  it. 

Moisture.  Weigh  from  two  to  five  grammes 
of  the  sugar  into  a  Hat-bottomed  nickel  or  plati- 
num dish,  and  dry  at  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  for 
three  1  jo iii-s.  Cool  in  a  desiccator  and  weigh  ; 
return  to  the  oven  and  dry  for  an  hour.  If,  on 
iiing.  there  be  only  a  slight  change  in  weight, 
the  process  may  be  considered  finished ;  other - 
w  i.-e  the  drying  must  be  continued  until  the 
loss  of  water  in  one  hour  is  not  greater  than 
'  0-20  per  cent.  From  the  quantity  of  loss  of 
weight  of  the  sample  taken  the  amount  of 
moisture  or  water  is  calculated. 

Ash.  Take  five  or  ten  grammes  of  sugar  in  a 
platinum  dish,  heat  at  100°  C.  until  the  water  is 
expelled,  to  allow  the  action  to  take  place 
slowly,  and  finally  heat  in  a  muffle  to  low  redness. 
Then,  by  weighing  the  ash  that  is  left,  the  per- 
centage of  ash  in  the  sample  is  obtained.  The 
quantity  of  soluble  ash  is  estimated  by  digesting 
the  ash  with  water  filtering  through  a  Gooch 
crucible,  washing  with  hot  water,  drying  the 
residue  at  100°  C.,  and  weighing.  The  difference 
in  weight  from  the  above  determination  equals 
the  soluble  ash. 

Rendement.  Rendement  is  the  French  term 
for  the  net  amount  of  sugar  in  a  given  sample  of 
raw  sugar.  It  is  deduced  from  the  fact  that  each 
1  per  cent,  of  ash  in  the  raw  sugar  prevents 
5  per  cent,  of  sugar  from  crystallising,  and  each 
1  per  cent,  of  glucose  causes  an  equal  amount  of 
sugar  to  be  retained  in  the  molasses.  Hence, 
from  the  amount  of  sucrose  shown  by  the 
polarimeter  deduct  five  times  the  weight  of  ash 
plus  the  weight  of  the  glucose  present,  and  the 
refining  value,  or  rendement,  is  obtained.  For 
instance,  a  sample  of  sugar  polarised  93  per  cent., 
the  glucose  was  2  per  cent,  and  the  ash  1  per 
cent,,  93  -  (1  x  5  +  2)  =  86  per  cent,  of 
available  sugar. 

Sugar  of  MilK.  The  source  of  sugar  of 
milk  is  the  \\hey  from  cheese  factories  or  the 
-kirn  milk  from  creameries.  As  separated  from 
milk,  it  is  a  white  crystalline  mass  which  appears 
in  ••  mimcrce  in  thick  stieks.  Switzerland  for 
many  years  controlled  the  milk  sugar  industry 
and  supplied  the  markets  of  the  world,  although 
small  quantities  were  maie  in  other  countries— 
for  example.  ( Jermany.  Between  1880  and  1890 
the  manufacture  uas  taken  up  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  industry  grew  so  that  by  lS!»r> 
some  milk  sugar  was  exported  to  Great  Britain 
and  Germany.  Enormous  quantises  are  now 
made,  one  factory  in  Illinois  turning  out  16  to 
18  barrels  (±r»  lb.  each)  a  day.  The  Swiss  proeex 
of  manufactutv  on  a  large  scale  is  to  evaporate 
60,000  I  it  iv,  ot  uhi-y  to  dryness,  a  residue  of 
about  i/jr,o  kil..~  i,(.jMg  obtained.  This  is  dis- 

>olved  m  Wat, -i  at  •;.-,  C.  in  ;,  copprr  pan.  -1  kilo 
to  I  kilo  of  ..him  added,  the  solution  filtered 
through  animal  eharcoal.  boiled  down  to  a  svrup. 
.md  allowed  to  crystallise  „„  (.()|.(ls  or  sticks. 
It  i>  purified  b\  iccryst.illiHn-  and  repeated 
pr,-(  ipltation  by  alcohol.  The  best  grades 
Bed  in  fund  and  phaniia.-v.  The  mi-tlmd- 

4066 


of  evaporating  the  whey  vary  from  open  boiling 
pans  to  expensive  vacuum  boilers  such  as  are 
used  in  cane  sugar  making.  Filter  presses  like 
those  described  in  the  article  dealing  with  beet 
sugar  making  are  also  employed. 

That  maker  whose  process  of  making  milk 
powder  consists  in  allowing  milk  to  trickle  on 
huge  metal  drums  heated  from  the  interior  pre- 
pares milk  sugar  from  it  by  simple  solution  in 
water.  The  casein  of  the  milk,  which  is  the  other 
chief  constituent  of  milk,  is  rendered  insoluble 
by  the  heat,  and  is  left  behind  when  using  water 
for  extracting  the  sugar. 

Ramage's  method  consists  in  evaporating 
slightly  alkaline  whey  to  half  its  bulk,  adding  an 
acid  to  remove  the  casein,  and  then,  after  further 
concentrating,  precipitating  the  milk  sugar  by 
adding  methyl  alcohol. 

In  Kennedy's  process  the  milk  is  concentrated 
to  between  11°  and  27°  Baume,  and  the  product 
chilled  to  32°  F.  until  the  sugar  crystallises. 
The  crystals  are  removed  by  submitting  the 
liquid  to  centrifugal  action,  and  washing  with 
cold  alkaline  water. 

Glucose,  or  Starch  Sugar.  Enormous 
quantities  of  glucose  are  manufactured  and 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  confectionery,  jams, 
beer,  golden  syrup,  and  for  other  purposes  in  the 
industries.  Allegations  have  been  made  as  to 
the  wholesomeness  of  glucose  as  an  addition  to 
articles  of  food.  'The  matter  was  investigated  by 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Washington, 
and  the  committee  of  chemists  who  examined  the 
conditions  of  the  industry  reported  that,  provided 
no  objectionable  substance  were  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  glucose,  the  product  was  quite 
wholesome  and  unobjectionable.  It  Avas  the  use 
of  sulphuric  acid  contaminated  with  arsenic 
for  converting  starch  into  glucose  that  caused 
the  remarkable  "arsenic  in  beer"  scare  of  1904. 
The  use  of  glucose  as  a  preservative  of  jams,  in 
the  sense  that  it  prevents  the  crystallisation  of 
the  cane  sugar,  seems  a  legitimate  use  of  the 
substance,  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that, 
as  glucose  is  cheaper  than  cane  sugar,  it  is  not 
inconceivable  that  cases  may  arise  in  which  an 
illegitimate  profit  may  result,  to  the  prejudice  of 
the  consumer. 

The  starch  used  is  extracted  from  maize, 
potato  starch,  sago  and  rice  starch,  and  is  con- 
verted into  glucose  by  heating  it  under  pressure 
with  weak  acid.  This  process  being  complete 
the  acid  is  neutralised,  and  the  product  filtered 
and  evaporated  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
employed  in  refining  sugar. 

Manbre's  Process.  In  Manbre's  process 
place  in  a  converter  56  lb.  of  sulphuric  acid 
of  a  density  of  66°  Baume,  add  560  gallons 
of  water,  and  heat  to  212°  F.  Into  a  wooden 
vat  provided  with  steam  pipe  and  stirring 
apparatus  place  560  gallons  of  water  and 
56  lb.  of  sulphuric  acid,  heat  to  85°  F.,  and 
add  one  ton  of  starch.  Mix  well,  and  raise 
the  heat  to  100°  F.  ;  then  pour  the  diluted 
starch  into  the  converter  containing  the  boil- 
ing diluted  sulphuric  acid  and  blow  in  steam 
to  raise  the  temperature  to  320°  F.,  equivalent 
to  a  pressure  of  six  atmospheres.  When  this 


temperature  is  attained,  open  the  cock  of  the 
distilling  pipe  and  let  the  steam  escape,  when 
it  will  carry  the  volatile  matters  out  of  the 
converter  with  it.  Test  the  mixture  with  iodine 
to  find  out  whether  all  the  starch  be  converted, 
no  blue  colour  being  obtained  when  this  result 
is  attained,  and  also  with  silicate  of  potash  and 
lead  acetate  for  absence  of  dextrine,  no  turbidity 
being  given  in  the  absence  of  dextrine.  It  takes 
two  to  four  hours  for  conversion.  Run  the 
liquor  into  the  neutraliser,  and  add  lime  to  com- 
bine with  the  acid,  and  pass  in  carbonic  acid 
gas  to  precipitate  the  remaining  lime.  Filter  the 
liquor,  and  evaporate  to  20°  Baume.  Clarify 
in  a  blow-up  pan  with  charcoal,  again  filter,  and 
evaporate  to  28°  Baume  for  glucose  syrup,  or 
38°  Baume  for  hard  glucose.  This  process  is  still 
followed  in  some  factories  ;  but  the  modern 
practice,  as  used  in  the  United  States,  was  the 
subject  of  a  paper  before  the  Institute  of 
Brewing  by  Messrs.  G.  W.  Rolfe  and  G.  Defreu, 
from  which  the  following  particulars  are  taken. 

Glucose  Manufacture  in  the  United 
States.  Maize  is  placed  in  steeptubs  capable 
of  holding  2,000  bushels  or  more.  Water  at 
150°  F.  is  added  and  the  steep  allowed  to  cool 
to  90°  F.  Sulphurous  acid  is  added  to  prevent 
putrefaction  and  to  assist  softening,  and  the 
steeping  is  continued  for  from  three  to  five 
days.  The  separation  of  starch  is  brought 
about  by  grinding  the  wet  grain  mixed  with 
water,  separating  the  starch  grains  from  the 
woody  pulp  and  germ  by  washing  through 
rapidly  shaken  sieves  of  bolting  cloth,  and 
settling  out  the  starch  from  the  gluten  by 
subsidence  while  passing  over  gently  inclined 
runs,  called  "  tables,"  resembling  a  bowling 
alley.  In  many  factories  the  germ  is  removed 
separately  by  a  special  process. 

The  starch  collected  on  the  runs,  and  con- 
taining about  50  per  cent,  of  water,  is  mixed 
with  water  to  a  thick  cream  of  20°  Baume,  and 
then  converted  with  hydrochloric  acid  in  large 
copper  boilers  at  a  steam  pressure  of  about  30  Ib. 
The  amount  of  acid  used  is  about  O'OOOG  of  the 
weight  of  the  starch.  In  some  factories  sulphuric 
acid  is  used,  and  seems  to  be  advantageous,  in 
the  manufacture  of  candy  goods.  Oxalic 
acid  and  hydrofluoric  acid  are  also  some- 
times employed.  The  point  of  conversion  is 
controlled  by  the  disappearance  of  the  dextrine 
precipitate  when  the  liquid  is  poured  into  alcohol. 
In  making  syrup  glucose,  the  acid  is  mixed  with 
about  fifty  times  its  bulk  of  water,  and  run  into 
the  converter.  Steam  is  then  turned  on,  and 
pressure  maintained  at  30  Ib.  while  the  starch- 
milk  is  being  pumped  into  the  boiler,  which 
takes  about  half  an  hour,  and  the  heating  is 
continued  after  this  for  40  minutes  or  more. 
The  degree  of  conversion  is,  in  this  case,  entirely 
controlled  by  the  iodine  test.  As  soon  as  the 
conversion  is  complete  the  liquid  is  blown  out 
into  the  neutraliser,  where  sodium  carbonate 
is  added.  The  neutralisation  is  a  process 
of  great  delicacy,  as  any  excess  of  acid  or  alkali 
will  seriously  affect  the  refining  operations 
which  follow.  Properly  neutralised  liquor  should 
fchow  only  the  acidity  caused  by  carbon  dioxide 


FOOD   SUPPLY 

or  the  weakest  vegetable  acids.  It  is  of  a  clear, 
bright  amber  colour,  and  contains  large  floccu- 
lent  masses  of  coagulated  gluten,  which,  in  a  test- 
tube,  form  a  layer  of  about  half  an  inch  thick. 
When  the  proper  point  of  neutralisation  is 
attained,  this  layer  is  greenish-drab,  owing  to  the 
precipitated  iron. 

Refining  Glucose.  The  refining  process 
is,  in  general,  similar  to  that  of  sugar.  Glucose 
liquors  are,  as  a  rule,  put  twice  over  bone  black 
(free  from  ammonia  or  caustic  lime)  first  at  their 
original  concentration  of  about  18°  Baume,  and 
again  after  concentration  to  28°  to  30°  Baume, 
the  denser  syrup  going  over  fresh  black.  The 
revivifying  of  the  bone  black  is  carried  out  on 
lines  similar  to  those  of  sugar.  The  heavy  liquor 
goes  direct  from  the  filters  to  the  vacuum  pan 
in  most  modern  factories,  and  in  this  final  con- 
centration sulphites  are  added  in  amounts 
varying  from  0*008  to  0*050  per  cent,  of  sul- 
phurous acid.  The  function  of  these  sulphites  is 
to  prevent  oxidation  and  consequent  coloration 
due  to  the  formation  of  caramel-like  bodies,  to 
bleach  ferric  salts  as  a  prevention  of  fermentation 
of  low,  concentrated  products,  and  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  oxidation  of  candy  goods  in  the  candy 
kettle.  Confectioners'  goods  are  more  heavily 
"  doped  "  than  others. 

In  refining  grape-sugar  liquors,  the  concen- 
trated syrups  are  drawn  off  into  pans  or  barrels, 
and  allowed  to  solidify,  a  seed  of  crystallised 
sugar  being  often  added  to  facilitate  crystallisa- 
tion. 

Anhydrous  grape-sugar  is  made  in  a  similar 
way  to  the  syrup,  which  is  refined  at  lower 
concentrations  throughout  the  process  in  order 
to  obtain  a  purer  product.  When  crystallisation 
is  complete,  which  takes  about  three  days,  the 
sugar  is  purged  in  centrifugals.  Glucose  syrups 
are  made  of  six  concentrations — 39°,  41°,  42°, 
43°,  44°,  and  45°  Baume.  Mixing  goods  are 
generally  finished  up  to  39°  or  41°  Baume, 
the  latter  being  the  grade  usually  sold  to  brewers. 
The  higher  concentrated  products  are  used  by 
confectioners  and  are  characterised  by  a  greater 
perfection  of  refining  and  a  large  amount  of 
sulphites.  They  are  frequently  "  whitened " 
with  a  little  methyl  violet. 

Testing  Glucose.  A  well-refined  glucose 
is  practically  colourless  and  clear.  If  a  whito 
glass  cylinder  be  filled  with  glucose,  its  colour, 
as  well  as  any  turbidity,  may  be  seen.  If  the 
colour  be  a  pure  white  the  sample  is  dyed,  as  can 
be  proved  by  exposing  to  the  light  for  a  few 
days,  when  the  darkening  which  all  glucoses 
undergo  disturbs  the  colour  balance,  and  the 
presence  of  dye  is  made  more  evident.  If  no 
dye  be  present  the  glucose,  unless  quite  turbid, 
will  show  some  colour,  usually  green  or  yellow. 
These  tints  are  almost  invariably  present,  and 
seem  to  be  caused  by  traces  of  iron  salts  and 
vegetable  colouring  matters.  They  are  of  littb 
consequence,  except  as  indicators  of  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  refining  and  the  removal  of  albu- 
minoids and  oil,  which  affect  the  colour  of  the 
product.  As  to  turbidity,  cloudiness  caused  by 
faulty  conversion,  separation  of  dextrins,  or  sugar, 
is  of  rare  occurrence.  A  smoky  appearance  is 

4557 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

often  caused  l.y  bone-blat  k  rust.  or.  in  some 
.  b\  in.n  sulphide  when  a  large  quantity 
of  ne\v  'I. lack  i-  u.- ed  in  refining  Those,  of 
course,  an-  the  results  of  improper  preparation 
i,f  the  l.lai-U.  White  doudiiK-ss  is  caused  either 
l,\  calcium  salts  or  by  organic  growth  due  to 
fermentation.  'I'll.-  valuation  of  solid  starch 
|.ra.-tically  based  on  their  dextrose 
content  Whiteness,  of  h-.tr  years,  seems  to  be 
moiv  of  a  desideratum  than  formerly;  hence 
the  practice  of  dyeing  is  becoming  common. 
The  principal  mineral  impurity  is  iron,  which, 
houever.  is  rarely  present  in  more  than  traces. 
A  delicate  test  for  it  is  cochineal.  Sulphites 
must  be  first  removed  and  the  solution  made 
neutral  or  faintly  alkaline.  If  iron  be  present 
the  crimson  of  the  cochineal  gradually  passes 
lolet.  For  some  purposes  glucose  is  tinted 
with  caramel  to  make  it  resemble  cane  sugar. 

Glucose  Manufacturing  Plant.  We 
now  describe  the  plant  used  for  making  glucose. 
Two  open  converters  for  receiving  the  starch 
liquor  from  the  settling  tanks,  or  two  wooden 
vessels,  should  measure  5  ft.  9  in.  in  diameter, 
8  ft.  9  in.  deep,  be  secured  by  bands  on  the 
outside,  be  lined  with  thin  sheet  copper,  and 
be  provided  with  a  copper  heating  coil  and 
agitator. 

The  closed  converters  consist  of  two  copper 
cylinders  T>  ft.  in  diameter  and  12  ft.  deep, 
with  closed  ends  i  in.  thick  and  shell  |  in. 
thick,  with  the  necessary  inlets  and  outlets  for 
liquor  and  steam  and  condensation,  and  copper 
coil,  also  the  safety  valve  and  pressure  gauge. 

The  bag  filters  should  be  of  the  Taylor 
type,  and  have  a  capacity  of  filtering  10,000 
gallons  in  10  hours. 

The  animal  char  department  should  consist 
of  four  cast-iron  filters  4  ft.  in  diameter  and 
18  ft,  long,  in  three  or  four  lengths,  and 
have  the  necessary  inlets  for  different  liquors. 
\\asli\\ater  and  steam,  also  the  liquor  outlets. 

The  revivifying  kilns  should  consist  of  14-pipe 
kilns  with  a  capacity  for  revivifying  10,000  Ib. 
of  bone  black  per  day  of  24  hours. 

Klevators  are  necessary  for  conveying  the 
char  from  the  kiln  to  the  receiving  tank,  which 
will  supply  the  four  char  filters. 

Concentrating  plant  should  be  the  triple 
\  pe.  the  vacuum  pan  to  be  a  copper  pan 
.">ft.  (i  in.  in  diameter  with  .">  ft.  depth  of  curb, 
incline  lM>ttom,  dome,  overflow  and  condenser. 
arranged  to  work  on  the  dry  system  :  the  heating 
e  of  the  pan  to  consist  of  three  2i  in. 
Heamless  copper  coils  held  in  position  by  brace- 
thoroughly  bolted  within  the  pan.  All  bolts 
\\ithin  the  pan  to  be  of  Munt/  metal;  the 
I'ottom  of  the  pan  to  have  four  lu.L's  so  as  to 
ie-t  upon  (he  beams  of  the  building. 

Complete  Plant  for  Making  Glucose. 
The  illustration  |28]  is  a  sectional  elevation 
of  a  factory  d.-eribi-il  by  \Y.  T.  .lebb.  1  Ju Halo. 

Y..rk  (jo'.u  of  iss-j).     A  shows  rteeping 

v.it.   ,/    discharge  >pout>.    A1   disintegrating    or 

•  Tii-hiiii:   milk  ag  rota,   \   another 

>«-t  of  airitatiiii.'  rate,   I',   separating   machine. 

''     shaking  receiving      hopper     or     re- 

'•••ptaele.     '  -,,,      foi      coarse     oll'al.      15' 

l.V.s 


settling  vats,  I'.-'  agitating  vats.  (.'  tables  or 
runs  where  the  staivh  is  deposited,  C1  mixing 
tub,  C2  another  set  of  starch  tables  or  runs, 
(<;  tub  for  grading  starch,  C4  draining  box, 
( '  dry  kiln,  C"  refuse  cistern,  D  closed  converter, 
d  perforated  steam  coil,  rf1  pipe  for  admitting 
steam,  d*  valve,  rf;i  steam  outlet  pipe,  d4  pipe 
for  conveying  liquid  to  converter,  &>  valve, 
dG  and  d~  test  cocks,  ds  pipe,  d9  steam  pipe, 


dw  valve,  dn   blow-off  pipe,   diz  and  d13  steam 

pipes,   du   and  <715   globe    v 

d17  steam    gauge,   d*>   pipe,    E  *  blow-off    tank, 


valve,    dw   manhole, 


e  vent  pipe,  F  tank  or  vat,  f1  pipe  to  G  neutral- 
ising tank,  H  neutralising  tank,  I  settling  tank, 
J  bleaching  tanks,  k  furnace,  K  pump,  kl  pipes, 
k2  cooling  vessel,  k3  washing  vessel,  L  receiver, 
M  filters,  M1  bag  filters,  N  receiving  tank,  N1 
bone  black  filter,  N2  conveyer,  N3  hopper, 
N4  shaking  sieves,  N6  box  receiver,  N6  spout, 
N7  steam  tank,  O  tank,  O1  vacuum  pan,  O- 
receiving  tank,  P  press  filters,  P1  bag  filters, 
Q  cooling  apparatus,  q  pans  or  moulds  in  which 
the  glucose  hardens,  R  cutting  machine, 
S  drying  chamber,  S1  suction  fan,  T  horizontal 
rollers,  U  centrifugal  machine,  Ul  disintegrating 
machine,  V  drying  apparatus,  v  steam  jacket, 
vl  rollers,  v2  steam  supply  pipe,  v3  rotating  pipe, 
v*  branches,  i£  space  between  walls  of  steam 
jacket,  tfi  hollow  head,  v~  openings,  f8  tubes, 
v9  steam  pipes,  vw  condensed  steam  discharge, 
v11  strips  or  buckets,  vn  cylinder  casing, 
?;13  inlet  openings,  vu  suction  fan,  v1-''  hood 
terminating  in  tube,  v16,  connected  with  chess- 
hopper,  v11  tube,  v18,  v19  and  v20  hoppers,  v-1 
feed  roller,  W  disintegrating  mill,  X  storage  bins. 

The  Bounty  System.  It  has  been  the 
practice  of  European  countries  to  give  bounties 
to  the  manufacturers  of  beet  sugar  on  all  sugar 
exported,  the  idea  being  to  stimulate  the  industry 
in  the  countries  where  bounties  were  given. 
This  policy  had  the  effect  of  making  sugar  for 
local  sale  more  expensive,  and  of  depriving  the 
people  of  a  nutritious  food.  Sugar  refiners  also 
felt  the  effects  very  severely,  and  the  West 
Indian  cane  sugar  industry  was  affected.  Thin, 
and  countervailing  duties  on  sugar  imported 
into  India,  brought  matters  to  a  head,  and  a 
conference  was  called  in  1898,  which  ended  in 
the  International  Convention,  which  has  for 
its  object  the  equalising  of  the  conditions  of 
competition  between  beet  and  cane  sugar,  and 
the  promoting  of  the  consumption  of  sugar. 

The  Sugar  Duty.  The  Finance  Act, 
1901,  imposed  an  import  duty  on  sugar  and 
sugar-containing  articles  as  from  April  19th, 
1901.  The  following  are  the  chief  rates  :  sugar 
of  a  polarisation  exceeding  98  deg.,  4s.  2d.  per 
cwt.  ;  sugar  of  a  polarisation  not  exceeding 
76  deg.,  2s.  per  cwt.  The  intermediate  duties 
are  calculated  from  these  charges.  Molasses  and 
invert  sugar,  if  containing  70  per  cent,  or  more 
of  sweetening  matter,  2s.  9d.  per  cwt.  ;  if  con- 
taining less  than  70  per  cent,  and  more  than 
"iO  per  cent.,  2s.  per  ewt.  ;  not  more  than  50 
per  cent..  Is.  per  cwt.  ;  glucose,  solid,  2s.  9d. 
per  cwt.  :  ohicose.  liquid.  2s.  per  cwt.  The 
imposition  of  sii'^ar  duty  involves  also  duty  on 
blaekin-.  candied  peel.'  caramel,  cattle  foods 


FOOD     SUPPLY 


28.    COMPLETE    PLANT   FOR    MAKING    GLUCOSE 


containing  molasses,  cherries,  chutney,  sugared 
coconut,  confectionery,  crystallised  flowers, 
canned  or  bottled  fruit  containing  syrup,  pre- 
served ginger,  marmalades,  jams,  sweetened 
spirits,  marzipan,  condensed  milk,  Nestle's  milk 
food,  soy,  and  tamarinds. 

Effect  on  Price  of  Sugar.  The  effect 
of  the  Convention  and  Sugar  Duty,  com- 
bined with  a  shortage  in  the  Continental  beet 
sugar  harvest,  has  been  to  raise  the  price  of 
sugar  in  Great  Britain,  and  to  affect  businesses 
which  depend  largely  upon  cheap  sugar.  The 
following  table  from  De  Silva's  circular  shows 
the  fluctuation  in  the  average  "  spot "  price 
of  sugar  for  the  last  three  years  : 


— 

1903. 

1904. 

1C05. 

s.  d. 

B.  d. 

s.   d. 

Java  D.S.,  15,  f.l.  terms    .  .     .  . 

8    4 

9    7| 

10  Hi 

Pernams,  87°  polarisation 
German  beet,  basis  88  per  cent., 

6  10} 

8    li 

9    2* 

prompt,  f.o.b.,  Hamburg 
First  marks  granulated 

6    7i 
8    1} 

8    2£     10    0 
9    9     |  11    9J 

It  will  probably  need  further  statistics  to  prove 
whether  the  rise  in  price  is  due  more  to  shortage 
of  crops  and  more  local  consumption  than  to 
duties,  but  meanwhile  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  amount  of  sugar  consumed  in  Conti- 
nental countries  has  much  increased. 

Sugar  Weights  and  Marks.  On  the 
London  market,  refined  sugar  contracts  are  made 
in  the  form  laid  down  by  the  Refined  Sugar 
Association.  The  contract  embodies  the  con- 


ditions of  the  Association  as  to  weight,  delivery, 
and  payment.  The  cwt.  is  taken  as  equivalent 
to  50f  kilos,  and  bags,  when  used,  must  be  new, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  850  grammes  before 
filling.  There  are  separate  conditions  for  Dutch, 
French,  German,  Austrian,  and  Belgian  sugars. 
French  cube  sugar  comes  in  cwt.  cases,  and 
Dutch  crushed  sugar  in  barrels  of  about  2  cwt. 

First  Marks.  German  Granulated  Sugar. 
These  are,  Bonart,  C.F.,  C.R.M.,  D.V.,  E.C.H., 
F.M.S.,  G.D.,  Glauzig,  Groaningen,  Grasso,  Hansa 
J.B.R.,  J.H.,  J.H.B.M.,  O.F.,  R.A.C.L.,  R.A.V., 
S.P.R.,  Star,  Z.H.,  Z.A.,  Z.A.F.,  Z.R.B.,  Z.R.D., 
Z.R.M. 

German  Cubes.  Hansa,  C.Z.F.,  A.S.P.,  S.P.R., 
F.K.L.,  T.T.D.,  A.C.L.,  S.Z.G.,  Z.R.D.,  F.M.S., 
R.A.V.,  Meyer,  X.L.R. 

German  Cut-loaf  and  Loaves.     C.Z.F.,  A.C.L., 

German  Crystals.  A.S.P.,  S.Z.G.,  E.  A.R.,  A.Z., 
R.F.,  S.P. 

German  Castor  Sugar.  Skene,  A.S.P.,  G.S., 
X.L.R. 

French   Granulated.     Lebaudy,   R.P.,   A.T. 

French  Cubes.     Lebaudy,  E.S.,  R.P.,  Say. 

Dutch  Cubes.     A.S.R.,  S.  &  T.,  W.S.R. 

Dutch  Cut-loaf  and  Loaves.     A.S.R. 

Dutch  Crushed  Sugar.    A.S.R.,  S.  &T.,  W.S.R. 

Dutch  Crystals.     W.S.R. 

Belgian  Cubes.     R.T.,  R.B.,  Super. 

Belgian  Cut-loaf  and  Loaves.     M.F. 

Belgian  Crushed  Sugar.     R.B.  Super. 

Austrian  Cubes.     C.Z.F.,  T.T.V.,  T.T.D. 

Austrian  Crushed  Sugar.     T.T.V.,  T.T.D.,  E.S. 


SUGAR  concluded ;  followed  by  CONDIMENTS 


4559 


Group  24 

PHYSICS 
32 


.1  (i.,ii, 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   MATTER 

The  Science  of  Crystallography.     Its  Value  in  Industry.    The  Molecular 
Structure  of  Metals.     The  Physics  of  the  Stars.     The  Problem  of  Solution 


By   Dr.   C.   W.   SALEEBY 


QF 


the  manv  neu   -ul>jects  to  which  reference 

has  lately  been  made  we  must  choose  only 
tho>e  \\  hieh  are  of  wide  interest,  or,  rather,  those 
which  we  can  already  recognise  as  being  of  wide 
interest.  The  scope  of  our  course  will  have  been 
very  wide,  but  the  reader  must  not  imagine  th -i! 
it  has  been  possible  for  us  to  keep  pace  with 
\\hat  one  of  its  most  distinguished  workers, 
M,-.  \Vhetham,  calls  "the  recent  development 
of  physical  science."  We  cannot,  for  instance, 
discuss  the  newest  work  which  has  been  done 
by  Sir  James  Dewar  and  his  followers  in  the 
liquefaction  of  gases,  a  process  which  has  been 
successfully  accomplished  with  every  known 
gas,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  helium.  Sir 
.I  itiirs  Dewar,  however,  has  lately  been  able  to 
return  to  active  work,  and  we  may  hope  that  he 
will  at  last  conquer  even  this  gas. 

The  Study  of  Crystals.  We  may  briefly 
refer  to.  another  very  important  study  which 
is  also  concerned  with  our  conception  of  the 
three  states  of  matter.  This  is  the  study  of 
>olidification  and  crystallisation.  We  can  merely 
direct  the  reader's  attention  to  the  subject  on 
three  distinct  grounds. 

First,  we  must  recognise  that  the  study  of 
crystaU  will  help  us  to  understand  the  mole- 
cular structure  of  matter.  We  must  believe 
that  the  varying  shapes  of  crystals  depend, 
in  some  way,  upon  the  varying  shapes  of  the 
molecules  of  which  they  are  composed.  We 
conceive  of  molecules,  of  course,  in  terms  of 
stereo-rhe nn«tri/— that  is  to  say,  in  terms  of  three- 
dimensional  space.  In  our  recent  studies,  both 
in  physics  and  chemistry,  we  have  seen  how 
(litTeivnt  kinds  of  crystals  are  able— ultimately 
in  consequence  of  their  molecular  structure — 
to  produce  remarkable  changes  in  a  beam  of 
light,  and  we  have  also  noticed  the  extraordinary 
fact  that  there  are  certain  forms  of  life  which 
have  a.  .-elective  affinity  tor  crystals,  or,  rather, 
for  molecules  dt  cert  iin  shapes,  but  do  not  act 
upon  other  molecules  which  are  identical  in  every 
uay  hut  for  t  he  one  difference  which  corresponds 
to  the  difference  l.etu  een  t  he  right  hand  and  the 
left,  or  between  any  object  and  its  mirror  image 
The  Crystalline  Structure  of  Metals. 

'  lly.  the  Mudy  of  crystals  and  crystalline 
-tructure  i-  now  seen  to  be  of  extraordinary 

ical  importance;  just  as  all  trees  have 
Mowers,  though  the  flowers  are  inconspicuou-,. 
SO  the  metals,  though  we  do  not  readilv 

"-'       "•     '  'iv>talline    structure. 

Further,  we  tmd  tint  to  this  crystalline 
Mructure,  t,,  these  mutual  relations  of  the  im.le- 
raks,  miiM  In-  referred  the  gross  physical 
properties  <>\  .my  -perinien  of  .1  metal.'  The 

ultimate     difference     1,,-twren     the     nnl    of    steel. 


or  the  tube  of  steel,  which  remains  intact  arid 
another  which  bursts  on  board  a  steamship  and 
kills  a  dozen  men  with  scalding  steam  is  to  be 
found  in  crystalline  structure,  in  the  relations 
which  the  molecules  assumed  when  the  steel,  or 
other  metal  under  consideration,  underwent  the 
process  of  solidification.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  microscope,  invented  in  the  interests  of 
biology,  and  long  used  by  biologists  alone,  now 
forms  an  invaluable  part  of  the  armamentarium  of 
the  metallurgist,  who  is  enabled  by  its  means 
to  make  minute  study  of  the  crystalline  forms 
of  various  specimens  of  various  metals  and  alloys, 
and  to  correlate  differences  in  this  respect  with 
physical  properties,  such  as  brittleness,  elasticity, 
density  and  the  like. 

Value  of  Crystallography  in  In= 
dustry.  If  the  reader  should  ask  where  he 
must  look  for  the  most  noteworthy  advances 
in  this  subject,  and  for  the  most  extensive 
knowledge,  he  may  be  referred  to  the  University 
of  Sheffield,  the  metallurgical  work  of  Avhiclt 
affords  an  admirable  instance  of  that  wise 
tendency  towards  specialisation  which  the 
universities  of  this  country  are  nowT  exhibiting. 

In  this  connection  we  may  quote  from  Dr. 
A.  E.  H.  Tutton,  F.R.S.  ("  Times,"  June  20th, 
1906).  Speaking  of  crystallography,  he  says: 
"  Its  bearing  on  engineering,  moreover,  is  of 
no  trifling  character,  since  the  whole  of  the 
metallic  materials  employed  by  the  engineer  are 
crystalline  substances.  Hundreds  of  valuable 
lives  have  been  sacrificed  by  the  existence  of 
flaws  in  metallic  beams,  girders,  tie-rods,  bolts, 
rails,  wheels  and  axles,  consequent  on  local 
development  of  crystalline  structure,  or  on  the 
local  separation  of  crystals  of  a  particular  con- 
stituent in  an  alloy  or  a  steel.  Many  of  these 
might  have  been  saved  if  we  had  possessed 
exact  knowledge  of  the  crystallographieal 
character  of  metals,  and  of  the  influence  upon 
it  of  the  various  metallurgical  and  mechanical 
processes  to  which  steels  are  subject.  Inves- 
tigations to  this  end  are  at  length  being  tardily 
initiated,  and  the  practical  utility  of  this  branch  ! 
of  crystallography  is  so  obvious  as  to  appeal 
to  all,  and  from  motives  equally  economic  and 
humanitarian." 

"Neither  Alive  nor  Dead."  Thirdly, 
the  study  of  crystals  is  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary interest  in  relation  to  the  problems 
of  life.  In  the  narrow  sense  crystals  are  not 
i! live  ;  but  they  display  certain  characters  which 
Mroiurly  suggest  that,  from  some  points  of  view, 
they  may  be  regarded  as  intermediate  between" 
the  living  and  what  we  are  pleased  to  call 
non-living.  M.  von  Schron,  the  Director  of  the 
Pathological  Institute  of  the  University  of 


Naples,  has  been  working  for  many  years  at  this 
subject,  and  appears  to  have  reached  some 
amazing  results.  He  believes  that  a  crystal  is 
an  organised  evolving  being  like  an  animal  or 
a  plant,  and  having  its  own  biological  laws. 
In  rocks  he  discovers  what  he  calls  petro-cells 
(from  the  Greek  word  for  a  rock),  and  in  these 
he  recognises  by  the  microscope  a  definite  nucleus. 
He  has  taken  thousands  of  photographs  of  what 
he  believes  to  be  crystal  cells  which  are 
formed  when  a  salt  crystallises  out  of  a  solution, 
and  he  declares  that  the  struggle  for  existence 
can  be  detected  amongst  such  cells.  In  his  view, 
all  minerals  are  colonies  of  beings  which  live 
or  have  lived. 

Does  all  Matter  Respond  to  Stimu= 
lation  ?  A  very  distinguished  Indian  physic- 
ist, Professor  Chundra  Bose,  of  the  Presidency 
College,  Calcutta,  published  in  1902  a  re- 
markable book,  entitled  "  Response  in  the 
Living  and  the  Non-Living,"  in  which  he  was 
enabled  to  show  that  various  crystalline  forms  of 
matter  exhibit  response  to  electrical  stimulation, 
and  show  fatigue  and  electrical  phenomena 
identical  with  those  which  the  physiologists  have 
hitherto  described  as  characteristic  of  living 
muscle.  His  work  was  met  with  the  usual  and 
necessary  incredulity  accorded  to  the  pioneer,  but 
his  results  have  stood,  and  in  the  present  year 
he  has  published  another  book,  called  "  Plant 
Response,"  which  carries  his  work  still  further, 
proving  the  identity  of  response  to  stimulation  in 
the  animal,  in  the  plant,  and  in  various  kinds 
of  crystalline  inorganic  matter.  We  may  briefly 
quote  from  page  40  of  Professor  Bose's  re- 
markable book,  published  in  this  country  by 
Messrs.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. : 

"  By  following  the  electrical  method  of 
inquiry  which  has  just  been  described,  I  have 
been  able  to  prove  that  the  power  of  responding 
to  stimulus,  and,  under  certain  conditions,  the 
arrest  of  this  power,  is  the  characteristic,  not  of 
organic  matter  only,  but  of  all  matter,  both 
organic  and  inorganic  ;  and  that,  in  general,  the 
various  agencies  which  bring  on  the  modification 
of  response  in  one  case — «3uch  as  fatigue, 
temperature  changes,  stimulating  or  depressing 
chemical  reagents — act  in  the  same  way  in  the 
other.  The  capability  of  responding,  so  long 
regarded  as  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the 
organic,  is  also  found  in  the  inorganic,  and  seems 
to  depend  in  all  cases,  both  qualitatively  and  quan- 
titatively, on  the  condition  of  molecular  mobility." 

All  Elements  have  Crystalline 
Forms.  We  may  conclude  our  brief  review 
of  this  big  subject  by  one  or  two  more 
references  to  the  work  of  Dr.  Tutton,  which 
is  of  extreme  importance.  He  says  : 

"  The  fundamental  fact  of  the  science  is  that 
every  solid  chemical  element,  whether  metallic 
or  non-metallic,  and  every  solid  substance  of 
definite  chemical  composition,  be  it  naturally 
occurring  or  artificially  prepared  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  few  which  have  never  yet  been 
obtained  in  the  crystalline  condition  owing  to 
the  great  viscosity  of  their  solutions  or  of  their 
molecules  when  in  the  state  of  union),  has  its  own 
definite  crystalline  form,  which  is  just  as  much 


PHYSICS 

a  characteristic  feature  of  the  substance,  by 
which  it  can  be  identified,  as  is  any  one  of  its 
chemical  or  physical  properties.  This  is  a  state- 
ment which  it  has  only  quite  recently  been 
possible  to  make  with  certainty.  For  it  was  for  a 
long  time  thought  that  the  members  of  the 
numerous  well-known  series  of  analogous  chemi- 
cal compounds  (which  only  differ  in  containing 
a  different  member  of  a  family  group  of  chemical 
elements  as  their  dominating  and  generally 
metallic  constituent)  were  absolutely  identical  in 
their  crystalline  form,  and  they  were  consequently 
classed  as  '  isomorphous.'  But  the  author  of 
this  article  has  been  able  to  prove,  as  the  result 
of  fifteen  years'  work,  that  although  the  forms 
are  very  similar,  and  although  they  belong  to  the 
same  type  of  symmetry,  the  angles  between  their 
corresponding  faces  are  different,  to  the  extent  it 
may  be  of  only  a  few  minutes  of  arc,  but  in  some 
cases  by  as  much  as  a  couple  of  degrees.  More- 
over, the  amount  of  the  difference  is  governed 
by  a  definite  law,  which  connects  the  atomic 
weight  of  the  metal  or  other  dominating  (acid- 
forming)  element  present  with  the  whole  of  the 
properties  of  the  crystals,  whether  of  exterior 
form,  of  optical  character,  or  of  internal  structure. 

"  The  main  result  of  the  highest  refinement  of 
crystal  measurement  has  been  to  establish  the 
fact  that  perfectly  developed  crystals  of  the  same 
chemical  substance  invariably  exhibit  faces  in- 
clined at  precisely  (to  within  one  or  two  minutes 
of  arc)  the  same  angles,  whatever  may  be  the 
variations  in  the  relative  sizes  of  the  different 
faces.  In  brief,  the  interfacial  angles  of  crystals 
of  the  same  substance  are  constant,  and  are 
the  peculiar  property  of  that  substance,  differ- 
entiating it  from  all  others." 

The  Physics  of  the  Stars.  The  term  astro- 
physics, which  has  been  popularised  by  the  work  of 
Miss  Agnes  Clerke,  is  equivalent  to  what  is  usually 
meant  by  the  "  new  astronomy."  It  is  obvious 
that  the  law  of  gravitation  is  a  law  of  the  physics 
of  the  stars  ;  but  this  is  not  quite  the  meaning 
of  the  term  astro-physics.  It  is  practically 
astronomy  as  studied  by  the  spectroscope,  and 
depends  upon  the  application  of  our  knowledge 
of  optics.  Partly,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
astro-physics  deals  with  a  purely  physical  pro- 
blem, such  as  the  effect  of  radiation  pressure 
upon  movements  in  the  heavens,  or  the  study 
of  the  motion  of  stars  in  the  line  of  sight. 
But  mainly,  perhaps,  astro-physics  deals  with 
chemical  problems — only  that  they  are  solved  not 
by  chemical  but  by  physical  means.  But  we 
have  discussed,  in  concluding  the  course  on 
Chemistry,  the  chemistry  of  the  stars  and 
the  manner  in  which  physical  means  have 
enabled  Sir  Norman  Lockyer  and  others,  even 
before  the  demonstration  of  the  transmutation  of 
the  elements  on  the  earth,  to  declare  that  such 
transmutation  takes  place  in  the  heavens.  Here 
we  merely  ask  the  reader  to  obtain  a  definite 
idea  of  what  is  meant  by  astro-physics — a  new 
astronomy  of  which  the  telescope  is  only  a 
subordinate  instrument,  which  entirely  depends 
for  its  prosecution  upon  the  employment  of 
physical  methods,  of  which  by  far  the  most 
important  is  the  spectrum  analysis  of  light. 

4561 


PHY3IC8 

The  Problems  of  So'ution.  The  moment 
we  turn  the  mind  to  such  a  simple  phenomenon  as 
thv  melting  of  a  lump  of  sugar  in  a  cup  of  tea  we 
realise  that,  commonplace  though  this  be,  it  is 
profoundly  interesting,  and  must  surely  be  pro- 
foundly important.  In  the  present  outline  dis- 
cussion of  it  we  shall  follow  Mr.  Whetham,  whose 
"Theory  of  Solution"  (John  Murray)  is  the 
most  authoritative  book  upon  the  subject. 

The  problems  of  solution  are  important  on 
every  score.  They  have  always  been  recognised 
as  important  for  the  physicist  and  the  chemist, 
but  we  are  only  now  beginning  to  recognise  their 
me  importance  for  the  biologist  and  the 
physiologist.  The  reader  has  only  to  refer  to  such 
a  book  as  "  Recent  Advances  in  Physiology  and 
Bio-Chemistry  "  (by  numerous  authors  ;  Arnold, 
1906)  to  see  that  the  greater  our  knowledge  of 
the  facts  of  solution  in  general  the  nearer  we  shall 
be  towards  understanding  the  facts  of  life  in 
general  and,  notably,  the  facts  of  the  relations 
between  the  infinitely  complicated  and  numerous 
processes  that  are  necessary  for  the  life  of  the 
higher  organisms.  According  to  Mr.  Whetham, 
"the  application  of  physical  conceptions  to  the 
problem  of  living  matter  chiefly  depends  on  the 
knowledge  we  possess  of  the  physics  and  chemistry 
of  ordinary  solution." 

It  is  of  interest  that  the  biologists  were  the 
pioneers  in  the  modern  elucidation  of  this  sub- 
ject, which  began  about  a  generation  ago.  The 
biologist  Traube,  followed  by  Pfeffer,  showed  how 
to  construct  what  are  called  "  semi-permeable 
membranes,"  which  will  permit  water  to  pass 
through  them,  but  will  completely  arrest  certain 
substances  that  may  be  dissolved  in  the  water. 
These  membranes  are  in  general  made  of  porous 
unglazed  earthenware,  which  has  been  impreg- 
nated with  certain  salts.  The  remarkable  fact 
is  that  such  semi-permeable  membranes  are 
found  almost  everywhere  within  the  bodies  of 
animals  and  plants,  and  play,  as  we  now  know, 
a  most  important  part  in  their  life. 

The  Laws  of  Osmotic  Pressure.  If 
we  prepare  a  cell,  the  walls  of  which  have 
this  property,  and  fill  it  with  a  solution  of 
sugar  in  water  while  we  bathe  its  exterior  in 
pure  water,  we  find  that  this  forces  its  way 
into  the  cell  up  to  a  certain  point.  This  point 
can  readily  be  measured  if  the  cell  has  a  glass 
tube  containing  mercury  attached  to  it.  Such 
a  pressure  gauge  will  indicate  for  us  what  is 
called  the  osmotic  pressure  of  the  solution  after 
the  maximum  amount  of  water  has  forced  its 
w.-i  y  into  the  cell  from  without. 

thk  osmotic  pressure  follows  certain  laws,  and 
these  have  been  elucidated  by  the  most  dis- 
tinguished student  of  physical  chemistry  now 
living.  Professor  Van't  Hoff,  of  Berlin.  We 
may  quote  the  following  two  laws  as  stated  by 
Mr.  Whetham.  The  results  obtained  by  Pfeffer 


(1)  That    the  osmotic  pressure  warc  inversely 
proportional  to  the  volume  in  which  a  given 
mass  of  sugar  was  confined. 

(2)  That  the  absolute  value  of  the  pressure 
in  the  case  of  the  solution  of  sugar  was  the  same 
as  that   which  would  be  exerted  by  an  equal 


numb3r  of  molecules  in  a  gas  when  placed  in  a 
vessel  with  the  same  volume  as  the  solution. 

These  laws  are  of  extraordinary  interest,  for 
they  must  instantly  recall  to  our  minds  two  other 
laws  with  which  we  have  long  been  familiar, 
and  of  which  these  new  laws  are  verily  no  more 
than  extensions.  We  already  know  the  law  of 
Boyle,  that  the  volume  of  a  gas  is  inversely 
proportional  to  its  pressure.  We  now  discover 
that  this  general  proposition  holds  true  not  only 
of  gaoes,  but  also  of  dilute  solutions — evidently 
a  splend'd  result. 

Secondly,  we  know  the  law  of  Avogadro, 
which  states  that  the  pressure  of  a  gas  depends 
upon  the  numbsr  of  molecules  present  and  no": 
upon  their  nature.  We  now  discover  that 
this  law  is  true  not  only  of  gases  but  also  of 
dilute  solutions — an  equally  splend'd  result. 

Several  workers  have  shown  by  other  argu- 
ments "  that  the  osmotic  pressure  must  be 
equal  in  amount  to  the  gaseous  pressure  exerted 
by  the  same  numb3r  of  molecules  when  vapour- 
ised,  and  must  conform  to  the  laws  which 
der.cribs  the  temperature,  pressure,  and  volume 
relations  of  gaseous  matter."  This  holds  good 
whatever  may  be  our  precise  theory  of  the 
nature  of  the  process  of  solution.  It  may  be 
almost  impossible  to  frame  any  clear  idea  of 
what  actually  happens  when  sugar  melts  in  tea, 
and  yet  we  are  enabled  to  frame  laws  of  solution 
which  are  absolutely  identical  with  the  corre- 
sponding laws  of  gases. 

Mixtures  and  Compounds  Again. 
How  far  do  these  laws  help  us  to  determine 
whether  solution  implies  the  formation  of  any- 
thing that  can  ba  called  a  chemical  compound, 
or  whether  it  means  no  more  than  a  mixture  ? 
Elsewhere,  of  course,  we  have  seen  evidence  to 
show  (in  the  case,  for  instance,  of  the  relation 
between  water  and  alcohol)  that  some  chemical 
action  must  be  involved  ;  and  on  the  whole 
the  present  evidence  is  rather  in  favour  of  the 
view  that  solution  is  a  chemical  rather  than  a 
purely  physical  fact ;  in  other  words,  that 
"  a  solution,  say,  of  salt  and  water  is  in  some 
way  a  chemical  compound  of  these  components  ; 
a  compound  in  which  the  relative  proportion 
between  the  components  can  vary  continuously 
between  certain  wide  limits." 

It  was  soon  discovered  that  there  are 
certain  noteworthy  exceptions,  as  it  would 
appear,  to  the  usual  law  of  the  osmotic 
pressure.  If  we  compare  solutions  of  sugar 
and  of  alcohol,  each  containing  the  same 
number  of  molecules  in  the  same  volume,  we 
find,  as  the  law  asserts,  that  they  possess  equal 
osmotic  pressures  ;  but  if,  instead  of  comparing 
sugar  and  alcohol,  we  compare  sugar  and  salt, 
we  find  that,  even  though  the  two  solutions 
contain  equal  numbers  of  molecules,  the  osmotic 
pressure  of  the  salt,  if  the  solutions  be  fairly 
dilute,  may  be  almost  twice  as  high  as  that  of 
the  sugar.  It  remained  for  another  great 
physical  chemist,  Professor  Arrhenius,  of  Stock- 
holm, to  show  that  it  is  not  necessary,  as  Van't 
Hoff  supposed,  to  regard  this  case  as  an  inex- 
plicable exception.  On  the  contrary,  we  have 
only  to  suppose  that  the  molecules  of  the  salt 


undergo  a  splitting  up  or  dissociation,  and  we 
see  that  the  abnormally  high  pressure  may 
be  explained.  This  dissociation  is  rendered 
much  the  more  probable  when  we  realise  that 
these  abnormal  osmotic  pressures  are  found 
in  the  case  of  solutions  which  conduct  elec- 
tricity. 

What  Happens  to  the  Molecules. 
According  to  this  theory,  then,  which  is  now 
well  established,  common  salt  does  not  exist  as 
such  when  it  occurs  in  dilute  solution  in  water. 
The  molecules  have  been  dissociated,  and  exist 
as  particles  or  atoms  of  sodium  and  chlorine, 
these  being  associated  with  electric  charges. 
"  Each  salt  molecule  thus  gives  two  pressure- 
producing  particles  in  solution,  and  the  double 
value  of  the  osmotic  pressure  is  explained. 
In  stronger  solutions  this  dissociation  is  not 
complete,  and  the  osmotic  pressure  is  less  than 
twice  the  normal  value." 

This  theory,  then,  shows  us  that  Van't  Hoff's 
laws  are  valid,  even  in  the  case  of  apparent 
exceptions  to  them.  It  recognises  that  these 
exceptions  consist  of  solutions  of  electrolytes 
as  distinguished  from  non-electrolytes,  this 
new  term  being  applied  to  substances  capable 
of  conducting  an  electric  current,  meanwhile 
undergoing  change  ;  and  it  explains  abnor- 
malities of  pressure  in  terms  of  molecular 
dissociation. 

An  entirely  different  method  of  studying  the 
facts  lends  further  support  to  the  dissociation 
theory.  In  this  subject  Faraday  was  again 
the  pioneer.  He  showed  that  there  was  a 
constant  proportion  between  the  amount  of 
electricity  conveyed  through  an  electrolyte  and 
the  amount  of  decomposition  which  that 
electrolyte  suffered.  This  seemed  strongly  to 
suggest  that  when  an  electric  current  is  conveyed 
through,  for  instance,  a  solution  of  sodium 
chloride  in  water  what  really  happens  is  a 
dissociation  of  the  molecules  of  the  salt,  the 
positively  electrified  atoms  of  sodium  going  with 
the  current  and  the  negatively  electrified  atoms 
of  chlorine  going  against  it.  These  "  goers  " 
Faraday  termed  "  ions"  a  Greek  term  which 
has  that  meaning.  The  ion  which  moves  with 
the  stream,  and  towards  the  electrode  which  is 
called  the  cathode,  is  known  as  the  positive 
ion  or  cation,  while  the  ion  which  travels  against 
the  stream,  and  moves  towards  the  electrode 
which  is  known  as  the  anode,  is  called  the 
negative  ion,  or  anion. 

The  Movement  of  Ions.  We  have  here, 
perhaps,  the  very  first  hint  that  electricity,  and 
even  an  electric  current,  is  particulate  and 
atomic  in  structure.  Said  Von  Helmholtz  in 
his  Faraday  Lecture  of  1881,  years  before  the 
discovery  of  radio-activity:  "If  we  accept  the 
hypothesis  that  the  elementary  substances  are 
composed  of  atoms,  we  cannot  avoid  concluding 
that  electricity  also  is  divided  into  definite 
elementary  portions,  which  behave  like  atoms 
of  electricity." 


The  next  question  which  opened  itself  for  study 
was  plainly  the  character  of  the  ionic  movement. 


PHYSICS 

Since  we  measure  the  conductivity  of  a  solution 
by  the  amount  of  electricity  which  it  will  convey 
in  a  given  time  under  the  action  of  a  given 
electric  force,  and  since  the  conduction  of  the 
current  depends  upon  the  movement  of  charged 
ions,  the  conductivity  of  the  solution,  which  is 
a  measurable  thing,  must  depend  upon  the 
number  and  velocity  of  the  ions.  Now,  the 
number  is  ascertainable,  since  we  can  ascertain 
the  strength  of  the  solution,  and  thus  we  are  in 
a  position  to  ascertain  the  speed  at  which  the 
ions  move. 

Mr.  Whetham  himself  is  largely  responsible 
for  the  means  by  which  we  are  now  able  actually 
to  see  the  ionic  movement — not,  that  is  to  say. 
the  movement  of  the  individual  ions,  but 
their  movement  en  masse.  This  can  be  done  by 
means  of  an  apparatus  which  permits  us  to 
place  next  one  another  solutions  of  two  salts, 
one  coloured  and  the  other  colourless.  Says 
Mr.  Whetham  :  "  The  solutions  should  be  of 
the  same  molecular  concentration,  the  same  con- 
ductivity, and  the  denser  solution  must,  of 
course,  be  placed  below  the  lighter.  Let  us  take 
as  an  example  the  case  of  solutions  of  potassium 
bichromate  and  potassium  carbonate,  which 
fulfil  the  necessary  conditions.  The  colour  is 
here  due  to  the  acid  part  of  the  salt,  the 
bichromate  ion,  which  has  the  chemical  com- 
position represented  by  Cr207  ;  the  potassium 
ion  is  colourless.  When  a  current  of  electricity 
is  passed  across  the  junction  between  the  liquids 
the  colour  boundary  is  seen  to  move,  and,  from 
the  rate  at  which  it  creeps  along  the  tube,  the 
velocity  of  the  bichromate  ion  under  a  given 
electric  force  can  be  determined." 

The  Speed  of  Ions.  The  reader  will 
almost  certainly  imagine  that  the  speed  with 
which  the  ions  move  will  be  very  great,  but  it  is 
really  remarkably  small.  Much  the  fastest 
moving  ion  known  is  hydrogen,  but  when  the 
electromotive  force  is  one  volt  per  centimetre, 
the  hydrogen  ion  moves  only  at  the  rate  of  4  in. 
per  hour,  and  this  is  about  ten  times  as  fast  as 
the  speed  of  most  other  ions.  We  must  dis- 
tinguish this  movement,  of  course,  from  the 
movement  of  the  electric  current — or,  rather,  we 
must  distinguish  the  two  speeds.  The  movement 
of  the  current  is  almost  as  rapid  as  that  of  an 
electric  wave — that  is  to  say,  is  almost  equal 
to  the  velocity  of  light.  Mr.  Whetham  com- 
pares the  two  movements  with  the  case  of  the 
movement  of  a  stick.  If  you  push  one  end  of  the 
stick,  the  whole  of  it  moves  on.  Its  velocity 
may  be  as  slow  as  that  of  a  hydrogen  ion — a 
mere  4  in.  per  hour.  But  something  else  moves 
with  an  immeasurably  greater  rapidity,  and 
that  is  the  wave  of  compression,  which  is  induced 
by  the  push,  and  which  must  travel  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  rod  before  its  advancing 
end  can  move.  "  The  slow  movement  of  the 
rod  as  a  whole,  when  once  started,  corresponds 
with  the  slow  drift  of  the  ions  ;  the  almost 
instantaneous  passage  of  the  wave  of  com- 
pression along  the  rod  corresponds  with  the 
velocity  of  electricity  in  the  electrolytic  solution." 


Continued 


4563 


Group   9 

DRESS 
32 


C,,ntii.n.-.l  fro 

pap  MM 


MILLINERY 


Essential    Qualifications    of  a    Good    Milliner.       The    Apprentice. 
Importance  of  Suiting  a  Customer's  Style.    Stitches  and  Accessories 


By  ANTOINETTE  MEELBOOM 


1\AILLINERY  is  essentially  a  woman's  profes- 
AV*  sion,  but  to  be  successful  she  must  have  a 
light  and  delicate  touch,  accuracy  and  neatness, 
good  taste  in  blending  colours,  a  correct  eye, 
judgment  in  adapting  the  style  to  the  wearer, 
and  a  liking  for  working  with  dainty  and  pretty 
materials.  Few  tools  are  needed. 

There  are  two  seasons  in  the  millinery  trade, 
spring  and  autumn,  with  six  to  eight  slack  weeks 
in  the  summer  and  winter— July  and  August, 
and  December  and  January. 

The  Apprentice.  A  girl  of  about  16, 
wishing  to  become  a  milliner,  is  usually  appren- 
ticed. The  period  is  two  years,  in  the  second  of 
which  she  receives  about  half-a-crown  a  week 
pocket-money.  In  some  houses  a  premium 
is  asked ;  others  take  girls  without  a  premium, 
but  through  introduction.  The  girl  is  taken 
on  approbation  for  some  weeks  to  see  if  she 
has  the  necessary  qualifications.  At  the  end 
of  the  two  years,  if  she  has  given  satisfaction, 
she  is  usually  taken  on  as  improver,  with  a  weekly 
salary  starting  generally  at  about  15s.  a  week. 
In  the  slack  time  some  houses  work  their  ap- 
prentices half  time,  or  give  them  a  holiday 
till  the  next  season  opens. 

The  head  assistants  and  head  milliners  are 
engaged  by  the  year,  with  salaries  varying 
between  two  and  five  guineas  a  week. 

It  is  well  for  a  girl  to  be  apprenticed  to 
a  small  business,  although  it  should  be  a  first- 
class  one,  as  she  will  then  have  a  good  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  all  kinds  of  work  done.  In  the 
larger  houses  the  work  is  divided  up  into  different 
branches,  one  room  being  set  aside  for  making 
hats,  another  for  toques  and  bonnets,  and  so 
on.  An  apprentice  will  never  regret  the  time 
spent  in  matching— that  is,  obtaining  from  the 
warehouses  patterns  of  silks,  velvets,  ribbons, 
ete.,  which  tone  exactly  with  a  particular 
pattern.  Until  one  has  tried,  it  is  difficult  to 
i  valise  how  difficult  some  colours  are  to  blend. 

Advising  a  Customer.  A  milliner  who 
thoroughly  understands  her  work  is  able  to 
advise  her  customers  which  of  the  many  pre- 
vailing styles  suite  her,  and  a  good  business 
woman  is  sure  to  be  a  success. 

Though  the  fashions  change  so  rapidly  many  of 
tin-  principles  never  change,  and,  when  mastered, 
th.-  uork.-r  will  find  herself  able  to  adapt  them 
to  prevailing  fashions. 

The  importance  of  wearing  what  is  really  be- 
roiiiiMjr  without  considering  whether  it  is  the 
latest  fashion  or  not  cannot  be  over-estimated. 
A  < -Irvi-r  milliner's  aim  is  to  adapt  the  prevailing 
fashions  to  suit  the  face. 

Modern  styles  are  so  elastic  that  it  is  per- 
f.M-tly  easy  to  be  well  dr<^,<].  x0  rules  on 


how  to  dress  can  be  laid  down,  but  an 
important  point  to  remember  is  that  in  choosing 
a  hat  or  toque  it  is  not  only  well  to  decide  with 
what  costume  it  will  be  worn,  but,  if  possible, 
to  try  it  on  when  wearing  the  dress.  It  will 
avoid  possible  disappointment,  as  that  which 
looks  well  and  in  perfect  style  with  a  tailor- 
made  costume  may  look  small  and  insignificant 
when  worn  with  an  elaborately  trimmed  dress 
or  big  furs. 

Hair=dressing  and  Millinery.  The 
way  in  which  the  hair  is  dressed  is  another 
consideration  in  the  choosing  of  headgear.  The 
most  fashionable  headgear  is  modelled  on  the 
way  the  hair  is  dressed  at  the  moment ;  thus, 
if  the  hair  is  worn  low  down  at  the  neck,  the 
brims  will  be  long  at  the  back.  When  the  hair 
is  worn  at  the  top  of  the  head,  a  short  brim  at 
the  back  with  high  crown,  or  a  low  crown 
and  bandeau,  looks  best.  For  hair  worn  rolled 
back  from  the  face,  a  turned  up  brim  in  front 
is  most  suitable. 

Thin  faces  should  have  the  hair  dressed  loosely 
over  the  temples,  and  a  soft-looking  edge  to  hat  or 
full  front  to  a  bonnet.  When  no  fringe  is  worn 
and  the  hair  brushed  smoothly  back,  a  bonnet 
with  rucked  edge,  or  a  brimmed  hat,  will  be  the 
best  style  to  adopt.  Hair  dressed  in  coils 
and  plaits  at  the  back  usually  requires  a  large 
headline.  Coils  and  plaits  round  the  front 
require  the  headline  cut  rather  wide  there. 

Large  picture  hats  look  well  on  tall  people, 
though  they  may  be  worn  by  persons  of  small 
stature  if  trimmed  very  lightly.  A  hat  should 
never  be  over  trimmed. 

A  full  face  needs  a  broad 
trimmed  hat. 

A  long  face  looks  best  in  a 
brimmed  hat,  trimmed  broad  and 
worn  over  the  face.  High  trim- 
mings, which  lengthen  the  face, 
should  be  avoided.  Broad  toques, 
fitting  well  on  the  head,  may  be 
worn. 

The  most  becoming  hat  for  a 
round  face  is  a  round  hat  with  an 
equal  brim  all  round,  except  at  the 
WIRE  NIPPERS  back,  and  worn  tilted  slightly  off 
the  face  in  the  front.  No  very  small 
hats  or  toques  are  becoming  to  this  style  of  face. 
Drooping    brims  of  the  flop  and  mushroom 
type    are   not   becoming    to   people   past   their 
youth,  as  they  cast  a  shadow  on  the  face.     They 
are  best  suited  to  young,  round  faces. 

Brims  turned  up  in  front  can  be  worn  by  small 
round  and  oval  faces. 

Let  your  customer  wear  the  colours  that  suit 
her.  Do  not  advise  her  to  wear  a  colour  that 


does  not  match  her  complexion,  hair  and  eyes, 
no  matter  how  fashionable. 

The-blonde  may  wear  delicate  shades  of  blue, 
pink,  and  green. 

The  brunette  looks  well  in  deeper  and  richer 
colours. 

The  choice  of  shades  depends  greatly  on  the 
complexion,  as  the  colour  may  suit  the  hair 
but  not  the  skin. 

White  is  very  becoming  to  fresh  and  rosy 
skins,  but  should  be  avoided  by  those  with  pale 
and  sallow  complexions. 

Black  is  not  becoming  to  pale  and  sallow  com- 
plexions, unless  combined  with  lace  and  a  colour 
in  the  trimming.  It  looks  well  on  fair  people 
with  a  little  colour  in  the  face. 

Requisites.  We  must  now  consider  a 
milliner's  "tools." 


MILLINERY 

GUM  OR  GUM  LABELS. 

TISSUE  PAPER. 

BOWL  AND  DAMPING  RAGS.  For  steaming  and 
pressing. 

NOTEBOOK  AND  PENCIL.  For  writing  down 
measurements. 

FRENCH  "  DOLL'S  HEAD."  Used  for  cap- 
stand. 

BLOCK  FOR  SHAPING  CROWNS. 

KILTING  MACHINE. 

ACCORDION  PLEATING  MACHINE. 

PINKING  MACHINE. 

VELVET  BRUSH. 

Stitches.  The  following  are  the  stitches  used 
in  millinery : 

RUNNING.  Pass  the  needle  and  cotton  in 
and  out  of  the  material  at  equal  distances. 
The  stitch  appears  the  same  on  both  sides.  Used 


2.   Running      3.    Fly  running     4.  Back  stitching    5.  Long  back  stitching     6.  Slip  stitching     7.   Slip  hemming    8.  Velvet 

hemming    9.  Wire  stitching     10.  Gathering    H.  Shirring    12.  Tacking    13.   Tacking  for  crape     14.  Basting    15.  Lacing 

stitch    16.  Catch  stitch    17.  Straight  bandeau    18.  Oversewing    19.  Whipping    20.  Tie  stitch    21.  Stab  stitch 


MILLINERY  WIRE  NIPPERS.  Price  Is.  to  2s.  6d. ; 
the  latter  are  made  of  English  steel.  They  must 
be  light,  small,  and  with  broad  noses  [1]. 

NEEDLES.  Packet  of  straw  needles,  mixed, 
sizes,  5,  6,  8.  Price  Id.  No.  5  for  wiring,  and 
No.  8  for  hemming. 

STEEL  PINS.     For  pinning  silk,  velvet,  etc. 

LILLIKINS.  For  pinning  velvet  edges,  joining 
laces,  etc. 

THIMBLE. 

SCISSORS.     About- 7  in.  long,  with  sharp  points. 

TAPE  MEASURE.     Dean's  are  the  best. 

SEWING  COTTON.  Fine  and  coarse,  white  and 
black,  No.  10  for  sewing  on  trimmings. 

SEWING    MACHINE. 

FLAT  IRONS.  No.  2  and  No.  8,  for  pressing 
straw  and  steaming  velvet,  etc. 

IRONING  BLANKET.     For  pressing. 

POCKET-KNIFE.     For  ripping  fur. 


for  making  the  hem  of  head-linings,  and  joining 
two  parts  together  where  no  great  strength  is 
needed  [2]. 

FLY-RUNNING.  Place  the  needle  in  the 
material  and  hold  it  lightly,  close  to  the  point, 
with  the  right  thumb  and  forefinger.  The 
thimble  should  propel  the  needle.  The  left  hand 
holds  taut  the  material,  which  is  pushed  on 
the  needle  by  the  left  thumb  and  forefinger. 
As  the  needle  fills  with  material,  push  it  off 
from  the  eye  end.  The  needle  is  not  drawn 
through  until  the  whole  length  is  gathered. 
For  long  lengths,  thread  the  needle  from 
the  reel  of  cotton  or  silk,  which  will  prevent 
it  knotting  [3].  It  is  a  rapid  way  of  run- 
ning, and  is  used  for  all  branches  of  millinery 
that  require  gathering,  such  as  tuckings,  casings 
for  silk  hats  and  bonnets,  tuck  running  in 
chiffon,  tulle,  etc. 

4565 


MILLINERY 

BACK  STITCH.  Insert  the  needle  exactly 
where  the  last  stitch  was  begun,  and  bring  it 
out  in  front  the  same  length  of  the  stitch  just 
made.  To  obtain  a  regular  row  of  stitches,  each 
stit.-h  must  exactly  meet  the  last,  and  be  of  the 
same  size  [4].  Used  for  joining  two  pieces  of 
velvet,  silk,  or  cloth,  wherever  the  material  is 
likely  to  be  stretched  and  requires  strength. 

LONG  BACK  STITCH.  Instead  of  inserting  the 
needle  in  exactly  the  place  where  the  last  stitch 
left  off,  as  in  back  stitching,  take  a  short  stitch 
hack,  which  in  straw-working  will  be  slanting 
in  the  direction  the  straw  is  plaited  [5].  Used 
in  straw-working  ;  for  sewing  in  head-linings, 
bandeaux,  mulling  ;  in  shape-making,  joining 
side  band  to  head  -line  of  brim  shape  ;  in  covering, 
sewing  upper  and  under  covering  of  brim  to 
head-line,  also  material  tip  to  that  of  shape. 

SLIP  STITCH.  Take  one  stitch  on  the  turn- 
ing of  one  piece  of  material,  and  the  next 
exactly  opposite  on  the  turning  of  the  other 
piece  [6].  Used  for  joining  the  upper  and  under 
edges  of  hat  brims  covered  in  velvet,  cloth,  or 
silk,  and  wherever  invisible  joining  is  required  ; 
stitching  on  rouleau  to  covered  or  felt  hats, 
etc. 

SLIP  HEMMING.  Use  a  fine  needle  and  cotton, 
or  silk  to  match  material,  and  take  up  one 
thread  of  the  material  under  the  fold.  Slip 
the  needle  into  the  fold  and  make  a  short 
Ktitch  as  in  running  ;  draw  the  needle  out, 
and  just  take  one  thread  again  of  the  material 
under  the  fold.  Do  not  pull  the  stitches  tight  ; 
they  should  not  show  on  the  right  side  [7].  Used 
for  invisibly  hemming  velvet,  silk,  crape,  etc, 

VELVET  HEMMING.  Turn  down  the  raw  edge 
of  material  once  ;  take  a  stitch  as  in  running 
through  the  fold,  and  take  one  thread  of  the 
material  under  the  fold  in  a  slanting  direction. 
Work  from  right  to  left  with  fine  needle  and 
cotton  [8].  Used  for  neatening  cut  edges  of 
velvet,  and  where  it  does  not  require  a  roll 
hem. 

WIRE  STITCH.  Hold  the  wire  firmly  in  place, 
stab  the  needle  in  the  hat  above  the  wire,  holding 
back  a  loop  of  cotton  under  the  thumb.  Stab 
the  needle  back  again  under  the  wire,  bringing  it 
through  the  loop  from  behind  and  pull  tight. 
Work  from  right  to  left.  The  stitches  must 
just  fit  the  wire  [9].  Used  for  all  parts  requiring 
to  be  wired. 

GATHERING.  Take  up  half  as  much  on  the 
in  •••file  as  has  been  passed  over  [10].  Used  when 
a  long  length  has  to  be  gathered  into  a  small 


Rows  of  rine  gathering  placed 
\iiul.  riK,  ali  one  another.  The  stitches  must 
r\a  tly  "irnspond  with  the  row  above,  and 
tip  'ott.ms  are  drawn  up  together  [11].  This 
stiirh  is  used  for  fancy  linings  for  brims,  for 
children'!  millinery.  (•!••! 


TACKING.  A  large  running  stitch  [12].  Used 
for  keeping  two  parts  temporarily  together. 

TACKING  FOR  CRAPE.  A  long  and  small 
running  stitch  [13].  Crape  being  a  springy 
material,  this  stitch  keeps  it  better  in  position 
than  ordinary  tacking. 

BASTING.  A  long  and  a  short  stitch,  the  first 
taken  slantways,  the  second  perpendicular  [14]. 
Used  for  holding  together  temporarily  the 
material  and  lining  previous  to  being  tacked. 

LACING  STITCH.  Place  the  needle  under  the 
fold,  bring  out  in  a  slanting  direction.  Place 
the  needle  in  again  on  opposite  side,  also  in  a 
slanting  direction  [15].  Used  for  securing  the 
raw  edges  of  velvet  folds.  It  is  sometimes  called 
MILLINER'S  HERRINGBONE,  but  is  always  worked 
from  right  to  left. 

CATCH  STITCH.  Take  the  needle  under  the 
turning  and  bring  out  to  right  side.  Pass  under 
the  wire,  then  over  the  wire,  and  under  the 
turning  again,  and  repeat  [16].  Used  for  fasten- 
ing down  the  upper  side  of  material  brim  to  the 
second  edge  wire  of  under  brim. 

ROUND  BANDEAU  STITCH.  The  stitches  are 
taken  close  to  the  edges  of  the  ribbon  wire 
to  prevent  curling  up.  Make  a  long  stitch  of 
|  in.  on  upper  edge  of  ribbon  wire.  Bring 
thread  to  bottom  edge  of  wire  at  the  back,  take 
the  needle  throi  gh  at  nearly  half  the  length  of 
the  upper  stitch  already  made.  Then  take 
another  f  in.  stitch,  and  so  on.  On  the  reverse 
side  a  series  of  /\  A  will  be  seen.  Use  black 
cotton  on  white  net  and  wire,  and  vice  versa  [17]. 
Used  for  sewing  ribbon  wire  to  net  for  founda- 
tion of  round  and  straight  bandeaux. 

OVERSEWING.  Place  needle  pointing  straight 
towards  you  in  the  raw  edge,  hold  the  work  round 
first  finger  of  left  hand.  Repeat  this,  forming 
a  slanting  stitch  from  right  to  left  on  the  right 
side,  and  a  straight  one  between  each  [18]. 
Used  for  joining  lace,  sewing  fur,  neatening  the 
raw  edges  of  velvet  for  straight  bandeau  where 
a  turning  will  make  it  too  clumsy  and  thick. 

WHIPPING.  The  needle  is  taken  over  the  raw 
edge  of  the  material,  put  in  from  back  to  front, 
and  over  the  edge  again.  The  stitches  are  taken 
fairly  long,  and  the  needle,  as  for  "  fly -running," 
is  not  taken  out  until  the  finish  [19].  Used 
instead  of  gathering,  to  prevent  ravelling  in 
lace  or  tulle. 

TIE  STITCH.  Stab  the  needle  through  from 
the  right  side  ;  leave  an  end  of  cotton,  bring 
back  the  needle  from  the  back,  and  tie  a  knot 
[20].  Used  for  securing  light  trimmings,  trails 
of  flowers,  lace,  tips  of  feathers,  loops  of  ribbon 
on  a  brim  ;  fastening  head-linings  in  position 
inside  bonnets  and  hats. 

STAB  STITCH.  Proceed  as  with  the  tie  stitch, 
but  take  the  needle  through  and  through  the 
hat  for  extra  strength  [21].  Used  for  sewing  on 
trimmings  that  require  strength. 


Continued 


4566 


FIFE.   PICCOLO.   FLUTE.   OCARINA 

Construction  and  Peculiarities  of  the  Instruments.      Attitude  of 
Player.     Fingerboard.     Scales.     Positions.     Effects.     Exercises 


Group  22 

MUSIC 
32 


Continued  from 
page  4488 


By  ALGERNON   ROSE 


FIFE 

The  fife,  unlike  the  flageolet  whistle,  is 
provided  with  a  single  key.  The  instrument 
has  a  compass  of  two  octaves,  from  D  on  the 
fourth  line  treble  clef. 

The  instrument  should  be  held  horizontally. 
Keep  the  head  and  body  upright,  and  rest 
the  instrument  on  the  middle  joint  of  the 
first  left  finger.  Place  the  thumb  just  below 
the  first  hole.  Put  the  right  thumb  opposite 
the  fourth  hole,  against  the  side  of  the  fife,  and 
not  underneath  it.  This  will  permit  the  little 
finger  to  remain  over  the  DjJ  (or  Eb)  key. 
Following  these  directions,  keep  the  first  and 
second  left  fingers  care£ully  curved,  and  the 
third  nearly  straight.  Round,  also,  the  first  and 
second  right  fingers.  Except  when  used  for  the 
key,  or  keys,  the  two  little  fingers  do  not  rest 
upon  the  fife.  They  must  never  hang  beneath 
it.  Do  not  hold  the  fife  tightly  in  the  right 
hand,  nor  press  the  fingers  forcibly  on  the 
holes,  as  this  will  impair  neat  execution.  Avoid 
raising  the  fingers  more  than  half  an  inch 
above  the  holes.  Aim  at  delicate  surf  ace - 
playing  rather  than  force  of  finger  attack. 

Blowing.  Close  the  lips,  and  compress 
them  a  little.  Holding  the  instrument  as 
described,  place  the  mouth-hole  against  the 
middle  of  the  underlip.  Make  sure  that  the 
upper  lip  comes  within  the  radius  of  the  aper- 
ture. Relaxing  the  upper,  press  the  fife  against 
the  lower  lip.  Blow  into  the  instrument  with 
moderate  force.  Take  care  that  the  air  passes 
into  the  mouth-hole  and  not  over  it.  If  it 
does,  there  will  be  a  hissing  sound  and  waste 
of  effort.  While  blowing,  endeavour  to  pro- 
nounce the  syllable  "too."  With  practice, 
a  clear  steady  sound  will  be  produced.  Do 
not  close,  at  first,  any  of  the  holes.  The  open 


MOUT*    HOLE 

_—  ..                ^      THE.   KEY 

111        **                  1     'I   * 

fe         •   J   J    J   .. 

i       >        'II,        \       2 
j     2      2     2     2      '       |     3 

^      4       J       ^     K£Y  K£Y   KE*  *£y 

§  |  1  S  2    °p£/v 

4    4 


sound  of  the  tube  is  C£,  third  space,  treble 
clef.  To  get  B,  a  tone  below,  put  down  the 
first  left  finger,  and  blow  "  too,"  as  before. 
For  the  A  below,  add  the  second  finger.  To 
get  the  G,  add  the  third.  For  the  F  ~,  cover 
the  fourth  hole,  and  so  on,  as  for  the  flageolet. 
The  annexed  diagram  of  the  fife,  with  the  holes 
numbered,  and  the  staff  showing  the  scale 


from  D  to  D  of  two  octaves,  indicates  the 
manner  of  fingering  for  the  production  of 
different  tones. 

Exercises.  Simple  as  this  scale  may 
appear  to  be,  there  is  a  great  deal  to  be  learnt 
from  it  by  diligent  study  ;  but  the  only  way 
by  which  progress  can  be  made  is  through 
regular  daily  practice.  The  first  thing  for  the 
beginner  to  understand  is  the  relative  value 
of  Time,  or  duration  of  sound,  and  Pitch,  or 
variety  in  sound.  Starting  at  the  lowest  note,  D, 
blow  into  the  instrument  steadily  arid  clearly, 
counting  mentally  four,  regulating  the  beats 
by  the  ticking  of  a  clock  or  a  metronome.  Having 
done  this  softly,  repeat  the  sounds  with  more 
force  during  the  first  and  second  beats,  articu- 
lating the  same  note  sharply  twice  on  the  three 
and  four.  In  the  same  manner,  next  try  the 
E  above  the  D,  the  FJJ  above  the  E,  the 
G,  and  so  on  up  the  scale,  blowing  with  increased 
pressure  ascending,  and  gradually  softer  des- 
cending. After  getting  facility  on  each  note  of 
the  compass,  as  regards  time,  or  speed  in  play- 
ing, proceed  to  the  next  department  of  study. 

Intervals.  An  interval  is  the  distance 
between  any  two  sounds,  and  the  facility  in 
which  musical  tone  is  made  to  pass  from  one 
interval  to  another  gives  the  charm  to  what  is 
known  as  melody.  Now  try  to  get  accustomed 
to  the  simplest  intervals,  known  as  seconds. 
Play  the  low  D,  counting  two.  Without  break, 
pass  to  the  E  above  for  the  three  and  four. 
Repeat  the  E  on  two  beats,  making  the  F  J 
follow  on  the  next  two.  In  this  way  go  up, 
step  by  step,  to  the  highest  notes,  descend- 
ing the  ladder  of  sound  in  the  same  fashion. 
Next  try  thirds.  Sound  the  lowest  D,  counting 
two  as  before.  Skip  the  next  note,  but,  with- 
out break,  play  the  FJJ  on  the  three  and 
four,  Fji  being  a  major  third  above  D. 
Sound  the  E,  passing  over  the  next  note  and 
following  with  G.  Play  the  F>,  skipping 
the  G  and  blowing  A.  Thus,  in  thirds,  practise 
slowly  and  carefully  up  and  down  the  scale. 

Proceed  to  fourths.  Sound  the  low  D  as  be- 
fore, then  skip  two  notes,  and  blow  the  G  easily 
and  without  pause  between  one  sound  and  the 
other.  Blow  the  E,  and  follow  it  by  A,  a  fourth 
above  the  FJJ,  succeeding  it  by  B,  G,  and  C?, 
and  so  forth  up  and  down  the  instrument. 
Next  try  fifths.  These  may  sound  ugly, 
but  no  matter.  Check  the  intervals  on  a 
piano  at  first.  Returning  to  the  low  D,  skip 
three  notes,  and  blow  the  A  above.  Count 
two  beats  on  the  first  sound,  and  complete  the 
three-four  on  the  second.  In  the  same  way 
follow  the  E  by  the  B  above,  F#  by  C*  , 
G  by  D,  thus  going  up  the  compass  by  fifths, 
and  going  dovm  in  like  manner.  Try  sixths. 

4567 


MUSIC 


Sound  the  low  D.  Now  skip  four  notes  and, 
without  int.-rruption,  pass  to  the  B  above 
The  student  should  write  these  exercises  out 
on  music  paper.  Sound  the  E,  linking  it  with 
the  CJJ  above.  Play  the  Fg,  following  it 
bv  the  D.  Thus,  in  sixths,  go  up  and  down 
the  compass.  In  the  same  way  try  sevenths. 
Follow  the  low  D  by  the  Cf  above  it,  always 
blowing  in  strict  time,  and  endeavouring  to 
avoid  any  hissing  sound  with  the  upper  lip. 
Blow  the  E  with  the  D  above,  the  F#  with 
the  E  above,  and  so  up  and  down  the  compass. 
Finally,  take  the  octaves.  After  blowing 
the  low  D  get  the  second  note  at  the  higher 
pitch,  with  the  same  fingering  but  increased 
pressure  of  breath.  In  the  same  way  blow  the 
low  E  with  its  octave  above.  As  before,  get  the 
F-  But  now,  to  facilitate  the  sounding  of 
the  octave  above,  with  the  little  right  finger 
put  down  the  key,  and,  in  like  manner,  use  this 
key  for  the  octave  notes  of  G,  A,  and  B.  After 
playing  the  Cj  with  all  the  holes  open,  to  get 
the  octave  put  down  the  second  and  third  left 
fingers,  the  first  right  finger,  and  the  key.  To 
get  the  top  B,  close  the  second  and  third  holes 
only,  using  the  key.  Descend  in  octaves  in  the 
same  way.  The  student  should  now  find  little 
difficulty  in  executing  the  march  tune  of  the 
Guards,  given  at  the  head  of  this  page. 

PICCOLO 

The  piccolo  is  an  octave  higher  in  pitch  than 
the  ordinary  flute.  It  is  called  "  E  V  although 
the  lowest  note  really  sounds  D1?.  As  the 
embouchure  is  small  and  the  holes  are  rather 
close  together,  this  instrument  is  a  good  one 
for  a  boy  to  take  up,  as  it  is  more  suited  to 
his  lips  and  fingers  than  the  big  concert 
flute.  Besides,  it  is  less  than  half  the  weight  of 
the  latter,  so  that  it  is  much  more  portable. 
On  account  of  the  shrillness  or  brilliancy  of  its 
tone,  one  piccolo  suffices  in  a  military  band  of 
brass  and  reed  instruments  consisting  of  as 
many  as  sixty-two  players. 

In  the  score,  the  piccolo  is  always  written 
for  an  octave  lower  than  the  notes  which  are 
actually  played,  and  the  part  is  invariably  noted 
in  the  G,  or  treble  clef.  The  compass  of  the 
piccolo  is  from  D,  first  space  below  staff,  to 
D  above,  foarth  ledger  line,  and  the  instrument 
gives  all  the  intervening  chromatic  notes.  The 
coat  of  a  good  piccolo  ranges  from  15s.  to  £15  15s., 
according  to  whether  it  is  of  cocuswood  or 
i  !><»nite,  or  has  from  four  to  ten  keys  in  brass, 
<;«Tm;m  silver,  <>r  silver.  The  lowest  octave 
Ix-irii^  weak  and  of  little  value,  the  student  shoald 
piirtii-uliirly  practise  that  part  of  the  compass 
which  lupins  at  D,  fourth  line  treble  clef,  and  goes 
4568 


up  to  FZ,  two  octaves  above.  This  gives  a 
ran^e  of  notes  which  possesses  remarkably 
effective  qualities,  used  in  a  beautiful  way 
by  Beethoven  in  the  "Pastoral"  Symphony,  or 
Berlioz  in  "  Faust." 

The  instructions  given  for  the  tite  and  tlute 
apply  also  to  the  piccolo.  But,  although  this 
instrument  lacks  the  nobility  of  tone  of  the  big 
flute,  the  student  should  note  that  it  excels  in 


certain  trills  and  florid  passages,  one  of  its  most 
charming  characteristics  being  the  rapidity  in 
which  reiterated  notes  can  be  articulated  by 
double  and  triple  tonguing. 

We  give  here  an  example  of  double-tonguing. 
Tongue  the  first  note,  and  blow  the  second  very 
strongly  from  the  throat.  Do  not  hurry  at 


first.  With  practice,  the  player  should  be  able 
to  imitate  in  velocity  and  neatness  of  execution 
the  roll  of  a  side  drum.  [Ex.  1.] 

In  triple- tonguing,  tongue  the  first  and  secdnd 
notes,  and  blow  the  third.  [Ex.  2.]  This  sort  of 
thing  when  properly  done  is  well  worth  hearing 
in  solo  work.  At  the  same  time,  the  student 
should  practise  daily  chain-trills,  going  from  note 
to  note  in  the  different  major  scales,  because  the 
piccolo  is  frequently  employed  to  imitate  bird- 
like  effects.  Thoss  trills  which  are  most  difficult  of 
execution  should,  of  course,  be  given  special 
attention.  For  example,  practise  those  on  the 
lowest  D$,  with  the  E  $  above  ;  the  E?  with  the 
F  above ;  FC  with  the  G  Jt  above ;  AP  with  the 
B'?  above ;  Cti  with  the  D  Jj  above  ;  Off  with  the 
D  J  above ;  and  the  A 7  on  the  first  ledger  line 
with  the  B !?  above. 

FLUTE 

The  flute  is  one  of  the  most  important  instru- 
ments in  the  modern  orchestra.  The  flageolet 
and  the  church  organ  pipe  exemplify  one  great 
division  of  the  flute  family,  known  as  the  fl.nte- 
a-bec.  The  other  great  division,  with  \vhich 
we  are  now  treating,  comprises  all  the  different 
kinds  of  flauti-traversi,  or  horizontal  instruments. 
The  reason  why  to-day,  in  the  most  advanced 
orchestral  m.isic,  the  flute  plays  such  an  im- 
portant part  is  OAving  to  the  acoustical  discoveries 
of  Captain  Gordon,  made  practical  through  the 


MUSIC 


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system  of  manufacture  known  as  the  Boehm. 
Before  such  improvements  the  flute,  in  many 
respects,  was  defective  in  intonation  and  difficult 
to  finger.  As  it  may  not  be  within  the  means  of 
every  student  to  purchase  an  instrument  with  the 
latest  system  of  fingering,  he  will  probably  have 
to  content  himself  with  an  ordinary  military 
instrument. 

One  to  Eight=keyed  Flutes.  The  one- 
keyed  flute,  described  under  Fife,  has  a  D  ft  lever 
pressed  down  by  the  little  finger  of  the'  right 
hand.  The  four-keyed  flute  has  a  second,  or 
E  jj  lever,  worked  by  the  third  right  finger  ; 
a  third,  or  G  %  lever,  worked  by  the  fourth  left 
finger;  and  a  fourth,  or  A JJ  lever,  worked  by  the 
left  thumb.  The  six-keyed  flute  introduces  a 
fifth  lever  (GJJ),  and  a  sixth  (or  C£),  both  worked 
by  the  fourth  right  finger. 

Coming  to  the  eight-keyed  flute,  we  have 
an  additional  seventh  lever,  or  C£|  shake-key, 
worked  by  the  first  right  finger,  and  an  eighth 
lever,  or  E  jjl  key,  played  by  the  fourth  left  finger. 
Familiarity  with  the  different  keys  is  easily 
acquired  if  the  student  who  begins  with  the 
fife  has  an  opportunity  of  learning  afterwards 
the  flutes  with  four,  six,  and,  finally,  eight  keys. 
A  well-made  instrument  of  this  class,  guaranteed 
for  six  years,  can  be  obtained  new  for  £3,  or  for 
considerably  less  second-hand. 

Military  Scores.  In  a  military  score 
the  piccolo  comes  at  the  top.  Beneath  it  is  the 
F  flute.  Beneath  that,  again,  is  the  E1?  flute. 
The  actual  pitch  of  the  Et?  and  F  flutes  respec- 
tively is  Dt?  and  El? .  In  most  bands,  as  they  are 
seldom  wanted  together,  one  man  plays  both 
instruments.  Should  they  be  needed  simul- 
taneously, the  piccolo  player  takes  the  second 
instrument.  The  tone- quality  of  the  F  flute  is 
lighter  than  the  E!?,  the  latter  being  richer  and 
fuller.  Although  regulation  flutes  used  in  the 
drum-and-fife  bands  have  but  one  to  four  keys, 
those  employed  with  the  brass  and  reed  instru- 
ments require  the  eight  mentioned.  It  is  only 
possible  here  to  give  the  chromatic  scale  of  the 
last-named  instrument,  which  will  be  easily 
understood  by  the  diagram  at  the  head  of  this 


Concert  flutes,  on  the  other  hand,  have  ten, 
eleven,  or  twelve  keys,  besides  rings.  Most 
players  master  the  eight-keyed  fingering  before 
proceeding  to  the  instrument  with  cylindrical 
bore  and  larger  holes  adopted  by  Boehm. 
Amongst  the  many  methods  for  the  latter  may 
be  mentioned  those  by  Bousquet  and  Taffenel 
(Paris),  and Svendsen  and  Pratten  (London).  As 
regards  pitch,  the  tuning-slide  enables  the  in- 
strument to  be  flattened  bat  not  sharpened 
when  closed ;  but  all  wind  instruments  get 
sharper  as  they  become  warmer  through  the 
breath  of  the  player  or  the  heat  of  a  concert-room. 
Before  playing,  therefore,  warm  the  instrument 
well  with  the  breath  through  the  mouth -hole. 

OCARINA 

The  ocarina  is  of  terra  cotta,  resembling  in 
shape  the  body  of  a  little  goose,  the  Italian  word 
"  oca  "  implying  that  bird.  Because  the  large 
interval  cavity  has  no  outlet,  or  bell,  the  musical 
quality  of  the  tone  is  of  acoustical  interest. 
There  is  a  peculiar  hollowness  in  its  character, 
somewhat  like  that  of  a  stopped  organ  pipe. 

Compass  and  Construction.  The  com- 
pass of  the  solo  ocarina  comprises  a  chromatic 
scale  of  20  distinct  semitones  extending,  in  the  C 
instrument,  half  a  tone  below  middle  C  to  F  on 
the  top  line,  treble  clef.  Made  of  larger  sizes, 
at  different  pitches,  the  compass  is  extended 
downwards  by  increasing  the  cavity.  Effective 
combinations  of  six  players  have  made 
monetary  harvests,  especially  on  the  Continent. 
The  tone  is  sweet  and  pure.  Although  incap- 
able of  great  force,  it  has  a  remarkable  carrying 
quality.  The  mouthpiece  is  where  the  head 
of  the  goose  should  be,  and  the  tuning-slide 
is  situated  in  the  region  of  the  creature's  breast. 

Pull  out  the  slide  to  lower  the  tone.  Push  it 
in  to  raise  it.  The  body  of  the  bird  is  pierced 
by  ten  holes,  five  for  each  hand.  Place  the 
mouthpiece  to  the  lips.  Two  holes  only  should 
then  be  at  the  back  ;  cover  these  with  the 
thumbs.  Place  the  first  finger  of  the  right  hand 
over  the  hole  at  the  bird's  tail.  Put  the  second, 
third  and  fourth  fingers  over  the  three  holes 
which  follow  in  the  direction  of  the  mouthpiece. 
Close,  with  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand,  the 

4569 


MUSIC 

hole  nr.iivst  the  tuning-slide,  and,  with  the 
second,  third  and  fourth  fingers,  those  which  are 
in  lint-  A\ith  the  first. 

All  the  holes  should  now  be  covered,  not  with 
the  tip  I. nt  with  the  ball  of  each  finger,  so  as  to 
nt  any  escape  of  air  and  a  bad  effect.  Put 
tli«-  mouthpiece,  not  into  the  mouth,  but 
between  tin-  lips.  Blow  lightly  into  the  instru- 
ment. Kieuthe  through  the  nose.  Endeavour 
to  get  the  tone  even ;  never  force  it.  The 
note  sounded  will  be  C  on  first  ledger  line  below 
Matt.  Cherk  this  with  a  piano. 

C  Major.  After  sounding  middle  C,  raise 
the  first  right  finger,  covering  the  hole  by  the 
bird's  tail.  Blow  as  before,  softly.  This  should 
give  D,  a  tone  above  the  C.  Lift  the  second 
right  finger.  The  result  will  be  E.  Raise  the 
third  finger.  This  will  sound  F.  Withdraw 
the  fourth  finger.  The  result  will  be  G.  To 
get  the  A  above,  raise  the  third  finger  of  the 
left  hand.  This  may  require  practice,  as  the 
third  is  the  weakest  digit.  But  the  other  notes 
of  the  left  hand  must  be  kept  firmly  closed.  To 
get  the  B  above,  lift  the  second  finger.  Raise 
the  first  for  the  C.  Take  away  the  left  thumb 
for  the  D,  and  the  fourth  left  finger  for  the  E. 
With  all  the  holes  open,  sound  F.  Descend  the 
scale  in  the  same  way  [Ex.  1]. 

Tone  Production.  Sustained  and  gliding 
effects  are  accomplished  by  steady  blowing  in 
the  way  described,  and  the  endeavour  should 
be  to  make  the  sounds  of  the  scale  travel 
as  smoothly  as  possible  from  one  to  another. 
Staccato  is  the  reverse  of  this.  The  way  to  do  it 
is,  on  producing  each  sound,  to  articulate  the 
syllable  "  too,"  by  giving  to  the  tongue  the 
same  action  as  is  done  in  spitting  a  bit  of  fluff 
out  of  the  mouth.  This  tone-stroke  emphasises 
the  initial  vibration,  and  quick  withdrawal  of 
the  member  allows  the  necessary  air  to  pass  into 
the  instrument  [Ex.  2].  Having  obtained 
facility  in  playing  the  scale  staccato,  make  a 
triplet  of  each  note,  so  that  it  is  heard  three 
times  distinctly  before  the  next  is  played. 
This  is  done  by  pronouncing,  mentally,  "  too- 
tle-too "  for  each  note  [Ex.  3].  After  this, 
endeavour  gradually  to  increase  the  speed 
with  the  first  method  of  blowing.  Until  the 
student  becomes  familiar  with  the  fingering, 
this  will  require  daily  practice.  He  should  not 
be  satisfied  until  he  is  able  to  run  up  the  scale 
with  one  breath,'  and  down  again  with  the  next 
[Ex.  4].  Then  take  practice  in  intervals.  The 
Violin  course  will  suggest  appropriate  exercises 
[page  2121].  Expression  is  added,  when  sustain- 
MI«  a  note  in  a  melody,  by  the  use  of  the  vibrato. 
This  is  done  by  fluttering  the  breath  in  the 
mouth  rather  than  in  the  throat,  as  in  singing. 

Chromatic  Scale.  The  fact  that  the 
ocarina  can  be  played  chromatically  gives  it  a 
l« -ultimate  musical  value.  Sound  the  C,  as 
before.  To  get  C;,  the  same  fingering  may 
^'•d  by  blowing  harder.  A  more  artistic 
m  HI  partly  to  uncover  the  hole  stopped  by 
the  Jirst  right  finger.  Taking  off  the  first  finger 
entirely,  sound  the  D.  To  get  D$,  replace  the 


Ex.  1. 


Ex.  2. 


Ex.  3. 


first  finger,  leaving  the  second  hole  open.  Sound 
the  E  and  F  as  before,  by  uncovering  the  first 
and  second,  and  then  the  first,  second  and 
third  holes. 

To  get  the  F$,  close  the  third  hole  but  un- 
cover the  fourth.  Sound  the  G,  as  before,  by 
opening  the  four  holes,  and  the  Gj  by  stopping 
the  third  hole  and  uncovering  the  fourth  and 
fifth,  the  latter  by  the  third  left  finger.  Sound 
the  A  by  opening  the  five  holes,  but  replace 
the  third  finger  of  the  right  hand  and  take  off 
the  second  finger  of  the  left  for  the  A.J.  For 
the  B,  remove  the  third  finger,  leaving  the  six 
holes  uncovered.  Sound  the  C,  as  before  with  the 
seven  holes  open.  For  the  0$,  take  off  the  left 
thumb,  but  put  down  the  third  right  finger. 
For  the  D,  remove  the  third  finger.  For  the 
D;f,  take  off  the  fourth  left  finger  and  put  down 
the  third  of  the  right  hand.  For  the  E,  displace 
the  third  finger.  For  the  Ejj,  as  for  the  F, 
all  the  notes  are  open.  But  the  note  is  "hu- 
moured" by  the  breath  [Ex.  5].  Descend  in 
the  same  way. 

Having  returned  to  the  C,  if  the  instrument 
is  blown  very  softly,  with  all  the  holes  closed, 
the  semitone  below  the  pitch-note,  B,  will 
result.  Therefore,  it  will  be  perceived  that  what 
is  called  "humouring"  the  breath  greatly 
affects  the  intonation.  The  student  must  know 
what  tone  he  desires  to  produce.  His  ear  will 
then  enable  him  to  get  it. 

The  Trill.  An  excellent  way  of  getting 
accustomed  to  the  fingering  of  the  chromatic 
scale  is  to  practise  trills  a  semitone  apart. 
Begin  slowly,  and  play  softly,  gradually  in- 
creasing the  speed.  After  regular  daily  practice, 
the  knack  will  be  acquired  of  ascending  and 
descending  the  scale  in  this  way  without  break 
either  in  intensity  of  tone  or  regularity  in 
rhythm. 


Fife,  Piccolo,  Flute,  and  Ocarina  concluded 


4570 


DETAILS  OF  CHEESEMAKING 

The  Cheddar  Process.     Scalding,  Grinding,  and  Pressing.     Cheshire, 
Blue-veined,  Stilton,  Gruyere,  and  Soft  Cheeses.     Best  Dairying  Books 


Group  1 

AGRICULTURE 
32 


continued  from  page  4492 


By   Professor 

The  Cheddar  Process.  All  things  con- 
sidered, Cheddar  is  the  most  popular  cheese  in 
the  world.  The  best  is  produced  in  Somerset, 
Ayrshire,  and  Wigtownshire.  It  is  the  staple 
cheese  of  Canada  and  the  United  States,  as  well 
as  of  the  Australian  Colonies,  and  there  is  no 
other  variety  which  approaches  it  as  a  pressed 
cheese  from  the  point  of  view  of  combined  texture 
and  flavour.  The  system  of  production  may  be 
regarded  as  a  type,  and  the  most  perfect  type, 
of  that  adopted  in  the  manufacture  of  pressed 
cheeses  of  other  varieties,  to  which,  therefore, 
we  need  but  briefly  refer. 

The  milk  supplied  by  the  cows  in  the  evening 
is  strained  and  poured  into  the  cheese  vat,  and 
stirred  until  sufficiently  cool  to  prevent  the 
too  liberal  rising  of  the  cream,  which  ascends 
with  greatest  rapidity  in  warm  milk.  On  the 
following  morning  the  cream  which  has  risen  is 
removed  by  skimming  and  mixed  with  a  portion 
of  the  milk  fn  the  vat.  In  some  cases  this  mix- 
ture is  poured  into  a  smaller  vat  and  heated  to 
such  a  temperature  as  will  raise  the  remaining 
milk  of  the  evening  with  that  of  the  morning, 
when  the  latter  has  been  added,  to  the  required 
temperature  for  coagulation.  The  morning's 
milk  is  strained  and  poured  warm  into  the 
vat  already  mentioned,  and  if  the  vat  has  a 
double  lining  or  jacket,  so  that  the  milk  can  be 
heated  by  hot  water  or  steam,  the  second  vat 
becomes  unnecessary,  as  the  whole  volume  is 
then  raised  to  the  required  temperature  at  once. 
Where  two  vats  are  employed,  this  temperature 
may  be  reached  with  accuracy  by  the  aid  of  the 
following  formula  from  "  Elements  of  Dairy- 
Farming,"  by  James  Long. 

Method  of  Raising  the  Temperature 
of  Milk.  "  Multiply  the  number  of  gallons  in 
the  tub  by  the  number  of  degrees  which  it  has 
to  be  raised  or  lowered,  and  divide  the  number 
so  obtained  by  the  gallons  of  milk  in  the  warmer. 
The  result  shows  the  number  of  degrees  above 
or  below  84°  F.,  to  which  the  milk  in  the  warmer 
must  be  brought.  Thus,  if  we  have  45  gallons  in 
the  large  vat,  and  15  gallons  in  the  small  one  at 
80°  F.,  and  we  desire  to  heat  the  whole  to  85°  F., 


35.  POND'S  CURD  BREAKER 

we   must   raise    the    smaller    quantity    through 
300°  F.  of  heat  (45  +  15  x  5),  thus  : 

300  -4-  15  =  20°  F. 

"  If  we  add  the  result  (20°  F.)  to  the  desired 
temperature  (80°   F.),  we  get   100°   F.    as   the 


34.  POND'S  CURD  KNIFE 


JAMES   LONG 

temperature  to  which  it  would  be  necessary  to 
heat  the  15  gallons.  It  is,  however,  undesirable 
to  heat  milk  much  above  90°  F.,  and  we  con- 
sequently make  a  fresh  calculation,  with  the 
result  that  we  find  it  will  be  necessary  to  heat 
half  the  milk  to  90°  F.  to  bring  the  whole 
volume  to  85°  F." 

Care  must  be  taken  that  too  much  heat  has 
not  been  lost  before  the  temperature  is  artificially 
raised.  The 
required 
tempera- 
ture being 
reached, 
the  milk  is 
stirred,  the 
r  e  q  u  i  s  i  te 
quantity  of 

sour  whey — if  this  be  employed — is  then  added  at 
the  same  temperature,  and  all  is  ready  for  the  addi- 
tion of  the  rennet.  The  quantity  of  whey  should  be 
regulated  in  proportion  to  the  acid  it  contains — 
and  here  again  a  test  for  acidity  becomes  neces- 
sary. If  the  evening's  milk  has  not  fallen  below 
70°  F.,  although  in  some  cases  68°  F.  may  be  safe, 
sour  whey  may  not  be  needed.  The  milk  for 
renneting  is  heated  to  different  temperatures  in 
accordance  with  the  practice  or  custom  of  the 
district  or  of  the  individual  maker.  In  Scotland, 
84°  F.  is  largely  employed  ;  in  the  West  of 
England,  from  85°  F.  in  autumn  to  90°  F.  in 
spring  ;  but  the  maker,  who  should  invariably 
be  a  trained  hand,  will  in  most  cases  adopt  that 
temperature  to  which  he  has  been  accustomed, 
although  he  may  see  occasion  to  modify  it  where 
conditions  change  or  are  new.  Coagulation  is 
complete  in  from  40  to  50  minutes.  In  the 
United  States,  however,  the  curd  is  brought 
much  more  quickly,  but  the  cheese  is  less  fine  in 
quality  and  keeps  less  perfectly,  for  the  smaller 
the  quantity  of  rennet  used  the  better  the  keep- 
ing properties  of  the  cheese. 

Cutting  the  Curd.  Coagulation  being 
perfect,  the  curd  is  cut,  either  with  the  knives 
commonly  employed  in  the  dairy,  with  the 
American  knives  already  referred  to,  or  with  the 
oblique  bladed  knives  made  by  Pond  [34].  The 
curd  should  be  cut  evenly  throughout,  that  each 
piece  may  be  of  similar  size.  After  cutting,  the  vat 
may  be  covered  and  left  for  a  short  time,  but 
stirring  and  breaking  is  usually  begun  within  the 
hour.  During  this  operation  large  pieces  of  curd 
will  be  broken  smaller,  but  the  work  must  be  very 
gentle,  that  the  curd  may  not  be  damaged  and 
the  fat  it  contains  lost  [35].  Stirring  lasts 
from  15  to  30  minutes,  when  the  work  ceases 
for  a  time — the  vat  being  again  covered — to  be 
followed  by  the  scalding  process,  during  which 
acid  rapidly  develops,  while  the  tender  curd 

4571 


AGRICULTURE 

becomes  firm,  and  at  first  comparatively  tough. 
Stimuli  continues  during  the  process  of  heating, 
\\  hether  a  portion  of  the  whey  has  been  removed 
or  heated  separately  and  subsequently  returned 
tii  tin-  vat.  or  whether  the  whole  mass  be  heated 
together  through  the  medium  of  the  jacket,  In 
Ayrshire  makers  scald  to  98°  F.,  sometimes  to 
102°  F.,  while  in  Somerset,  scalding  point  varies 
from  90°  F.  to  94°  F.,  many  American  makers 
employing  a  still  higher  figure— sometimes  as 
much  as  104°  F.  On  many  farms  there  is  a  second 
scalding,  the  curd  having  been  allowed  to  settle 
for  a  feu  minutes  after  the  first.  In  this  case  the 
scald  varies  from  94°  F.  to  98°  F.,  which  is 
reached  at  the  end  of  the  season ;  but  in  all  cases 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the  temperature  to 
be  adopted  depends  upon  the  acidity  of  the  milk 
at  the  time  of  renneting,  and  the  employment  or 
not  of  sour  whey.  Stirring  is  again  resorted  to  in 
order  to  help  the  curd  to  acquire  condition — and 
this  needs  both  skill  and  judgment  on  the  part  of 
the  maker.  If  the  acid  in  the  milk  be  one  degree 
more  than  was  present  before  the  rennet  was 
added,  that  condition  has  generally  been  reached. 
The  object  is  to  obtain  an  elastic  curd,  in  which 
there  is  practically  no  toughness.  The  curd, 
indeed,  should  string  out  when  attached  to  a 
hot  iron  gradually  drawn  away  by  the  hand. 

After  stirring,  the  curd  settles  at  the  bottom 
of  the  vat,  and  here  it  remains  for  a  time,  the 
whey  being  drawn  off,  passing  through  a  strainer 
on  ite  way ;  but  it  is  important  that  it 
should  not  be  drawn  unless  the  time  is  oppor- 
tune. If  it  remain  too  long  there  may  be  too 
much  acid ;  if  too  short  a  time  an  insufficient 
proportion.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  where 
sour  whey  is  not  employed,  not  only  is  the 
evening's  milk  maintained  at  68°  F.  to  70°  F. 
until  the  morning,  but  that  the  second  scald 
may  sometimes  need  a  temperature  of  104°  F.  to 
106°  F. 

Scalding.  In  the  scalding  process  the 
temperature  of  the  curds  and  whey  should  be 
raised  slowly,  otherwise  the  curd  may  be  tough- 
ened, and  the  whey  then  prevented  from  escaping 
sufficiently  for  the  maker's  purpose.  The  whey 
having  left  the  vat,  the  curd  remaining  at  the 
bottom  in  the  form  of  a  mat  is  cut  and  piled  in 
cubes  about  6  in.  square.  These  cubes  are  from 
time  to  time  changed  in  position,  that  each  may 
be  properly  aerated,  but  they  are  still  kept  to- 
gether in  a  mass  that  heat  may  not  escape,  for  that 
is  still  essential— so  much  so  that  the  mass  should 
be  covered  with  a  cloth,  which  may  be  doubled  if 
acidity  need  extra  promotion.  Indeed,  the  vat 
itself  may  be  covered  with  its  lid  if  circumstances 
demand  it.  The  curd  is  then  left  until  it  is  suffi- 
cient ly  acid— a  condition  which  the  maker  must 
determine  for  himself.  It  is  then  broken  up  into 
small  pieces,  tied  in  a  cloth  or  cloths,  and,  under 
some  systems,  slightly  pressed  either  in  the 

ttom  of  the  vat,  the  rack  being  placed  beneath 

it-  «•!•  m  a  curd  cooler,  which  many  cheesemakers 

Where  there  is  no  pressure  employed,  the 

1  i>  usually  again  cut  into  cubes,  the  pieces 

'""."•'I  pr  changed  in  position,  and  still  left  to 

r.-.m.  this  process  b.-in.u  repeated  if  it  be  found 

necessary.     During    the    whole    of    this    work 

1672 


however,  the  temperature  of  the  curd  should  be 
maintained  at  as  near  90°  F.  as  possible  until  it 
be  sufficiently  ripe  or  mature  for  grinding  in  the 
curd  mill. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  the  process 
tli us  briefly  described  is  one  which  permits 
of  variations  in  practice,  for  there  is  no  method 
Avhieh  is  really  empirical,  so  long  as  the  desired 
result  is  achieved  in  reasonable  time — and  it  is 
important  that  the  process  should  not  take  too 
long,  for  cheesemaking  is  at  the  best  an  industry 
which  demands  considerable  attention  and 
some  anxiety  from  day  to  day.  A  mellow  cheese 
of  fine  flavour  cannot  be  produced  unless  suffi- 
cient acidity  has  been  developed  in  the  curd. 
If  the  whey  contain  1  per  cent,  of  acid  when  the 
curd  is  believed  to  be  ready  for  grinding,  good 
results  may  be  anticipated  ;  but  the  maker  may 
be  more  confident  if  he  be  able  to  test  the  acidity 
of  the  curd  and  to  find  it  equal  to  that  which 
on  other  occasions  has  been  followed  by  the  pro- 
duction of  fine  cheese. 

Grinding.  In  grinding,  the  pieces  of  curd 
after  passing  through  the  mill  [36]  should  be  of 
uniform  size,  but  the  work  should  be  performed 
slowly,  otherwise  damage  may  occur  owing  to 
friction  or  squeezing.  The  mill  should  be 
simple  and  easily  cleaned.  The  ground  curd  is 
subsequently  weighed  and  spread  in  the  vat 
or  cooler  for  salting — the  salt  employed  being 
at  the  rate  of  2|  Ib.  per  cwt.  of  cheese,  and  quite 
dry  and  fine.  Where  the  cheese  is  intended  for 
early  sale,  and  is  to  ripen  early  in  consequence, 
2  Ib.  may  be  found  sufficient.  Under  some 
systems,  however,  where  the  work  is  quickly 
performed,  or  where  it  is  protracted,  a  smaller 
or  still  larger  quantity  of  salt  may  be  used. 
There  is  a  greater  loss  of  salt  in  the  drainage 
from  pressure  when  the  curd  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  whey  than 
when  it  is  comparatively 
dry.  Salt  not  only  acts 
as  a  preservative,  but  it 


36.    CURD    GRINDING   MILL  AND    CURD    COOLER 
(Pond  &  Son,  Ltd.,  Blandford) 

influences  the  action  of  the  rennet,  while  it 
slightly  affects  the  flavour.  After  the  salt  has 
been  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  curd,  the  latter 
is  ready  for  placing  in  the  mould  or  cheese  hoop 
[37]  in  which  it  goes  to  press. 


CHEESE  HOOP 
OR  MOULD 


Pressing.  When  the  curd  is  placed  in  the 
hoop  for  pressing,  its  temperature  should  be 
70°  F.  If  the  heat  be  greater,  it  is  liable  to 
lose  fat  under  pressure.  The  student  of  cheese- 
making  should  take  a  lesson  in  the  process  of 
clothing  cheese  for  the  vat,  of  vatting,  and  of 
putting  to  press,  as  well  as  in 
bandaging  after  pressure  is  com- 
plete, the  shape  and  quality  of 
the  cheese  depending  largely  37  PRESSED. 
upon  these  processes.  When  in 
the  press,  pressure  must  be 
applied  until  the  whey  runs  ;  it 
is  then  gradually  increased  for  two  or  three 
hours,  and  left  until  the  following  morning, 
when  it  is  clothed  with  a  clean  cloth,  returned 
to  the  press,  and  the  pressure  again  increased. 
This  practice  is  followed 
until  the  end  of  three  days, 
when  the  cheese  is  removed, 
bandaged,  labelled  with  the 
date  of  manufacture,  and 
such  details  as  are  necessary 
for  reference,  and  taken  to 
the  ripening -room. 

Cheese  Presses.  The 
-best  cheese  presses  [38]  are 
made  of  iron — light,  strong, 
and  capable  of  giving  both 
progressive  and  continuous 
.pressure.  With  progressive 
pressure  alone  a  crust  is 
formed  on  the  outside  of  the 
cheese,  while  the  whey 
within  maybe  enclosed  and 
thus  prevent  the  production  of  fine  texture. 
The  ripening-room  should  be  kept  at  60°  F.  to 
70°  F. — preferably  by  the  aid  of  hot  water  pipes 
which  can  be  controlled,  stoves  being  most 
undesirable.  The  cheeses  should  be  placed  on 
clean  wooden  shelves,  systematically  turned, 
and  their  places  changed  from  time  to  time 
from  a  higher  to  a  lower  shelf  or  vice  versa. 

The  Ripening  of  Cheese.  The  ripen- 
ing of  cheese,  apart  from  the  question  of  the 
influence  of  acid,  the  temperature  of  the  room, 
and  the  quality  of  the  milk,  depends  upon  daily 
care  and  examination.  A  system  of  cold  curing 
has  been  discovered  in  America,  and  Drs.  Bab- 
cock  and  Russell,  of  the  Wisconsin  Station,  have 
shown  that  it  is  a  success ;  but  it  is  practically 
unknown  in  this  country,  and  until  British 
experts  are  in  a  position  to  practise  and  demon- 
strate the  process  with  equal  success  to  that 
which  we  now  achieve,  it  will  be  weir  for  the 
English  maker  to  continue  to  follow  a  system 
under  which  the  finest  cheese  in  the  world  is 
produced. 

During  the  ripening  process  the  insoluble  curd 
becomes  soluble,  and  the  richer  the  milk  in  fat 
the  more  rapid  is  the  change.  If,  however, 
milk  be  skimmed,  that  change  is  protracted,  and 
the  larger  the  quantity  of  fat  removed  the 
longer  the  time  required,  until  when  made  from 
milk  perfectly  skimmed,  a  ripe  cheese  is  neither 
mellow  nor  perfectly  soluble.  Ripening  is  due  to 
fermentation,  the  work  of  bacteria.  As  the  acid, 
the  product  of  the  lactic  ferment,  is  diminished, 


38.    CHEESE  PRESS 
T.  Corbett,  Shrewsbury) 


AGRICULTURE 

greater  energy  is  displayed  by  the  casein  ferments 
which  decompose  the  albuminoid  matter  and 
liberate  ammonia,  which  neutralises  the  re- 
maining acid,  with  the  result  that  solubility 
rapidly  follows. 

Cheese  Yield.  The  quantity  of  cheese 
made  per  gallon  of  milk  depends  chiefly  upon 
the  richness  of  the  milk  in  fat.  In  the  New 
York  experiments  with  rich  milk  the  yield  of 
cheese  per  gallon  averaged  1  '23  Ib.  varying  from 
•97  Ib.  to  T4  Ib.  ;  while  the  water  retained  in 
the  cheese  produced  from  a  gallon  of  milk 
averaged  '47  Ib.,  varying  from  '32  to  '63  Ib. 
The  following  facts  were  ascertained  from  these 
and  other  experiments  conducted  on  a  large 
scale : 

1.  In   America   the  quantity   of  fat  bears  a 
uniform  relationship  to  the  quantity  of  casein 
both  in  milk  and  cheese. 

2.  When  rich  milk  was  used,  the  loss  of  fat 
was  smaller  per  cent,  than  when  the  milk  was 
of  poorer  quality. 

3.  The  cheese  produced  per  pound  of  fat  is 
generally  uniform. 

4.  The  weights  of  solids  lost,  and  of  solids 
recovered  in  making  Cheddar  cheese  are  almost 
identical. 

Results  of  Experiments.  Combining 
a  large  number  of  British  and  American  ex- 
periments in  Cheddar  cheese  production,  we 
add  the  following  highly  important  and  closely  - 
-  condensed  results.  It  was  found  that  the 
quantity  of  fat  per  pou^d  of  casein  in  cheese 
varied  from  T4  to  T5  per  cent.  ;  that  the  loss 
of  fat  per  100  Ib.  of  milk  employed  in  making 
cheese  varied  from  6 "3  per  cent,  in  the  case  of 
extra  rich  milk  to  10  per  cent,  in  average  factory 
milk ;  that  the  quantity  of  cheese  produced  per 
pound  of  fat  in  the  milk  varied  from  2 '67  to 
2 -75  per  cent.  ;  that  the  solid  matter  left  in  the 
whey  for  every  100  Ib.  or  10  gallons  of  milk 
used  varied  from  6 '14  to  6 '28  per  cent. ;  and 
that  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  retained  in  the 
cheese  from  the  same  quantity  of  milk  varied 
from  6 '05  to  6 '71  per  cent.  Approximately, 
therefore,  the  solid  matter  of  the  curd  ex- 
tracted from  milk  is  about  equal  in  weight 
to  the  solid  matter  left  behind,  chiefly  sugar. 
Confirming  this  statement,  we  again  point 
to  the  fact  that  the  quantity  of  solid  matter 
in  the  cheese  for  each  pound  of  solid  matter 
left  in  the  whey  varied  from  -9  per  cent,  in 
the  spring  to  1*16  per  cent,  in  October.  The 
fat  which  was  left  in  the  whey  per  100  Ib.  of 
milk  varied  from  -28  per  cent,  in  June  to  '42  per 
cent,  in  September,  averaging  about  '35  per 
cent. ;  while  the  quantity  of  casein  and  albumin 
left  in  the  whey  per  100  Ib.  of  milk  varied  from 
•64  per  cent,  in  April  to  '85  per  cent,  in  October. 
When  the  milk  contained  from  3  to  3|-  per  cent, 
of  fat,  the  fat  left  in  the  whey  reached  9 '5  per 
cent.,  while  the  cheese  made  reached  only  9'1  Ib. 
per  100  Ib.  of  milk.  As  the  milk  increased  in 
quality  there  was  a  systematic  diminution  of  the 
loss  of  fat  and  increase  of  the  cheese  made,  until 
the  richest  milk,  containing  5  to  5f  per  cent, 
of  fat,  lost  only  6  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  whey 
and  made  13'6  Ib.  of  cheese. 

4573 


AGRICULTURE 

Some   Practical   Results  in  Cheddar 
Cheese    Making.     One   of  the  best  Scotch 

m:ik«-rs    of    Cheddar    duvsr,    who   supplied   the 
writer  with    full   details   of   his  work   for   four 
years,  for  the  conclusions  of  which  we  are  able 
alone  to  find  space,  showed  that  when  milking 
100  cows  the  quantity  of  curd  when  ready  for 
grinding  practically   averaged  1  Ib.  per  gallon 
i»f  milk,  not  reaching  this  figure  in  spring,  but 
exceeding  it  in  autumn.     In  this  dairy  4  oz.  of 
ivnnet  are  added  to  every  100  gallons  of  milk 
during  the  whole  season,  the  curd  being  brought 
in    lf>  to  50  minutes,  and  heated  to  98°  F.  in 
spring,  the  heat  being  gradually  increased 
until    it   reaches  102°   F.  in   September. 
Lastly,  taking  the  results  of  many  tests, 
it  is  found  that  the  fat  present  in  Cheddar 
cheese  varies  from  32  to  34£  per  cent.,  and 
the  solid  matter  from  62  to  64£  per  cent. 
Cheshire  Cheese.     Cheshire  cheese, 
which  closely  resembles  Cheddar  cheese  in 
appearance,    except    that    usually  it    is 
coloured    artificially,   nevertheless  differs 
in  flavour  and  texture.      It  is  made  of 
three  types :  (1)  the  early  ripening  cheese, 
which  possesses  a  stronger  flavour,  and 
contains  more  moisture,  thus  paying  the 
producer  a   better   price   for   his   milk ; 
(2)   the   medium    cheese ;    (3)  the  long- 
keeping  cheese.     In  the  manufacture  of 
Cheshire   cheese   the    formation   of    acid 
is   promoted    by  the   addition    of  sour  whey, 
usually  1  per  cent.,  before  the  rennet  is  added 
for   coagulation.     The   curd   is   cut   larger   in 
making  the  early  ripening  variety,   while   the 
whey   is    left  in   the   vat   longer. 
Less  pressure,  too,  is  applied,  and 
the  curd  is  not  ground  in  the  mill. 
In  the  manufacture  of  the  medium 
type  of  Cheshire  cheese  the  curd 
is    cut    finer    than    in  the   early 
ripening  type ;   it  is  also  ground, 
and    subsequently    placed    in   an 
oven  when  in  the  vat,  or  hoop,  at 
a  temperature  of  about  80°  F.,  and 
not  put  to  press  until  the  following 
day,  when  it  remains  for  some  five 
days.     In  this  case  salt  is  used  at 
the  rate  of  2£  per  cent.      In 
making  the  late- keeping  cheese, 
coagulation  lasts  longer — some 
minutes— while  the  curd  is 


and  Roquefort.  They  are  the  production  of  pure 
milk,  which  should  contain  4  per  cent,  of  fat, 
milk  of  this  character  making  a  creamier, 
mellower,  and  heavier  cheese.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  Stilton  and  Gorgonzola  the  curd 
produced  from  the  milk  of  two  meals,  morning 
and  evening,  is  coagulated  separately,  and  the 
curd  subsequently  mixed,  although  there  are  now 
many  makers  who  produce  Stilton  from  the  curd 
of  mixed  milk  instead  of  mixed  curd.  In  Stilton 
manufacture  the  two  curds  are  blended  at  about? 
60°  F.,  while  in  making  Gorgonzola  the  warm 
curd  of  the  evening  or  morning  is  mixed  with 
the  cold  curd  of  the  previous  milking. 
Two  separate  curds  fail  to  cohere  or 
unite  like  the  curd  of  a  single  meal, 
with  the  result  that  interstices  are 
formed,  in  which  the  blue  fungus,  Peni- 
cillium  glaucum  is  enabled  to  grow.  In 
the  manufacture  of  Roquefort  the  growth 
of  mould  is  encouraged  by  the  addition 
to  the  curd  of  crumbs  obtained  from 
bread  produced  from  barley  and  rye 
flour,  upon  which  the  fungus  is  already 
flourishing. 

Making  Stilton  Cheese.  In  making 
Stilton  cheese  the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand 
hot  from  the  cows  until  it  has  fallen 
to  the  required  temperature,  which  varies 
from  82°  F.  to  90°  F.,  the  natural  heat 
never  being  lost.  Coagulation  lasts  50 
minutes,  and  when  the  curd  is  ready  for 
removal  it  is  taken  in  large  slices  and  carefully 
laid  in  cheese-cloths,  spread  within  shallow 
metal  receptacles  [41],  where  it  gradually  parts 
with  its  whey  by  gravitation. 
Subsequently,  however,  the  four 
corners  of  the  cloths  are  drawn 
together  and  loosely  tied,  the 
slight  squeezing  inducing  the 
further  drainage  of  the  whey  [32 
and  33,  page  4491].  Later,  the 
corners  are  tightened  slightly  from 
time  to  time,  as  the  maker  finds 
necessary,  the  curd  lying  in  the 
whey  all  the  time.  When  drainage 
is  sufficiently  complete  the  whey 
is  run  off,  and  the  curd,  now 
comparatively  solid,  is  laid  in 
\  pieces  in  a  vessel  made  for 
/  this  purpose  [41],  and  turned 
from  time  to  time  to  assist 


cut  finer  than  in  the  medium  40.  STILTON  CIIEESK  DRAINING  STAND,    it  to  mature  ;  and  it  remains 

''arictv.         and         snnspnunntlir  J.M     J.L  -     *_n- 


and  subsequently 
ground,  and  when  in  the 
mould,  or  hoop,  it  is  placed  in  the  oven 
and  submitted  to  a  longer  period  of  pressure. 
In  Cheshire  manufacture  it  is  usual  to  increase 
the  temperature  of  the  scald  from  spring 
to  autumn  gradually.  Cheshire  cheese  has  a 
good  market  among  the  industrial  population 
I  Lancashire  and  the  North,  and  by  its  produc- 
tion Cheshire  farmers  have  become  some  of  the 
most  prosperous  in  the  country. 

Blue-veined  Cheese.   Unpressed  cheeses, 

that     are    remarkable    for    the     blue    mould 

which  runs  in  veins  within   them,   are   chiefly 

exemplified  by  Litton,  Wensleydale,  Gorgonzola, 

4574 


SHOWING  DRAINING  TUBE 


until  the  following  morning, 
when,  now  soft  and  mellow, 
it  is  mixed  with  the  curd  produced  from 
the  milk  of  the  previous  evening,  both  lots 
having  been  broken  into  small  pieces  by  hand 
and  salted  with  fine  dry  salt  at  the  rate  of 
2  per  cent.  By  long  exposure,  the  first  curd 
has  developed  acid  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of 
the  maker.  The  mixed  curd  is  next  placed  in 
cheese  hoops,  which  are  pierced  with  many  holes 
[39  and  40],  and  taken  to  a  warmer  apartment, 
about  60°  F.,  to  induce  it  to  drain.  Here  it 
remains,  being  turned  from  day  to  day,  until  it 
is  fit  to  take  out  of  the  hoop,  when  it  is  bandaged 
with  calico,  each  bandage  being  changed  daily, 


until  the  coat  or  jacket-like  crust  begins  to  form* 
on  the  outside,  when  it  is  once  more  removed,  but 
to  a  cooler  apartment,  about  55°  F.,  until  the 
coat  be  fully  formed.  At  this  time  change  is 
again  necessary,  and  it  is  removed  to  the  ripening 
apartment,  maintained  at  60°  F.,  which  may  be 
increased  to  65°  F.  if  it  become  necessary  to 
hasten  the  ripening.  Every  cheese  is  turned 
daily  and  carefully  examined,  that  it  may  be  kept 
free  from  mites  or  flies,  both  of  which  should 
be  excluded  from  the  ripening  apartments — an 
important  feature  in  Stilton  cheese  manufacture. 
The  ripening-room  should  be  kept  not  only  at 
an  even  temperature,  but  sufficiently  moist  to 
prevent  the  cheeses  drying,  and  their  consequent 
loss  of  weight  and  quality.  From  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  the  process,  the  greatest  possible 
care  is  needed  to  control  the  activity  of  bacteria, 
which  are  associated  with  dirt,  and  especially 
with  unclean  utensils. 
A  large  proportion  of  the 
Stilton  cheese  produced 
in  England  is  spoiled  as 
much  from  this  cause 
as  from  want  of  know- 
ledge of  principles. 

Gruyere.  Gruyere, 
the  leading  cheese  of 
Continental  type  so 
largely  manufactured  in 
France  and  Switzerland, 
where  it  is  known  as 
Emmenthaler,  is  to  a 
large  extent  the  pro- 
duct of  milk  delivered 
to  factories  by  numbers 
of  very  small  cowkeepers. 
The  temperature  for  the 
coagulation  of  the  curd 
is  95°  F.,  while  cutting 
begins  in  30  minutes. 
After  cutting,  the  curd 
is  broken  during  the 
stirring  process  until  it 
is  about  the  size  of  a 
pea,  when  it  is  heated 
while  in  the  whey  to 
a  temperature  varying 
from  105°  F.  to  130°  F. 


41.    STILTON   CHEESE   ROOM-    SHOWING   THE 

CUED   IN   THE   VATS 
From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  London  Douglas 


AGRICULTURE 

but  whether  a  cheese  be  ripened  while  young 
and  fresh  or  when  some  weeks  old,  it  is  practically 
soluble  owing  to  the  change  which  has  been 
effected  by  the  action  of  mould  or  bacteria,  or 
both.  The  brick-shaped  Yorkshire  curd-cheese 
common  to  this  country,  like  the  fresh  Coulom- 
miers  of  France  (which  is  now  made  and  sold  in 
England),  are  types  of  the  white  or  fresh  curd- 
cheese  ;  while  Brie  and  Camembert  are  ex- 
amples of  the  finest  varieties  of  ripened  cheese. 
In  the  manufacture  of  fresh  or  white  curd- 
cheese,  the  curd  obtained  at  a  given  temperature 
and  in  a  given  time  is  removed  carefully  while 
still  tender  into  the  mould,  which  gives  it  ite 
form,  and  from  which  it  parts  with  its  whey 
by  gravitation.  Moulds  are  now  usually  made 
of  metal,  and  in  some  cases  pierced  with  holes 
[42-44].  They  are  placed  upon  mats  of  clean, 
straight  straws  to  facilitate  drainage,  and  are 
turned  from  time  to 
time  that  the  whey 
may  escape  from  both 
top  and  bottom.  When 
drainage  has  been  suf- 
ficient to  give  firmness 
to  the  young  cheese 
the  mould  is  removed, 
the  cheese  is  salted  on 
its  various  faces,  and 
turned  daily  in  an  apart- 
ment kept  at  a  given 
temperature  until,  in 
three  or  four  days,  it 
has  become  sufficiently 
mellow  and  has  de- 
veloped a  delicate 
flavour,  which  qualifies 
it  for  the  table.  A  fully- 
ripened  cheese,  on  the 
contrary,  although  sub- 
jected to  the  first  pro- 
cesses already  named,  is 
allowed  to  remain  in 
the  first  of  the  ripening 
rooms,  usually  termed 
by  the  French  the 
drying-room,  until  it  is 
covered  with  a  white, 
velvety  down  or  fungus, 


Salt  is  rubbed  into  the  crust  at  the  rate  of  2^  which  in  most  cases  is  succeeded   by  the  blue 

per  cent,  after  the  cheese  is  formed,  it  having  fungus  (Penicillium),  the  action   of    which  is  to 

previously  been   subjected   to    heavy  pressure.  neutralise  the  acidity  of   the  curd,  and  in  this 

In  the  process  of  ripening  it  is  subjected  to  three  way  enable  the  casein  ferments,  or  bacteria,  to 

temperatures,    all    of    which    should   be  under  complete  the  work  of  ripening  and  converting 


control— first  to  60°  F.,  then  to  57°  F.,  and 
finally  to  52°  F.  The  character  and  flavour 
of  Gruyere  is  largely  owing  to  the  inoculation 
of  the  milk  with  the  lactic  ferment  through 
the  medium  of  sour  whey.  The  eyes,  or  holes, 
of  the  cheese  should  be  of  medium  size,  bright, 
clean,  and  glazed,  and  the  flavour  should  re- 
semble that  of  a  hazel  nut. 

Soft    Cheese.      Cheeses    of    the    soft    or 
unpressed  type  are  made  for  consumption  in  a 


the  insoluble  into  soluble  matter.  It  may  be 
mentioned  that  as  the  mould  grows  upon  the 
outside  of  the  cheese,  so  ripening  begins  from 
the  outside,  proceeding  towards  the  centre,  which 
when  reached  becomes  thin,  and  may  cause  the 
cheese  to  run.  The  reason  is  that  the  outside 
being  first  neutralised  the  bacteria  there  first 
become  active. 

Brie.      A    brief   description   of    the   process 
of  the  manufacture  of  the  chief  of  all  French 


white  or  fresh  condition,  or  they  are  ripened  by  cheeses    must    suffice    as    an    example    in    this 

careful  manipulation  and  subjection   for  some  particular     department     of    the    cheesemaking 

weeks  to  well -con  trolled   temperatures.     As  we  industry.     Brie   is  a  creamy  whole-milk  cheese 

1 1     .  1  T  -t  •  •  ,  1      •       1  1  * £ 


have   already   shown,   fresh   curd  is  insoluble  ; 


about    1  in.    in    thickness    and    varying    from 

4575 


AGRICULTURE 

-  „,  ,o  ,2  in.  in  tate     It  is  .*  hfc      Kr  ™™r^?  St±  5 

France  is  produced  from  drier  curd  than  the 
Brie  or  the  Camembert,  with  the  result  that  its 
flavour  is  entirely  different,  and,  although 


famous  Brie   district    near   Paris,   and  realises, 

.ally  in  the  MMOO,  very  high  prices,  which 

i   !,ili\c  to  the  tanner.      The  milk  employed 

in  the  manufacture  of  Brie  cheese  alone,  com-       — 

",.    n el      nsi,n,tieant  as  it  may  appear  to  the      science  has  not  yet  determined  the  point,  it  is 
./Ai.*A j.^.j       more    tiian    probable    that    flavour,    like    con- 


l',riti>h  tanner,  is  quite  equal  to  that  produced 
l.y  the  whole  of  the  cows  of  two  of  many  of  our 
English  counties  h  is  probable  that  in  all 

Brie  dairies  tie 
milk  utilised  in  this 
\\  a\  i  ealises  an  average 

a  gallon,  or  pro- 
l.il.Iy  f>0  per  cent, 
more  than  the  average 
ica  Used  by  leading 
British  dairy  farmers.  42  COULOM- 

The    rennet  is  added   MIERS  CHEESE    43.  MOULD  FOR  BRICK- 
to  the  milk  at  82°  F.         MOULD 
to    86°    F.,   the    curd     (in  two  parts) 
being   ready  in    from 
two     to    four    hours, 


SHAPED  CURD  OR 

YORK    CHEESE 
(Dairy  Supply  Co.,  London) 


sistence  or  texture,  is  in  part  governed  by  the 
quantitative,  relationship  of  the  solid  materials 
of    which    the    cheese 
is  composed — i.e.,  the 
fat.    the    casein,    the 
albumin,     the     sugar, 
and  the  mineral  matter. 
Investigations        have 
been  made  recently  in 
the  United    States   in 
44.  CAMEM-     the    hope     of     deter- 
BERT  CHEESE  mining    the    cause    of 
MOULD        the    flavour   of    Cam- 
embert,   It  is  believed, 
although  no   proof    is 


according  to  custom.     It  should  be  tender,  and      yet  forthcoming,   that   the  vegetable  organism 
verv  carefully  placed  within  the  double  metal      Oidium  lactis,  which  presents  a  creamy  appear- 

v«.  •••Si  i  i     •        j  i  •       •     ji       j  _  .     ii r ,      »r *n_      i A.    . "U*    "U     u~i 


moulds  which  are  employed  in  this  industry. 
These  moulds  consist  of  two  round  hoops,  which 
average  10  in.  in  diameter  by  3£  in.  in  height, 
one  fitting  into  the  other,  so  that  when  the  curd 
is  drained  sufficiently,  and  its  surface  has  fallen 
below  the  bottom  of  the  top  hoop,  this  is  removed, 
and  it  then  becomes  possible  to  turn  the  cheese. 
Each  pair  of  moulds  is  placed  on  clean  straw 
mats,  upon  which  the  maker  lays  the  curd  in 
thin  slices  for  drainage,  the  temperature  of  the 
apartment  being  about  62°  F.  When  ready  for 
turning,  a  clean  mat  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
lower  mould,  and  the  cheese  inverted,  and,  salt 
having  been  spread  over  the  cheese  on  either 
side,  this  practice  is  continued  from  day  to  day 
in  the  drying-room,  which  is  kept  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  65°  F.,  until  the  outsides  are  covered 
with  white  mould.  Turning,  however,  still 
Continues  until  the  blue  mould  appears,  as  it 
does  at  first  in  spots  or  buttons  here  and  there. 
Gradually,  however,  the  whole  surface  is  covered 


with   blue,   and  in  the  best   managed    dairies      wo,?i    2JV  6d/) 
with  isolated  spots  of  vermilion.     The  cheeses 
are  examined  and  turned  daily  until,  in  about  six 
verks.  they  are  sufficiently  ripe  for  the  market. 
General    Points    on     Cheesemahing. 
Whatever  the  variety  of  cheese  that  is  manu- 
factured,  the   process    involved    is   one  which 
resembles  those  already  described  in   its  main 
rharacteristics.      From    what    has    been    said 
already  it  Anil  be  remembered  that  the  time  of 


ance  on  the  surface  of  milk,  but  which  below 
the  surface  closely  resembles  the  cells  of  yeast, 
is  to  some  extent  responsible.  We  have,  how- 
ever, much  to  learn  ;  but  until  properly  sub- 
stantiated facts  are  forthcoming,  the  cheese- 
maker  will  be  well  advised  to  follow  the  recog- 
nised processes  of  the  day  as  practised  by  the 
most  skilful  and  successful  manufacturers. 
THE  BEST  BOOKS  ON  DAIRYING 

"The  Dairy  Farm."  By  J.  Long.  (Cazenove.  2s.  6d.) 

"  Practical  Dairy  Farming."  By  Prof.  J.  P. 
Sheldon.  (Bell.  Is.) 

"  Elements  of  Dairy  Farming."  By  J.  Long. 
(Collins.  2s.) 

"The  Dairy."  By  J.  Long  and  J.  C.  Morton. 
(Vinton.  2s.  6d.) 

"  The  Book  of  the  Dairy."  Translated  from  Prof. 
W.  Fleischmann.  (Blacki'e.  10s.  6d.) 

"  The  Farm  and  the  Dairy."  By  Prof.  J.  P.  Shel- 
don. (Bell.  2s.  6d.) 

"  Manual  of  Dairy  Work."  By  James  Muir. 
(Macmillan.  Is.) 

"  British  Dairying."     By  J.  P.  Sheldon.      (Lock- 


"  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen."  By 
F.  W.  Woll  (U.S.A.).  (Chapman.  2s.  6d.) 

Jc  Practical  Dairy  Husbandry."  By  X.  A.  Willard. 
(Kegan  Paul.  15s.) 

"  Economics  in  Dairy  Farming."  By  E.  Matthews. 
(Xewnes.  7s.  6d.) 

"  Milk  and  Its  Products  ;  Nature  and  Qualities 
of  Dairy  Milk  and  the  Manufacture  of  Butter  and 
Cheese."  By  H.  H.  Wing.  (Macmillan.  4s.) 

"  Milk  :  Its  Nature  and  Composition."  By 
C.  M.  Aikmann,  M.A.,  D.Sc.  (A.  &  C.  Black.  3s.  6d!) 


coagulation,    and    consequently    the    quantity  "  ^ilk,  Chec.se,  and  Butter."  By  J.  Oliver.    (Lock- 

of    rennet     employed    and    the    temperature    at  '^Cheese   and  Cheese   Making,  Butter   and  Milk." 

wlurh   the  milk    is    set.   influence  the  process  of  With     Special     Reference     to     Continental     Fancy 

drainage,  the  presence  of  acid,  and  the  general  Varieties.      By    James    Long    and   John    Benson. 

condition  of  the  card     Fine  cutting  facilitates  (Chapman  Hall.    3s.  6d.) 

drainage,  and  pre>Mire  reduces  the  quantity  of  \  Sie£SP    and    5uttt'r    Making."     By    J.    Oliver 

tore,  and    consequently    of    sugar,  which,  and^Barron-    (Bemr, 
being   in    solution,  p-niiiins  in   the  cheese   to   a 


'Dairy      Bacteriology." 


Dr. 


Is.) 

~ -       - ~KJ.       Translated      from 

-    -~    <K~    -.        Ed.  Von  Frendenreich.     (Methuen.     2s.  6d.) 

tent    where    the    moisture    retained    is  "Principles    of    Modern    Dairy    Practice    from  a 

Bacteriological    Point    of    View."     Translated  from 


ni    quantity.     It    follows,  too,    that    the 
it ure    at    which    the   cheese   is   exposed 
during    ripening    involves    diflerenccs    in    the      (Griffin. 

DAIKY  FAK.MTNV,  concluded;  followed  bi/  POULTRY 
4670 


H.     D.     Richmond. 


HOW   TO    WRITE 

Group  19 

JOURNALISM 

The  Use  of  Words.     "  Style.  "    The  Only  Way  to  Write  is  to  Write  Naturally. 
The  Only  Good  Style  is  to  be  Unconscious  of  Style.     Helpfulness  of  Reading 

6 

Continued  from  page 
4431 

By  ARTHUR   MEE 


IT  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  things  that  half 
the  quarrels  in  the  world,  half  the  time  of 
Parliaments  and  Law  Courts,  half  the  mis- 
understandings and  confusions  of  private  and 
public  life,  arise  from  the  inability  of  men  to 
say  clearly  what  they  mean.  It  could  be  proved, 
perhaps,  that  half  the  time  and  energy  of  the 
world  is  spent  in  explaining  the  meaning  of 
words. 

There  need  be  no  apology,  therefore,  for 
pausing  in  our  study  of  journalism  to  consider 
the  use  of  words.  It  would  seem,  at  first  sight, 
that  nothing  could  well  be  simpler  ;  yet  the 
experience  of  men  in  all  times  and  in  all  ages 
has  proved  that  nothing  could  well  be  more 
difficult.  The  meaning  of  a  word  may  be 
perfectly  clear,  so  clear  that,  standing  alone, 
it  cannot  by  any  process  of  argument  be  made 
to  possess  any  other  meaning  ;  yet  that  word, 
placed  in  a  sentence,  may  divide  parties  in  the 
State  and  involve  the  time  of  judges  and  juries 
through  weary  months  and  years.  It  may  be 
said  that  if  language  had  been  a  rigid  thing  of 
geometrical  exactness,  if  words  had  been  things 
like  locks  and  keys,  fitting  one  place  and  no  other, 
the  whole  world  would  have  been  different,  and 
the  history  of  the  human  race  would  have  lost 
more  than  half  its  bitterness. 

Say  What  You  Mean.  It  is  one  of 
the  first  duties  of  the  journalist  to  realise 
that  words  are  fearful  things  ;  that  the  proper 
use  of  them  is  perhaps  the  most  delicate 
art  in  which  men  can  engage.  "  Say  what 
you  mean "  is  a  counsel  that  might  well  be 
printed  in  letters  of  gold  across  the  journalist's 
horizon.  It  is  the  work  of  the  journalist  to 
say  what  he  means,  and  to  say  it  so  that,  as 
Dr.  George  Macdonald  says,  it  may  not  be 
mistaken  for  what  he  does  not  mean.  Journal- 
ism has  no  room  for  the  man  who  cannot  say 
that  two  and  two  make  four  without  creating 
some  confusion  as  to  whether  they  do  not 
really  make  five.  The  man  whose  mental 
temperament  will  not  allow  him  to  say  that  a 
spade  is  a  spade  should  be  a  lawyer  or  a  quack 
politician  rather  than  a  journalist. 

He  need  not  trouble  about  "  style."  Style, 
like  happiness,  is  not  to  be  found  by  looking 
for  it.  Nobody  can  create  it  for  him.  It  is 
not  a  thing  that  he  himself  can  make.  It  will 
come,  born  of  his  genius,  of  the  very  nature  of 
him.  He  can  no  more  invent  a  style  of  writing 
than  he  can  invent  a  style  of  talking,  and  his 
style  of  talking,  unless  he  would  make  himself 
ridiculous,  is  that  created  for  him  by  a  greater 
power  than  he  can  contradict.  The  best  answer 
that  can  be  made  to  the  young  man  who  asks 
how  to  write  can  be  put  in  a  word :  he  should 
write  naturally. 

O  27 


The  Books  that  Help  Us.  That  does 
not  mean,  of  course,  that  he  need  not  train 
himself  to  write,  any  more  than  to  say  that 
a  man  should  live  naturally  means  that  he 
need  not  choose  good  food.  We  may  carry  the 
simile  farther  and  say  that,  just  as  the  man 
who  eats  well  is  likely  to  live  well,  so  the  man 
who  reads  well  is  likely  to  write  well.  Though 
a  man's  style  must  come  of  itself,  he  may 
prepare  himself  for  it  by  a  careful  reading  of 
books.  It  may  be  questioned,  perhaps,  whether 
his  reading  need  even  be  "careful."  It  is 
probably  true  that  a  free  and  simple  style  comes: 
most  naturally  and  easily  from  a  miscellaneous 
and  unregulated  kind  of  reading.  In  any  case 
his  reading  should  be  wide  in  choice  of  author 
and  subject,  and  should  be  sympathetic.  It 
is  a  wise  rule  never  to  read  anything  as  a  duty  ; 
to  put  a  book  down  the  moment  it  ceases  to 
interest.  The  books  that  help  us  are  the  books 
that  possess  us  as  we  read  them  ;  the  books 
we  pick  up  eagerly  and  are  loth  to  put  down. 

It  does  not  follow  that  the  books  that  interest 
us  most  will  help  us  to  write  best.  It  is' 
conceivable  that  a  man  may  be  held  as  in  a 
trance  by  a  story  which  may  have  no  good 
writing  in  it.  But  we  remember  that  .we  are 
writing  here  for  the  young  man  who  is  fitted  for 
journalism,  whose  tastes  will  lead  him  naturally 
to  the  right  books.  He  may  be  safely  advised, 
at  first  at  any  rate,  to  leave  alone  books  that 
have  a  "style."  Somebody  has  told  us  of  a 
brilliant  man  of  letters  who  ruined  his  style  and 
immensely  lessened  his  influence  because  in  his 
youth  he  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Carlyle, 
and  formed  his  style  on  Carlyle's  ;  and  it  is  pro- 
bably a  familiar  case  in  the  tragedy  of  letters. 

The  Journalist's  Reading.  The  young 
writer  will  do  well  to  read  books  which,  by  their 
simple  language,  have  commended  themselves  to 
the  mass  of  mankind.  After  all,  it  is  the  best/ 
test.  The  journalist  who  would  be  as  a  John  the 
Baptist  writing  in  the  wilderness  may  choose  his 
own  way  ;  the  man  who  writes  to  be  under  - 
standed  of  the  people  will  choose  the  way  of  those 
writers  who  have  reached  the  people's  heart. 

He  will  become  familiar  with  Tennyson  and 
Ruskin,  and  he  will  find  no  more  helpful  ex- 
amples of  the  way  in  which  our  language  can 
be  tuned  to  music.  He  will  be  fond,  very  fond, 
of  poetry.  The  English  poets,  said  Robert 
Buchanan,  were  "  his  best  and  only  guides," 
and  a  love  of  poetry  is  of  inestimable  value  in 
learning  how  to  write.  He  will  take  Mr.  Birrell's 
advice,  and  never  let  a  day  pass  without  reading 
a  really  good  bit  of  English — "  an  essay  by 
Addison  or  Arnold,  a  sermon  by  Newman  or 
Spurgeon,  one  of  Cobbett's  Rural  Rides,  or  a 
letter  of  Cowper's."  He  will  read  fine  passages 

4577 


JOURNALISM 

again  and  again,  read  them  aloud  whenever  he 
can,  and  if  he  has  not  a  natural  ear  for  the  music 
of  words  he  will  turn  aside  from  letters  before 
In-  adds  one  more  name  to  the  long  sad  list  of 
men  who  have  failed. 

The  Natural  Gift  of  Writing.  There 
is  not  a  day  on  which  some  letters  do  not 
pass  through  the  post  asking  an  editor  for 
advice  on  how  to  write.  Too  often,  alas,  they 
bear  stamped  on  their  face  the  certain  evidence 
that  no  advice  would  be  of  any  use.  It  is 
remarkable  that  there  should  be  in  the  world 
intelligent  people  who  imagine  that  a  man  may 
be  taught  to  write  exactly  as  he  is  taught 
to  make  a  table.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that 
no  man  can  write  unless  he  has  the  gift  within 
him.  That  is  a  gift  which,  however  much  it 
may  be  cultivated,  can  never  be  acquired 
entirely  from  without ;  can  never  be  learned, 
that  is,  unless  the  instinct  is  implanted  in  the 
mind.  An  appreciation  of  this  truth  will  save 
much  disappointment.  It  is,  perhaps,  too 
much  to  say  that  writers  are  born,  not  made, 
but  to  some  extent  at  least  this  is  true.  It  is 
possible  to  take  a  man  utterly  ignorant  of 
mathematics  and  make  him  an  accountant ; 
it  is  possible  to  take  a  man  knowing  nothing  of 
mechanics  and  make  him  a  capable  engineer. 
But  it  is  not  possible  to  take  a  man  with  nothing 
in  him  of  the  genius  of  art  or  of  language  and 
make  him  a  painter  or  a  writer.  The  difference 
is  the  whole  difference  between  acquired  and 
natural  faculties,  and  to  this  extent  it  may  be 
perfectly  true  to  say  that  writing  is  a  natural  gift. 

Writing  and  Speaking.  It  does  not, 
of  course,  follow  that  all  who  are  naturally 
endowed  with  this  gift  know  how  to  use  it. 
They  must  still  discover  for  themselves  the 
poetry  of  language,  the  subtle  way  of  con- 
veying thoughts  through  words.  They  must 
still  drink  into  their  souls  the  spirit  of  great 
books.  They  must  still  learn  the  mystery  of 
putting  themselves — mind,  heart,  and  soul — into 
the  thing  they  write ;  of  letting  their  pen  be, 
as  it  were,  the  lens  through  which  their  thoughts 
fix  themselves  clearly  and  indelibly  upon  the 
sensitive  mind  of  him  who  reads.  It  is  a  high 
ideal,  which  is  not  always  present  when  we 
write,  but  it  is  this  way  that  great  writing  lies. 

No  rules  can  make  a  writer,  but  the  experience 
of  many  writers  ma>  help  him.  Perhaps  the 
truest  thing  that  can  be  said  about  good  writing 
i>  that  it  is  unconscious.  We  use  words  lightly 
in  talking,  not  always  realising  their  effect ; 
but  how  infinitely  more  weighty  is  the  word 
that  is  written  !  Yet  the  good  writer  is  he  who, 
conscious  of  the  weight  of  \\onls.  still  writes 
a^  freely  as  he  talks,  who  writes  as  if  he  were 
talking,  who  sends  his  thoughts  direct  from  mind 
to  mind  across  space  and  time  as  across  a  table. 
It  i-  the  natural  thing  said  in  the  natural  way 
that  makes  up  literature.  Tin-  be^t  letter  writer 
i>  the  man  \\lio  writes  to  his  friend  as  he  would 
talk  to  him  face  to  face ;  the  best  letters  are  those 
in  which  we  can  almost  hear  a  voice,  in  which 
we  can  almost  see  a  soul. 

The  young  writer  will  hear  much  of  the 
Criticism  that  "  that  is  all  very  well  to  say.  but 
4578 


you  must  not  write  it."  It  is,  of  course,  per- 
fectly good  criticism  sometimes,  but  in  the  main 
he  need  not  pay  much  attention  to  it.  There  is 
no  essential  difference  between  the  language  that 
is  spoken  and  the  language  that  is  written,  and 
those  who  set  up  such  a  distinction  are  generally 
to  be  found  among  writers  who  have  no  concep- 
tion of  freedom  in  writing,  and  whose  style  is 
portentous  and  awful  beyond  reading. 

Journalese,  the  Unpardonable  Style. 
Ths  stilted  and  formal  use  of  words  is  of  all 
things  most  to  be  avoided.  A  word  out  of 
place  is  like  a  discord  in  music.  A  stilted 
style  is  like  a  bad  tune.  It  is  easy  to  fall  into 
the  appalling  style  of  writing  which  we  call 
journalese.  It  is  far  too  common  in  news- 
papers and  magazines,  and  even  in  books.  It  is 
the  hall-mark  of  mediocrity.  Its  worst  feature 
is  the  continual  use  of  mild  adjectives  which 
have  no  meaning,  of  set  phrases  of  which  we  are 
weary  ;  the  saying  of  things  that  mean  nothing 
at  all,  and  the  dragging  in  of  familiar  quotations. 
A  small  vocabulary  learnt  by  rote,  a  few  stock 
phrases  and  quotations,  are  all  the  capital  the 
journalese  bore  needs.  If  he  is  a  reporter  he 
speaks  of  the  "  lurid  glow  in  the  sky  "  at  a  fire, 
and  of  the  "progress  of  the  devouring  element" 
being  arrested  when  the  fire  is  put  out ;  at  a 
wedding  he  tells  us  that  the  "  bride  won  golden 
opinions,"  and  was  "the  cynosure  of  all  eyes." 
If  a  leader  writer,  he  calls  upon  us  to  "  read, 
mark,  learn,  and  inwardly  digest"  his  opinions; 
he  "indulges  in  a  few  reflections,"  and  "inclines 
towards  "  a  particular  view. 

And  it  is  not  only  in  newspapers  that  we  are 
bored  to  death  by  characterless  writing  which  is 
a  mere  putting  together  of  platitudes  and  phrases. 
Hundreds  of  books  appear  every  year  of  which 
the  publishers  ought  to  be  heartily  ashamed.  A 
book  we  have  just  read,  with  a  large  circulation 
and  by  a  capable  writer,  is  full  of  such  phrases  as 
and  which,  wrongly  used  in  almost  every  case  ; 
and  different  to  is  almost  as  common  among 
writers  as  among  speakers.  But  even  these 
things  are  more  pardonable  than  the  persistent 
and  annoying  use  of  colourless  phrases  and  the 
painful  searching  after  little-known  words. 

The  Use  of  Simple  Words.  Nothing 
can  be  worse  for  a  man  who  must  earn  his 
living  by  writing  •  than  to  give  those  who 
read  the  impression  that  he  paused  once  at 
least  in  every  paragraph  to  look  up  the 
dictionary.  There  are  men  who  use  the  right 
word  instinctively  btit  who,  by  sheer  perversity 
of  "  style,"  will  change  it  for  another.  They 
judge  the  value  of  their  writing,  apparently,  by 
the  obscurity  of  their  words.  If  they  think  of  a 
word  which  only  one  in  ten  can  understand,  they 
use  it  in  preference  to  a  word  which  nine  in 
ten  will  understand,  and  think  their  achieve- 
ment clever.  It  is  as  clever  as  the  trick  of  the 
sign-writer  who  puts  a  letter  upside  down  to 
attract  attention  to  a  quack  medicine  adver- 
tisement outside  a  chemist's  shop. 

The  young  writer  will  set  himself  sternly 
against  these  things.  He  will  never  use  a  hard 
word  where  an  easy  one  will  do.  "  All  distin- 
guished poetry,"  says  Emerson,  "  is  written  in  the 


oldest  and  simplest  English  words";  and  it  is  not 
less  true  of  prose.  Long  experience  has  given 
editors  certain  rough-and-ready  guides  informing 
estimates  of  a  man's  writing  almost  at  a  glance, 
and,  though  these  are  difficult  to  define,  they  have 
to  do  largely  with  such  things  as  we  are  now 
considering. 

The  great  aim  of  writing  is  to  express  meaning 
clearly  and  quickly,  and  the  ideal  article  has  not 
a  wasted  word  in  it.  An  excellent  rule  is  to  use 
always  short  words  and  short  sentences,  and 
there  should  be  no  striving  for  phrases  and 
scraps  of  foreign  languages.  "  There  is  nothing 
which  can  be  said  at  all,"  says  Mr.  Christie 
Murray,  "which  cannot  be  said  in  English"; 
and  nearly  everybody  will  agree  with  him. 

The  Best  English.  There  should  be  no 
ugly  words,  no  jarring  ends  of  sentences.  Nor 
need  the  writer  be  afraid  of  repetition.  There  is 
a  pernicious  doctrine  that  repetition  is  bad,  and 
good  writers  are  found  who  would  rather  not  write 
about  a  village  than  use  "  village  "  twice  in  the 
same  paragraph.  Any  synonym  rather  than  that ; 
and,  ransacking  their  minds  for  other  ways  of 
saying  what  they  mean,  they  write  hamlet, 
locality,  district,  neighbourhood,  community, 
collection  of  houses.  Let  us  make  up  our  minds 
that  when  we  want  to  say  village  it  is  bad  English 
to  say  anj  thing  else,  and  that  it  may  be  perfectly 
right  ana  good — as,  of  course,  it  may  be  wrong 
and  bad — to  use  the  same  word  in  the  same 
sentence  half  a  dozen  times. 

It  is  not  the  good  ear  for  words  or  the  pure 
love  of  good  English  that  condemns  repetition, 
but  a  petty  fastidiousness.  "  Nothing,"  says 
Mr.  H.  G.  Wells,  "  could  be  more  alien  to  the 
spirit  of  contemporary  prose  than  for  a  writer  to 
dodge  among  imperfect  synonyms  to  avoid 
saying  what  he  has  and  wants  to  say."  It  is  this 
fear  of  using  the  word  we  mean  whenever  we 
mean  it  that  has  largely  brought  about  the  habit 
of  saying  commence  when  we  mean  begin.  There 
is  not  the  slightest  excuse,  save  in  very  excep- 
tional circumstances,  for  commence.  It  is  con- 
demned by  the  fundamental  principle  of  good 
writing  that  a  pure  English  word  should  always 
be  used  in  preference  to  a  foreign  word  ;  it  is 
condemned,  too,  by  that  other  principle  of  good 
writing  that  the  short,  direct  word  is  always 
best.  There  is  something  much  nearer  to  the 
origin  of  things  in  begin  than  in  commence. 
Begin  is  much  the  prettier  word.  In  the  book  of 
purest  English  in  the  world,  the  Bible,  commence 
is  not  once  used,  though  there  are  nearly  a 
hundred  begins,  and  one  shudders  to  think  how 
some  modern  writers  would  have  destroyed  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  phrases  in  all  language,  and 
begun  the  Bible  with  In  the  commencement  God. 

The  Awkward  Way  of  Saying 
Things.  The  importance  of  cultivating  the 
practice  of  writing  in  short,  clear-cut  sentences 
can  hardly  be  overstated.  A  good  journalist 
never  writes  "  yesterday  evening  "  for  "  last 
night  "  ;  never  speaks  of  an  "  electrically-drawn 
train  "  when  "  electric  train  "  will  do.  He  has 
found  that  the  best  writing  is  that  which  contains 
not  only  the  fewest  possible  words  but  the 
fewest  possible  syllables. 


JOURNALISM 

It  is  possible  to  begin  a  sentence  at  the  wrong 
end  and  still  obey  all  the  laws  of  grammar  ;  but 
the  writer  who  does  that  obeys  the  laws  of 
grammar  by  disobeying  laws  of  much  greater 
importance.  He  might  say  "  With  the  greatest 
optimism  the  man  was  inspired  ;  the  bridge  was 
built  by  him  all  difficulties  notwithstanding." 
We  should  know  what  he  meant,  but  we  should 
know  it  much  sooner  if  he  said  "  The  man  was 
inspired  with  the  greatest  optimism.  He  built 
the  bridge  in  spite  of  all  difficulties."  The 
writer  is  telling  us  something  about  a  man,  and 
it  is  simply  bad  construction  to  tell  us  what  that 
something  is  before  the  man  is  hi  our  mind.  The 
awkward  habit  of  beginning  at  the  wrong  end 
is  the  enemy  of  smooth,  facile  writing.  It 
destroys  the  music  of  language  and  the  natural 
flow  of  phrases,  and  it  recalls  that  worst  of  all 
habits — the  attempt  to  force  a  style  which  will 
not  come,  for  nobody  speaks  like  that ;  nobody 
says  "  An  up-hill  one  was  his  task."  Even 
the  man  who  wrote  that  would  say  in  conver- 
sation "  His  task  was  an  up-hill  one." 

It  is  the  danger  of  studying  style  that  it  may 
produce  a  conscious  style  in  the  student,  and 
nothing  could  well  be  worse.  There  are  ex- 
ceptions to  all  rules,  and  there  are  cases  of  men 
who  have  achieved  a  reputation  by  creating  a 
purely  artificial  style  of  their  own.  There  are 
successful  writers  who  write  in  a  manner  which 
has  become  easy  to  them  only  after  long  effort. 
But  we  can  never  call  their  writing  natural,  and 
the  mere  fact  that  an  artificial  style  has  succeeded 
in  rare  cases  is  no  argument  in  favour  of  forcing 
a  style  of  one's  own.  The  thing  which  is  labor- 
iously written,  in  which,  as  we  read,  we  can 
almost  feel  the  laborious  effort  of  the  writer 
to  express  himself,  is  not  the  kind  of  writing 
of  which  great  literature  is  made.  Thought 
expresses  itself  best  and  lives  longest  in  a  simple 
setting. 

Grammar  should  be  Used,  not  Wor= 
shipped.  But,  when  all  is  said  that  can  be 
said,  the  best  advice  as  to  how  to  write  is  that  we 
should  write  without  any  consciousness  of  style  at 
all.  Words  are  the  vehicles  of  thought,  and  the 
grammar  of  words  is  the  science  of  expression. 
Grammar,  however,  is  a  tool,  and  not  a  master, 
and  the  writer  will  find  that  at  times  his  rigid 
tool  is  imperfect  and  in  the  way.  He  must  not 
destroy  his  freedom  of  expression,  or  interfere 
with  the  natural  way  of  saying  what  he  has  to 
say,  through  a  slavish  devotion  to  a  rule  of 
grammar.  He  will  find  at  times  that  euphony  is 
of  more  importance  than  grammar,  and  will  not 
allow  the  second  best  to  destroy  the  best.  Just  as 
the  painter  must  paint  things  incorrectly  at  times 
that  we  may  see  them  as  they  are,  so  the  writer 
must  write  incorrectly  at  times  in  order  that 
we  may  read  him  as  we  should.  Grammar  is  to 
be  used,  not  worshipped,  and  though  the  freedom 
to  ignore  it  is  a  very  delicate  licence  that  we 
may  give  ourselves,  there  are  times  when  we 
may  use  the  licence  without  any  fear  for  our 
reputation.  That,  indeed,  is  perhaps  only  one 
more  way  of  saying  what  we  have  been  saying  all 
along — that  there  are  no  perfect  rules  of  writing 

4579 


JOURNALISM 

any  \\here.     Tt  lias  all  been  put  excellently  well 
l,y  Allinuham.  the  Irish  poet: 

Not  like  Homer  would  I  write, 
Not  like  Dante  if  I  might, 
Not  like  Shakespeare  at  his  best, 
Not  like  Goethe  or  the  rest  ; 
Like  myself,  however  small, 
Like  myself,  or  not  at  all. 
Know  More  than  You  Say.     We  shall 
,-ome  to  consider  in  due  course  the  business  ot 
tin-  journalist  as  a  contributor  to  the  magazines, 
l.iit    we   may  consider  very   briefly  here,   per- 
haps, the  method  of  preparing  an  article.    It  is 
of  the  first  importance  that  the  writer  should 
understand  his  subject  thoroughly.  A  little  know- 
ledge, it  is  said,  is  a  dangerous  thing,  and  it 
dangerous  enough  when  the  man  with  a  little 
knowledge  mistakes  himself  for  an  expert.    But 
it  is  the  journalist's  business  to  have  a  little 
knowledge  of  many  things,  and  it  need  not  be 
dangerous  unless  he  makes  it  so.      His  little 
knowledge  must  be  used  to  lead  him  to  sources  of 
greater  knowledge.    We  have  already  discussed 
the  importance  of  his  being  able  to  master  facts 
quickly,  and  to  enter  readily  into  any  subject. 
He  must  have  the  gift  of  engrossing  himself  in  his 
subject,  of  knowing  all  that  he  can  know  about 
it  while  he  is  writing.  He  should  be  as  interested 
in  an  article  as  if  it  were  a  book  ;  he  should  take 
as  much  pains  with  the  one  as  with  the  other.  He 
should  make  it  a  rule  to  know  twice  as  much 
as  he  can  say  about  his  subject.   Nothing  is  ever 
lost  by  thoroughness.     Nothing  ever  known  is 
wasted.    The  man  who  writes  with  the  fulness  of 
knowledge  writes   all   the   better   for   knowing 
many  things  which  he  need  not  tell. 

Preparing  an  Article.  Let  us  consider 
the  genesis  of  an  article.  A  journalist  was  called 
upon  to  write  three  columns  for  an  important 
London  morning  paper,  and  had  six  hours  in 
which  to  prepare  his  copy.  He  took  up  a  little 
book  just  published  on  the  life  of  a  famous  states- 
man, and  went  to  his  library.  He  found  a  strong 
human  note  in  the  book  which  appealed  to  him. 
He  made  up  his  mind  to  tell  the  moving  story 
of  this  man's  life.  The  journalist  looked  up  his 
library  index,  skipped  through  two  or  three  other 
lives  of  the  statesman,  dipped  into  the  lives  of 
two  or  three  contemporaries  and  histories  of  the 
time,  found  a  remarkable  anecdote  almost  un- 
known in  a  book  of  gossip,  looked  up  opinions 
and  impressions  of  the  statesman's  work  and 
«  har.H  -t«T.  and  glanced  rapidly  through  a  history 
«>t  the  most  important  transaction  in  which  he 
wue  engaged.  It  took  him  perhaps  two  hours  to 
make  his  notes,  but  in  the  end  he  was  stirred 
I'Y  the  story  in  which  he  had  lived  for  those  two 
hours,  and  he  sat  down  and  wrote  his  article 
a  itl,  hurilli/  a  single  reference  to  his  notes. 

The  li<M.n  to  be  gathered  from  this  is  plain. 
The  writer's  thorough  preparation  for  his  work, 
the  researeh  and  the  making  of  his  notes,  made 
him  -o  intimate  and  sympathetic  with  his  sub- 
ject that  the  writing  became  a  labour  of  love. 

Put  Your  Facts  in  Order.  The  jour- 
nal i-^t  must  always  be  prepared  for  research  of 
the  most  thorough  kind,  and  must  have  the 
for  this  at  hand.  Once  he  is  master 


of  his  facts  his  work  is  easy.  The  rest,  per- 
haps is  not  so  easy  as  Robert  Louis  Stevenson 
would  have  us  believe.  "  If,"  said  he,  '  a  man 
has  every  word  and  every  sentence  and  every 
subject  in  the  right  order,  and  has  no  other  gift, 
he  will  be  a  great  writer,"  even  though  his 
clauses  are  unmusical  and  his  words  colourless 
and  ineffective.  That  is  a  remarkable  statement 
which  it  is  difficult  to  accept  as  the  deliberate 
opinion  of  a  great  writer,  but  it  serves,  at  any 
rate,  to  emphasise  the  importance  of  having  our 
facts  in  order.  And  not  our  facts  only,  but  our 
thoughts  and  ideas,  for  ideas  as  well  as  words 
must  harmonise  and  hang  together.  It  is  well  to 
read  a  sentence  aloud;  reading  aloud,  indeed, 
is  excellent  training  for  any  writer.  One  of  the 
chief  values  of  dictation  is  that  it  enables  us  to 
appreciate  the  sound  of  our  phrases. 

One  thing  the  writer  of  an  article  should  never 
forget.  He  should  assume  that  his  reader  knows 
nothing  of  the  subject  on  which  he  is  writing. 
There  are,  of  course,  the  most  obvious  exceptions 
to  this  rule.  If  the  journalist  is  writing,  for 
instance,  in  the  LANCET,  the  rule  clearly  does  not 
apply.  It  would  be  impertinent  for  a  writer  in 
the  LANCET  to  assume,  say,  that  his  reader  did 
not  understand  physiology,  and  to  waste  time 
in  describing  the  simple  anatomy  of  the  body. 
But  we  are  speaking  of  general  journalism,  of 
papers  and  books  which  make  a  universal  appeal, 
and  not  of  papers  catering  for  select  publics.  In 
general  journalism,  that  journalist  will  succeed 
best  who  appeals  most  strongly  to  the  mind  of 
his  simplest  reader. 

The  Journalist's  Duty  to  His 
Readers.  But  we  must  guard  ourselves  very 
carefully  here  against  misunderstanding.  The 
writer  in  a  newspaper  is  hi  the  position  of  a  man, 
let  us  say  an  artist,  who  is  taking  part  in  a  con- 
versation with,  say,  half  a  dozen  people  who 
have  come  together  promiscuously,  without  any 
interest  in  common.  Let  us  suppose  that  the 
artist  is  interested  in  the  question  of  the  weight 
of  the  earth.  If  he  raises  the  subject  in  conver- 
sation, he  owes  it  to  all  six  to  make  what  he  has 
to  say  interesting  to  them  all.  But  among  the  six 
is  a  scientist  who  knows  more  than  the  artist  him- 
self about  the  weight  of  the  earth,  and  a  clerk 
who  knows  nothing  at  all  about  it ;  and  here  his 
difficulty  begins.  If  he  addresses  himself  to  the 
scientist  he  will  probably  be  unintelligible  to  the 
clerk.  If  he  addresses  himself  to  the  clerk,  he 
may  be  uninteresting  to  the  scientist.  What  he 
should  do  is  to  interest  the  clerk  at  once  by 
explaining  the  matter  briefly  and  clearly,  and 
proceed  to  discuss  the  matter  in  such  a  way  that 
the  clerk  will  be  able  to  follow  him,  while  the 
scientist  will  listen  because,  though  the  facts  may 
not  be  new  to  him,  they  will  be  stated  so  clearly 
and  firmly  that  they  may  confirm  him  in  some 
point,  and  the  discussion  of  them  may  bring  a 
new  light  to  bear  upon  them.  If,  in  all  he  has 
to  say,  the  artist  has  in  his  mind  the  fact  that 
the  clerk  knows  nothing  and  the  scientist  knows 
everything,  he  is  likely  to  appeal  to  them  both 
and  to  interest  the  other  members  of  the  party 
whose  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  of  varying 
degrees  between  the  two. 


The    Readers    of    an    Article.      It   is 

the  same  with  the  journalist.  He  will  not,  of 
course,  be  able  to  interest  all  the  people  all  the 
time  in  all  that  he  writes.  Not  even  Shake- 
speare could  do  that.  The  man  who  writes  a 
short  article  in  a  popular  paper  on  the  composi- 
tion of  the  stars  must  not  expect  that  Sir  Robert 
Ball  will  turn  eagerly  to  it  and  become  engrossed 
in  it.  But  the  consciousness  of  this  need  not  blind 
him  to  the  fact  that  millions  of  readers  know 
nothing  at  all  about  the  composition  of  the  stars, 
and  that,  though  he  cannot  reach  these  millions, 
he  will  reach  a  public  in  which  a  large  number 
know  nothing  at  all  about  the  stars,  in  which  a 
small  number  have  a  vague  interest  in  them,  and 
in  which  a  smaller  number  still  are  as  interested 
as  he  is,  and  know  as  much  as  he  knows  about 
the  subject  on  which  he  is  writing.  And  he  must 
set  himself  to  write  in  such  a  way  that  the  large 
number  who  know  nothing  about  the  stars  may 
be  attracted  to  the  subject,  that  the  small  number 
Avho  know  something  may  read  to  learn  more, 
while  those  who  know  all  about  it  will  read  for 
the  mere  interest  of  reading  on  a  subject  they 
have  made  their  own. 

The  Man  Who  Knows  Too  Much.  The 
good  journalist  learns  to  write  for  the  man  who 
does  not  know  in  such  an  interesting  way  that  the 
man  who  does  know  reads  without  in  the  least 
resenting  the  carefully  hidden  assumption  of 
ignorance.  It  is  because  this  aspect  of  writing 
is  so  important  that  an  editor  rarely  asks  an 
expert  to  write  if  he  can  get  a  layman,  and  the 
experience  of  editors  has  proved  abundantly  that 
nine  times  out  of  ten  the  amateur  is  much  more 
likely  to  write  a  good  article  than  the  expert.  It 
seems  almost  impossible  for  an  expert  to  under- 
stand that  there  are  people  who  do  not  know 
as  much  as  he  knows,  or  that  some  people  know- 
nothing  at  all.  It  may  be  argued,  indeed,  that 
the  man  who  knows  least  about  a  subject, 
assuming  that  he  is  a  good  journalist,  is  the  best 
man  to  write  about  it.  He  brings  himself  in 
touch  with  a  fresh  side  of  things  ;  he  puts  an 
enthusiasm  born  of  new  knowledge  into  his  work  ; 
most  important  of  all,  he  puts  the  matter  as  it 
appeals  to  the  mind  of  the  average  man,  and  it  is 
for  the  average  man  that  papers  are  produced. 

We  are  not  dealing  with  expert  papers,  where 
experts  are  not  only  desirable  but  indispensable, 
but  it  is  true  of  general  journalism  that  where 
the  expert  interests  ten  the  ordinary  journalist 
will  interest  a  thousand,  and  an  appreciation 
of  this  will  help  the  journalist  to  make  his 
appeal  to  the  widest  public.  It  is  for  him 
to  gather  all  the  fish  that  he  can  into  his 
net,  and  to  strike  at  once  a  note  of  keen 
and  general  interest.  There  is  a  story  of  an 
old  preacher,  hundreds  of  years  ago,  who 
startled  his  congregation  by  beginning  "  There 
was  once  a  woman  who  brought  forth  600,000 
men  at  a  birth."  His  congregation  became 
alert,  and  the  preacher  was  sure  of  their 
interest  as  he  proceeded  to  tell  them  of  the 
birth  of  Moses,  "  who  was  equal  in  himself 
to  600,000  men."  That  witty  preacher  had 


JOURNALISM 

mastered  one  of  the  secrets  of  journalism.     He 
attracted  his  audience,  and  the  rest  was  easy. 
The    Value   of  Feeling    in     Writing. 

The  young  journalist  will  be  well  advised  to 
write  at  first  about  subjects  he  knows  intimately, 
always  assuming  that  he  does  not  cease  to  be 
a  journalist  and  become  an  expert.  The  danger 
of  the  expert,  who  usually  writes  in  a  manner 
quite  unintelligible  to  ordinary  people,  is  not, 
however,  very  real  in  the  case  of  the  journalist, 
whose  intimate  knowledge  of  his  subject  is 
balanced  by  his  equally  intimate  knowledge  of 
his  public.  So  that  the  danger  of  knowing  too 
much  about  a  subject  does  not  exist  for  the 
man  who  is  at  heart  a  journalist,  and  the 
advantage  of  knowing  all  that  he  can  is  difficult 
to  exaggerate.  If  the  subject  is  something  about 
which  he  feels  strongly  he  will  find  it  all  the 
easier  to  express  himself,  and  will  be  able  to  say 
what  he  has  to  say  with  feeling  and  force. 

It  can  hardly  be  said  too  often  that  earnestness 
is  more  than  half  of  a  good  style,  and  the  man 
who  is  interested  in  serious  things  and  writes 
about  them  interestingly  is  not  likely  to  fail  for 
want  of  readers.  It  is  the  habit  of  writing 
about  trivial  things  as  if  they  were  important,  of 
trying  to  force  an  interest  in  a  subject  without 
any  inherent  interest  of  its  own,  that  is  respon- 
sible for  much  of  the  mechanical  writing  in 
newspapers  and  magazines.  There  is  a  kind  of 
article,  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  popular  penny 
weeklies,  which  bores  one  by  its  everlasting 
sameness  and  its  utter  lack  of  interest  or  import- 
ance. It  tells  us  how  many  cows'  tails  would 
reach  to  the  moon,  or  how  many  halfpennies 
would  cover  the  earth,  or  some  other  pointless 
thing  without  reason  or  interest  or  imagination. 
The  journalist  whose  misfortune  it  may  be  to  have 
to  write  these  inanities  for  a  .living  may  be 
greatly  pitied.  He  will  find  that  the  habit  tells 
against  originality  and  vigour  of  expression,  and 
produces  merely  a  weaver  of  ingenious  calcu- 
lations, with  a  useless  capacity  for  spinning 
and  twisting  hackneyed  words  and  phrases. 

The  Best  Training.  Newspaper  journal- 
ism is  perhaps  the  best  of  all  trainings  for  a 
writer  in  any  sphere.  The  journalist  is  called  upon 
to  write  on  all  sorts  of  subjects  in  great  haste,  and 
he  develops  a  facility  for  arranging  his  facts  and 
interpreting  their  significance  and  their  relation 
to  each  other  which  becomes  invaluable.  He 
learns  the  value  of  not  overloading  a  sentence 
with  thought,  of  not  alienating  attention  from 
one  point  by  dwelling  too  much  on  another.  He 
discovers  that  his  best  work  is  usually  that  which 
is  done  most  quickly.  We  may  take  it  as  a  main 
rule  that  the  best  writing  in  oiir  newspapers  is 
done  at  high  pressure,  when  moments  are  precious 
and  printers  are  waiting,  when  the  journalist  sets 
down  his  impressions,  with  the  first  glow  of  his 
enthusiasm  still  upon  him,  so  rapidly  that  he 
is  barely  conscious  of  the  form  in  which  he  is 
setting  them.  It  is  then  that  the  journalist  puts 
his  nerves  into  his  work,  and  writes  a  thing  which 
he  himself  has  pleasure  in  reading  when  he  opens 
his  paper  the  next  morning. 


Continued 


4581 


Group  12 

MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERING 

32 

TOOLS 

nii.-.!  fi-.ni  i»g*44Kl 


SOME  VARIETIES  OF  TOOLS 

Machine  Cutters.     Files.     Grinding  Wheels.     Shearing,  Detrusive,  and 
Percussive  Tools.     Moulding  Tools.     Tools  that  Operate  by  Leverage 


By    JOSEPH    G.    HORNER 


Rotary    Machine    Cutters    for  Wood. 

The  saws  may  be  regarded  as  the  roughing 
or  breaking-down  tools  of  the  woodworker. 
For  finishing  and  imparting  all  shapes 
required  to  timber,  the  tools  used  embrace 
knives  and  moulding  cutters  of  many  forms. 
These  owe  their  efficiency  to  the  very  high  speed 
at  which  they  run.  The  exceptions'  are  the 
broad  shaving  knives  used  in  planing  broad 
surfaces,  operating  precisely  as  a  carpenters 
plane  does,  and  removing  similar  shavings,  only 
wider  and  thicker.  The  thin  wood  for  boxes  is 
generally  planed  thus  in  a  suitable  machine.  The 
method  of  mounting  rotary  cutters  is  to  bolt  four 
usually  on  the  flat  faces  of  a  four-side  block, 
termed  a  cutter-block.  This  being  rotated  at  a 
high  speed,  the  cutters  remove  the  material 
rapidly.  The  largest  of  these  are  employed  for 
planing  flat  boards  in  machines  of  various  designs. 
As  they  are  often  as  much  as  2  ft.  wide,  the  power 
required  is  great— two  to  three  horse- power  for 
a  small  machine.  Hence  some  blocks  are  fitted 
with  knives  to  arrange  spirally  to  give  a  shearing 
cut,  or  one  in  detail,  which  lessens  the  strain. 
Figs.  55  to  57  illustrate  knives  and  blocks. 

The  knives  and  cutters  used  in  wood-working 
machinery  are  sometimes  scraping  and  some- 
times true  cutting  tools.  The  spiral  or  shearing 
cut  given  in  many  cases,  as  in  metal-cutting 
tools,  ensures  sweet  working.  Planer  knives  and 
moulding  cutters  are  formed  with  a  bevel,  as 
seen  in  55  and  56,  and  the  cutting  is  done  by  the 
junction  of  the  bevel  with  the  front  flat  face,  the 
•latter  leading,  as  shown  in  57,  which  is  an  end 
view  of  a  cylinder  or  cutter-block.  In  the  milled 
cutters,  or  bits,  the  form  is  imparted  by  milling 
into  the  face  of  the  steel,  instead  of  on  the  edge, 
and  they  are  set  as  indicated  in  57  B,  with  the 
bevel  the  reverse  way  to  ordinary  cutters.  In 
each  case  there  is  some  top  rake  given  by  the 
><  1 1  iim  on  the  cutter-block,  as  seen  by  the  radial 
dotted  line  drawn  in  each  example.  The  milled 
bits  are  sharpened  by  grinding  the  bevelled  face, 
which  does  not  alter  the  profile,  nor  does  it  reduce 
the  thickness  of  the  cutters.  The  ordinary  cutters 
are  ground  on  the  back,  and  so  get  thinner  each 
time.  The  cutters  in  57  A  are  held  by  tee- 
headed  holts  passing  through  slots  into  tee- 
grooves  in  the  block  ;  another  method  is  that  at 
P..  \\hen-  vee-clamps  arc  made  to  embrace  the 
1  levelled  edges  of  the  cutters,  and  hold  them 
firmly. 

Circular  cutters,  \\liieh  bear  a  certain  resem- 
l.lam  e  to  milling  cutters  for  metal,  are  made  with 
two  or  more  ed«res.  shaped  to  any  profile  which 
has  to  be  moulded.  Top  rake  is  given.  A  few 
M-i-tii.ns  are  shown  in  58  of  cutters  having  ten 
•  •utting  edges,  on  live  teeth,  which  permits  of 


reversibility  of  rotation.  There  is  practically  no 
limit  to  the  shapes  which  may  be  moulded. 
Grinding  is  done  in  the  grooves  between  the 
edges. 

Files.  Files  are  not  true  cutting  tools.  The 
teeth  faces  are  always  set  back  slightly  from  the 
perpendicular  [59  A,  B— A  being  a  hand-cut,  B 
the  same  after  sand  blasting].  These  tools  are 
divisible  into  two  main  classes,  the  float  or  single- 
cut,  and  the  double-cut.  In  the  first-named,  C. 
the  cuts  are  made  in  one  direction  only,  diagonally 
across  the  file,  so  that  the  scraping  action  is  con- 
tinuous right  across.  In  the  second,  D,  the  lines 
cut  across  each  other  at  definite  angles,  and  the 
action  is  effected  by  multitudes  of  isolated  points. 
The  first-named  are  used  more  for  wood  and  for 
soft  materials,  the  latter  for  metal.  But  for 
sharpening  saws,  sirgle-cut  fil^s  are  often  used, 
being  an  exception  to  the  above  rule. 

The  teeth  of  files  vary  in  size  from  the  coarse 
to  the  fine,  the  terms  being  relative,  since  the 
coarse  teeth  of  one  file  do  not  correspond  in  pitch 
with  the  coarse  teeth  of  another  of  different 
length,  being  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  file 
itself.  The  use  of  the  rough  file  should  always 
precede  that  of  the  finer  ones,  in  order  to 
economise  time.  A  rasp  cut,  E,  is  a  file  in  which 
alternate  points  take  the  place  of  rows  of  teeth. 
It  is  used  only  on  comparatively  fragile  materials, 
as  wood,  horn,  cores,  breadcrusts,  etc. 

By  virtue  of  the  sectional  forms  of  files  they 
are  able  to  produce  numerous  outlines — flats, 
curves,  and  combinations  of  the  same.  The  file 
section  is  a  counterpart  of  the  shape  produced, 
sometimes  absolutely,  but  often  only  approxi- 
mately, hence  the  large  number  of  shapes  in 
which  files  oscur.  There  are  at  out  3,000  different 
files  made,  if  we  include  all  sizes  made  in  all 
types.  The  importance  of  the  file  in  some  classes 
of  work  cannot  be  exaggerated,  notwithstanding 
that  its  functions  have  been  invaded  largely  by 
the  work  of  machine  tools.  The  principal  file 
sections  are  shown  grouped  in  60,  according  to 
their  mutual  relationships.  The  principal  longi- 
tudinal shapes  are  seen  in  61. 

Sections  of  Files.  In  60  we  have 
sections  which  are  related  to  the  first  in  each  row, 
the  square,  A,  and  the  circle,  P.  A  is  termed  a 
square  file,  B  to  D  are  rectangles,  differently 
named,  according  to  proportions  ;  the  pillar  B 
a  thick  file,  the  flat  C  thinner,  the  mitt  D  thinner 
again,  and  the  warding  file  E  very  thin,  used  by 
locksmiths  and  in  fine  fitting  generally.  These 
are  cut  on  all  four  edges,  excepting  in  the  safe-edge 
files  in  which  one  edge  is  left  smooth,  which  is 
often  convenient.  The  sections  F  to  J  are  those 
of  flat  files  which  have  special  names,  according 
to  the  form  of  the  edges  ;  F  and  G.  with  the 


bevelled  edges,  are  swaged  reaper  files.  H  and  J 
are  the  topping  files  and  the  mill  files  respectively, 
used  for  sharpening  and  gulleting  mill  saws. 
The  foregoing  have  parallel  faces,  but  succeeding 
ones  have  not.  These  are  the  reaper  file,  K,  the 
knife,  L,  both  having  the  sections  of  truncated 
pyramids,  the  triangular  or  the  three-square,  M, 
of  equilateral  section,  and  the  cant  file,  N.  Two 
triangles  combined,  O,  form  the  slitting  or  feather- 
edged  file. 

A  file  of  cylindrical  section  is  termed  the 
round,  P  ;  succeeding  figures  show  forms  related 
to  it.  Q,  semicircular  in  section,  is  a  pitsaw  or 
frame  file,  because  used  primarily  by  sawyers  for 
gulleting  and  sharpening  various  saws  ;  R,  the 
half  round  is  less  than  a  semicircle  ;  S,  T,  the 
cabinet  files,  are  very  flat  half  rounds,  and  U, 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

The  knife  reaper,  B,  has  a  handle  forged  on,  instead 
of  the  tang  usual  in  the  files.  If  a  file  has  much 
curvature  it  is  bellied,  C.  Files  that  are  termed 
tapered  are  bellied  also,  as  the  square  file,  D, 
and  the  triangular,  F.  E  is  the  parallel  three- 
square  file.  Half-round  and  cognate  forms  are 
also  tapered  or  bellied,  G,  and  parallel,  H  ;  so 
are  the  round  sections,  the  rat  tail,  J,  a  tapered 
form,  and  the  parallel,  K.  L  is  a  file  or  rasp  used 
by  cabinet-makers,  and  termed  a  riffler.  It 
is  handled  in  the  middle.  The  forms  of  rasps 
follow  nearly  those  of  files. 

Grinding  Wheels.  These  include  natural 
or  artificial  grindstones,  and  wheels  of  emery, 
corundum,  or  carborundum,  etc.  The  action  of 
each  particle  is  incisive  though  minute,  and  the 
total  action  is  similar  to  that  of  the  cutting  tools 


8 


CUTTERS    AND    FILES 
55—58.  Wood-planing  and  moulding  cutters    59.  Teeth  of  files    60.  Sections  of  files 


having  its  faces  of  opposite  but  unequal  curva- 
tures, is  a  crossing  file  ;  and  one  with  equal 
curvatures,  V,  is  a  tumbler  file. 

Longitudinal  Forms  of  Files.  Other 
terms  are  those  derived  from  the  longitudinal 
outlines  of  files.  In  the  group  61,  A  is  a 
parallel  or  blunt  file.  But  it  is  not  perfectly 
parallel,  to  which  form  the  term  dead  parallel 
is  applied,  the  blank  for  which  is  produced 
by  machining.  Absolute  truth  is,  however,  not 
very  necessary  in  a  file,  since  results  depend 
greatly  on  how  it  is  manipulated,  and  if  very 
accurate  results  are  desired  they  must  be  produced 
by  scraping.  What  is  termed  an  equalling 
file  is  one  that  has  a  very  slight  amount  of  longi- 
tudinal curvature.  The  reaper  files  are  parallel. 


in  regard  to  the  quantity  of  material  removed 
and  the  accuracy  of  results.  The  grains  in  wheels 
of  emery  and  allied  substances  are  cemented,  in 
various  "ways,  so  that  the  cement  does  not  dis- 
solve in  water,  and  the  wheels  are  moulded  and 
pressed  into  numerous  shapes  and  consolidated 
so  effectually  that  they  run  safely  at  surface 
speeds  of  5,000  ft.  per  minute.  The  action  of 
an  emery  wheel  has  been  likened  to  that  of  a 
file  a  mile  long  moved  over  that  distance  in  a 
minute.  Hence,  though  each  grain  removes  a 
merely  infinitesimal  quantity  of  material,  the  total 
results  are  such  as  to  come  into  rivalry  with 
those  produced  by  the  ordinary  cutting  tools. 

The  forms  in  which  wheels  are  chiefly  used 
are  the  disc,  operating  by  the  periphery,  and  the 

4583 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

,  ,11,  l»v  the  ediM-.  and  each  in  several  modifica- 
tions and  in  a  lattp  range  of  dimensions.  U  heels 
are  used  \\ct  or  dry. 

WorK  Suitable  for  Grinding.  Grind- 
ing wheels  rannot  !><•  relied  on  to  produce 
accurate  profiles  on  repetition  work,  like  form- 
milling  cutters  ;  Imt  there  are  nevertheless 
a  number  of  profiled  shapes  which  are  used 
for  various  straight  and  curved  portions, 
especially  in  tool  grinding  operations,  where  the 
change  in  form  is  not  sufficient  to  affect  the 
results.  The  plain  disc  wheel  shape,  62  A,  is 
used  more  than  any  other  ;  the  profiled  types 
include  those  of  bevelled  forms,  B,  C,  and  D, 
employed  for  work  where  the  square  edges  of  A 
could  not  be  got  in  confined  situations.  These 
are  used  especially  for  cutter  and  saw  sharpening. 
Curved  outlines,  E  and  F,  are  also  used  exten- 
sively. The  sectional  appearance  of  a  disc 
wheel  is  indicated  at  G,  showing  the  central 
bushing  of  lead.  Wheels  of  this  type  may  be 
several  inches  wide,  or  as  thin  as  ^  in.,  and  vary 
in  diameter  from  several  feet  to  a  fraction  of  an 
inch,  in  the  tiny  bush  grinding  rolls.  Recessing, 
H,  is  often  done  in  order  to  grind  up  to  shoulders 
on  cylindrical  work,  without  fouling.  Wheels 
are  dished  also,  J,  to  overhang  their  spindles  in- 
wards, and  so  to  lie  more  in  line  with  the  bearing 
of  the  spindle,  a  point  which  tends  to  obviate 
vibration.  The  same  result  is  attained  by  dish- 
ing the  wheel  discs,  as  at  K,  which  shows  the 
end  of  a  grinding  head  for  a  universal  machine. 
Other  dishings,  L  and  M,  are  made  to  enable  the 
wheel  to  reach  out  and  operate  on  narrow  edges 
of  milling  cutters,  etc.,  grinding  with  the  faces. 
This  leads  up  to  the  cup  wheels,  N  and  0,  which 
also  grind  by  their  narrow  faces,  the  idea  being 
that  the  speed  of  the  wheel  remains  constant  until 
it  is  worn  out,  whereas  in  the  disc  types,  grinding 
by  their  edges,  the  diameter  is  constantly  being 
reduced,  and  the  speed  of  the  wheel  must  be  in- 
creased accordingly  to  obtain  the  proper  efficiency. 

Shearing  Tools  and  Shearing  Action. 
When  two  cutting  blades  are  placed  in  oppo- 
sition so  that  the  face  of  one  is  in  the  same 
plane  as  the  face  of  the  other,  the  method  of 
severance  is  termed  shearing  [63  A].  The  action 
is  a  truly  cutting  one,  although  the  tool  angles 
may  be  very  thick,  or  from  80°  to  85°. 
The  action  of  the  common  scissors  is  identical, 
though  the  cutting  angles  are  much  less.  The 
coincidence  of  the  faces  is  essential  to  shearing, 
because  if  they  \\< T>-  not,  the  material  would  be 
bent  instead  of  cut,  due  to  the  lack  of  adequate 
support,  as  indicated  at  B.  In  the  wire  nippers, 
and  in  nippers  for  thin  sheet  metal,  the  cutting 
edges  are  in  the  same  plane  but  do  not  pass  each 
other,  C.  Strietly  these  are  not  shears,  but 
hisels  used  in  a  particular  way. 

In  the  work  of  the  engineer's  lx>ilcr  and  plating 
shops,  in  bridge  and  girder  construction,  in  the 
>heet  metal  work  of  the  tinsmith  and  copper- 
-mith.  the  >hears  in  some  form  or  another  are  in 
•on-taut  DM,  An  inch  thickness  of  steel  is 
•  d  a<  readily  as  a  tin  plate,  and  as  rapidly. 
It  is  only  a  question  of  strength  and  temper  of 
Nudes,  and  still'm^s  of  machines.  The  only 
alternative  is  the  sa\v,  either  hot  or  cold. 


The  Shearing  Cut.  A  shearing  cut  is  not 
necessarily  the  same  thing  as  cutting  by  shears. 
It  signifies  a  cut  taken  in  detail — that  is,  the 
act  of  severance  does  not  occur  along  the  entire 
edge  of  the  tool  simultaneously,  but  gradually 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  D,  which  indicates 
the  longitudinal  position  of  shear  blades.  Most 
shears  for  heavy  metalwork  embody  this  action. 
It  takes  place  in  the  common  scissors.  Its 
importance  can  hardly  be  overrated.  Some 
operations  would  not  be  practicable  without  it. 
Familiar  instances  are  the  shearing  of  thick  plates 
of  several  feet  in  width,  the  cutting  of  profiled 
forms  with  diagonal  edged  form  tools  operated 
in  the  cross-slide  of  a  turret  lathe,  the  spiral 
teeth  on  wide  milling  cutters,  the  action  of  the 
Fox  trimmer  for  woodworking,  the  skewing  of 
the  iron  of  a  rebate  plane,  and  tkat  of  many 
roughing  tools  for  metal-turning  and  planing. 
Even  in  the  plane  there  is  a  shearing  cut. 
The  slight  convexity  imparted  to  the  edge  is  a 
true  example  of  this  kind,  and  the  difference  in' 
the  quantity  of  material  removed  by  a  well- 
rounded  jack  plane  iron  and  a  straight  trying 
plane  iron  is  well  known  in  the  economies  of 
roughing  down. 

Detrusive  Tools.  Practically  these  are 
restricted  to  the  punches,  though  shears  are  as 
truly  detrusive  in  action  as  the  punches  are. 
In  fact,  if  we  consider  a  punch  as  a  shear  blade 
in  cylindrical  form,  the  analogy  is  perfect,  for 
the  punch  is  tapered  upwards  to  give  clearance. 
And  if  a  spiral  punch  [63  E]  is  taken  and  supposed 
to  be  unrolled,  w^e  have  a  shear  blade  with  a 
shearing  cut.  Fig.  64  shows  the  common 
punch,  A,  hi  the  act  of  penetrating  a  plate.  It 
has  no  front  rake,  and  therefore  the  operation 
is  absolutely  detrusive,  whereas  in  the  spiral 
punch  [63  E]  there  is  a  true  shearing  cut.  The 
stress  of  punching  is  very  severe,  the  metal  of 
the  burr  or  punching  being  partly  squeezed  into 
the  mass  surrounding.  Support  is  necessary, 
which  is  afforded  by  the  bolster,  B,  the  hole  in 
which  is  only  very  slightly  larger  than  the 
punch  for  precisely  similar  reasons  stated  in 
connection  with  A  and  B,  in  63.  The  taper  of 
the  punch  upwards  is  its  clearance,  to  prevent 
sticking  in  the  hole,  and  to  help  the  severance, 
and  the  taper  downwards  in  B  gives  freedom  of 
escape  for  the  burr. 

Percussive  Tools.  These  constitute  a 
very  large  group  which  includes  the  hand  hammers 
and  mallets,  the  power  hammers,  and  caulking 
tools.  The  hammers  alone  include  some  scores 
of  distinct  shapes,  and  most  of  them  occur  in 
numerous  sizes.  They  may  be  classed  best 
according  to  the  trades  in  which  they  are 
employed,  as  woodworkers,  engineers,  smiths, 
coppersmiths,  tinsmiths,  coopers,  etc.  To  illus- 
trate these  would  occupy  too  much  space, 
therefore  a  very  few  typical  ones  are  shown. 

The  obvious  function  of  a  hammer  is  to 
strike  a  blow,  hence  the  reason  of  the  leverage 
afforded  by  the  handle,  which  is  short  \vhen 
manipulated  with  one  hand  ;  long  when  swung 
by  both  hands.  The  size  and  weight  of  the  heads 
vary  also  in  hand  hammers  and  sledge-hammers, 
but  the  shapes  of  the  faces  which  terminate  the 


A        B  CDEFGHJK  L 


VARIOUS   TOOLS 


61.  Longitudinal  shapes  of  files        62.    Sections  of  grinding  wheels        63.  The  shearing  action        64.  The  punch 
65.  Hammers      66.  Centre  punches  and  drifts      67.  Trowels      68  and  69.  Moulders'  tools 

4585 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

heads  is  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
u,,.k  to  be  done,  as  are  also  the  proportions  and 
shapes  longitudinally.  Thus,  hammers  have 
flat  faces— flat  pane;  or  globular  ends— ball 
^ane,  or  narrow  convex  ends. 

Hammers.  The  commonest  hammers  used 
l.v  wood  workers  are  the  Exeter  [65]  A,  and 
tl.e  joiners,  B,  the  latter  being  commonly 
employed  by  many  trades,  but  in  different  pro- 
portions of  length  to  size  of  body.  The  narrow 
cross  plane  is  of  value  for  driving  nails  in  narrow 
spaces.  C  to  E  are  the  typical  engineers 
hammers  ;  C  the  cross  pane,  D  the  straight,  or 
long  pane,  and  E  the  batt  pane.  They  are  often 
t  .-riiied  bench  hammers,  because  used  so  much  at 
the  vice  bench.  But  machinists  and  many  other 
metal-workers  also  use  them.  F  to  J  are  the 
typical  sledge-hammers,  also  straight,  and  cross 
pane,  F  and  G  ;  double  faced,  H  ;  and  ball  pane 
J.  K  to  M  are  boilermakers'  hammers.  They 
are  narrow,  to  get  into  corners,  their  functions 
including  riveting.  Boilermakers  also  employ 
the  hammers  C  to  J.  N  is  a  chisel-hammer  used 
percussively,  and  termed  a  scaling  hammer 
because  used  for  chipping  off  the  hard  encrusted 
scale  from  the  inside  faces  of  the  plates  of  steam 
boilers.  Many  hammers  have  very  broad 
faces  for  operating  on  large  areas.  To  these 
belong  the  planishing  hammers  of  the  copper- 
smith, the  flatters  and  set  hammers  of  the  smith 
and  boilermaker,  the  hammers  of  the  gold- 
beaters and  the  shoemaker.  The  huge  power 
hammers  have  no  resemblance  to  the  fore- 
going, the  hammer  itself  being  absorbed  in  the 
machine.  But  both  gravity  and  applied  force 
above  the  hammers  are  employed  to  render 
the  blows  effective.  Also  the  speed  of  operation 
in  the  small  types  far  exceeds  that  of  the  human 
hand.  And  when  with  the  hammer  there  is 
combined  the  matrix  or  die  the  results  leave 
hand  labour  far  behind. 

Mallets.  The  mallets  are  hammers  of 
wood.  They  have  resemblances  to  the  steel 
hammers  in"  length  of  handle — short  for  bench 
use,  and  long  for  swinging,  two-handed  blows. 
They  are  used  .where  metal  would  bruise  the 
face  of  the  material.  For  the  same  reason 
i  -ML'ineers  have  hammers  made  of  lead,  and  of 
copper,  for  hammering  on  polished  surfaces 
without  leaving  marks. 

Centre  Punches,  etc.  There  is  another 
class  of  percussive  tool — the  centre  punch 
(66]  A,  by  which  centres  are  popped  in  work 
for  chucking  by,  and  by  which  the  course 
Of  scribed  lines  is  indicated  more  clearly  and 
permanently  than  is  possible  by  scribed  lines 
alone.  B  shows  a  special  adaptation  of  a 
•  •rut iv  punch,  in  which  centres  for  rivet  holes 
are  being  stamped  on  a  plate,  6,  through  holes 
;ilr.  ;uly  drilled  or  punched  in  an  upper  plate,  a, 
with  which  holes  the  centres  will  be  true. 

AHKMIU  dctrusive  tools  must  be  classed  the 
'///// s  [66.  C,  D]  used  for  enlarging  holes  that 
have  Ix-t-u  punched,  hence  their  bellied  and 
tapered  forms.  Another  detrusive  tool  is  the 
.-//'//<.  E,  l>y  which  the  tails  of  rivets  are  neatly 
finished,  following  the  turning  over,  tot>e  done  by 


hammer  blows.  The  smith's  flatter  is  a  hammer, 
only  it  is  itself  struck  with  a  sledge-hammer 
So  are  the  various  fullers  and  swages,  which 
mould  metal  into  shape  by  percussive  action. 
The  caulking  tools  of  the  plater,  boilermaker, 
and  pipe  layer  are  percussive,  being  struck  by 
hammer  blows.  And  so  are  many  other  tools 
of  which  these  are  typical. 

Moulding  Tools.  These  include  all 
forms  by  which  materials  of  various  kinds 
are  shaped  without  cutting  action.  They  are 
the  most  important  tools  used  by  the  smith, 
as  the  fullers,  swages,  flatters,  and  the  dies. 
They  also  include  nearly  all  the  tools  of  the 
moulder  working  in  sand.  Allied  to  these  are 
those  of  the  modeller  working  in  plaster,  some 
of  those  of  the  plasterer,  mason,  and  slater, 
and  of  the  artist's  modeller. 

Fig.  67  illustrates  the  common  trowels  used  by 
moulders  and  in  other  trades  for  smoothing  over 
broad,  flat  surfaces  ;  A  is  the  square  trowel, 
and  B  the  heart  shape.  Fig.  68  shows  moulders' 
tools,  A  being  a  cleaner  for  smoothing  sand  deep 
down  where  a  trowel  could  not  reach,  vertical 
faces  being  smoothed  by  the  blade  a,  and  a 
flat  horizontal  face  with  the  part  6.  B  is  a 
cleaner  reaching  down  also  into  deep  sides, 
and  bottoms ;  C  is  a  flange  sleeker  for  smoothing 
the  edges  of  deep  flanges,  two  different  curvatures 
being  provided  at  opposite  ends  of  the  tool. 
In  69,  A  and  B  are  square  corner  sleekers  for 
smoothing  internal  and  external  angles  respec- 
tively. C  is  similar  to  A,  but  has  one  face 
curved  to  suit  concave  edges.  D  is  a  button 
or  bacca-box  sleeker.  Each  of  these  tools  is 
made  in  different  sizes  and  modified  forms. 
But  all  alike  are  moulding  tools,  working  in 
sand. 

Tools  Operating  by  Leverage.  Be- 
sides tools  already  mentioned,  in  many  of 
which  leverage  comes  into  play,  there  is  a  group 
which  operate  as  levers  pure  and  simple.  To 
this  class  belongs  the  common  brace  or  stock 
by  which  the  wood-boring  tools  are  rotated. 
The  forms  of  these  have  been  very  much  im- 
proved of  late  years.  The  pretty  wooden  brace, 
a  century  old,  has  had  to  give  place  largely 
to  others  of  metal  which  will  do  what  the  wood 
brace  cannot,  namely,  work  in  confined  situations 
by  means  of  a  double-acting  rachet ;  and  some 
will  bore  in  angular  positions.  The  refinement 
of  ball  bearings  also  inserted  in  the  handle,  the 
head,  and  the  tool  grip  avoids  the  friction  in- 
separable from  the  old  type.  The  tap  wrenches, 
or  double-armed  levers  by  which  screw  taps 
are  operated,  belong  to  this  group.  These  occur 
in  many  varieties,  including  the  solid  hole  kinds, 
and  those  which  combine  provision  for  clamping 
the  tap  shanks  firmly  in  the  body;  Pincers, 
pliers,  and  pipe  tongs  form  another  group  of 
levers.  The  pincers  are  too  well  known  to  need 
description,  but  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
those  with  the  flattish  ends  pull  a  nail  out  better 
than  those  with  very  convex  ends.  The  pipe 
tongs  are  roughened  or  serrated  in  the  jaws  to 
grip  the  outsides  of  iron  and  steel  piping.  The 
spanners  form  another  group. 


Continued 


4586 


BANK   OFFICIALS 

The   Bank   Manager  and  the   Bank  Clerk.      Salaries.      Codes  and 
Cables.     The  Institute  of  Bankers.     Examinations.    Banking  Abroad. 


GroUp  7 

BANKING 


Continued  fr< 
paKe  4444 


By    R.    LAING 


"THE  age  at  which  the  clerk  enters  the  service 
of  a  bank  varies  somewhat — ranging  gener- 
ally from  15  to  19  years.  As  the  duties  first 
entrusted  to  a  junior  usually  include  the  collec- 
tion of  cheques  and  other  documents,  it  is 
desirable  that  he  should  possess  sufficient 
physical  strength  and  mental  activity  to  pre- 
vent his  being  easily  robbed  of  his  valuable 
burden  ;  in  large  centres  the  age  of  entry  is 
consequently  higher  than  in  the  country  districts. 
An  examination  is  usually  undergone  by  the 
candidate  for  admission,  but,  except  in  special 
cases,  this  presents  no  difficulty  to  anyone  of 
average  intelligence.  English  banks  doing  busi- 
ness in  foreign  countries  or  in  the  Colonies 
recruit  their  staff  from  those  of  institutions 
doing  an  exclusively  home  business,  being  spared, 
by  so  doing,  the  trouble  of  tutorship.  The  age 
of  entry  in  such  banks  is  higher,  but  in  nearly 
every  case  a  limit — usually  of  21  years — is  in 
force.  In  such  banks  the  staff  is  generally 
divided  into  two  distinct  classes — the  home 
and  the  foreign  staff,  the  members  of  the  latter, 
after  a  certain  period,  proceeding  abroad  to  take 
up  their  duties  there. 

Salaries.  The  salaries  obtained  abroad  are, 
as  a  rule,  higher  than  those  in  this  country,  but 
the  seeming  advantage  may  be  greatly  dis- 
counted by  the  increased  cost  of  living  and  the 
danger  to  health  which  is  probably  incurred. 
As  regards  salaries  in  this  country,  the  scheme 
on  which  they  are  based  may  be  either  a  graded 
or  a  non-graded  one.  In  the  former  case,  when 
the  clerk  is  given  a  certain  rank,  say,  of  junior 
cashier  (cashier  at  a  small  branch),  he  will  at  once 
receive  the  minimum  salary  attached  to  such 
rank,  rising  by  stated  increments  until  he 
reaches  the  maximum  applicable,  at  which  he 
remains  until  promoted  to  a  higher  grade.  The 
salaries,  if  the  second  method  is  in  vogue,  are 
not  determined  by  the  exact  rank  held  by  the 
individual  officer. 

Training  of  Juniors.  The  clerk  at  the 
outset  may  enter  on  a  term  of  probation,  at 
the  conclusion  of  which,  if  his  abilities  are  deemed 
satisfactory,  he  is  placed  on  the  permanent  staff. 
It  is  not  at  all  desirable  that  anyone  should  receive 
his  early  banking  experience  in  a  very  large  or 
even  a  moderately  large  office.  In  such  a  case  he 
will  be  immediately  set  upon  some  routine  task, 
the  monotony  of  which  will  only  be  broken  by 
a  removal  to  another  department,  there  to  per- 
form work  of  a  similar  nature.  It  will  there- 
fore be  with  great  difficulty  that  he  will  gain  any 
knowledge  of  the  business  as  a  whole,  and,  should 
he  be  a  person  of  only  moderate  ability,  or  some- 
what lethargic,  the  result  will  be  a  state  of 
regrettable  ignorance.  A  comparatively  small 
office,  doing,  however,  a  varied  business,  whose 


senior  officials  have  both  the  time  and  the 
inclination  to  instruct  the  newcomer,  is  best 
suited  for  the  purpose.  The  junior  will,  in  such  a 
case,  perform  in  turn  all  the  office  duties,  and 
will,  through  the  occasional  absence  of  his 
seniors,  have  a  good  introduction  to  the  respon- 
sibilities of  the  profession  in  wrhich  he  is  engaged. 

WalK  Clerks.  In  enumerating  the  divi- 
sions into  which  the  staff  of  a  large  London 
bank  fall,  the  first  to  be  referred  to  are  the 
walk  clerks.  The  work  of  the  clearing  clerks 
has  already  been  referred  to,  and  it  is  the 
documents  which  do  not  come  within  the  clearing 
that  are  dealt  with  by  the  walk  clerks.  The 
whole  of  central  London  is  mapped  out  by  each 
bank  into  various  routes,  each  of  them  being 
termed  a  "  walk."  The  cheques  on  the  bank 
offices  situated  there  are  presented  for  payment 
daily  by  the  clerk  to  whom  it  is  given,  the  bills 
on  firms  within  the  area  of  the  "  walk  "  being 
also  presented  by  him  for  acceptance  or  payment. 
Every  morning  the  cheques  and  other  documents 
are  listed  under  the  headings  of  the  offices 
concerned,  and  balanced.  On  the  clerk's 
return  he  accounts  for  his  collection  by  a  mixture 
of  cash,  cheques,  or  payment  warrants  drawn  on 
clearing  agents,  and  returned  documents. 

Pass  Book  and  Ledger  Clerks.  He 
may,  however,  be  set  to  keep  a  ledger  or  the 
pass  books  relating  to  it.  This  marks  a  distinct 
step  in  responsibility,  as,  in  posting  the  various 
items  he  will  be  required  to  see  that  each  is  in 
order — i.e.,  that  the  cheque  is  correctly  drawn, 
endorsed  and  dated ;  that  the  signature  of  the 
client  is  not  a  forgery ;  and  that  the  instructions 
regarding  the  account  are  not  exceeded  in  any 
way.  These  duties  (or  some  of  them)  may, 
however,  be  undertaken  by  the  chief  ledger  clerk. 
The  chief  ledger  clerk  may  also  check  each  morning 
all  the  entries  of  the  previous  day;  while  the 
cancelling  by  means  of  a  perforating  machine 
of  paid  vouchers,  and  the  subsequent  sorting, 
will  probably  be  undertaken  by  the  youngest 
junior.  The  cheque  forms  for  sale  will  be  taken 
charge  of  either  by  an  official  in  this  department 
or  by  a  cashier. 

The  work  in  connection  with  securities  for 
custody  or  as  cover  for  advances .  is  usually 
performed  by  clerks  of  some  experience.  The 
securities  lodged  for  safe  keeping  do  not  occasion 
much  trouble,  but  great  care  requires  to  be  exer- 
cised with  regard  to  documents  held  as  cover  in 
offices  where  the  amounts  in  question  are  large 
and  the  deliveries  frequent.  The  loan  ledger  will 
usually  be  kept  in  the  securities  department. 

Bill  Clerks.  The  junior,  again,  may  be 
placed  in  the  bill  department,  to  which  is  usually 
given  a  place  of  greater  importance  than  that 
dealing  with  ledger  accounts.  The  bill  having 

4587 


BANKING 

been  passed  for  discount  by  some  responsible 
otfirial.  the  due  date  is  found,  the  discount 
•  •  .ilruUted  and  checked,  the  amounts,  endorse- 
in,  -iits  and  stamp  examined,  the  draft  passed 
through  the  registers  and  the  proceeds  placed 
ii>  the  credit  of  the  client.  The  posting  of 
the  discount  ledger,  the  work  attendant  on  bills 
received  for  collection,  either  from  clients  or 
other  offices,  the  necessary  advices  to  custo- 
mers of  bills  dishonoured  (with,  perhaps,  other 
correspondence),  the  making  up  of  bill  returns 
and  the  renewal  of  opinions  on  names  appearing 
therein,  will  all  be  seen  to  by  this  department. 

In  foreign  bills  the  amount  is  invariably 
payable  so  many  days  or  months  after  sight. 
The  due  date  in  consequence  cannot  be 
ascertained  until  the  draft  has  been  remitted 
abroad  and  presented  for  acceptance,  and  no 
exact  interest  calculation  can,  therefore,  be 
made.  Bankers  dealing  with  such  bills  payable 
in  a  country  using  British  money  charge  in  lieu 
of  interest  a  percentage  on  the  bill  amount— i.e., 
if  their  60  days'  sight  rate  is  2  per  cent.,  the 
amount  deducted  from  a  bill  for  £350,  at  that 
currency,  will  be  £7.  The  article  dealing  with 
long  and  short  exchange  sufficiently  explains 
the  procedure  with  regard  to  a  bill  payable  in 
a  foreign  currency. 

Correspondence  Clerks.  The  clerks 
engaged  in  correspondence  have  a  better  oppor- 
tunity of  gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  business 
in  its  different  aspects  than  those  in  other 
departments,  the  greatest  disadvantages  from 
the  clerk's  point  of  view  being  the  comparatively 
late  hour  to  which  his  duties  extend,  and  the 
fact  that  he  is  very  much  at  the  mercy  of  other 
departments.  A  knowledge  of  shorthand  is 
usually  not  absolutely  essential,  the  principal 
clerks  in  such  a  department  being  expected  to 
be  able  to  draft  a  suitable  communication  on 
an  indication  of  its  nature  being  given. 

The  youngest  junior  will  be  placed  in  charge 
of  the  postage  desk,  while  the  completion  of 
printed  forms  (a  large  proportion  of  bank 
correspondence  being  of  this  nature),  the  keeping 
and  indexing  of  letter  registers,  the  despatch 
and  confirmation  of  telegrams  and  the  filing  of 
letters  received  when  finally  dealt  with  (the 
numbering  of  each  letter  providing  a  check  on 
their  return  from  the  other  departments),  claim 
his  future  attention  until  he  is  judged  fitted  to 
undertake  the  more  responsible  duties  of  cor- 
respondence. In  banks  whose  offices  are  widely 
separated,  duplicates  of  branch  correspondence 
are  despatched  by  the  following  mail,  running 
numbers  being  also  used. 

Code  Telegrams  and  Cables.  In 
banks  doing  a  large  foreign  or  colonial 
business  (invariably  including  a  large  class 
of  trail-art  ions  carried  out  by  means  of  tele- 
uraphir  advice)  a  special  staff  of  officials  will 
l>e  entrusted  \\ith  the  duty  of  coding  and  cle- 
roduiL!  the  messages  despatched  and  received. 
The  codes  used  may  be  either  public  or  private, 
check  symbols  being  also  used.  The  translation 
of  a  code  telegram  received  is  best  verified  by 
it<  being  recodified  by  another  official  into 
whose  hands  the  original  telegram  has  not 

4588 


come,  the  result  arrived  at  by  him,  if  no  error 
exists,  agreeing  with  the  original  code  message. 
Cablegrams  despatched  are  also  checked  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  codes  in  use  will  be  con- 
stantly added  to  through  the  need  of  symbols 
being  required  to  represent  the  names  of  new 
clients,  special  transactions,  etc.  ;  but  if  the 
transaction  in  question  is  not  to  be  repeated, 
arrangements  may  be  made  on  its  completion 
to  use  the  symbol  again.  All  code  telegrams 
received  and  despatched  are  confirmed  and 
acknowledged  by  first  mail  opportunity,  the 
full  translation  of  each  being  given.  Work 
of  this  nature  calls  naturally  for  the  greatest 
care  and  closest  attention  to  detail  on  the 
part  of  the  officers  concerned,  a  clerical  slip 
having,  perhaps,  the  most  serious  results. 

Not  included  in  the  foregoing  classes  are  the 
waste  book  clerks,  the  officer  or  officers  whose 
duty  it  is  to  post  the  general  cash  book  and 
ledger,  the  clerk  who  may  be  solely  engaged  in 
checking  the  bookkeeping  entries  of  the  previous 
day,  the  official  or  officials  who  may  be  entirely 
occupied  with  opinion  work,  the  messengers — a 
uniformed  body  of  officials  regarded  as  quite 
apart  from  the  clerical  staff,  and  so  on. 

Cashiers.  In  an  ordinary  branch,  an 
appointment  to  the  rank  of  cashier  entails  a 
distinct  promotion.  In  large  offices,  the  cashiers, 
or  the  majority  of  them,  will  generally  be  junior 
to  the  principal  clerks  in  the  various  depart- 
ments ;  but  in  branch  offices  in  which  the 
duties  of  such  clerks  are  undertaken  by  one 
official — the  accountant — the  cashier  or  cashiers 
are  placed  between  this  officer  and  the  rest  of 
the  staff,  the  members  of  which  correspond  to 
the  junior  officials  in  the  head  office  departments. 
It  is  essential  that  a  cashier  should  be  possessed 
of  good  address  and  appearance,  and  be  able 
to  despatch  the  business  of  the  bank's  clients 
with  the  least  possible  delay.  Each  cashier  is 
responsible  for  the  balance  shown  by  him  in 
his  cash  book  (the  actual  amount  on  hand  being 
frequently  checked  by  a  senior  officer),  an  allow- 
ance against  possible  loss  being  probably  made. 

Daily  Balancing.  The  cashier  is  not 
allowed  (with  the  view  to  the  prevention  of 
fraud)  to  deal  with  any  book  other  than  his  own 
cash  book,  and,  in  consequence,  if  he  is  a  qaick 
and  accurate  worker,  he  will  always  be  the 
first  of  the  staff  to  complete  his  day's  duties, 
for,  if  no  error  has  been  made,  the  agreement  of 
the  balance  shown  in  his  book  with  the  cash 
actually  on  hand  will  present  no  difficulty. 
Any  difference  will  arise  through  a  mistake  in 
the  entries  in  the  cash  book  or  an  error  in  the 
intromissions  with  the  cash.  The  first  is  bound 
to  be  discovered  on  comparison  with  the  relative 
waste  books,  registers,  etc. ;  and  with  regard 
to  the  latter  the  cashier  will  invariably  discover 
an  error  relating  to  any  documents  or  bank 
notes  (if  the  numbers  of  the  latter  are  recorded) ; 
but  the  payment  of  ten  sovereigns  instead  of 
five  is  not  so  easily  discovered  and  remedied. 

A  cheque  left  for  payment  by  a  walk  clerk, 
the  signature  on  which  has  been  cancelled  by  the 
cashier,  will  be  accepted  by  the  former  as  unpaid 
on  his  returning  for  payment,  if  marked  and 


initialled  by  the  cashier  "  Cancelled  in  error." 
To  cancel  the  signature  on  a  bill,  however, 
precludes  the  possibility  of  the  draft  being 
returned ;  while  the  presenting  bank  may 
refase  to  allow  a  cheque  bearing  a  foreign 
endorsement  to  be  so  treated  until  sanctioned 
by  its  correspondent.  The  foregoing  remarks 
apply  also  to  documents  received  through  the 
post  or  the  clearing. 

The  Accountant.  The  succeeding  grade  is 
that  of  accountant,  who  is  responsible  for  the 
work  of  the  office  being  duly  carried  on,  and 
who,  in  the  absence  of  the  manager,  attends 
to  the  duties  of  the  latter.  An  official  on 
reaching  this  status  is  almost  invariably  em- 
powered to  sign  on  behalf  of  the  bank,  so  that  no 
delay  may  occur  in  the  completion  of  any  draft 
or  receipt  should  the  manager  be  at  the  time 
engaged.  The  qualities  required  in  an  accoun- 
tant are  of  a  somewhat  different  nature  to  those 
most  required  by  the  cashiers  and  the  manager. 
A  clerk  whose  capacity  in  carrying  through  and 
arranging  the  routine  work  of  the  office  is 
admirable  and  whose  grasp  of  the  business  is 
very  good,  but  who  is  somewhat  deficient  in 
address  if  called"  upon  to  interview  a  client,  or 
who  cannot,  through  some  unfortunate  cause, 
occupy  the  position  which,  apart  from  his  office 
duties,  a  branch  manager  is  expected  to  main- 
tain, will  be  better  fitted  to  be  an  accountant 
at  a  large  office  than  a  manager  of  a  small  one. 

The  Manager.  In  all  branches  the  final 
position  is  that  of  manager,  the  official  attaining 
this  rank  receiving  promotion  afterwards  in  the 
shape  of  a  transfer  to  a  more  important  office. 
The  principal  duty  of  the  manager  is  the  con- 
tinual receiving  of  the  bank's  clients,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  will  have  opportunity  for  the 
exercise  of  tact,  if,  for  instance,  he  wishes  to 
retain  the  custom  of  a  client  whose  overdraft 
the  head  office  desires  to  see  reduced.  His  obser- 
vation should  be  keen  and  his  deductive  powers 
good.  The  success  attained  by  the  manager 
depends  on  the  ease  with  which  he  can  adapt 
himself  to  the  various  individuals  writh  whom  he 
comes  in  contact ;  upon  the  interest  he  can 
naturally  feel  and  show  in  their  affairs  ;  and  upon 


BANKING 

the  degree  in  which  he  possesses  ah  intuitive 
insight  into  character ;  a  temper  not  easily 
ruffled,  a  quick  and  ready  decision,  and  a  mind 
unprejudiced  in  business  by  personal  feeling. 
The  ability  to  take  a  clear-headed  view  of  the 
future  of  a  doubtful  debt  and  the  resolution  to 
act  accordingly,  even  to  the  extent  of  the  drastic 
step  of  stopping  the  account,  are  not  too  common. 
To  discover  borrowers  (of  a  kind)  requires  no 
exertion,  but  the  attraction  of  deposits  is  a 
different  matter,  and  the  manager  may  spend  a 
long  period  before  forming  connections  leading 
to  an  increase  in  this  class  of  business.  The 
manager's  responsibility  may  be  restricted  either 
as  regards  the  total  business  or  each  particular 
item  by  a  limit  being  fixed  by  the  head  office. 

Arrangement     of    the      Office.       The 

banking  hall,  or  general  office,  should,  if  the 
building  is  of  more  than  one  storey,  be  on  the 
ground  floor,  the  rooms  above,  if  possible,  being 
occupied  by  those  members  of  the  staff  whose 
duties  do  not  bring  them  directly  into  contact 
with  the  public.  The  windows,  if  the  office  is 
not  roof-lighted,  are  usually  found  at  the  side 
of  the  room,  with  the  desks  at  right  angles  to 
this  wall. 

The  counter  desks  will  be  occupied  partly  by 
the  cashiers,  and  partly  by  officials  from  the  bill 
and  other  departments,  to  enable  clients  having 
business  dealt  with  by  these  to  be  attended  to 
with  the  least  possible  delay.  Behind  the  cashiers 
the  waste  book  and  ledger  keepers  will  be  placed, 
the  other  officials  being  found  behind  the  clerk 
who  represents  them  at  the  counter ;  while  the 
correspondence  department  will  be  accommo- 
dated at  the  back  of  the  office.  As  many  officials 
as  possible  should  face  the  counter,  the  chances 
of  theft  being  thereby  greatly  diminished,  while 
the  accountant  should  be  able  from  his  desk  to 
survey  the  entire  office. 

Institute  of  Bankers.  The  office  of 
the  English  Institute  is  at  No.  34,  Clement's 
Lane,  from  which  forms  for  signature,  syllabuses, 
specimen  examination  papers  (a  small  charge 
being  made  for  these),  and  all  other  necessary 
information  may  be  obtained,  and  at  which  a 
large  library  is  available  for  the  use  of  members. 


SCHEDULE   OF   EXAMINATIONS   FOR  BANKERS 

Examining  Body,  Grade,                                                                                    Subject*  of  Examination. 
Timr  and  Pl-icc  of 

Fees  and 
A*fe 

Examination. 

Obl'gatny. 

Optional. 

Limit. 

English  Institute. 

Political    Economy,  Practical    Banking,    Commercial    Law, 

French,  German. 

5s. 

Preliminary. 

Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Bookkeeping. 

None. 

April.     Various  centres. 

English  Institute.     Final. 

Political   Economy,    Practical    Banking,   Commercial    Law, 

French,  German. 

5s. 

April.     Various  centres. 

Commercial  Geography  and  History,  Bookkeeping. 

None. 

Scotch  Institute. 

Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Geography,  English  Composition,  Book- 

None. 

Associates. 
March.     Various  centres. 

keeping  and  Bank  Books,  Exchange  and  Clearing  House 
System  and  Rules,  Note  Circulation,  Interest  and  Charges, 

Negotiation  of  Bills  and  Cheques,  History   and  Present 

Position  of  Banking  in  Scotland. 

Scotch  Institute. 
Members. 

Principles  of  Political  Economy,  Stocks  and  Stock  Exchange 
Transactions,  History  and  Present  Position  of  Banking  and 

None. 

March.     Various  centres. 

Currency,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Foreign  Exchanges,  Prin- 
ciples of  Scotch  Law  and  Conveyancing,  Law  of  Bank- 

ruptcy, Mercantile  Law,  Law  of  Bills,  Cheques  and  Deposit 

Receipts,     Practical    Banking     (Correspondence     Branch 
Supervision  and  Advances). 

Scotch  Institute. 

French   or   German,   British    History,    British    Government 

None. 

Honours. 

and  Constitution,  English  Literature,  Outlines  of  General 

March.     Various  centres. 

History 

i 

4589 


BANKING 

The  subjects  of  examination  (open  to  members 
only)  are  given  in  Schedule  on  preceding  page. 
<  Vrt  ificates  are  granted  to  those  passing  the  final 
examination,  certain  prizes  are  offered,  and 
various  banks  reward,  either  by  money  payment 
or  otherwise,  a  successful  candidate.  The  annual 
>nlisi Tiption  for  a  member  is  10s.  6d.,  and  a  fee 
of  5s.  is  payable  on  each  occasion  by  anyone 
intimating  his  intention  of  sitting  for  examina- 
tion, the  payment  covering  all  subjects  taken  at 
the  time.  Such  notice  must  be  given  not  later 
than  February  28th. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  before  any 
examination  of  the  English  Institute  can  be 
taken  it  is  necessary  that  the  intending  candidate 
be  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

The  Scotch  Institute.  The  principal 
centres  of  the  Scotch  Institute  are  at  27,  Queen 
Street,  Edinburgh,  and  at  218,  St.  Vincent  Street, 
Glasgow,  where  libraries  are  available  for  the  use 
of  members,  associates,  and  intending  candi- 
dates (on  payment  by  the  last  of  a  fee).  No  fee 
is  payable  for  examination  nor  is  any  subscription 
(ranging  from  5s.  3d.  to  £1  Is.)  due  until  the 
individual  becomes  either  by  election  or  exami- 
nation an  associate  or  member  of  the  institute. 
The  examinations  take  place  at  the  end  of 
March,  ten  days'  notice  being  necessary,  and 
various  prizes  and  gratuities  are  offered  by  the 
institute  and  banks  concerned.  All  needful 
information  will  be  supplied  by  the  Institute 
authorities. 

Banking  Abroad.  In  almost  every  new 
country  there  will  be  found  a  bank,  established 
with  British  capital,  whose  head  office  is  in  this 
country,  and  whose  inception  was  principally  due 
to  the  exchange  business  resulting  from  our 
shipping  trade,  but  which  also  transacts  a  large 
local  business  oversea.  No  attempt  has  been 
made  to  establish  banks  to  carry  on  similar 
French  or  German  business,  although  the  great 
importance  of  Hamburg  as  a  shipping  centre  has 
caused  certain  institutions  to  open  agencies 
there.  Most  of  the  larger  Continental  banks, 
other  than  those  of  State  origin,  possess,  however, 
for  the  efficient  transaction  of  exchange  business, 
a  branch  in  London,  and  the  number  of  such 
offices  is  being  steadily  added  to.  A  further 
extension  of  this  practice  is,  in  some  instances, 
carried  out  by  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  offices  in  all  the  principal  Continental  centres, 
and  even  in  those  still  more  remote.  The  principle 
of  State  banking  possesses  abroad  a  greater  vogue 
than  in  this  country,  the  principal  banks  in  both 
France  and  Germany,  for  instance,  being  of  this 
nature. 

The  banking  business  carried  on  in  the  United 
States  is  greatly  affected  by  the  regulations  in  • 
force,  wrhich  are  too  complicated  to   be   dealt 
with  here.     In  no  other  country  has  legislation 

BANKING  concluded  ; 


regarding  banking  and  currency  been  so  prolific 
as  in  the  United  States,  and  the  present  arrange- 
ment probably  does  not  constitute  finality  in 
the  matter. 

London  Bill  Brokers.  Reference  has 
previously  been  made  to  the  London  bill  brokers, 
but  one  or  two  important  points  in  connection 
with  their  method  of  business  have  been  left  un- 
touched. Their  funds  are  Avholly  composed  of 
deposits  at  interest,  the  rate  allowed  by  them 
being  greater  than  that  of  the  joint-stock  banks. 
The  margin  of  profit  obtained  is,  in  consequence, 
small,  and,  owing  to  periodical  fluctuations  in  the 
rate  of  interest,  is  liable  to  entirely  disappear, 
although  the  trend  of  interest  rates  may,  of  course, 
result  in  an  unexpected  increase.  The  brokers 
keep  practically  no  reserve.  The  rates  obtained 
by  banks  on  the  employment,  with  bill  brokers 
and  others,  of  funds  for  which  no  use  can  at  the 
moment  be  found,  or  which  it  is  desired  to  keep 
liquid,  have  a  considerable  influence  on  the  profits 
of  the  banks.  A  large  proportion  of  the  bank's 
deposits — its  current  accounts — are  obtained  at 
what  is  practically  an  unchanging  rate — the 
expense  of  working,  no  interest  being  paid  by 
the  bank.  If  money  is  a  glut  on  the  London 
market,  the  employment  of  surplus  funds  may 
be  attended  with  loss  ;  but  if  a  tightness  is 
in  evidence,  a  large  margin  of  profit  will  be 
earned. 

Future  of  Banking.  Banking  may  be 
said  to  have,  in  a  certain  sense,  very  probably  no 
future,  for  history  is,  after  all,  but  the  record  of 
the  repair  of  accident  and  error,  and  a  Utopia 
has  no  need  of  a  chronicler.  The  progress  of 
'  banking  in  this  country  during  the  past  few- 
decades  is  one  of  steady  and  continued  growth, 
and  is  almost  entirely  free  from  those  startling 
incidents  which  lend  a  romantic  attractiveness  to 
its  earlier  story.  Its  wild  oats  have  all  been  sown 
long  ago ;  it  has  now  reached  a  vigorous  man- 
hood ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  will  never, 
with  the  commerce  and  industry  of  the  nation 
at  large,  descend  in  course  of  time  to  a  decrepit 
and  enfeebled  old  age. 

Books  Recommended.  The  practical 
details  of  banking  business  are  somewhat 
neglected  in  the  literature  available,  but  the 
following  list,  which  can  be  supplemented  from 
that  given  in  the  Institute  of  Bankers'  syllabus, 
may  be  studied  with  advantage  : 

Clare's  "  A  B  C  of  the  Foreign  Exchanges,"  3s. 

Clare's  "  Money  Market  Primer,"  5s. 

Moxon's  "  English  Practical  Banking,"  4s.  Cd. 

Rae's  "  Country  Banker,"  2s.  6d. 

Bagehot's  "  Lombard  Street,"   3s.   6d. 

"  Money  and  the  Mechanism  of  Exchange  " 
(Jevons),   5s. ;   and  parts  of  Gilbart's  "  Princi- 
ples and  Practice  of  Banking,"  10s. 
followed  by  INSURANCE 


TRACK  AND  RUNNING  STAFFS 

Conditions     of    Employment.      Duties,     Wages    and    Prospects    of    Track 
Inspectors  and  their  Subordinates.     Engine  Drivers  and  Running  Shed  Hands 


Group  29 

TRANSIT 

18 


continued  fron 
l>age  43S1 


By    H.    G.    ARCHER 


"TO  maintain  the  permanent  way  and  works  of 
a  railway,  an  elaborate  system  of  organisa- 
tion, together  with  a  large  staff  of  officers  and 
servants  is  required.  The  head  of  this  organisation 
is  the  chief  civil  engineer.  As  a  rule,  the  chief 
engineer  is  given  a  lieutenant,  who  is  specially 
charged  with  the  maintenance  of  way  and  works. 
Then  comes  a  number  of  divisional  engineers. 
The  number  of  engineering  divisions  of  a  railway 
depends  upon  its  size.  For  example,  the  London 
and  North- Western,  with  4,000  single-line  miles, 
has  eight,  and  the  London  and  South- Western, 
with  1,700  single-line  miles,  three. 

Inspectors  and  Gangers.  Each  division 
is  subdivided  into  so  many  chief  inspectors' 
districts,  and  each  chief  inspector  has  under  him 
four  or  five  sub-inspectors.  Inspectors'  wages 
are  from  7s.  6d.  to  10s.  6d.  per  day.  Each  sub- 
inspector  takes  from  20  to  50  miles  of  single 
track,  or  about  half  that 
number  of  miles  in  terri- 
tory. Below  the  sub- 
inspectors  are  the  fore- 
men gangers,  who  earn 
from  4s.  6d.  to  6s.  6d. 
per  day.  A  foreman's 
length  averages  two 
miles  on  a  double  track, 
or  about  four  miles  on  a 
single.  Below  the  fore- 
men, again,  come  the 
platelayers,  or  surface 
men  (wages  3s.  to  4s.  6d. 
per  day),  the  number  of 
whom  in  a  gang  varies 
according  to  the  density 
of  the  traffic,  and  the 
consequent  wear  and 

tear  of  the  permanent  way,  or  the  number  of 
junctions  and  sidings  which  have  to  be  main- 
tained. It  stands  to  reason  that  the  gangs'  lengths, 
say,  between  Waterloo  and  Clapham  Junction, 
have  to  be  far  more  strongly  manned  than  those 
of  remote  single-line  branches.  However,  it  is 
estimated  that,  as  a  general  rule,  one  man 
per  single  line  mile  ought  to  suffice.  The  foreman 
and  platelayers  patrol  it  at  least  once  a  day  to 
ensure  that  everything  is  in  perfect  order.  They 
have  to  see  to  the  condition  of  the  joints,  gauge, 
or  horizontal  alignment  of  the  track,  general 
condition  of  running  surface  of  rails,  and  security 
of  all  keys,  spikes,  screws,  etc. 

Most  careful  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
spacing  of  rail  joints.  Directly  spacing  is  found 
to  be  wrong,  steps  must  be  taken  at  once  to 
adjust  the  rails.  Inspectors,  foremen,  and 
gangers  are  supplied  with  spacing  gauges.  The 
spaces  per  joint,  with  rails  up  to  30  ft.  in  length, 


PLATELAYERS    "KEYING   UP 


are  as  follows :  Hot  (summer  temperature), 
y:)o  in.  ;  moderately  cool,  -^  in.  ;  cold,  |  in. 
""Weak  Points  of  the  Track.  The  rail 
joint  is  the  weak  point  of  the  track — that  is,  the 
place  least  likely  to  withstand  strain.  If  joints 
be  allowed  to  get  out  of  vertical  alignment,  they 
play  pitch  and  toss  with  the  wheels  of  a  train. 
The  correct  horizontal  alignment  of  the  track  is 
tested  by  gauging  with  special  rods,  and  the 
proper  degree  of  superelevation  to  be  maintained 
by  the  outer  rail  on  curves  is  ascertained  in  the 
same  manner.  Platelayers  [4]  set  right,  with 
the  tools  at  their  disposal,  all  and  sundry  defects 
which  they  chance  to  find  in  any  of  the 
foregoing. 

However,  serious  exception  is  now  taken  to 
the  practice  of  entrusting  platelayers  with  such 
a  delicate  matter  as  the  adjustment  of  curves, 
which  are  originally  laid  out  with  mathematical 

precision,  under  skilled" 

supervision.  As  in 
America,  there  ought  to 
be  a  specially  trained 
staff  for  the  purpose, 
and  we  believe  that  one 
English  company— the 
Great  Western  —  is 
about  to  establish  such 
a  staff.  Nevertheless, 
adjustment  of  curves, 
as  conducted  by  plate- 
layers, is  not  rule  of 
thumb  work.  Every 
company  issues  a  table 
setting  forth  the  degree 
of  superelevation  in 
inches  to  be  observed  on 
curves  of  different  radii. 
Duties  of  Platelayers,  Foremen,  and 
Inspectors.  Further,  platelayers  have  to 
move  and  repack  the  ballast,  so  that  it  may  not 
concrete  on  the  surface  and  hold  water,  to  oil  and 
clean  the  working  parts  of  points  and  signals, 
and  to  keep  in  thorough  repair  all  hedges,  fences, 
slopes,  drains,  and  "  cesses  "  or  footpaths.  It 
stands  to  reason  that  the  responsibilities  of 
railway  companies  as  regards  fences  and  hedges 
are  very  heavy.  Lastly,  the  platelayers  have 
also  to  report  anything  they  may  detect  amiss 
with  the  telegraph  wires,  signals,  passing  trains, 
bridges,  culverts,  notice  -  boards,  quarter-mile 
posts,  etc.  The  platelayer,  of  course,  is  an 
unskilled  workman — a  mere  labourer,  to  begin 
with,  and  he  learns  his  duties  from  a  foreman. 
A  man  wishing  to  become  a  platelayer  must  be  not 
less  than  18  and  not  more  than  35  years  of  age 
(which  is  the  general  rule  with  all  railwaj-  com- 
panies in  respect  of  ordinary  labour)  ;  he  must 

4591 


TRANSIT 

be  able  to  read  and  write,  and  possess  sound 
health.  There  is  also  an  eyesight  test,  but  this 
is  not  of  so  stringent  a  character  as  with  some 
other  departments  of  railway  employment. 
What  are  known  as  "half  normal  vision,  as 
regards  distance,  and  "  defective  colour  vision," 
form  the  standard.  On  the  whole,  platelayers 
are  a  rather  floating  population.  Many  men 
stay  in  o  company's  service  as  such  for  only  a 
t«-\v  months  at  a  time,  then  go  off  to  join  a  con- 
tractor or  another  company,  or  perhaps  to 
Income  ordinary  labourers,  and  eventually 
ivturn  to  put  in  another  period  of  service  with 
their  original  employers.  A  large  number  of 
platelayers  is  recruited  from  the  employees  of 
the  contractors  engaged  in  constructing  a  new 
railway — that  is  to  say,  the  men  who  laid  the 
line  originally  are  taken  over  by  the  company 
en  masse  to  maintain  it. 

Promotion  for  Platelayers.  A  platelayer 
can  rise  to  the  rank  of  foreman,  inspector,  and 
chief  inspector,  but  any  post  higher  than  the 


5.    INTERIOR   OF  INSPECTION    COACH   AT    REAR 
OF    TRAIN 

shewing  seats  for  examining  committee 

last-named  he  seldom  attains,  for  educational 
reasons.  Promotion  rests  entirely  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  company,  and  is  judged  by  merit 
alone.  The  foreman,  or  ganger,  is  responsible  for 
the  Avork  of  a  gang  to  his  inspector,  the  inspector 
to  his  chief  inspector,  and  the  latter  to  the  dis- 
trk-t  engineer.  By  the  way,  among  the  younger 
school  of  railwaymen,  great  objection  is 
evinced  towards  the  old  railway  term 
li  ganger."  They  seem  to  think  it  carries  some 
reproach,  suggests  the  idea  of  gangs  in  chains. 
Some  companies  are  meeting  the  objection  by 
calling  the  overseers  foremen  instead.  Besides 
the  platelayers  and  gangers  who  carry  out  all 
ordinary  repairs,  and  therefore  are  known  as 
"  straight  road  "  men,  there  are  travelling  gangs 
of  ballasting  men,  or  "  packers,"  andrelayers,  who 
are  employed  in  renewing  the  permanent  way, 
and  executing  alterations  and  additions,  when 
t  hey  are  often  strengthened  by  local  men.  About 
five  per  cent,  of  the  whole  permanent  way  of  a 
railway  is  reneAved  per  annum.  The  relayers, 
etc.,  are  under  the  charge  of  chief  inspectors, 
and  each  chief  inspector  also  has  allotted  to 
4592 


him  a  complement  of  artificers,  masons,  brick- 
layers. carpenters,  smiths,  etc.  (wages  Cs.  to  8s. 
per  day),  with  their  foremen  and  inspectors,  who 
are  responsible  for  the  repair  of  everything  that 
constitutes  the  "works"  of  a  railway  as  differen- 
tiated from  the  permanent  way.  The  sub- 
inspectors  take  charge  of  the  relaying  and  repair- 
ing gang,  when  they  get  to  work,  are  responsible 
for  the  discipline,  hours  of  labour,  and  wages 
of  every  man  temporarily  or  permanently  em- 
ployed within  their  districts,  and  keep  a  record 
of  all  materials  received  and  used. 

Relaying  Precautions.  Each  gang  of 
platelayers  must  be  supplied  by  the  inspector  for 
the  district  with  two  red  and  two  green  flags,  two 
hand  signal-lamps,  and  a  proper  number  of 
detonators.  Before  a  rail  is  taken  out,  or  relay- 
ing operations  are  begun,  or  if  from  any  cause 
the  line  is  unsafe,  a  flagman  must  go  back, 
exhibiting  a  danger  signal,  and  place  three  deto- 
nators on  the  line,  10  yards  apart,  at  a  distance  of 
not  less  than  one  mile  from  the  obstruction. 
Before  a  rail  is  taken  out,  the  platelayers  must 
have  at  the  spot  a  perfect  rail  in  readiness  to 
replace  it.  In  lifting  the  permanent  way,  no  lift 
must  be  greater  than  3  in.  at  once,  and  then  it 
must  be  effected  in  a  length  of  at  least  20  yd. 
When  both  rails  have  to  be  lifted  they  must  be 
raised  equally  and  at  the  same  time,  and  the 
ascent  must  be  made  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  trains  run,  great  care  being  taken,  where 
there  is  a  curve,  to  preserve  the  superelevation 
of  the  outer  rail.  Where  the  necessity  for  trains 
to  travel  at  a  reduced  speed  continues  for  a 
lengthened  period,  detonators  and  hand  caution 
signals  are  dispensed  with.  In  substitution 
thereof  a  warning  board  [6]  painted  green  must 
be  fixed  in  a  legible  position  half  a  mile  from 
the  place  to  be  protected.  During  the  night  one 
green  and  one  white  light  are  placed  side  by  side 
on  the  warning  board.  When  a  lorry  is  run  empty 
or  used  for  conveying  materials  or  men  along 
the  track,  it  must  be  taken  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  trains  run,  and  followed  at  a  distance 
of  three-quarters  of  a  mile  with  hand  danger 
signals  and  detonators.  On  a  single  line  the 
lorry  must  be  protected  in  both  directions,  and 
in  going  through  a  tunnel  it  is  signalled  on  the 
block  instruments  like  an  ordinary  train.  When 
not  in  use,  the  lorry  must  be  taken  off  the  rails, 
placed  well  clear  of  the  line,  and  the  wheels 
secured  with  chain  and  padlock. 

Expert  Scrutiny  of  the  Permanent 
Way.  Periodical  inspections  are  made  by  the 
divisional  engineers,  the 
chief  engineer,  the  gene- 
ral manager,  and  even 
the  directors,  to  ensure 
that  all  the  work  is 
being  properly  per- 
formed, and  a  uniform 
standard  of  mainten- 
ance  observed  through- 
out  the  railway.  Never- 
theless, there  is  nothing 


6.   WARNING  BOARD 


definite  about  these  periodical  inspections  by  the 
higher  officials,  as  is  the  case  with  Indian  rail- 
ways, where  a  divisional  engineer  has  to  certify 


ENGINEERS  INSPECTION 
COACH 


that  he  has  in- 
spected every 
mile  of  track 
covered  by  his 
district  at  certain 
intervals. 

Again,  some  of 
our  readers  may 
have  noted  pass- 
ing references  in 
the  English  news- 
papers  to  the 
grand  field-days 
held  by  the  prin- 
cipal railway  companies  of  the  United  States 
for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  condition 
of  the  track  and  everything  pertaining  to  it. 
The  chief  officers  of  the  New  York  Central  and 
Pennsylvania  Companies  spend  annually  two  or 
three  weeks  travelling  over  their  road  in  a  special 
train,  on  which  they  live,  eat,  and  sleep  while 
the  examination  is  being  conducted.  At  the  rear 
of  the  train  is  a  large  observation  car,  with  seats 
arranged  in  tiers,  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  various  examining  committees,  whose  duties 
are  to  scrutinise  the  condition  of  the  permanent 
way,  bridges,  signals,  stations,  etc.,  and  pro- 
nounce an  opinion  upon  the  general  condition 
of  the  running  surface  of  the  rails.  In  the  latter 
case,  such  a  test  as  brimful  glasses  of  water, 
which,  of  course,  will  spill  over  if  the  slightest 
oscillation  be  experienced,  is  applied.  For  the 
purpose  of  comparison,  the  whole  extent  of  the 
line  is  marked  out  into  the  respective  gangers' 
lengths,  and  the  examiners  keep  scores  testifying 
to  the  condition  in  which  they  find  each. 
Premiums  are  awarded  to  the  inspectors  of,  and 
every  man  employed  in,  the  prize  sections. 

There  is  more  in  the  system  than  meets  the 
eye.  The  principal  object  in  view  is  to  bring 
down  the  unit  of  expenditure  as  regards  the  cost 
of  maintenance  and  renewal  to  individuals — not 
highly-placed  individuals,  such  as  the  district 
engineers,  but  the  inspectors  of  districts,  and 
even  the  gangers,  who  are  entrusted  with  the 
care  of  only  a  few  miles  of  the  road.  It  is 
realised  that  the  latter  are  the  men  who  really 
hold  the  purse-strings, 
hence  it  would  be  a 
great  thing  to  find  out 
what  they  are  giving 
for  their  money,  and 
compare  the  different 
results.  With  the 
customary  method  of 
keeping  accounts  it  is 
practically  impossible 
to  arrive  at  the  details 
o  f  expenditure  o  n 
permanent  way. 

Premium  Award 
System.  The  London 
and  South  -  Western 
Railway  has  furnished 
the  first  instance  of  a 
British  railway  com- 
pany adopting  the 
American  system  of 


TRANSIT 

track  inspection,  with  the  view  of  splitting  up 
and  checking  the  expenditure  that  falls  under 
this  head,  and  at  the  same  time  trying  to  obtain 
better  results  for  the  same  or  less  money.  The 
system  lends  itself  to  raising  the  standard  of 
efficiency  from  the  highest  to  the  humblest  ranks 
of  the  army  of  men  entrusted  with  the  main- 
tenance of  the  permanent  way. 

There  is  only  one  way  to  make  the  men  at  the 
bottom  understand  that  better  things  are  expected 
of  them — convince  them  that  their  work  is 
going  to  be  individually  examined  and  compared 
every  year  by  the  head  officials.  There  is  only 
one  way  to  make  them  turn  out  better  work  than 
previously — namely,  by  instilling  them  with  a  new 
spirit  of  emulation,  and  encouraging  them  with 
the  offer  of  money  and  other  prizes. 

A  Common  Factor  of  Responsibility. 
Everybody's  responsibility  is  reduced  to  a 
common  basis  by  charging  him  with  the  equiva- 
lent single-line  mileage  he  has  to  maintain.  He 
has  so  many  running  miles  under  him,  including 


8.  BAR-BOY 


9.     LOCOMOTIVE    ROUND    HOUSE 


miles  of  sidings,  of  which  two  miles  are  estimated 
equal  to  one  mile  of  running  line,  and  he  is 
allowed  to  reckon  one  mile  of  running  line  for 
every  fifteen  pairs  of  switches. 

The  chief  engineer's  road-book  is  arranged  in 
consecutive  order  of  inspectors'  sections,  as 
follows  :  (1)  geographical  beginning  and  ending 
of  the  section  ;  (2)  sub-division  of  running  lines — 
that  is,  mileage  of  single,  double,  triple,  or  quad- 
ruple track  ;  (3)  total  in  single -line  miles  ;  (4) 
total  length  of  sidings  ;  (5)  number  of  switches  ; 
(6)  total  equivalent  of  switches  in  single-line 
miles.  Next  come  particulars  as  to  the  manning : 

(1)  names  of  the  foremen,  and  their  rates  of  pay  ; 

(2)  number  of  men  under  each  foreman,  and 
their  rates  of  pay  ;    (3)  total  equivalent  single - 
line  mileage  divided  by  the  total  number  of  men 
in  gang,  which  produces  the  ratio  of  manning 
per  single-line  mile.      It  will  therefore  be  seen 
that    for    comparative    purposes    the    unit    of 
expenditure  is  brought  down  to  the  inspector 
of  a  section.     What  is  yet  wanted  is  to  bring 
it  down  to  Foreman  Smith  or  Brown,  but  that 
is  still  some  way  ahead. 

A  British  Track  Inspection.  The  track 
inspection  occupies  about  eight  days,  spread  over 

4593 


TRANSIT 

a  month  or  six  weeks  in  the  spring.  The  main 
lin<-  < -an  bo  examined  only  on  Sundays.  Three 
examining  committees  are  formed  as  follows : 
A,  for  condition  of  joints,  alignment  of 
truck,  and  general  condition  of  running  surface 

3e;    Class  B,  for  condition  of    ballasting; 

( '.  for  general  appearance  of  all  works,  in- 
cluding hedges,  fences,  slopes,  drains,  "  cesses  "  or 
footpaths,  notice-boards,  and  quarter-mile  posts. 
The  system  of  premium  awards  instituted  by 
the  London  and  South- Western  Railway  offers 
a  challenge  cup  and  a  money  prize  of  £2  for  the 
best  inspector's  section,  and  a  challenge  cup  for 
the  best  foreman's  length  throughout  the  line. 
With  the  challenge  cups  go  silver  medals  to  keep. 
In  each  inspector's  section  the  foreman  with  the 
be<t  length  is  awarded  £1  and  a  bronze  medal, 
while  each  man  under  the  prize  foreman  receives 
10s.  and  a  bronze  medal. 

The  Method  of  Marking.  Let  us  see 
how  the  awards  are  arrived  at.  The  line  is 
divided  into  the  respective  gangs'  lengths,  and  so 
many  marks  are  allotted  _ 
to  each  foreman  under 
the  three  different 
classes  by  which  his 
work  is  judged.  Thus, 
in  Class  A,  200  marks 
re  presents  perf  ection  ;  in 
ttass  B,  120;  and  in 
Class  C,  80.  But  the 
method  of  marking 
niikes  allowance  for 
certain  correcting  fac- 
tors. It  is  manifestly  to 
the  advantage  of  a  rail- 
way company  to  get 
the  work  efficiently 
done  by  as  few  men  as 
]K»ssible,  and,  as  already 
stated,  it  is  calculated 
that  a  ratio  ot  one  man 
per  single  -  line  mile 
ought  to  suffice.  There- 
fore, one  mark  is  allowed  for  every  hundredth  of 
a  man  below  one  man  per  mile,  and  one  mark 
is  deducted  for  every  hundredth  of  a  man  above 
the  quota.  The  feeling  among  the  men  is  that 
the  age  of  the  road  also  ought  to  count  for 
something.  Therefore  it  has  been  decided  to 
apply  another  correcting  factor  in  this  respect. 
Tin  average  life  of  the  road  is  assumed  to  be 
17  years.  For  each  year  over  17  years  five 
marks  are  added  to  the  score,  and  for  each  year 
below  two  marks  are  deducted,  the  object  of  the 
discrepancy,  of  course,  being  to  encourage  men 
to  take  pains  with  sections  of  old  road.  The 
\\ejik  point  of  the  system  is  that  it  has  not  yet 
l"imd  possible  to  apply  other  correcting 
lac-tor*  in  respect  of  density/ weight,  and  speed 
<>t  the  train.-  passing  over  the  different  sections. 
Obviously,  a  man  whose  section  carries,  say, 
n.(MM)  trains  p«-r  mile  per  year,  is  not  so  hardly 
hit  for  \\.-ar  and  trnr  as  his  fellow  whose  section 
'•arrii-s.  say,  I'J.IMC)  trains  per  mile  per  year. 

ber,  the  \\vijfht  and  sp,-ed  of  the  trains  in 
(|iii-stj(>n  ought  also  to  he  measured.  This  forms 
a,  good  instance  where  the  ton-mile  statistics, 


instead   of    train-mile    statistics,    would   prove 
invaluable  were  they  but  available. 

The  Inspection  Train.  The  special  in- 
speetion  train  is  made  up  thus:  engine,  inspec- 
tion car,  "  resting  "  saloon,  refreshment  saloon, 
inspection  car.  The  inspection  cars  [7]  are  four- 
wheeled  vehicles,  so  that  all  shocks  from  the 
road  may  be  transferred  to  the  body,  and  pro- 
vided with  glass  ends,  so  as  to  furnish  a  clear 
look-out.  Only  the  inspection  car  at  the  tail 
end  of  the  train  is  used  for  examining. 

The  interior  oi  the  inspection  coach  [5]  is  fitted 
up  with  two  tiers  of  chairs,  arranged  in  two  pairs. 
The  examiners  sit  with  their  backs  to  the  engine, 
and  scrutinise  the  receding  track.  The  com- 
mittee for  the  condition  of  joints,  etc.,  occupy  the 
seats  in  the  front  left-hand  corner,  and  the 
committee  on  ballasting  those  in  the  front  right- 
hand  corner,  while  the  committee  on  the  general 
appearance  of  all  works  sit  in  the  back  tier  and 
look  over  the  heads  of  the  two  former.  To 
ensure  impartiality,  no  examiner  is  connected 

with  the  section  he  is 

examining.  The  com- 
mittees, who  usually 
consist  of  two  members 
apiece,  are  on  duty  for 
about  an  hour  at  a  time, 
and  at  the  expiration  of 
their  turn  the  members 
leave  the  inspection  car 
for  the  "resting "  saloon, 
and  their  places  are 
taken  by  others. 

Inspecting  the 
Line.  The  inspector 
of  each  section  is  in  the 
inspection  car  while  it 
is  passing  anywhere 
over  his  own  length. 
He  has  already  marked 
out  the  various  gangs' 
lengths,  by  means  of 
white  painted  crosses  at 
the  side  of  the  track,  and  now  has  to  stand 
behind  the  examiners  to  answer  questions  and 
to  give  timely  intimation  of  the  change  from 
one  ganger's  length  to  the  next,  mentioning  each 
of  his  foremen  by  name.  On  taking  their  seats, 
the  secretary  of  the  inspection  has  handed  to  each 
member  of  the  three  committees  the  whole  of 
the  award  cards  which  they  will  respectively 
require  for  their  turn  of  duty.  The  cards  for 
each  class  are  of  different  colours,  and  there  is  a 
separate  card  for  each  ganger's  length.  On  the 
face  of  the  cards  are  full  particulars  of  each 
gang's  length,  together  with  information  con- 
cerning the  age  of  the  road,  weight  of  rails,  etc., 
and  at  foot  are  spaces  for  the  examiners'  notes 
and  awards.  At  the  expiration  of  their  turn  of 
duty,  the  examiners  return  their  cards  to  the 
.secretary. 

Success  of  the  New  System.  The 
results  furnished  by  the  new  system  of  track 
inspection,  even  at  this  early  stage  of  its 
development,  have  been  of  a  most  gratifying 
nature.  True,  some  of  the  older  men  are  hostile 
to  the  innovation  ;  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  the 


CLEANERS   AT    WORK    ON    EXPRESS   ENGINE 


TRANSIT 


permanent  way  staff  has  realised  the  importance 
and  value  of  the  new  methods.  There  is  no  lack 
of  evidence  that  since  the  system  was  inaugurated 
a  new  spirit  of  efficiency  has  impregnated  all 
ranks,  and  the  keenest  rivalry  may  now  be  said 
to  exist  as  to  who  shall  earn  the  distinction  of 
turning  out  the  best  stretches  of  road. 

Running  Sheds  Staff.  The  headquarters 
of  every  individual  connected  with  engines  is 
one  or  other  of  the  running  sheds,  or  locomotive 
stables.  It  will  be  easily  understood  that  engines 
are  distributed  in  no  haphazard  fashion  over  a 
railway  ;  on  the  contrary,  each  engine  works 
within  some  well-defined  area,  of  which  the  base 
of  operations — the  place  where  it  is  cleaned, 
prepared  for  the  road,  washed  out,  and  kept  in 
repair — is  a  running  shed.  A  number  of  British 
railways  find  it  useful  in  locomotive  operation 
to  paint  the  shed  number  on  each  locomotive, 
a  good  practice,  followed  by  the  London  and 
North -Western,  being  to  use  a  small  enamelled 
plate  bearing  the  number  of  the  shed  in  which 
the  engine  is  stationed  at  the  back  of  the  roof  of 
the  cab.  An  older,  but  still  much  used  method  is 
to  paint  the  name  of  the  shed  on  the  engine 
frame  or  on  the  lamps.  The  running  department 
of  a  railway  comprises  several  divisions,  each  of 
which  is  in  charge  of  a  district  locomotive  super- 
intendent, who  is  responsible  to  the  chief  locomo- 
tive or  mechanical  engineer.  The  office  of  a 
district  locomotive  superintendent  is  situated,  as 
a  rule,  within  the  precincts  of  the  principal 
running  shed  [9],  from  which  he  commands  all 
other  running  sheds  in  his  district.  The  regular 
staff  of  a  running  shed  is  distinct  from  engine- 
men  proper — that  is  to  say,  it  comprises  a 
number  of  men  and  lads  who  are  not  passing 
through  certain  grades  in  order  to  attain  foot- 
plate positions,  although  that  may  have  been 
their  original  intention. 

Skilled  Workmen.  The  district  locomo- 
tive superintendent's  lieutenants  are  a  head 
locomotive  foreman  and  several  sub-foremen, 


12.     SAND    DRIER 


and  also  a  very  important  officer  in  the  foreman 
fitter,  who  is  responsible  that  engines  leave  the 
shed  mechanically  sound.  To  the  foreman  fitter 
is  allotted  a  staff  of  skilled  workmen,  in  the 
persons  of  copper,  brass,  and  boiler  smiths,  who 
execute  all  ordinary  repairs.  The  boiler-smiths 
are  drawn  from  the  most  skilled  artisans,  as 
everything  depends  upon  the  efficient  tightening 
up  of  tubes,  hardening  of  stays,  etc.  The 
ranks  of  the  less  skilled  labour  employed 
consist  of  tube-cleaners,  boiler-washers,  lighters- 
up,  sand-driers,  and  coalmen,  who  are  under 
assistant  shed-foremen.  Stationary  engine- 
drivers  are  found  at  all  important  sheds  in  charge 
of  engines  pumping  water  and  driving  repairing, 
machinery,  and  they,  of  course,  represent  another 
branch  of  skilled  labour.  It  may  be  thought  that 
by  opening  with  some  description  of  the  regular 
staff  of  a  running  shed  we  are  putting  the  cart 
before  the  horse.  However,  the  reason  is  that 
many  railway  companies  recruit  for  the  fore- 
going phases  of  more  or  less  skilled  labour 
from  enginemen  who  have  failed  to  continue  a 
footplate  career  owing  to  defective  eyesight  or 
inability  to  obtain  a  driver's  certificate,  but 
some — notably  the  Great  Central — enlist  the 
regular  staff  of  a  running  shed  independently ; 
men  are  engaged  as  labourers,  and  work  their 
way  up.  or  are  taken  on  at  once  as  fully- qualified 
fitters,  smiths,  mechanics,  etc.  In  any  case, 
however,  men  who  break  down  on  the  footplate 
are  given  better  positions  than  labourers.  It  is 
customary  to  put  them  on  stationary  engine 
work. 

Bar=boys  and  Cleaners.  A  boy  wants 
to  become  an  engine-driver.  How  does  he  set 
about  it  ? 

The  lowest  rung  of  the  ladder  is  bar-boy  [8], 
rising  to  cleaner.  The  dutk«  of  a  bar-boy  are  to 
creep  through  the  fire-hole  door  of  an  engine,  with 
a  torch  lamp,  steel  broom,  scraper,  and  fire-bar 
lifter,  to  arrange  the  fire-bars,  and  to  clean  the 
bars,  brick  arch,  roof  stays,  and  tube  ends  of 
clinkers  and  ashes.  However,  many  companies 
no  longer  employ  lads  under  18  years  of  age  as 
bar-boys,  since  factory  legislation  prohibits  them 
from  being  engaged  in  night  work.  In  such  cir- 
cumstances, the  youths  of  smaller  stature  who 
enlist  as  cleaners  begin  with  bar  work.  When 
genuine  bar-boys  are  employed,  the  age  limit  is 
15,  but  candidates  seldom  have  to  pass  a  medical 
examination  or  eyesight  test.  When  a  bar-boy 

4595 


TRANSIT 

is  old  enough  to  be  promoted  to  cleaner,  or,  in 
the  case  of  companies  which  begin  with  older 
lads,  a  lad  presents  himself  to  be  taken  on  as 
cleaner,  his  age,  height,  physical  and  optical 
Jit  ness,  and  educational  proficiency  are  taken 
into  serious  consideration.  Generally  speaking, 
a  cleaner  must  not  be  younger  than  16,  and 
not  older  than  21  ;  he  must  be  able  to  read 
m.i  write  ;  he  must  be  physically  sound  ;  and 
he  must  pass  one  or  other  of  the  standard  eye- 
sight tests  for  colour  and  distance  with  both 


on  which  he  ticks  off  each  engine  that  passes  his 
scrutiny.  A  cleaner  is  not  allowed  to  leave  the 
shed  until  the  foreman  has  given  him  a  pa<s, 
which  testifies  that  he  has  cleaned  his  engine 
properly. 

Promotion  from  Cleaners.  A  cleaner  s 
length  of  service  is  entirely  a  company  matter  ; 
with  some  companies  it  is  purely  a  question 
of  traffic,  exigencies— that  is  to  say,  if  business 
be  slack,  a  pass-cleaner  will  have  to  wait 
until  it  revives  before  being  promoted  to  the 


eves"  fiwTstandard  of  height  varies  with  different      footplate;   while  if   business   be  extraordinarily 

-       brisk,   a  really  promising  youth   may   be  pro- 


companies ;  with  some  it  is  5  ft.  4  in.,  and  a  pro 
inising  boy  a  little  below  that  height  will  not  be 
rejected ;  while  others  have  a  rigid  rule— 
5  ft.  6  in.  without  boots.  The  duties  of  a  cleaner 
are  to  clean  an  engine  as  soon  as  it  returns  to  the 
shed  'L9],  for  which  purpose  he  is  supplied  with  oil, 
waste,  and  tallow. 

The  Grooming  of  Engines.  Sometimes 
cleaners  [10]  work  in  gangs  of  four,  the  senior  of 
them  being  known  aschargeman  cleaner.  In 
that  case,  one  takes  the  wheels  and  framing, 
another  the  motion, 
another  the  "  top " 
(which  includes  every- 
thing above  the  foot- 
plate), and  another  the 
tender.  It  takes  several 
hours  to  clean  an 
engine,  and  it  is  just 
as  easy  to  clean  it  the 
wrong  way  as  it  is  to 
groom  a  horse  the 
wrong  way.  The  art  of 
cleaning  lies  in  not 
delaying  the  hot  work, 
when  the  oil  and  grease 
can  be  easily  rubbed  off, 
to  do  the  cold  work.  The 
general  rule  now  is 
for  passenger  engines 
to  have  their  own  two 
cleaners,  while  some 
companies  go  farther 
than  this  and  book  certain  cleaners,  sometimes 
one,  more  often  two,  to  every  kind  of  engine. 
Young  cleaners  are  first  put  on  to  tenders,  and 
occasionally  they  are  classified  separately  as 
tender-lads,  from  which  they  are  promoted  to 
•  leaning  shunting,  goods,  and  passenger  engines 
re-pectively.  As  a  rule,  the  cleaner's  job  is 
pie<-e\\ork.  and  he  is  paid  according  to  the  class 
of  engine  on  which  he  is  employed.  For 
example,  a  half-crown  is  the  ordinary  scale  of 
remuneration  for  cleaning  a  goods  engine,  while 
the  work  on  an  express  engine  is  rewarded 
generally  with  3s.  8d.  In  order  to  reduce  labour, 
and  consequently  expenses,  many  companies 
•_'ive  their  -hunting  and  goods  engines  a  more 
-oliei  livery  than  that  of  the  passenger  type. 
Should  a  cleaner  discover  any  mechanical  Haw. 
lie  must  immediately  report  the  same  to  the 
nan  cleaner,  and  some  companies  stimulate 
vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  cleaners  by 
offering  suitable  rewards.  The  satisfactory  com- 
pletion of  a  cleaner's  job  is  certified  by  the  fore- 
uum  cleaner  of  a  shed.  The  foreman  has  a  card, 

4590 


13.  LIGHTERS-TIP 


rnoted  after  cleaning  for  only  twelve  months. 
In  ordinary  circumstances,  however,  we 
should  say  that  the  average  length  of  ser- 
vitude as  cleaner  is  three  or  four  years, 
that  very  few  cases  of  promotion  occur  till 
a  lad  has  served  18  months,  and  that  most 
companies  are  averse  to  promoting  cleaners 
under  19  years  of  age,  or  until  they  have 
served  two  years,  by  which  time  they  are 
expected  to  be  pass-cleaners. 

Then,  the  rank  to 
which  a  cleaner  is 
promoted  is  not  always 
the  same.  A  few  com- 
panies advance  him  to 
fitter's  assistant,  mean- 
ing appienticeship  to  a 
skilled  mechanic  for  a 
period,  during  which  he 
is  executing  repairs,  and 
obtaining  some  first 
hand  knowledge  of 
locomotive  machinery. 
But  the  tendency  now 
is  to  employ  none  but 
permanent  men  in  the 
fitting  department  of  a 
shed.  It  is  argued  that 
a  cleaner  promoted  to 
fitter's  assistant  is  apt 
to  lose  touch  with  the 
footplate,  and  that  the 
fitter  himself  is  handicapped  by  having  a 
constant  succession  of  fresh  mates.  Therefore, 
the  usual  thing  is  for  a  cleaner  to  be  promoted 
to  shunting  fireman.  Shunting  engines  are 
employed  in  marshalling  goods  waggons  and 
the  vehicles  of  passenger  trains.  On  their  foot- 
plates the  young  fireman  learns  how  to  handle 
the  shovel,  injector,  and  brake,  while  he 
becomes  well  acquainted  with  the  directions 
conveyed  by  signals. 

The  Fireman's  Career.  After  a  fire- 
man has  served  his  apprenticeship  on  a  shunt- 
ing engine,  he  passes  through  three  higher 
grades  in  the  same  capacity  ;  first,  on  engines 
working  local  or  "  box  "  goods  train,  or  in  those 
engaged  in  "  banking  "—that  is,  assisting  all  kinds 
of  trains  up  inclines  ;  secondly,  on  engines  hauling 
main-line  goods  and  mineral  trains  ;  and  thirdly, 
on  engines  in  charge  of  slow  and  express  passenger 
trains  respectively,  according  to  his  ability  and 
experience.  Some  companies  differentiate  these 
three  classes  of  firemen  by  name  —  third, 
second,  and  first-class  fireman ;  others,  again, 


classify  them  by  their  length  of  service — namely, 
first  year,  second  year,  and  third  year  fireman ; 
but,  whatever  the  names  or  methods  of  classifi- 
cation, the  three  grades  invariably  exist  in 
actuality.  Usually,  when  a  man  becomes  a  first 
class,  trained,  or  pass  fireman,  he  is  expected  to 
undergo  an  examination  which  proves  him  to  be 
capable  of  taking  charge  of  an  engine  if  requited. 
Some  companies  do  not  wait  for  him  to  attain 
that  rank.  For  example,  on  the  North -Eastern, 
after  a  man  has  been  firing  seven  years  he  is  due 
to  pass  as  driver,  and  that  examination  he  must 
then  pass,  or  else  leave  the  company's  service. 
He  is  given  three  chances  at  intervals  of  three 
months. 

Promotion  for  Firemen.  The  Great 
Northern  Company,  however,  do  not  permit  a 
fireman  to  present  himself  for  the  driver's 
examination  unless  there  is  actually  a  vacancy, 
or  is  soon  likely  to  be  one  for  him.  Of  course, 
every  company  is  bound  to  keep  a  certain  number 
of  firemen  qualified  to  act  as  drivers  in  reserve. 
Broadly  speaking,  companies  employ  their  own 
discretion  as  to  when  they  shall 
call  upon  a  fireman,  and  it  goes 
without  saying  that  they  limit 
their  choice  to  men  who  have  had 
considerable  experience.  With 
some  companies,  like  the  Midland, 
seniority  counts  for  little ;  their 
aim  is  to  pick  out  the  men  with 
a  genius  for  driving. 

While  men  are  firing  they  have 
the  opportunity  of  attending  im- 
provement classes.  These  are 
formed  and  managed  by  the  men 
themselves,  but  the  authorities  are 
always  ready  to  provide  them 
with  working  models,  and  also  to 
plane  an  engine  in  steam,  to  be 
treated  for  all  manner  of  imaginary 
mishaps,  such  as  a  broken  piston,  or  14 
valve,  at  their  disposal.  It  should 
be  added  that  some  companies 
make  a  man  pass  an  examination  in  the 
mechanical  working  of  the  locomotive  even 
before  he  can  attain  the  highest  rank  of  fire- 
man, when,  moreover,  he  has  to  prove  his 
ability  to  carry  out  slight  repairs  with  the 
tools  i\t  his  disposal. 

Work  of  Locomotive  Firing.  There  is 
considerable  difference  between  firing  a  goods 
and  a  passenger  engine.  On  the  latter,  a  fireman 
ha  3  to  accelerate  the  speed  of  his  movements  and 
economise  time  by  thinking  beforehand.  The 
fireman  of  a  modern  express  has  not  much  time 
in  which  to  admire  the  passing  scenery.  The 
leviathan  engines  now  built  demand  to  be  fed 
with  from  35  Ib.  to  40  Ib.  of  coal  per  mile. 
Therefore,  the  fireman's  task  Avith  a  train  which 
is  booked  to  run  for  several  hours  without  a 
stop  and  at  a  speed  of  over  50  miles  per  hour 
is  Herculean.  It  would  indeed  be  interesting 
to  ascertain  what  he  expends  in  feet-pounds  of 
muscular  energy  by  handling  four  or  five  tons 
of  fuel  at  a  stretch  on  the  far  from  steady  platform 
formed  by  the  footplate  of  an  engine  which,  for 
most  of  the  run.  is  travelling  at  a  speed  of  a  mile  a 


TRANSIT 

minute.  In  addition,  the  fireman  has  to  attend  to 
the  water  feed  and  lubrication.  Any  neglect  on 
his  part,  or  an  error  in  judgment  in  firing  heavy 
expresses,  lands  the  driver  in  difficulties  for  steam 
supply.  The  idea  has  been  mooted  that  engine's 
making  very  long  non-stop  runs  should  carry 
a  relief  fireman,  but  the  experience  is  that  when 
three  men  are  present  on  the  footplate  they  are 
apt  to  get  in  each  other's  way,  and  also  indulge 
in  conversation.  However,  it  is  probable  that 
sooner  or  later  the  fireman's  duties  will  be 
lightened  by  the  adoption  of  a  mechanical  stok- 
ing apparatus  such  as  is  being  experimented 
with  on  the  huge  American  engines. 

Promotion  to  Driver.  In  course  of  time, 
the  fully- trained  fireman,  having  passed  the 
necessary  examination,  commences  a  fresh 
career  as  a  driver.  His  first  post  will  be  either 
in  charge  of  -a  shunting  engine,  or  fulfilling 
that  which  is  variously  known  by  the  names 
of  engine  turner,  or  stabler,  or,  again,  he  may 
become  a  reliever.  The  duties  of  a  reliever,  or 
shedman,  are  to  relieve  an  ordinary  driver  or 
fireman  whose  day's  work  is 
finished,  perhaps  at  some  distance 
from  home,  should  he  wire  to  be 
relieved.  The  duties  of  stabler, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  more 
simple — namely,  to  meet  engines 
when  they  return  to  the  sheds 
after  a  trip.  A  stabler  stables  an 
engine — that  is  to  say,  he  is  the 
driver  who  shunts  it  from  off  the 
main  track,  conducts  it  to  the 
coaling  stage  [11],  turns  it  on  the 
turntable,  if  required,  and  sees 
that  it  is  hauled  off  to  bed,  a  dead 
machine.  The  duties  of  both 
driver  and  fireman  cease  after 
they  have  dropped  the  fire  and 
accompanied  it  to  the  coal  stage. 
Engines  coal  for  their  next  trip 
as  soon  as  they  come  in,  and 
before  they  are  cleaned,  as  coal- 
ing is  a  dirty  operation.  The  amount  of  coal 
which  each  engine  receives  is  booked  to  the 
proper  driver. 

Fuel  Economy.  Some  companies  give  a 
quarterly  coal  premium,  in  awarding  which  both 
timekeeping  and  good  conduct  are  taken  into 
consideration.  Of  course,  anybody  can  save 
coal  by  losing  time. 

The  customary  procedure  is  to  tot  up  the 
consumption  of  coal  by-  each  link  or  batch 
of  drivers  and  divide  the  total  by  the  number 
of  drivers,  which  yields  the  average.  The  dis- 
trict superintendent  then  awards  a  premium 
to  every  driver  whose  coal  consumption  pans 
out  less  than  the  mileage  rate.  Where  coal 
premiums  are  not  given,  drivers  know  that  if 
they  exceed  the  average  mileage  rate  they  will 
be  reprimanded  ;  but  most  companies,  which  do 
not  give  premiums  quarterly,  grant  an  engine- 
man,  on  retirement,  a  lump  sum  corresponding  in 
value  to  the  coal  he  has  saved  during  his  total 
service.  This  makes  a  nice  nest-egg  for  a  man. 
Learning  the  Road.  Pass-firemen  and 
shedmen  are  encouraged  to  devote  their  spare 

4597 


CLEANING  OUT  THE  SMOKE- 
BOX 


TRANSIT 

time  to  riding  on  th«-  engines  of  ordinary  trains 
for  the  parpoee  of  learning  the  road,  and  they  are 
paid  for  doing  so  according  to  their  rank.  Whe 
I  man  claims  to  be  acquainted  with  any  secti°n 
df  road  he  notifies  the  circumstance  to  the  shed 
foreman.  wli->  examines  him  in  respect  of  the 
.n-ad.ents  and  signals,  and,  if  satisfied,  enters  his 
name  as  qualified  to  drive  an  engine  between 
such  and  such  a  place  in  the  general  route  book, 
and  on  the  route  card  which  each  engineman 
[josbesses.  ^.^^^  Train  Driver.  In 
due  course  the  driver  of  a  shunting  engine, 
Fabler  of  all  and  sundry  engines,  or  shedman, 
is  promoted  to  be  driver  of  local  goods,  main-line 
goods,  and  passenger  trains  (including  rail 
motor-cars)  respectively,  and  ultimately  the 


Strictly  speaking,  there 

is  little  difference  of  rank 

or  pay  in  the  community 

of    passenger    train 

drivers.  Needless  to  say, 

the  best  men  are  selected 

for  the  more  important 

posts,   but  it  does  not 

follow  that  because    a 

man  drives  the  "  crack  " 

express  of  the  day,  say, 

from  London  to  Crewe, 

he  does  the  same  in  the 

reverse  direction.  On  the 

contrary,  he  may  have  to 

work  his  way  to  town  on 

a  train,  or  several  trains, 

which    call     at    every 

intermediate  station. 

There  is  a  prevalent  misconception  that  the 

drivers  of  the  "  prides  and  glories  "  of  the  road 

are  treated  as  superior  beings  ;    but  from  the 

financial  point   of   view    there   is   little   in   it. 

A  few  companies,  like  the  North-Eastern,  which 

gives  a  bonus  to  the  driver  of  an  East  Coast 

express,  single  out  the  men  in  charge  of  the 

fastest  passenger  trains  for  extra  emolument, 

but  the  general  rule  is  to  pay  all  passenger- train 

drivers  at  practically  the  same  rate.     There  is  a 

large  proportion  of  drivers  to  whom  promotion 

to    the  first-class   division   has    no    attraction. 

Such  men  are  quite  satisfied  when  they  rule  on 

the  footplates  of  main-line  goods  and  mineral 
trains  :  they  have  no  ambition  to  go  up  another 
-tep.  It  is  a  fact,  too,  that  the  men  forming 
the  pick  of  the  goods  drivers  earn  more  than 
the  drivers  of  the  fast  expresses,  but  then  their 
hours  are  considerably  longer,  and  the  work 
altogether  is  of  a  more  fatiguing  description. 
Goods  drivers  earn  most  in  the  winter  time. 

Enginemen  and  Their  Engines. 
It  has  e\rr  been  the  general  practice  with 
I'.iitish  railways  that  in  both  the  passenger  and 
main-line  goods  Mrvioei  the  driver  and  fireman 
keep  to  the  same  engine  for  years.  In  America, 
however,  the  practice  is  "first  in  first  out." 
Kngme-  .Me  -,erit  out  from  the  sheds  in  the 
•  >:d«r  in  which  they  come  in,  and  when  the 
<  UL'ineiii,  n  -iun  on  duty  they  take  the  first 


engine  that  happens  to  be 

again,  engines  are  kept  in  .. — 

at  work  for  months  at  a  time,  and  the  footplate 
of  each  is  successively  occupied  by  fresh  shift: 
of    enginemen.     There    is   no    doubt    that    tne 
American    system    has    its    advantages;     the 
utmost  is  got  back  from  the  money  sunk  in  the 
construction    of    locomotives    when    the    latter 
are  seldom  allowed  to  lie  idle,  and  although  the 
life  of  an  engine  in  such  circumstances  is  much 
shorter,  it  is  argued  that  it  is  really  cheaper  in 
the  end  to  build  an  engine,  work  it  to  the  scrap- 
heap,    and  replace  it   by   another   and   newer 
model  in  two  or  three  years'  time,  than  carefully 
to  tend  engines  so  that  they  may  last  foi'  more 
than  a  score  of  years.     On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  driver  keeps   to  the   same  engine,  he  gets 
acquainted  with  all  its  peculiarities,  and,  there- 
'    engine  certainly   more 
efficiently,    and     often 
more  economically,  than 
another.      The  London 
and     North  -  Western 
Railway      has         long 
worked    many    of    its 
passenger  engines  with 
double    shifts,  and  one 
or  two  other  companies 
have    recently  adopted 
the    American     system 
where  mammoth  goods 
engines  are  concerned. 

Ready  for  the 
Road.  The  driver  and 
fireman  come  on  duty 
together  at  the  running 


If 

their  hour  of  duty  begins  during  the  night — 
that  is,  between  10  p.m.  and  6  a.m.  (although 
"night  hours"  vary  with  different  companies) 
— they  will  have  been  called  in  good  time  at 
their  homes  by  the  "  knockers -up  "  attached 
to  the  shed.  The  "bar-nippers"  are  usually 
employed  as  "  knockers-up,"  and  when  bar- 
boys  do  not  exist,  members  of  the  clerical 
staff  may  be  entrusted  with  the  duty,  or  boys 
who  intend  entering  the  railway  service  as 
cleaners  Avhen  old  enough  are  engaged  for  the 
purpose.  Both  men  sign  on  at  the  time-office, 
and  the  driver,  either  here  or  at  the  stores, 
receives  and  hands  to  his  fireman  the  keys 
which  open  the  tool-boxes  on  the  tender  and 
the  padlock  round  the  fireirons.  The  driver 
then  proceeds  to  the  running-shed  office,  outside 
which  is  exhibited  an  array  of  notices  Avhich  he 
is  expected  to  read.  Every  week  what  is 
termed  a  "  programme "  is  issued  to  the 
drivers.  A  programme  is  a  book  Avhich  tells 
the  driver  what  parts  of  the  line  may  be  under 
repair,  where  neAV  signals  are  being  erected  or 
old  ones  undergoing  alteration,  and  gives  him 
full  particulars  as  to  any  altered  train -Avorking 
arrangements.  Unless  he  makes  himself  Avell 
acquainted  Avith  the  information  conveyed  by 
the  programme  a  driver  may  involve  himself 
in  serious  difficulties — in  other  wTords,  "crimes" 
and  '  casualties"  ;  therefore,  he  has  always  to 


certify  in  writing  that  he  has  read  and  digested 
the  programme.  With  the  exception  of  those 
contained  in  the  "  water  case,"  which  notify 
the  names  of  stations  where  water  can  only  be 
obtained  between  certain  hours,  or,  perhaps,  is 
cut  off  altogether,  the  notices  displayed  on  a 
board  at  the  office  are  not  so  important.  They 
usually  refer  to  details  of  conduct.  Drivers  are 
warned  that  complaints  have  been  made  of 
unnecessary  whistling  at  certain  places,  that 
ashes  have  been  found  thrown  on  to  the 
point  rods  and  signal  wires,  etc.  Some  com- 
panies make  their  drivers  sign  to  having  read 
these  notices  as  well ;  but  in  any  case  failure  to 
carry  out  their  instructions  is  considered  a 
"  crime."  An  engine-driver  makes  a  point  of 
studying  the  contents  of  the  "  water  case  "  first. 

Stores  Needed  for  a  Trip.  The 
driver  then  either  goes  himself,  or  sends 
his  fireman  to  the  stores,  to  draw  oil,  waste  or 
sponge  cloths,  packing  for  glands,  and  the 
flags,  fog-signals,  etc.,  as  scheduled  in  the  rule 
book.  Cotton-waste,  for  wiping  down  machin- 
ery, cleaning  the  hands,  etc.,  has  been  almost 
entirely  superseded  by  the  use  of  sponge  cloths, 
which,  when  dirty,  are  sent  back  to  the  stores 
to  be  cleaned,  and  so  can  be  used  over  and  over 
again.  Companies  which  still  issue  waste 
generally  allow  an  engineman  1  lb.  a  week 
merely  for  cleaning  the  hands.  The  amount  of 
oil  which  the  driver  or  fireman  draws  is  booked 
to  him.  Several  different  kinds  of  oil  are 
given  out — namely,  blended  rape-oil  for  bearings 
and  motion,  mixed  oil  for  axle-boxes,  cylinder 
oil  for  sight  feed  lubricators,  paraffin  or  colza 
oil  for  gauge  and  head  lamps,  and  when  a 
company  employs  the  Westinghouse  air  brake, 
half  a  pint  of  special  oil  for  the  pump.  As  a 
rule,  the  fireman  trims  his  own  lamps,  but  in 
some  large  sheds  this  is  done  for  him  by  a  lamp- 
room  staff.  Not  a  few  companies  furnish  their 
engines  with  destination  discs,  and  the  latter 
are  issued  from  the  shed  stores. 

Another  part  of  the  shed  has  now  to  be 
visited  by  the  fireman  for  obtaining  a  supply 
of  sand  [12],  whiph  has  been  heated  in  furnaces 
and  otherwise  prepared  for  the  road  by  the 
sand-driers.  Some  companies,  however,  make 
the  stablers  fill  the  engine  sand-boxes. 

Getting  Up  Steam.  Driver  and  fireman 
repair  to  their  engine,  which  they  find  awaiting 
them  in  a  specified  place.  The  engine  is  in 
thorough  repair,  coaled,  cleaned,  watered,  and 
making  steam.  Some  three  or  four  hours  before 
the  enginemen  are  due  to  appear,  the  firebox  has 
been  cleaned  and  arranged  by  the  bar- boys  or 
other  members  of  the  shed  staff  to  whom  that 
job  is  assigned,  as  already  described.  The  fire- 
lighters [13]  follow  the  bar- boys,  carrying  fire  in 
long  shovels  on  their  shoulders  to  the  engine, 
which  they  insert  into  the  firebox,  and  sub- 
sequently add  to  it  about  1|  cwt.  of  fresh  coal. 
One  of  the  lighters-up  takes  charge  of  the  engine 
until  the  driver  arrives.  He  looks  at  it  periodi- 
cally on  his  rounds,  and  takes  stock  of  what 
steam  it  is  making.  The  time  required  to  raise 
eteam,  say,  of  160  Ib.  pressure  from  cold  water 
will  vary  slightly,  but  about  three  hours  is  a  fair 


TRANSIT 

average.  This  can  easily  be  reduced,  but  it  is 
not  advisable  to  force  the  fire,  as  it  tends 
towards  straining  plates  and  causing  tubes  and 
stays  to  leak.  On  the  other  hand,  if  an  engine 
be  found  to  be  making  steam  too  rapidly,  the 
lighter -up  lowers  the  damper. 

The  "Pit"  Examination.  The  first 
act  of  the  driver  is  to  ascertain  whether  the 
engine  is  in  complete  repair,  which  is  done  by 
examining  it  over  a  pit,  where  it  is  placed 
in  such  a  position  that  every  part  may  be 
scrutinised  without  moving  the  machinery.  The 
driver  descends  into  the  pit,  and  proceeds  to  oil 
all  bearings,  slide  bars,  and  eccentrics,  to  wipe 
or  renew  trimmings  if  necessary,  and  to  inspect 
the  motion  as  closely  as  possible  to  discover  any 
defects,  doubtful  parts  being  struck  with  a 
hammer,  when  any  oil  that  may  have  lodged  in  a 
crack  will  ooze  out  and  reveal  the  mischief. 
Special  attention  is  paid  to  the  crank  axle,  or 
"  big  end,"  as  this  cannot  be  got  at  while 
running.  Sensational  pictures  are  often  pub- 
lished which  depict  drivers  performing  hair- 
breadth feats  in  oiling  their  engines  when 
running  at  high  speed.  Some  companies  set 
their  faces  sternly  against  the  practice.  They 
wish  it  to  be  understood  that  sufficient  time  is 
always  allowed  a  driver  to  oil  his  engine  while 
at  rest ;  and  if  he  has  to  go  "  forward  "  on  the 
road,  it  implies  negligence  on  his  part  while  in 
the  shed. 

Meantime,  the  fireman  is  cleaning  the  firebox, 
front  and  interior  of  the  "  cab,"  making  up  his 
fire  to  ensure  a  good  head  of  steam,  testing  the 
feed  injectors,  looking  to  the  tubes,  and  seeing 
that  the  ashpan  and  smoke-box  [14]  are  clear  of 


Finishing  Touches.  On  the  driver 
returning  to  the  footplate,  the  fireman  and  he 
test  the  gauge  cocks  to  see  if  the  water  level  is 
accurately  shown  in  the  glass.  Afterwards  the 
fireman  prepares  the  coal  by  breaking  it  up 
to  a  convenient  size  for  firing,  and  sprinkles 
it  with  the  hose  to  lay  the  dust.  The  driver  sees 
that  the  coal  is  not  stacked  too  high,  and  that 
there  is  no  danger  of  the  coal,  fireirons,  tool- 
boxes, etc.,  falling  off  while  running.  With  the 
huge  engines  and  tenders  now  in  vogue,  it  is  no 
longer  possible  for  the  fireman  to  clamber  about 
the  tender  without  running  the  risk  of  being 
struck  down  when  passing  under  a  bridge  or  enter- 
ing a  tunnel.  Consequently,  the  new  pattern 
tenders  are  equipped  with  tool-boxes  inside  the 
tanks,  and  the  inside  of  the  latter  are  arranged  so 
that  the  fuel  is  constantly  slipping  down  where 
it  is  within  reach  of  the  fireman  plying  the  shovel 
on  the  footplate. 

Before  leaving  the  shed  the  lubricator  is 
filled  with  oil  and  the  steam  applied,  so  that  all 
the  water  chambers  may  be  filled  up  gradually 
without  disturbing  the  oil  ;  the  tanks  are 
replenished  at  the  water  crane,  and  as  the  engine 
steams  gently  out,  the  vacuum,  compressed  air, 
or  steam  brake,  is  practically  tested. 

Drivers  are  usually  allowed  from  forty  minutes 
to  one  hour  between  booking  on  and  whistling  out 
of  the  shed,  and  an  engine  generally  leaves  the 
shed  for  the  train  about  half  an  hour  before  the 

4599 


TRANSIT 

booked  time  of  < It-purl mv.  When  an  engine 
leaves  tin-  >hcd  pum-tualU  .  the  t rathe  department 
is  held  to  blame  if  there  be  any  delay  in  reaching 
the  train.  On  coupling  on  to  the  train,  the 
driver  ascertains  from  the  guard  what  number 
of  veliieles  and  wheels  he  has  behind  the  tender, 
M  that  he  may  be  guided  ho \\  to  work  his  engine 
with  due  care  and  economy. 

Express  versus  Goods  Train  Driving. 
The  art  of  driving  an  engine  is  such  a  vast- 
subject  that  it  would  be  futile  to  attempt  to 
convey  any  directions  in  a  short  article  of  this 
kind.  We  may  say,  however,  that  it  is  incorrect 
to  suppose  that  a  higher  degree  of  skill  is  required 
to  drive  an  express  train.  Every  vehicle  com- 
posing an  express  train  is  furnished  with  an 
automatic  continuous  brake,  the  weight  behind 
tender  is  limited,  the  fuel  is  of  the  best,  and  the 
road  is  specially  cleared  for  the  express.  Of 
course,  there  is  an  enormous  sense  of  responsi- 
bility about  the  charge  ot  an  express,  or,  for  the 
matter  of  that,  every  passenger  train.  Never- 
theless, all  practical  enginemen  will  concur  in 
the  truth  of  the  statement  that  goods  and 
mineral  trams  which,  with  the  increase  of  engine 
power  have  grown  to  loads  of  60,  70,  and  some- 
times 100  waggons,  require  more  careful  handling. 
With  them  the  enginemen  are  handicapped  by 
slack  couplings  and  strictly  limited  brake  power, 
which  necessitates  great  finesse  in  negotiating 
the  ever-varying  gradients  of  the  road,  if 
couplings  and  drawbars  are  to  be  kept  intact, 
and  the  train  is  always  to  be  under  perfect 
control,  to  pull  up  not  only  at  appointed  places, 
but  also  for  signal  checks.  And  the  latter 
are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  working  of 
goods  trains. 

•The  Driver  on  the  Footplate.  The 
driver's  place  on  the  footplate  is  in  a  corner, 
wheie  he  has  the  regulator,  reversing  gear, 
brake  lever,  and  whistle  under  his  hands,  and 
commands  as  good  a  view  as  is  possible  through 
the  window  of  the  cab  of  the  track  and  signals. 
The  rule  of  the  road  prevails  on  British  railways 
— trains  run  on  the  left ;  but  it  is  a  topsy-turvy 
arrangement  that  makes  the  driver  occupy  the 
coachman's  place  on  the  "  off  "  or  right-hand 
side.  The  pioneers  of  railways  were  responsible 
for  this  relic  of  the  turnpike.  Platforms  and 
signals  are  on  the  left-hand  side  ;  the  engine- 
driver  has  not  to  use  a  whip,  and  the  guidance 
of  his  steed  over  the  points  is  in  other  hands. 
Manifestly,  the  sensible  arrangement  therefore 
would  be  to  place  the  driver  on  the  left.  One 
or  two  companies  have  effected  this  transposi- 
tion. The  London  and  North-Western  long  ago 
nued  the  engine  gear  for  driving  on  the 
left,  and  the  London  and  South-Western  is 
following  suit. 

Th-    driver   is   responsible    for    ol>eying    the 

iu-t  ructions  of    signals  ;     his   vigilance    in    this 

<t  must  never  I *•  relaxed,  and  overshooting 

or  mistaking  signals    is    considered    about     M 

II  an  otl. -in •«•  as  a  man  can  commit.     The 

tux-man  has  also  to  ;  >-i^t  in  keeping  a  look-out 

tor  >ign,ils    \\li«-ii  not  othi-rwise  engaged.      Some 

i-ompanio  make  it  a  rule  that  the  fireman  is  tu 

stop    tiring    when    approaching    an    important 

MOO 


junction  or  station  in  order  to  do  this.  However, 
looking  into  a  blazing  fire  causes  temporary 
blindness  or  colour  blindness,  hence  there  is  a 
danger  of  firemen  being  unable  to  distinguish 
colours  when  necessary.  On  the  London  and 
South -Western  Railway  an  important  part  of 
the  footplate  equipment  consists  of  a  small 
circular  disc  of  purple  glass,  set  in  a  metal 
frame.  The  fireman  makes  use  of  this  appliance 
when  looking  into  the  firebox  to  ascertain  the 
condition  of  the  fire,  the  purple  glass  having 
the  effect  of  neutralising  the  glare. 

Enginemen's  Links  and  Barracks. 
Drivers  and  firemen  are  arranged  in  what  are 
termed  links,  meaning  that  certain  men  are  kept 
to  certain  sections  of  the  road.  It  is,  of  course, 
absolutely  necessary  that  enginemen  should  be 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  road  on  which  they 
travel — the  gradients,  signals,  sidings,  stations, 
etc. — and  this  can  be  ensured  only  by  restricting 
their  field  of  work.  The  ideal,  or,  at  any  rate, 
simpler  arrangement  would  be  that  enginemen 
should  be  able  to  return  to  their  homes  at  the 
end  of  each  trip.  But  this  is  far  from  being 
generally  possible.  There  are  what  are  termed 
"  double  home  trips,"  "  lodging  turns,"  or 
"  lodging-house  jobs,"  which  are  specially 
favoured  by  certain  companies,  as  they  are 
supposed  to  yield  more  mileage  in  a  given  number 
of  hours.  Originally,  "  double  home  trips  "  were 
practically  confined  to  the  men  working  goods 
and  mineral  trains,  but  now  the  tendency  un- 
doubtedly is  to  extend  the  practice  to  passenger 
enginemen.  Many  companies  provide  splendidly 
equipped  model  lodging-houses  or  "  barracks  " 
at  strategic  points  on  their  system  for  the  accom- 
modation of  men  who  are  unable  to  get  back  to 
then?  homes  without  working  unduly  long  hours. 
The  Great  Eastern  Company's  barracks  at 
Stratford,  and  those  of  the  Midland  at  Kentish 
Town,  are  specially  famous,  and  for  some  years 
past  it  has  been  the  custom  of  the  former  company 
to  supply  all  men  who  are  detained  therein  over 
Christmas  Day  with  a  good  dinner  of  old  English 
fare.  A  man  is  paid  for  being  in  barracks 
Is.  6d.  in  London  and  Is.  in  the  country  per 
night.  When  there  are  no  barracks  each  man. 
is  given  a  lodging  allowance  of  2s.  6d.,  and  if 
lodged  18  hours  or  over  5s.  is  usually  paid, 
although  some  companies  do  not  allow  the  double 
rate  for  less  than  24  hours.  Some  companies, 
however,  have  a  list  of  approved  lodging-houses 
as  well,  the  landlords  of  which  take  in  railway- 
men  for  Is.  6d.  a  night. 

On  "  short  trips,"  when  an  engine  is  not 
stabled,  but  waits  in  the  yard  for  a  fe\v  hours 
till  the  time  arrives  for  starting  on  the  return 
journey,  the  men  may  not  leave  the  company's 
premises,  and  sometimes  they  may  not  even 
quit  their  engine  without  the  authority  of  the 
district  locomotive  superintendent.  The  stren- 
uous nature  of  modern  railway  business  is  evi- 
deneed  by  the  fact  that  some  companies  "hustle  " 
to  the  extent  of  employ  ing  such  waiting  tram 
engines  on  shunting. 

The  End  of  a  Trip.  On  returning  to 
his  o\\n  shed  a  driver  hands  over  the  engine 
to  a  stabler,  and  at  once  proceeds  to  the 


office,  where  he  makes  out  his  returns  for  the 
completed  trip.  In  these  returns  he  specifies 
any  irregularities,  such  as  time  lost,  untoward 
occurrences,  etc.,  and  enters  in  a  special  book  the 
character  of  any  repairs  he  may  consider  neces- 
sary for  the  information  of  the  foreman  fitter. 
In  any  case,  before  an  engine  resumes  work  an 
examining  fitter  makes  an  independent  investiga- 
tion. The  (Driver  files  the  counterfoils  of  any 
water  and  coal  tickets  which  he  may  have  given  to 
a  foreign  company,  in  the  event  of  his  having  had 
to  replenish  those  commodities  when  travelling 
off  his  own  territory.  At  the  stores  his  fireman 
hands  back  the  sponge  cloths,  lamps,  discs, 
flags,  fog-signals,  etc.  Lastly,  the  two  men  repair 
to  the  time-office,  where  they  hand  in  their  keys 
and  sign  off.  At  the  time-office  they  learn  at 
what  hour  they  are  due  to  return  to  duty.  Engine- 
men  have  different  hours  of  duty  nearly  every 
day,  in  order  to  equalise  the  roster  of  turns  and 
ensure  them  plenty  of  rest  in  between.  The 
period  for  rest  allowed  between  each  trip  is  never 
less  than  nine  hours. 

Enginemen's  Spells  of  Duty.  Engine- 
men  work  either  by  the  day  or  by  mileage. 
Ten  hours  usually  constitute  a  day's  work, 
but  with  some  companies  it  is  eight  hours, 
and  with  others,  again,  as  many  as  eleven.  Over- 
time is  paid  for,  as  a  rule,  at  the  rate  of  eight 
hours  per  day,  and  Sunday  work  reckoned  at 
time  and  a  half.  When  men  work  by  mileage, 
150  miles  is  almost  everywhere  conceded  to  be 
equivalent  to  a  day's  work  on  passenger  trains, 
and  120  miles  with  goods,  but  mileage  wrorking 
is  not  often  applied  to  the  goods  traffic.  Thus,  a 
Midland  driver  taking  a  passenger  engine,  say, 
from  London  to  Nottingham  and  back  (248 
miles)  receives  pay  for  one  day  and  six  hours 
on  the  ten,  but  his  number  of  trips  per  week  are 
limited  to  four.  Passenger  train  drivers  seldom 
work  more  than  four  days,  in  the  ordinary 
sense,  per  week. 

Remuneration  of  Enginemen.  The 
maximum  pay  of  a  passenger  train  driver — 
apart  from  bonuses  and  coal  or  oil  premiums — is 
at  the  rate  of  from  7s.  6d.  to  8s.  per  working  day, 
while  a  first-class  passenger  fireman  is  remuner- 
ated with  from  4s.  6d.  to  5s.  per  working  day. 
Enginemen  are  given  a  small  annual  clothing 
allowance,  and  leave  with  full  pay  for  a  certain 
number  of  days  in  each  year,  according  to  their 
length  of  service.  Some  companies  do  not  pay 
their  men  while  on  leave.  Owing  to  the  high 
rents  in  London,  enginemen  residing  in  the 
metropolis  are  allowed  a  few  shillings  a  week 
extra  as  rent  money.  Further,  all  enginemen  are 
annually  allowed  one  or  two  free  passes  on  the 
railway,  not  only  for  themselves  but  for  their 
wives  and  children  as  well. 

Promotion  from  the  footplate  is  of  rather  rare 
occurrence,  but  a  really  smart,  well-educated,  and 
trustworthy  engineman  may  at  least  contemplate 
a  field  of  advancement  of  fairly  wide  scope.  He 
can  rise  to  shed  foreman  or  locomotive  inspector, 
each  of  which  posts  carries  with  it  a  salary  of 


TRANSIT 

£150  to  £250  per  year.  The  duties  of  an  inspector 
are  to  investigate  the  running  of  engines,  ride  on 
the  footplate  with  pass-firemen  who  are  acting  as 
drivers  under  examination,  accompany  royal  and 
other  high-class  special  trains,  and  report  upon 
the  trial  trips  of  new  locomotives. 

Colour  Blindness  a  Fatal  Defect.  In 
explaining  the  various  grades  of  a  footplate 
career  we  have  not,  perhaps,  sufficiently  em- 
phasised the  frequency  and  severity  of  the 
examinations  for  sight,  both  colour  and  dis- 
tance. At  every  step  of  the  ladder  this  test  is 
imposed,  and  when  a  man  becomes  a  fully-fledged 
driver  it  takes  place  periodically — namely,  every 
two  or  three  years.  Few  companies  employ 
drivers  over  60  years  of  age,  and  those  that  do 
so  examine  them  annually.  In  any  case,  men 
over  60  are  hardly  ever  allowed  to  continue  in 
charge  of  express  trains. 

Washing  Out  Engine  Boilers.  One 
of  the  most  important  operations  that  takes 
place  in  engine  sheds  is  "  washing  out "  engine 
boilers.  Every  engine  has  its  boiler  washed 
out  at  least  once,  and  more  often  twice,  a  week, 
when  untreated  water  is  used.  The  chief 
ingredients  in  boiler  scale  are  sulphate  of  lime 
and  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  a 
deposit  of  T^th  of  an  inch  will  cause  an  increased 
consumption  of  fuel  of  some  20  per  cent.,  owing 
to  the  non-conducting  character  of  the  deposit. 

The  treatment  is  as  follows  :  First,  the  smoke- 
box  [14]  is  cleaned  of  ashes,  so  that  the  plugs  can 
be  easily  taken  out,  and  no  ashes  find  their  way 
into  the  tubes.  The  engine  is  then  placed  over  "a 
pit,  and  the  leaden  wash-out  plugs  removed. 
Where  hot  water  is  used  for  cleaning,  a  steam 
pipe  runs  along  the  shed,  conveying  steam  from 
a  boiler  to  a  high-pressure  injector,  which  is 
equipped  with  flexible  delivery  connections  of 
metallic  hose  piping  and  suitable  nozzles  for 
directing  jets  of  hot  water  at  high  pressure 
through  the  different  plug-holes  of  the  boiler. 
Whether  hot  or  cold,  the  higher  the  pressure 
of  the  water  the  better  the  result.  Then  the 
tubes  have  to  be  cleaned  by  raking  them  through 
with  long,  stiff  wire  rods,  and  streams  of  water 
must  be  directed  among  the  tubes,  stays,  etc., 
to  ensure  the  dislodgment  of  all  loose  pieces  of 
scale.  Finally,  the  glands  are  repacked,  and  the 
ashpan  and  damper  put  right. 

The  Breakdown  Train.  A  breakdown 
train  [15]  is  stabled  at  every  running  shed.  It 
comprises  tool  vans,  containing  an  assortment 
of  jacks  for  lifting  weights  up  to  40  tons, 
and  all  manner  of  instruments  for  clearing  away 
debris  and  converting  chaos  into  order.  One 
of  the  vans,  also,  is  equipped  with  ambulances 
and  first-aid  paraphernalia.  In  the  centre  of  the 
train  is  a  long  eight  or  six  wheeled  truck, 
on  which  is  mounted  a  powerful  steam  crane, 
whose  boiler  is  always  kept  warm.  The  break- 
down gang  is  furnished  from  the  running-shed 
staff.  It  is  divided  into  a  regular  and  reserve 
gang.  For  ordinary  jobs  the  services  of  the 
regular  gang  alone  are  requisitioned. 


Continued 


4601 


Group  23 

APPLIED 
BOTANY 

3 

K..1 1.." 

•    tl'Ull 


FORESTRY   AS   AN    INDUSTRY 

The  World's  Timber  Supply.    Its  Possible  Failure.    Home-grown  British  Timber. 
An  Industry  of  the  Future.    The  Problem  at  Home  and  how  it  is  Dealt  with  Abroad 


By   HAROLD   C.    LONG,    B.Sc. 


FORESTRY  is  a  science  which  has  for  its 
ultimate  object  the  discovery  and  applica- 
tion of  such  principles  as  will  ensure  the  growth 
of  the  greatest  amount  of  useful  timber  on  a 
given  area.  The  position  of  forestry,  by  which 
we  mean  here  economic  forestry,  in  Great  Britain 
has  long  exercised  the  minds  of  some  of  our 
greatest  and  most  enlightened  landowners,  mem- 
bers of  Parliament,  educational  and  commercial 
authorities,  and  many  who  are  devoted  to  the 
subject  for  its  own  sake ;  but  so  far  the  results, 
though  constituting  an  important  beginning,  are 
comparatively  small. 

In  Germany,  France,  and  some  other  European 
countries,  forestry  has  long  been  treated  metho- 
dically as  an  industrial  science,  and  has  received 
every  attention.  In  fact,  most  continental 
countries  are  far  ahead  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land in  respect  to  the  care  of  their  wooded  areas. 

The  splendid  forest  service  in  India  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  with  the  appointment,  in  1856, 
as  Superintendent  of  Forests  in  Pegu,  of  Dr. 
(now  Sir)  Dietrich  Brandis,  who  eight  years 
later  was  made  Inspector-General  of  Forests  for 
India.  Since  then  the  service  has  developed  into 
a  great  organisation,  dealing  with  some  200,000 
square  miles  of  forest  lands,  and  producing 
a  net  revenue  of  about  £600,000  per  annum. 

The  World's  Timber  Supply.  Some 
useful  work  is  now  being  done  in  this  country 
in  instruction  in  forestry,  and  a  scheme  of 
instruction  has  been  started  in  connection  with 
the  Forest  of  Dean.  The  Alice  Holt  Forest,  in 
Hampshire,  comprising  some  1,800  acres,  is  also 
now  being  taken  in  hand  by  the  Commissioners 
of  Woods  and  Forests,  and  is  in  future  to  be 
managed  on  scientific  lines,  being  also  used 
as  a  demonstration  area. 

It  is  a  well-established  fact  that  many  of  the 
forest  areas  whence  the  chief  supply  of  the 
British  Isles  is  drawn  are  gradually  becoming 
depleted.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
and  urgent  reasons  why  close  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  question  of  providing  an  increased 
1 1 01 1  H- -grown  timber  supply.  According  to 
M.  Melard,  Inspector  of  Forests  in  France,  only 
-even  countries  are  now  able  to  supply  large 
quantities  of  timber,  these  being  Norway, 
S  \\cdci  i.  Finland,  Canada,  the  United  States, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Russia.  Increase  of  popu- 
lation  and  commercial  development  seriously 
t  In  cut  en  the  available  surplus  of  the  three 
hitter  countries,  the  Norwegian  supply  is  bcin^ 
dangerously  reduced  by  a  too  free  use  of  the  axe, 
uliile  the  remaining  sources  of  supply  arc  quite 
insufficient.  Forest  lands  have  been  rashly 
destroyed,  it  being  forgotten — even  if  recog- 
nised — that  no  more  than  the  annual  production 


should  be  cut,  and  that  it  takes  something  like 
80  to  100  years  to  produce  timber  fit  for  the 
sawyer.  M.  Melard  believes,  in  common  with 
some  others,  that  a  timber  famine  will  begin 
before  fifty  years  are  past. 

The  Possibilities  of  the  British 
Isles.  For  some  years  past  a  sum  of  over 
£25,000,000  per  annum  has  been  paid  by  this 
country  for  imported  timber  of  all  kinds,  the 
major  portion  of  which  is  coniferous,  and, 
as  experts  agree,  might  be  grown  at  home. 
The  yearly  value  of  the  present  utilised  home- 
grown timber,  chiefly  used  for  estate  purposes, 
cannot  be  even  roughly  estimated,  but  it 
is  undoubtedly  but  a  small  fraction  of  our 
requirements,  and  yet  we  have  far  more  than 
sufficient  fend  to  produce  the  necessary  coniferous 
timber  without  a  single  acre  going  out  of  culti- 
vation. It  has  been  shown,  on  the  highest 
authority,  that  there  is  in  these  islands  a  very 
large  area  of  waste,  heather,  and  rough  pasture 
or  land  out  of  cultivation,  amounting  to 
21,000,000  acres,  a  large  proportion  of  which 
is  suitable  for  profitable  afforestation.  According 
to  Dr.  Schlich  about  six  to  seven  million 
acres  would  produce  the  whole  of  the  timber 
(ordinary  species)  required  which  is  now  im- 
ported, and,  with  21,000,000  acres  from  which 
to  choose,  the  afforestation  could  undoubtedly 
be  gradually  accomplished. 

The  Waste  Lands  of  Ireland.  Al- 
though during  the  past  thirty  years  there  has 
been  a  steady  increase  in  the  area  of  woodlands 
in  Great  Britain,  yet  the  progress  is  by  no 
means  rapid,  while  it  is  stated  that  in  Ireland 
only  1  \  per  cent,  of  the  acreage  is  under  woods, 
24  per  cent,  of  the  land  area  is  uncultivated, 
and  yet  some  2,000,000  acres  of  the  total 
waste  land  could  be  made  available  for  affores- 
tation. Professor  Fisher,  in  a  lecture  on 
Forestry,  given  before  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  March  3rd,  1899,  says  :  "  Tenants  and 
graziers  who  would  oppose  the  planting  of 
2,000,000  acres  of  the  waste  lands  of  Ireland 
must  be  an  extremely  short-sighted  people; 
the  greatest  of  all  wants  in  Ireland  is  an 
investment  of  capital  of  this  kind,  an  invest- 
ment which  will  yield  an  enormous  return  in 
affording  labour  to  the  people,  and  in  supplying 
raw  material  for  industries  which  cannot  prosper 
without  it,  as  well  as  timber  for  export,  and  for 
the  improvement  of  farms  and  dwellings."  On  a 
different  scale  these  words  apply  to  Great  Britain, 
the  percentages  of  the  woodlands  to  the  total 
areas  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales  being 
abouv  5-1,  4'5,  and  3*8  respectively. 

Even  where  land  of  little  or  no  value  for  any 
other  purpose  has  been  employed,  the  cultivation 


of  timber  trees  has  brought  excellent  returns. 
On  some  estates  in  Great  Britain  the  returns  for 
a  number  of  acres  over  a  long  series  of  years  have 
averaged  from  20s.  to  30s.  per  annum,  but  the 
income  is  usually  very  much  less,  and,  regular 
forest  bookkeeping  not  being  general,  numerous 
statistics  of  cuttings  are  not  available,  while 
the  production  has  not  been  so  good  as  it  would 
have  been  under  proper  management. 

Examples  from  Other  Countries.  To 
take  a  German  example  (see  Departmental  Com- 
mittee Report  on  Foiestry,  1903),  the  average 
growing  stock  of  4,072  acres,  in  the  Erzgebirge 
(Saxony),  of  which  93  per  cent,  was  spruce, 
amounted  to  2,128  cubic  feet  per  acre  in  1839, 
and  to  3,276  cubic  feet  in  1893.  The  receipts 
were  48s.  4d.  per  acre,  and  the  expenses  10s.  4d., 
the  net  receipts  being  no  less  than  38s.  per  acre 
per  annum.  Yet  this  very  land  was  worth  no 
more  than  4s.  per  acre  for  agricultural  or  pas- 
toral purposes. 

It  is  maintained  by  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell  that 
Scotch  hill  sheep  pasture,  which,  as  sheep  pas- 
ture, yields  only  two  or  three  shillings  per  acre, 
would,  under  correct  management,  yield  a  re- 
venue of  37s.  6d.  per  acre.  The  same  authority 
says  (Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  March, 
1905) :  "  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  3,000,000 
acres  of  woodlands  of  sorts  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  In  Belgium  there  are  only 
1,750,000  acres,  yielding  a  return  of  £4,000,000 
a  year.  At  that  rate  British  woodlands  ought 
to  yield  £7,000,000  a  year." 

In  Switzerland  the  Sihlwald,  a  forest  owned 
by  the  city  of  Zurich,  yields  an  annual  return 
of  about  32s.  per  acre.  This  area  has  been 
managed  by  the  city  for  some  hundreds  of  years. 

In  France  the  net  annual  yield  from  the 
forest  area  is  approximately  10s.  per  acre. 

In  Great  Britain  the  State  woodlands  amount 
to  over  66,700  acres,  or  2-2  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
area.  In  Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  where 
examples  of  forest  management  form  a  feature 
of  Government  forests,  there  are  some  35,000,000 
acres,  of  which  33  per  cent,  belongs  to  the 
State,  the  whole  being  managed  on  a  definite 
and  scientilic  business  basis  for  profit  and  in- 
struction. In  a  similar  way,  but  to  a  less 
pronounced  degree,  almost  all  civilised  States 
own  forests  managed  on  modern  lines,  and, 
as  we  shall  see  later,  many  have  forest  schools. 

An  Idea  for  Municipalities.  The  plant 
ing  of  catchment  areas  by  various  local  bodies 
having  control  over  lands  for  water  supply  pur- 
poses might  help  considerably  in  the  direction 
of  afforestation.  The  Departmental  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in  1902 
to  inquire  into  and  report  upon  British  Forestry 
recommended  that  the  attention  of  corporations 
and  municipalities  should  be  drawn  to  the 
advantages  and  profits  to  be  derived  from  plant- 
ing their  catchment  areas.  It  was  pointed  out 
that  such  pianting  would  ultimately  aid  in  the 
retention  of  \xtter  which  fell  as  rain,  and  thus 
assist  in  regulating  tfee  water  supply  and  in  pre- 
venting floods,  while  at  tiw^ame  time  forests 
would  tend  to  the  purification  of  ike  domestic 


APPLIED    BOTANY 

water  supply.  The  afforestation  would  naturally 
lead  to  monetary  returns.  The  recommendations 
of  the  Committee  have,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
English  and  Scotch  Local  Government  Boards, 
been  brought  to  the  notice  of  all  the  local 
authorities  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 
The  Corporation  of  Birmingham  have  allocated 
about  1,000  acres  for  plantations,  to  be  planted 
principally  with  larch,  Scots  pine,  and  spruce. 
The  Liverpool  Corporation  waterworks  have 
about  600  acres  of  woodlands  on  a  catchment 
area  of  over  20,000  acres  and  are  still  planting, 
having  established  their  own  nurseries  in  which 
to  raise  the  young  plants.  Other  local  authori- 
ties are  planting  on  a  small  scale  or  are  con- 
sidering the  question.  The  water  supply  from 
wooded  catchment  areas  is  in  general  purer 
and  clearer  than  it  would  otherwise  be,  reduc- 
ing the  expense  of  filtration,  while  it  is  not 
likely  to  silt  up  reservoirs. 

This  part  of  our  subject  would  not  be  complete 
without  some  reference  to  the  rating  of  wood- 
lands and  plantations,  for  the  rates  may  bear  an 
important  relation  to  the  afforestation  of  lands. 
Indeed,  it  is  almost  certain  that  some  land- 
owners have  been  dissuaded  from  establishing 
plantations  on  account  of  a  misunderstanding  of 
the  rating. 

Rates  on  Woodlands.  The  following 
extracts  from  a  leaflet  issued  by  the  Board  of 
Agriculture  and  Fisheries  (Leaflet  No.  8,  Assess- 
ments to  Local  Hates)  put  the  matter  very  clearly. 
In  referring  to  the  Rating  Act,  1874,  it  is  stated 
that : 

"  Under  this  enactment  it  is  the  land,  and  not 
the  timber,  underwood,  or  other  produce  of 
the  land,  which  is  made  the  subject  of  assess- 
ment. It  would  seem  that  if  land  used  as  a 
plantation  or  a  wood,  or  for  the  growth  of 
saleable  underwood,  is  subject  to  common 
rights,  it  is  exempt  from  the  poor  rate  and 
other  local  rates.  The  method  of  estimating 
the  gross  estimated  rental  and  rateable  value 
of  such  woodlands  is  prescribed  by  Section  4  of 
the  Act,  and  is  as  follows  : 

"  (a)  If  the  land  is  used  only  for  a  plantation 
or  a  wood,  the  value  shall  be  estimated  as  if  the 
land,  instead  of  being  a  plantation  or  a  wood, 
were  let  and  occupied  in  its  natural  and  un- 
improved state. 

«*  (b)  If  the  land  is  used  for  the  growth  of  sail-- 
able underwood,  the  value  shall  be  estimated  as 
if  the  land  were  let  for  that  purpose. 

"  (c)  If  the  land  is  used  both  for  a  plantation 
or  a  wood  and  for  the  growth  of  saleable  under- 
wood, the  value  shall  be  estimated  either  as 
if  the  land  were  used  only  for  a  plantation  or 
a  wood,  or  as  if  the  land  were  used  only  for  the 
growth  of  the  saleable  underwood  gro\v  ing  there- 
on, as  the  assessment  committee  may  determine. 

"  La.nct  of  the  kind  described  in  paragraph 
(a)  should  be  assessed  as  if  it  were  divested  of 
timber  or  wood  of  any  description,  and  its  value 
determined  without  taking  into  account  any 
improvement  which  has  been  made,  or  of  which 
the  land  might  be  capable.  In  other  words,  the 
land  should  be  rated  as  if  it  were  waste  land." 

4603 


APPLIED    BOTANY 

The  Influence  of  Forestry.  A  beneficial 
intluence  is  also  exercised  in  conned  ion  with 
tli--  soil,  climate,  the  erosion  of  hillsides,  and 
protection  from  the  force  of  the  wind  ;  in  all 
these  directions  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
iiiiiin-ii-,'  set  vice  is  rendered  by  wooded  arc  i- 
In  the  United  States  of  America  the  necessity 
of  forest  preservation  for  the  continued  pro- 
sperity of  the  nation  was  keenly  discussed  and 
insisted  upon  by  many  authorities  at  the 
Forest  Congress  held  at  Washington  in  the 
first  week  of  January,  1906. 

Forest  trees  remove  less  food  material  from 
ihc  soil  than  do  agricultural  crops,  the  major 
portion  of  the  food  supply  being  taken  from 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  atmosphere  [see 
<  IIKMISTRY].  For  this  reason,  among  others, 
forest  crops  may  be  grown  continuously  on  the 
same  soil  over  long  periods  of  time.  The  system 
of  coppice  woods  is,  perhaps,  the  most  exacting. 
Soils  under  forest  management  are  also  rendered 
more  retentive  of  moisture,  which  can  percolate 
more  freely  than  on  ordinary  soils,  while  it  is 
not  so  readily  evaporated.  Binding  of  light  soils 
takes  place  under  forest  cover,  while  heavy  soils 
are  ameliorated  and  opened.  The  erosive  effects 
of  heavy  rains  are  to  a  large  extent  obviated 
where  there  is  a  close  canopy  of  trees,  rain  being 
successively  retarded  by  crowns,  stems,  roots, 
and  the  covering  of  humus.  The  uses  of  affores- 
tation in  this  connection  are  well  seen  on  the 
mountain  sides  of  Switzerland,  France,  etc., 
where  the  services  rendered  by  woods  in  such 
positions  in  giving  protection  against  avalanches 
and  floods  are  invaluable.  Under  close  canopy 
the  soil  is  kept  practically  free  from  weeds. 

The  Climate  and  Forest  Areas.  The 
influence  of  forest  areas  relative  to  climate  is 
often,  perhaps,  liable  to  exaggeration,  the  actual 
differences  in  temperature  between  cleared  and 
afforested  areas  being  in  general  but  slight.  But 
extensive  forests  undoubtedly  tend  to  render  the 
climate  of  a  country  more  equable,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  and  soil  being  slightly  lowered  in 
summer  and  raised  in  winter.  It  has  been  stated 
that  on  the  average  of  eleven  German  stations 
the  July  temperature  of  the  surface  soil  in  the 
forest  was  found  to  be  7°  F.  lower  than  that 
in  the  open  field,  whereas  in  December  the 
forest  soil  was  rather  warmer  than  that  in  the 
oj>rn  field.  Forests  also  tend  to  increase  pre- 
cipitation of  moisture. 

Narrow  strips  of  woodlands  are  frequently 
planted  to  afford  protection  not  only  to  fields 
and  orchards  against  cold  and  dry  winds,  but 
to  e\ posed  villages  and  towns.  These  "shelter 
lielis."  as  they  are  termed,  also  serve  as  shell ei 
for  livestock,  game,  and  wild  birds.  Such  belts  of 
trees  ore  aUo  utilise:!  to  break  the  force  of  high 
\\ind>.  and  so  protect  the  woodlands  proper. 
K-p«-<-i:illy  is  tin-  to  lie  seen  on  certain  open 
coast  lines,  when-  the  wind-swept  appearance 
of  the  mur«:in:il  trees  <m  t-he  windward  side  of 
\\oo(U  and  ton-Ms  is  often  well  marked. 


Labour  and  Forestry.  In  Great  Britain 
the  influence  of  forestry  on  labour  is  very 
small,  but  in  some  countries  it  is  of  vast 
importance.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada 
the  lumber  trade  and  allied  industries  give 
employment  to  a  great  number  of  workers.  In 
Germany  many  industries  depend  entirely  on 
the  forests  for  their  existence.  The  wages  earned 
under  forest  work  proper,  and  the  industries 
dependent  thereon,  in  Germany,  run  into  many 
millions  of  pounds  sterling  per  annum,  while 
some  10  per  cent,  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  population 
are  engaged  in  work  connected  with  forestry. 
Among  the  numerous  allied  industries  may  be 
mentioned  turning,  matchmaking,  wood-pulp 
manufacture,  drum  and  cask  hoopmaking,  and 
the  manufacture  of  shovels,  shoes,  barrows,  etc. 
Compared  with  agriculture  generally,  forestry 
gives  much  less  employment  per  acre,  Schwap- 
pach  stating  ("  Forestry,"  translation  by  Story  and 
Nobbs)  that  in  Germany  arable  farming  employs 
one  man  for  10£  acres,  while  forestry  requires 
only  one  man  permanently  employed  for  308 
acres.  Yet  more  persons  would  be  required  per 
1,000  acres  of  woodland  than  per  1,000  acres 
of  hill  sheep  pasture,  it  being  stated  by  the 
Departmental  Committee  [see  Section  1]  that 
whereas  Scotch  hill  pastures  quite  capable  of 
producing  high-class  timber  appear  to  employ 
but  one  man  to  1,000  acres,  the  same  land 
if  planted  would  require  the  services  of  one 
forester  per  100  acres,  quite  apart  from  the  men 
necessary  to  cut  and  remove  ripe  timber  and 
those  employed  in  the  various  trades  arising 
from  the  proximity  of  forest  lands, 

Effects  of  Natural  Agencies  on 
Forests.  In  its  turn,  forestry  is  largely 
affected  in  any  district  by  certain  natural 
agencies  which  determine  the  character  of 
the  trees  which  may  be  planted  with  most 
advantage.  It  may  briefly  be  stated  here 
that  the  character  of  a  forest  area  depends 
to  a  great  extent  on  the  soil  and  subsoil, 
and  on  aspect,  elevation,  and  climate.  The 
species  of  trees  which  will  grow  best  under 
the  same  general  management  (after  being 
established)  will  depend  very  much  on  such 
factors  as  those  mentioned;  the  species,  in  fact, 
will  differ  accordingly  as  the  land  lies  high  or  low, 
is  open  and  bleak,  or  sheltered  and  mild,  is  porous 
or  retentive  of  moisture,  or  is  gravelly,  chalky, 
clayey,  or  loamy.  For  example,  the  oak  requires 
a  fairly  deep  soil,  while  the  spruce  will  do  well 
on  a  shallow  soil  ;  the  alder  is  suitable  for  very 
wet  situations,  while  Scots  pine  occurs  and 
flourishes  on  very  dry  soils  ;  spruce  grows  at 
a  greater  elevation  than  almost  any  other  of 
our  forest  trees,  and  poplar  is  found  only 
at  comparatively  low  altitudes.  In  other 
words,  "  locality  " — meaning  soil  or  climate  in 
relation  to  tree  growth — governs  the  species, 
and  species  largely  determines  the  character  of 
the  wood  or  forest. 

Continued 


1604 


SENDING  TELEGRAMS 

Practical  Telegraphy.      How  the  Traffic  is  Handled.      The 
Speed  of  the  Telegraph.     Sending-  and  Receiving  Messages 


Group  10 

TELEGRAPHS 


Continued  from 
4388 


By   D.    H.    KENNEDY 


Traffic  Routes.  Before  dealing  further 
Avith  the  instrument-room,  it  will  be  well  to  ex- 
plain that  the  general  system  of  dealing  with 
telegraph  traffic  is  closely  analogous  to  that  for 
railway  passenger  traffic.  Small  towns  have 
lines  to  large  towns,  large  towns  have  direct  lines 
to  all  other  large  towns  within  a  reasonable 
distance.  Here  it  has  to  be  remembered  that  as 
the  distance  increases  the  cost  of  providing  and 
maintaining  the  line  increases,  but  the  sixpenny 
telegram  is  still  the  sixpenny  telegram.  Every 
large  telegraph  station  is  therefore  a  junction 
where  messages  change  lines. 

The  route  of  a  message  is  called  its  circula- 
tion and  a  good  knowledge  of  circulation,  and 
therefore,  to  some  extent,  of  geography,  is  a 
desideratum  for  every  telegraphist.  It  is, 
moreover,  the  special  stock-in-trade  of  the 
youthful  collectors. 

Circuits.  Now  let  us  examine  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  circuits  in  the  instrument-room. 
Circuit  is  the  generic  title  given  to  any  set 
of  apparatus  when  in  use  for  communication. 
In  the  centre,  obviously  for  maximum  accessi- 
bility, are  the  numerous  London  wires.  There  are 
eight  or  ten  for  commercial  work,  and  three  or 
four  for  receiving  "  News."  Wires  used  exclu- 
sively for  receiving  Press  messages  from  London 
are  always  called  neivs  ivires. 

One  end  of  the  room,  let  us  say  west  of  the 
London  wires,  is  quite  taken  up  with  short 
distance  local  wires,  while  the  east  end  is  fitted 
up  with  wires  to  other  large  centres.  We  may 
call  them  mam  cross-country  lines. 

Just  behind  every  receiving  instrument  there 
is  a  wire  basket  mounted  on  a  pedestal  rod, 
on  which  the  telegraphists  place  the  messages  they 
receive  ;  and  again  at  the  sending  position  for 
every  town  we  see  a  narrow,  deep  little  box,  open 
at  the  top  and  at  one  end,  into  which  the 
messages  to  be  sent  are  frequently  being  placed. 
After  this  glance  around,  let  us  return  to  our 
learner.  What  are  his  sensations  on  coming  into 
closer  touch  Avith  the  mystery  of  the  electric 
telegraph  ? 

Speed  of  the  Telegraph.  One  novel 
and  thrilling  experience  comes  to  every  young 
telegraphist.  It  is  the  moment  when  he  realises 
how  complete  is  the  annihilation  of  time  by 
electricity.  Even  in  the  school  he  has  specu- 
lated and  experimented  as  to  what  Avas  the  actual 
interval  between  putting  down  the  key  and  the 
response  of  the  sounder ;  and  if  he  did  admit  that 
it  Avas  too  short  for  his  powers  of  observation 
he  mentally  added  that  the  distance  was  very 
short,  and  he  resolved  to  repeat  the  experiment 
under  other  conditions  when  the  opportunity 
should  arise.  Now  it  has  come.  He  sees  a 


telegraphist  working  on  a  circuit  marked  "  Aber- 
deen." Here  is  a  long  wire,  and  he  watches  to 
note  the  interval  betAveen  the  Englishman's  last 
signal  and  the  first  of  the  Scotchman's  response. 
The  sound  of  the  key  is  still  in  his  ears  when 
the  sounder  is  rattling  out  the  reply.  The  learner 
mentally  collapses.  How  long  does  it  take  to 
send  a  message  some  hundreds  of  miles  ?  Merely 
the  time  necessary  to  signal  it.  He  is  quite 
stunned,  and  after  slowly  adjusting  his  mental 
conceptions  he  realises  that  telegraphy  is  practi- 
cally instantaneous,  and  that  the  time  consumed 
in  the  transmission  of  a  message  is  all  taken  up 
in  the  handling  and  the  formation  of  the  signals. 

He  is  now  put  in  charge  of  a  sounder  circuit, 
working  to  a  suburban  office,  and  he  has  time  to 
notice  the  methods  adopted  for  handling  the 
traffic  so  as  to  reduce  delay  to  a  minimum. 

Messages.  The  messages  handed  in  by  the 
public  are  written  on  white  forms  with  a  big  "  A  " 
in  the  left-hand  corner.  They  are  not  ahvays 
legible,  and  the  counter  clerk  has  to  make 
them  so.  Messages  received  from  one  station 
to  be  forwarded  to  another  are  written  on  "  B  " 
forms — thin,  yelloAv  forms  never  seen  by  the 
public.  Messages  received  at  a  station  for 
delivery  are  written  on  "  C "  forms.  These 
are  in  duplicate,  and  the  under,  or  carbon, 
copies,  go  to  the  public. 

All  the  writing  is  done  Avith  pencil,  and  both 
the  "  B  "  and  the  upper  "  C  "  forms  are  divided 
into  t've  spaces  per  line,  and  one  word  must 
be  written  in  one  space,  and  no  more.  This 
facilitates  counting,  and  prevents  the  dropping 
of  a  word. 

When  the  telegram  is  handed  in,  the  counter 
clerk  inserts  the  "Code  time,"  the  "Office  of 
Origin,"  and  the  number  of  words.  It  is  im- 
mediately despatched  to  the  instrument-room, 
probably  by  a  pneumatic  tube.  In  the  instru- 
ment-room it  is  taken  up  by  a  collector  and 
carried  to  the  proper  circuit.  If  other  messages 
are  not  waiting,  or  in  course  of  transmission,  the 
telegraphist  takes  it  up  at  once.  He  must  first 
look  at  the  address,  and  decide  what  the  prefix 
will  be.  If  it  is  to  be  delivered  from  the  office 
he  is  working  to,  it  Avill  be  prefixed  "S."  If  it  is 
to  be  sent  on,  it  will  be  "X." 

Sending  a  Message.  When  his  first  "  A  " 
form  arrives,  our  neAv  hand  calls  up  the 
suburban  office  by  signalling  the  prefix.  In  this 
case  it  will  be  "  S,"  as  suburban  stations  are 
never  transmitting  stations. 

On  omnibus  circuits  the  station  must  be  called 
by  repeating  the  code  of  the  station  required 
three  times,  and  then  the  code  of  the  calling 
office.  A  called  station  replies  by  signalling 
its  code,  followed  by  the  sign  —  —  . 

4605 


TELEGRAPHS 

The    sub-office    signals The    message 

is  thru  si"nalled  in  tins  order:  Prefix,  Code, 
Ollice  of  Origin.  Number  of  Words.  AddZOM, 

Text    oi    Mmge.   *••"»«•  fl'°.m    (if   {iny)-  con" 

eluding  \\itli  tin-  understand  signal  .  .  .  —  . 

Tin-  receiving  telegraphist  counts  tlie  words 
as  he  \\ritcs  them,  and  Immediately  on  the  com- 
pletion of  tin-  mc»age  replies  by  the  acknow- 
ledgment signal The  "  time  sent '  is 

thru  inserted  on  the  "A"  form,  together  with  the 
,.f  the  distant  station,  and  the  initials  of  the 
sending'  rlerk.  The  sent  messages  are  placed 
on  a  hook  under  the  wire  basket,  whence  they 
are  collected  at  intervals. 

The  School  Sounder  Circuit  station  had  only 
i\vo  pieces  of  apparatus,  but  in  actual  practice 
a  third  is  always  present,  namely  a  galvanometer 
1 12  ].  A  galvanometer  is  not  absolutely  necessary, 
but  it  is  a  very  useful  adjunct.     Normally  the 
needle  remains  vertical.  When  the  key  is  depressed 
the  needle  should  deflect  to  the  right,  and  when 
signals  are  being  sent  it  continues  to  oscillate 
backwards  and  forwards.     Should  it  suddenly 
cease  to  do  so,  the 
inference    is     that 
the        wire       has 
become         discon- 
nected    at     some 
point.      At    other 
times,     when  call- 
ing fails  to  obtain 
a    response     from 
the  distant  office, 
it    may    be    noted 
that  the  oscillation 
of    the      galvano- 
meter    needle     i8 
much   more  vigor- 
ous    than      usual. 
This    is    probably 
due    to    the    fact 
that  the  insulation 
of  the  circuit  has 
broken     down    at 
some     point.      In 

either  ease  the  telegraphist  reports  the  fact  to 
his  superior,  \\lio  will  invoke  the  assistance  of 
the  test  clerk.  The  complete  designation  of  the 
circuit  \\e  have  been  dealing  with  is  "Direct 
Sound"  r.  Single  Current." 

The  Relay.  Direct  sounder  working  is 
possible  only  on  the  very  shortest  lines.  For  all 
otln-rsit  is  necessary  to  employ  relays.  Relays  [11] 
It •<  tromagnets  of  special  construction,  sen- 
sitive to  very  small  currents.  The  currents 
received  from  the  distant  office  actuate  the 
relay,  which  in  turn  controls  the  sounder.  The 
ironing  adjustment  of  the  relay  is  made  l>y 
means  .it  the  milled  screw  seen  on  the  right  side. 

On  -ingle  current  circuits  the  relay  should 
be  adjured  a-  follows.  Turn  the  adjusting  screw 
to  the  riyht  (marking)  until  the  sounder  armature 
goes  do\\n.  th.-n  turn  Lack  to  spacing  until  the 
.vima' me  of  th,-  Bunder  riaefl.  The  relay  is  now 
m  it>  mo-t  lenaitive  p<>-  it  ion  for  single-current 
u  01  king. 

The  Duplex.  Xc\t  to  the  direct  sounder, 
we  lind  a  circuit  working  to  a  much  busier 

MXM 


suburban  office.  It  is  of  the  same  type,  except 
tor  the  fact  that  it  has  been  modified  to  work 
''  duplex." 

In  addition  to  the  key,  sounder,  and  galvano- 
meter, there  is  a  relay  and  a  rheostat  which  has 
a  movable  top  ;  also  a  switch  for  altering  the 
arrangement  from  simplex  to  duplex,  or  vice 
versa,  as  required. 

The  theory  of  the  duplex  system  is  dealt  with 
in  the  electrical  engineering  section,  but  simple 
directions  for  adjusting  a  circuit  to  work  duplex 
can  be  given. 

Balancing  a  Single-current  Duplex. 
The  controlling  office  decides  when  duplex  work- 
ing is  necessary,  and  instructs  the  other  station 
by  a  service  message.    Both  stations  turn  their 
switches  from    "  simplex  "   to  "  duplex."     The 
controlling  office  operator  proceeds  to  "  balance/' 
The  rheostat  is  of  the  metropolitan  pattern. 
The  top,  which  is  graduated  0,  25,  50,  and  so 
on,  can  be   turned  round  so  as   to   bring    any 
desired  figure  opposite    a  pointer  which  is  fixed 
on  the  side  of  the  brass  frame.     Normally,  the 
zero  is  at  the  pointer.   After  turning 
his  switch  to  duplex,  the  telegraphist 
should  depress  the  key,  and  observe 
the  effect  on  the  galvanometer  needle. 
It  will  deflect  widely  to  the  left. 

The  rheostat  should  now  be  turned, 
and  the  key  depressed  at  intervals. 
MHHfe,  As  the  figures  in- 

crease it  will  be 
found  that  the 
deflection  to  the 
left  gradually  de- 
creases,  and, 
finally,  when  the 
right  point  is 
reached,  the  de- 
pression of  the  key 
has  no  effect  on 
the  needle  at  all. 
If  the  rheostat  be 

10.    DOUBLE-CURRENT     DUPLEX     CIRCUIT  Burned          beyond 

this  point  the 

galvanometer  needle  will  deflect  to  the  right,  the 
deflection  steadily  increasing  as  the  figures  on 
the  rheostat  increase.  The  highest  figure  on  the 
rotating  top  is  225,  but  this  can  be  supple- 
mented by  300  and  by  600,  which  are  added 
by  withdrawing  plugs  from  their  normal  position 
between  the  brass  blocks  on  the  front  of  the 
wooden  case. 

The  name  of  the  unit  of  resistance  to  which 
these  figures  refer  is  the  ohm.  A  useful  mnem- 
onic connecting  the  deflection  of  the  galvano- 
meter and  the  adjustment  of  the  rheostat  is  given 
by  the  two  words  "  Right,  Reduce."  When  the 
controlling  office  has  balanced,  the  same  operation 
is  performed  at  the  "  down  "  office,  and  working 
can  then  be  commenced. 

Duplex  Working.  Of  course,  two  opera- 
tors at  each  end  are  now  necessary,  and  they 
must  be  fairly  expert  if  the  work  is  to  proceed 
smoothly.  Let  us  call  the  head  office  men  A  and 
Y,  and  the  out-station  men  B  and  Z.  A  and  B 
are  at  the  keys  while  Y  and  Z  are  receiving. 
The  latter  are  provided  with  long,  narrow  RD 


slips  on  which  they  must  write  the  ''  name  to  " 
of  each  message  as  received.  When  Y  is  ready, 

A  gives .,  and  a  similar  signal  is  given  B 

for  his  colleague.  The  Benders  then  proceed 
steadily  for  quarter-hour  periods,  usually  dis- 
posing of  about  ten  messages  of  average  length. 
If,  say,  Y  fails  to  read  a  word,  he  informs  A.  A 

immediately  signals  . .  _  — .  — ,  giving  the  last 

word  which  Y  has  written.     At  the  quarter-hour 
periods    the   names    on   the    "  R    D "  slips  are 
counted,    and   totals     exchanged,  thus    A  will 
signal,    "  Total,     ten    Brown,"     and    B    thus, 
"  Total,  nine  Jones."     The  figures  refer  to  the 
number    of    messages    received    during  the 
quarter-hour,  and  the  name  is  that  of  the 
addressee  of  the  last  message.     If  these  are 

correct,  each  gives  . . .  .,  and  work  is 

then  resumed  for  another  quarter-hour.  If 
the  total  be  incorrect,  the  names  on  the 
acknowledgment  slip  are  signalled,  and  the 
missing  name  found  and  accounted  for. 

The  galvanometer  indications  should  be 
properly  understood.  As  already  stated,  when 
signals  are  being  sent  in  only  one  direction,  the  n. 
galvanometer  at  the  sending  station  remains 
vertical.  At  the  receiving  station  it  deflects 
to  the  right  when  a  mark  is  being  received,  and, 
of  course,  oscillates  backwards  and  forwards 
under  the  influence  of  a  series  of  signals.  Should 
the  line  become  disconnected,  the  depression 
of  the  key  causes  the  galvanometer  needle  to 
deflect  to  the  left  vigorously.  On  the  other  hand, 
vigorous  deflections  to  the  right  indicate  that  the 
insulation  of  the  circuit  has  failed  at  some  point. 

Main  Line  Circuits.  Now  let  us  look  at 
some  of  the  longer  sounder  circuits — the  main 
cross-country  lines.  These  are  all  worked  on  the 
double-current  system.  The  main  difference  to  the 
operator  is  the  substitution  of  the  light  single- 
current  key  by  the  heavier  double -cur  rent 
pattern  [10]. 

The  double-current  key  is  provided  with  a 
switch  marked,  "  Send,  Receive."  When  working, 


TELEGRAPHS 

the  handle  must  be  turned  to  the  appropriate 
position.  It  follows  that  on  double-current  simplex 
circuits,  once  a  message  has  been  commenced, 
the  sender  cannot  be  interrupted  by  the  re- 
ceiver, as  in  single-current 
working.  Any  repetition 
must  therefore  be  obtained 
after  the  completion  of  the 
message. 

What  has  been  said  as  to 
galvanometer  indications 
in  the  case  of  single-current 
working  applies  equally 
to  the  double  -  current 
system,  if  the  difference 
between  the  two  methods 
is  kept  in  mind.  In  singl"- 
'•urrent  working,  the 
signals  are  made  by  succes- 
sive impulses  of  current, 
which  traverse  the  circuit 
in  the  same  direction,  and 
in  *he  interval  between 
POST  OFFICE  STANDARD  successive  signals  no  eur- 
KELAY  rent  is  flowing.  In  double- 

current    working,    instead 

of  the  "no  current"  interval  for  spacing,  the  key 
is  arranged  to  send  spacing  currents  opposite  in 
'direction  to  the  marking  current.  The  observant 
telegraphist  will  note  that  the  space  deflection  is 
to  the  left  and  the  "  mark  "  to  the  right.  Tke 
latter,  of  course,  is  in  agreement  with  single- 
current  working. 

Balancing  a  D=C  Duplex.  To  duplex 
a  D-C  circuit,  the  procedure  is  similar  to  the 
S-C  case,  with  the  following  slight  modifications. 
The  key  switches  at  both  stations  are  turned  to 
"  send,"  and  left  so  permanently.  The  gal- 
vanometer needle,  instead  of  balancing  in  the 
centre,  will  take  up  a  position  about  40  divisions 
to  the  left.  The  "  Right  Reduce  "  rule  holds  good. 
The  rheostat  js  larger  than  the  metropolitan 
pattern.  This  style  is  called  rheostat  "6V  It 
can  be  adjusted  to  any  figure,  advancing 
from  0  by  10  to  8,430. 

Instead  of  a  rotating  top,  it  is  provided 
with  two  radial  arms.  One  of  them  can  be 
turned  from  0  to  400,  advancing  by  40  ;  the 
other  from  0  to  4,000,  advancing  by  400.  On 
the  front  there  are  three  brass  plugs  marked 
4,000,  20,  and  10.  Thus,  to  make  up  6,670, 
we  have : 


Brass     plug    withdrawn 

from  front 
One  radial  arm  turned  to 

front     . 


Brass      plug 
from  front 


withdrawn 


4,000 

2400 
240 

20 
10 


12.     DIRECT    SOUNDER    WITH    GALVANOMETER 


Total -.    6,670 

The  balancing  should  be  carried 
out  in  the  methodical  manner 
already  described. 

The  Condenser.    The  large 
wooden  box  on  which  the  rheostat 
4607 


TELEGRAPHS 

is  placed  is  a  c<»nl> //.<>,.  At  out-  end  there  are 
half  a  dozen  brass  plugs.  The  capacity  of  the 
condenser  is  increased  by  inserting  the  brass 
plugs  so  that  they  connect  two  adjoining  I >r.i>- 
M-nta.  The  segments  are  marked  2,  1,  '5,  "2r>, 
,uxl.  a-aiii.  L*.  I.  -5.  By  inserting  various  plugs. 
it  is  therefore  possible  to  vary  the  capacity 
from  -25,  advancing  by  '25  to  7 '25.  The  unit 
of  capacity  to  which  these  figures  refer  is  called 
the  microfarad.  To  adjust  the  capacity,  depress 
the  D-C  key,  and  observe  if  there  is  any  elVeet 
on  the  sounder  just  at  the  moment  of  depression. 
If  a  dot  be  formed,  the  capacity  must  be  in- 
creased till  this  effect  disappears.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  no  dot  be  formed  on  depressing  the 
key,  but  just  when  it  rises,  then  the  capacity  of 
the  condenser  is  excessive,  and  must  be  reduced. 
Fault  Indications.  It  should  be  men- 
tioned that  in  the  event  of  the  line  becoming 
disconnected,  the  signals  sent  on  the  key  at  each 
station  are  given  out  by  the  sounder,  but  re- 
versed, while  a  sudden  breakdown  of  the  in- 
sulation of  the  line  will  have  the  effect  of  causing 
the  sounder  at  each  station  to  repeat  the  key 
signals,  or,  in  telegraphist  parlance,  one  "  gets 
their  own  marks."  The  great  bulk  of  the  main 
cross-country  telegraph  work  in  this  country  is 
done  on  the  double-current  duplex  circuits,  and 
every  effort  is  made  to  provide  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  circuits  between  towns  to  carry  the  traffic 
without  delay.  The  delay  in  each  office  is 
limited  to  ten  minutes.  In  any  cases  where  this 
is  exceeded  the  sending  telegraphist  must  state 
the  cause  on  the  back  of  the  form. 

Roundabout  Routes.  It  is,  of  course, 
obviously  deducible  from  this  that  the  time 
taken  to  transmit  a  telegram  is  proportional  to 
the  number  of  offices  through  which  it  has  to 
pass,  and  this  is  approximately  true.  From  this 
fact,  and  the  circulation  arrangements  already 
described,  it  sometimes  curiously  results  that 
two  places  which  may  be  quite  near  geogra- 
phically are  very  badly  situated  telegraphically. 
One  such  case  may  be  instanced. 


Two  villages  on  a  main  line  of  railway  running 
east  and  west  are  four  miles  apart,  They  have 
no  direct  communication.  One  of  them  is 
connected  to  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  railway, 
via  one  intervening  office,  and  the  other  to  the 
western  terminus  of  the  rail,  via  two  transmitting 
offices.  The  main  terminal  offices  are  connected, 
so  that  a  telegram  from  one  village  to  the  other 
has  to  pass  through  five  transmitting  offices.  It 
need  scarcely  be  added  that  such  telegrams  are 
very  rare,  or  better  arrangements  would  IMS 
made. 

Traps  for  the  Unwary.  Frequent 
transmission  is  to  be  avoided,  not  only  in  order 
to  save  time,  but  also  to  avoid  inaccuracies. 
Every  effort  is  made  by  the  department  to  secure 
accuracy,  and  mistakes  are  always  traced  home,  if 
possible,  and  the  misdoer  punished  or  cautioned. 
But  pitfalls  are  numerous,  and  the  most  careful 
clerk  trips  occasionally.  Probably  the  majority 
of  the  errors  are  due  to  bad  writing,  but  the 
following  examples  show  what  care  is  necessary 
to  avoid  errors  in  signalling.  Compare  the 
following  pairs  : 

Cash     , 


Bad . 

Dead .     . 

Satin  ...     .  __     _      .  .     _  . 

Sateen     ...     . . .     .     __ . 

Calls ._ ._ 

Calais    . .     . , ..     ._     . 

Hall 

Half      

One  example  of  an  error  due  to  indistinct 
writing  may  be  given,  because  it  is  both  true  and 
amusing.  The  head  of  a  syndicate  controlling 
provincial  music-halls  was  considerably  mystified 
by  a  telegram  from  a  provincial  manager,  asking 
him  to  "  send  two  good  twins  on  Monday."  He 
was,  no  doubt,  much  relieved  when,  on  inquiry, 
it  transpired  that  "  turns  "  had  been,  in  transit, 
turned  into  twins,  and  that  artistes,  not  infants, 
were  wanted. 


Continued 


4008 


CYCLOPAEDIA  OF  SHOPKEEPING 

PICTURE  FRAMERS.     The  Practical  and  Commercial  Sides  of  Picture 

Framers.    Tools  and  Stock.    Prices  and  Profits 
PICTURE  POSTCARD  DEALERS.    Stock  to  Buy.     Varieties  of  Picture 

Postcard  Subjects.     Stock  to  Avoid.     Profits 
PLUMBERS.    The  Education  of  the  Plumber.     The  "Office"  Plumber 

and  the  "Workshop"  Plumber      Business  Hints 
POSTAGE-STAMP  DEALERS      P  .1  .lately  as  a  Business.     Building  up  a 

Stock.     Stock  Keeping  an :  Selling.     Commission  Business 
POST  OFFICE  SUB-AGENTS.    Advantages  of  a  Post  Office  Sub-agency. 

How  to  Secure  the  Appointment.     Conditions  and  Remuneration 


Group  26 

SHOPKEEPING 
32 

Continued  from  pag« 


PICTURE  FRAMERS 

The  business  of  a  picture  framer  is  often 
conducted  profitably  on  agency  lines,  all  orders 
being  sent  as  received  to  the  wholesale  moulding 
manufacturers,  detailed  instructions  being  given 
with  the  picture,  carefully  packed,  the  finished 
work  being  in  due  course  returned  ready  to  be 
handed  over  to  the  customer,  or,  maybe, 
without  the  glass,  this  being  cut  and  fitted 
by  the  shopkeeper.  The  manufacturers  supply 
numerous  sets  of  samples  of  mouldings,  corners, 
etc.,  each  sample  numbered  to  facilitate  the 
selection  and  ordering  of  their  goods,  and  marked 
with  prices  from  which  usual  trade  discounts 
are  allowed.  In  this  method  of  conducting  the 
business  little  is  wanted  beyond  samples  of 
mouldings,  mount  boards,  show-room  display  (as 
described  below),  and  a  tape  measure. 

Common  "  window  glass "  is  of  the  same 
quality  as  that  used  for  cheap  picture  frames,  and 
the  sale  of  window  glass  often  proves  a  profit- 
able side  line  to  the  picture  framer.  If  the 
business  be  conducted  on  agency  lines,  this  side 
line  may  still  be  adopted,  and  glass  inserted  into 
frames  on  receipt  from  the  maker.  The  proper 
use  of  a  glazier's  diamond  is  easily  acquired.  A 
baize-covered  table  reserved  for  glass  cutting 
prevents  breakages. 

Sale  Shop.  The  sale  shop  may  be  fitted 
with  the  usual  counter,  under  which  several 
long  shallow  drawers  for  engravings,  etc.,  will 
be  useful ;  also  some  shelving  for  fancy  goods, 
alternated  with  plain  wall  spaces  for  the  display 
of  pictures,  frames,  and  other  goods. 

In  convenient  recesses  there  may  be  upright 
divisions  for  the  storage  of  mouldings  in  the 
case  of  practical  trade  being  chosen.  Mouldings 
are  usually  in  9  ft.  to  12  ft.  lengths,  and  require 
the  full  height.  In  the  cheaper  kinds  of 
"  German  "  gilt  mouldings,  or  the  plain  oak, 
both  natural  colour  and  stained,  the  enamelled 
and  other  cheap  fancy  mouldings,  as  well  as 
the  largely  used  gilt  "  slips  " — plain  flat,  bevelled, 
or  hollow  moulds,  usually  inserted  as  an  inner 
frame  next  to  the  picture — a  large  variety  and  a 
fair  stock  is  generally  maintained. 

Fancy  frames,  such  as  ovals,  rounds,  Oxfords, 
and  "  swept "  frames,  may  be  bought  ready- 
made  from  the  wholesaler  advantageously. 
Among  this  class  should  be  set  down  Masonic 
frames  containing  emblems  of  the  cra'ft.  These 
are  in  fairly  regular  demand. 

Indispensable  to  a  good  framing  business  is 
the  sale  of  pictures,  especially  of  engravings, 


etchings,  or  other  good  reproductions  of  popular 
works  of  art,  that  may  be  sold  at  from  Is.  6d. 
to  half-a-guinea  each,  with  a  good  margin 
of  profit.  Another  class  of  goods  finding 
regular  sale  is  that  of  artists'  materials  [see 
page  894]. 

A  special  attractiveness  always  attaches  to 
the  exhibition  of  original  oil  paintings,  water- 
colour  drawings,  etc.  These  are  generally  obtain- 
able on  "  sale  or  return  "  from  artists  of  small 
renown,  who  allow  a  suitable  commission.  These, 
if  really  good  work,  sell  better  when  displayed 
without  frames,  and  an  order  for  framing  may 
be  secured  at  the  same  time. 

How  to  Take  Framing  Orders. 
It  is  generally  found  that  the  customer  has  no 
preconceived  idea  of  suitable  styles  for  framing 
various  styles  of  pictures,  though  he  has  prob- 
ably decided  on  a  limit  to  his  expenditure:  The 
first  business  of  the  salesman  is,  therefore,  to 
acquaint  himself  with  the  usual  styles  of  fram- 
ing adopted  for  definite  classes  of  pictures,  and, 
knowing  these  points,  he  should  ascertain  his 
customer's  idea  of  price,  and  display  the  kind 
of  frame  or  samples  of  mouldings  suitable  to 
meet  the  case. 

For  general  guidance,  the  following  leading 
points  may  be  carefully  noted,  though  individual 
preferences  may  call  for  occasional  deviation. 

Oil  paintings  are  usually  framed  in  gold,  or 
best  imitation  gold,  without  any  "  mount,"  the 
painting  coming  directly  under  the  rebate  of  the 
moulding  or  slip.  As  a  rule  no  glass  is  used 
over  oil  paintings.  The  use  of  a  plain  slip 
greatly  improves  the  effectiveness  of  an  enriched 
moulding.  Ornamental  corners  over  emiched 
mouldings  add  to  their  rich  effect,  but,  especi- 
ally in  best  gold  work,  plain  mouldings,  void  of 
such  addition,  are  generally  preferred. 

Water  -  colour  drawings  are  generally 
"mounted"  either  by  being  pasted  down  (by 
the  edges  only)  upon  a  white  or  tinted  board 
large  enough  to  provide  a  wide  margin  all 
round,  or  this  margin  is  provided  by  a  "  cut- 
out "  mount  with  an  opening  a  trifle  smaller 
than  the  picture,  which  is  then  secured  by  touches 
of  paste  (at  the  corners  only)  on  to  a  larger  sheet 
of  paper,  and  the  cut-out  mount  laid  over  both 
to  display  the  picture  in  recess.  The  latter  is 
the  better  style,  and  is  charged  at  higher  rates. 
Various  tinted  mounts,  from  greys  to  pale  primary 
tints,  are  occasionally  more  appropriate  than  pure 
white.  A  sheet  of  glass  is  always  placed  in  front 
of  water-colour  drawings,  as  they  lose  much  of 

4609 


8HOPKEEPINQ 

their  colour  value  if  exposed  to  air  and  moisture, 
which  also  rot  the  paper.  For  best  qualities,  a 
colourless  glass,  specially  made,  is  obtainable. 

Prints,  engravings,  etchings,  photographs, 
needlework,  certificates,  and  all  such  subjects, 
may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  water- 
colours. 

Frames.  For  water-colours,  white  enamel 
and  gold  mouldings,  or  enamel  with  a  gold  slip 
next  to  the  mount,  or  plain  gold  of  neat  and 
light,  rather  than  rich  or  heavy  patterns,  are  in 
the  best  taste.  The  plain  "  slip  "  is  often  placed 
under  the  glass,  preventing  contact  between  the 
glass  and  the  picture. 

For  photographs,  etchings,  engravings,  and 
other  black-and-white  or  monotint  pictures,  a 
plain  oak  frame,  polished  or  unpolished,  natural 
colour  or  stained,  made  up  with  a  plain  gold  slip 
under  the  glass,  maintains  the  quiet  dignity  of 
the  picture  as  a  contrast  to  the  gaiety  of  highly- 
coloured  work,  which  may  be  enhanced  by  more 
elaborate  framing. 

"Swept"  frames  are  peculiarly  adapted  to 
ancestral  portraits,  old  engravings,  and  pictures 
by  old  masters.  These  are  the  old-fashioned 
heavy  gold  frames  in  which  ornate  corners  are 
joined  by  scrolled  curves. 

Best  Gold  Frames.  These,  being  exe- 
cuted with  real  gold  leaf  laid  perfectly  level 
and  finished  with  either  matt  or  burnished 
surface,  by  various  methods  requiring  appren- 
ticeship or  long  practice,  may  with  advantage 
be  sub-let  to  expert  gilders  who  work  for  the  trade. 

If  the  beginner  wishes  to  acquire  the  necessary 
proficiency  to  execute  his  own  gilding,  he  must 
prepare  for  it  by  special  practice,  in  which  Scott- 
Mitchell's  book  on  "  Practical  Gilding,  Bronzing, 
and  Lacquering,"  may  be  of  service.  (Price  3s. 
nett.  Trade  Papers  Publishing  Co.,  Ltd.) 

Mounts.  Wide  margins  may  redeem  a  small 
picture  from  appearing  commonplace. 

In  mounting  prints,  etchings,  etc.,  sometimes 
it  is  desired  to  display  the  "  title  "  (printed  on  the 
lower  margin  of  the  picture),  though  some  object 
to  this  because  the  first  proofs  in  good  works  of 
art  contain  no  descriptive  title.  The  customer's 
preference  should  be  ascertained  beforehand  on 
this  point,  and,  if  required,  a  small  opening  may 
be  cut  in  the  mount,  carefully  adjusted  to  the 
position  of  the  title.  Rounded  or  pointed  ends 
to  this  opening  add  to  the  neatness  of  finish. 

When  taking  orders  for  framing  with 
"  mounts,"  it  is  economical  to  adhere  to  definite 
fixed  sizes  in  which  the  mounting  boards  are 
usually  supplied.  These  are  as  follows  (in  inches) : 
10  x  8,  12  x  10,  15  x  11,  19  x  12,  22  x  16, 
24  x  9$,  24  x  19,  26$  x  16$,  26$  x  19$,  30  x 
11,  30  x  22,  33$  x  16$,  39$  x  26$,  40  x  30. 
Comparatively  few  orders  will  come  for  larger 
sizes  than  30  x  22.  When  cutting  out  mounts 
for  large-sized  pictures,  the  panel  cut  out 
from  the  board  should  be  kept  clean  for  probable 
use  in  mounting  smaller  work. 

Measuring.  The  measure  of  the  mount  when 
ready  for  framing  is  called  the  "  glass  measure," 
and  that  is  the  measure  always  recorded 
as  the  size  to  work  to  in  making  the  frame. 
When  a  gold  slip  is  used,  this  is  made  first  and 

4610 


the  larger  frame  fitted  round.  Hence,  in  measur- 
ing for  frame  moulding,  due  allowance  must  be 
made  for  these  points,  which  in  some  cases  may 
mean  considerably  increased  cost,  especially  in 
case  of  English  gold  frames.  A  safe  method  when 
calculating  the  value  of  frame  moulding  required 
is  to  add  four  times  the  width  of  the  moulding 
to  the  total  of  glass  measurement.  The  extreme 
outside  of  the  frame  is  the  measurement  to  be 
charged  for,  because  the  irredeemable  waste  of 
corners  cut  away  cannot  be  overlooked.  Also 
note  that  the  usual  lengths  of  picture  mouldings 
(from  9  ft.  to  12  ft.)  will  often  be  just  too  short 
or  too  long  to  "  cut  up  "  without  waste  pieces 
at  the  ends,  which  may  be  of  no  further  use.  The 
latter  point  may  sometimes  affect  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  salesman  as  to  size  of  frame 
to  adopt,  especially  in  cheap  kinds  of  work. 
Oval,  circular,  swept,  Masonic,  and  Oxford 
frames  are  best  ordered  to  given  sizes  from  the 
wholesaler. 

Prices.  A  reliable  method  of  pricing  is 
to  total  up  the  prime  cost  of  materials,  such  as 
mouldings,  mounts,  glass,  eyelets,  etc.  (allowing 
for  necessary  waste),  and  multiply  thr,t  total 
by  three,  which  will  be,  as  a  rule,  the  fair  selling 
price,  including  average  cost  of  making  up 
and  a  reasonable  profit  of  25  to  30  per  cent. 
This  system  is  specially  applicable  when  "  Ger- 
man" mouldings  are  used.  It  may  be  called  into 
service  for  real  English  gold  work  by  adding  the 
price  of  gilding  to  the  former  total,  at  the  rates 
given  below. 

Oil  gilding  in  genuine  English  gold  leaf  is 
usually  charged  9d.  per  foot  run  for  first  1-in. 
girth  or  part  of  an  inch,  and  6d.  per  foot  run  for 
each  additional  inch  girth.  Matt  and  burnish 
gilding  is  charged  double  the  rates  of  oil  gilding. 
Cost  of  gilding,  if  put  out  to  the  wholesaler  or 
to  the  expert  who  works  for  the  trade,  will  be 
from  three-fourths  to  two-thirds  the  prices 
named ;  while  if  the  work  be  done  in  the  framer's 
own  workshop  by  competent  employees,  the  cost 
may  sometimes  not  exceed  one-half  the  price 
chargeable.  But,  as  already  mentioned,  the 
work  of  the  gilder  is  a  distinct  trade,  and  unless 
a  competent  workman  be  employed,  or  very 
considerable  practice  be  obtained  on  correct 
lines,  there  may  be  sufficient  waste  of  the  precious 
metal  to  create  a  loss  instead  of  a  profit. 

Repairs  to  old  frames  before  regilding  usually 
constitute  an  extra  charge.  They  may  require  the 
services  of  a  practical  frame-maker,  though  the 
aspirant  may  learn  the  customary  methods  from 
Scott-Mitchell's  book  on  gilding  already  men- 
tioned. 

Workshop.  Whenever  convenient,  it  will 
be  found  most  profitable  to  make  frames  on  one's 
own  premises.  The  mouldings  are  all  made  with 
a  rebate  ready  to  receive  the  picture,  etc.  To 
describe  the  making  of  an  ordinary  frame  in  brief 
would  be  : 

"  Cut  the  necessary  four  lengths  (two  exact 
pairs)  from  the  mouldings,  each  length  with  its 
ends  cut  at  an  angle  of  exactly  45  deg.,  without 
chipping  the  surface  or  other  damage,  and  fasten 
the  ends  together  with  glue,  adding  screws 
or  brads  for  permanent  security.  Insert  the 


picture  (with  glass  and  mount  when  required),  and 
make  up  the  back  with  back  boards  of  thin  cut 
pine,  covered  with  brown  paper  carefully  pasted 
over  all  to  the  edge  of  the  frame.  Panelled  backs 
replace  the  thin  back  boards  for  best  work.': 

Tools.  To  facilitate  this  apparently  simple 
process  there  are  scores  of  mechanical  con- 
trivances without  which  no  business  can  be  done 
profitably.  They  are  inexpensive,  and  from  the 
extensive  variety  offered  to  the  trade  the  follow- 
ing list  is  compiled  with  the  double  object  of 
economy  and  efficiency : 

MITRE  BLOCK.  This  is  a  large  tablet  of  wood, 
surmounted  by  a  smaller  block  of  hardwood, 
fixed  so  as  to  leave  a  margin  on  the  tablet  on 
which  to  lay  the  mouldings  for  cutting  into 
required  lengths.  A  mitre  block  costs  from  5s. 
upwards. 

SHOOTING  BOARD.  A  similarly-built  tablet 
for  the  convenient  use  of  a  plane  to  make  the 
mitred  ends  perfect  before  gluing  them  together ; 
value,  5s.  upwards.  Some  tool-makers  supply  this 
and  the  preceding  tool  combined  ;  value,  9s. 
upwards. 

MITRE  PLANE.  A  smoothing  plane  specially 
designed  for  "  shooting  "  the  mitres  by  sliding 
in  a  rebate  on  the  "  shooting  block  "  ;  value,  6s  6d. 
upwards. 

TENON  SAW.  A  fine  steel  saw,  specially  gauged 
for  sawing  picture  mouldings  ;  value,  5s.  6d. 
upwards. 

CRAMPING  MACHINE.  A  table  with  long  arms 
crossing  it  diagonally,  X-shaped  over  the  top, 
in  which  slide  four  corner  grippers,  controlled  by 
a  handled  screw.  The  frame  is  placed  on  this 
cross  immediately  after  gluing  up  the  corners 
before  the  glue  is  set.  By  turning  the  screw 
handle  the  four  corner  grippers  close  in  upon  the 
frame  simultaneously,  and  by  uniform  pressure  in 
all  directions  secure  the  accuracy  of  the  square. 
The  glue  then  cements  the  corners  securely  in 
their  true  positions,  and  before  releasing  the 
cramps  each  corner  may  be  permanently  fixed 
by  driving  screws  or  brads,  care  being  taken  to 
keep  clear  of  the  face  of  the  mouldings.  These 
machines  are  now  almost  indispensable  to  the 
trade,  and  are  made  in  various  sizes.  A  suitable 
size  for  general  use  is  known  as  No.  2  (Lawson's 
patent),  and  will  cramp  any  size  of  frame  from 
4  in.  by  3  in.  up  to  4  ft.  by  3  ft  ;  value,  £2  6s. 
Extended  sizes  are  obtainable,  but  seldom 
required. 

Two  WOOD-CUTTING  CHISELS.  For  trimming  ; 
value,  2s. 

OILSTONE.    For  sharpening  tools ;  value,  2s.  6d. 

OIL-CAN.    Value,  6d. 

CUTTING  BOARD.  For  laying  mounting  boards 
upon  while  cutting  out.  This  has  to  be  of  well- 
seasoned  wood,  well  bound,  to  prevent  warping, 
and  must  be  large  enough  for  large-sized  mounting 
boards.  A  most  useful  size  and  quality  is  36  in. 
by  30  in.  ;  value,  10s. 

STEEL  STRAIGHTEDGE.  Bevelled  and  rule- 
marked,  for  mount  cutting,  3  ft.  long  ;  value, 
6s.  6d. 

MOUNT-CUTTING  KNIFE.     Value,  2s.  6d. 

T-SQUARE.  Adapted  for  glass  cutting  and  for 
mount  marking,  3  ft.  long  ;  value,  2s.  6d. 


3HOPKEEPINO 

GLAZIER'S  DIAMOND.  For  glass  cutting ;  8s.  6d. 

GLASS  PLIERS.  For  blunting  corners  of  glass 
squares,  and  for  snapping  off  narrow  strips  after 
cvitting  ;  value,  3s. 

GLUE-POT.    For  melting  glue  ;  value,  3s. 

GLUE-BRUSH.     Value,  6d. 

PASTE-BRUSH.     Value,  6d. 

HAMMER,  PANEL-PINS  (fine  nails),  MILITARY 
BRADS,  SCREWS  (fine  and  lighty,  SCREW-EYES, 
NAIL-PUNCH,  BRADAWLS,  (various  sizes),  and 
usual  tool-boxes. 

From  the  above  list  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
moderate  workshop  outfit  can  be  obtained  for 
less  than  £7. 

There  are  other  labour-saving  contrivances, 
such  as  mitre-cutting  machines,  mechanical 
mount-cutters  (42s.  and  24s.  respectively),  and 
heavier  machinery  for  large  factories,  to  be 
power-driven,  at  correspondingly  higher  prices  ; 
but  the  list  enumerated  above  will  fulfil  all 
workshop  requirements  of  a  moderately  good 
retail  business. 

Stock  of  Mouldings.  It  will  generally 
be  found  wise  to  stock  a  variety  with  small 
quantities,  say,  two  or  four  lengths  of  each  kind, 
according  to  cost,  to  start  with,  as  these  goods 
are  easy  to  replace.  German  mouldings  are 
cheap  and  good,  ranging  from  3d.  (|-in.  slips, 
common  quality)  to  5s.  per  length  of  9  ft., 
the  latter  for  wide  and  deep  mouldings  of  best 
quality,  the  average  cost  for  most  saleable  sizes 
being  from  Is.  6d.  to  2s.  per  length.  Mouldings 
"  in  the  white,"  ready  for  the  gilder's  art,  may, 
with  advantage,  be  stocked  to  a  limited  extent 
at  first  if  making  up  own  frames,  and  sent  to  the 
gilder  afterwards.  These  are  of  better  quality 
than  the  German  mouldings,  and  cost  slightly 
more.  Glass,  thin  cut  pine  for  back  boards,  and 
stout  brown  paper,  complete  the  needs  of  the 
framer. 

Capital  Required.  To  a  sum  of  £7 
for  workshop  outfit,  add  £10  for  mouldings, 
£5  for  glass,  back  boards,  and  sundries,  £10  for 
pictures  and  fancy  goods  to  start  the  show- 
room display  (see  periodical  market  lists),  and 
a  total  of  £32  is  reached.  Allowing  a  sum  of  £8 
for  show-room  and  window  fixtures,  sign 
board,  etc.,  if  the  beginner  starts  with  the 
comparatively  small  capital  of  £50,  a  working 
margin  of  £10  would  be  left  in  hand,  which  would 
be  sufficient  if  prospects  were  good. 

PICTURE  POSTCARD  DEALERS 

Like  its  near  relative  the  Christmas  card,  the 
picture  postcard  originated  on  the  Continent, 
and  from  very  small  beginnings  rapidly 
developed  into  a  nourishing  business  long  ere 
it  took  hold  of  the  British  public.  But  to-day 
there  is  not  a  town  or  hamlet  in  the  United 
Kindgom  where  the  picture  postcard  has  not 
penetrated. 

Local  views  are,  of  course,  the  primary  subjects, 
stock  of  which  it  is  safe  always  to  keep  ;  but 
every  conceivable  sphere  has  been  exploited  to 
provide  a  novelty,  and  not  a  day  passes  without 
some  new  design  being  produced.  'It  goes 
without  saying  that  there  has  been  a  steady 
and  distinct  advance  in  the  artistic  quality  of 
the  work  produced. 


8HOPKEEPINQ 

Stock  to  Buy.  Although  in  every  town 
of  any  considerable  size  there  are  one  or  two 
shops  where  nothing  but  cards  are  sold,  the  sale 
of  picture  postcards  is  not  confined  to  any  trade, 
but  may  be  undertaken  by  anyone  who  has  a 
shop  or  a  window  to  show  them,  and  no  special 
training  is  necessary  for  the  sale  of  them.  The 
terms  on  which  the  cards  are  bought  are  advan- 
tageous to  the  retailer.  As  a  rule,  he  can 
purchase  good  saleable  cards  at  a  discount  of 
33 .\  per  cent.,  and  if  in  good  quantities,  at  50  per 
cent.  The  most  popular  selling  lines  are  the 
penny  and  twopenny,  and  these  can  be  bought— 
and  first-class  work  they  are — at  8s.  and  16s.  a 
gross.  Every  now  and  again,  however,  the  dealer 
will  have  from  some  publisher  the  offer  of  a 
surplus  stock  of  cards  which  have  fallen  flat 
on  the  market,  and  he  may  be  tempted  by  the 
apparently  exceptional  value  offered— sometimes 
a  tenth  of  their  supposed  value.  He  may  be 
induced  to  buy,  and  may  do  well  with  them, 
even  supposing  he  may  fail  to  clear  them.  But 
the  chances  are  that  he  will  very  soon  find  that 
the  transaction  has  resulted  chiefly  in  the 
transference  of  stock  from  the  cellars  of  the 
publishers  to  the  shelves  of  the  retailer,  who, 
as  a  rule,  has  sufficient  remainders  of  his  own 
to  satisfy  the  most  ambitious. 

Local  Views.  At  one  time  it  was  a  very 
good  idea  to  get  up  a  set  of  local  view  cards,  con- 
fined entirely  to  one  dealer.  These,  of  course, 
cost  more  than  if  they  had  been  selected  from  the 
stock  of  the  wholesaler,  as  the  retailer  had  the 
photographs  to  provide,  or  pay  for,  and,  as  a  rule, 
had  to  take  a  fairly  large  quantity.  Now,  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  do  this.  The  quantity  necessary 
to  secure  the  restriction  is  generally  too  large 
for  most  districts ;  and  so  many  houses  have 
views  of  nearly  all  the  principal  places  of  interest 
in  the  neighbourhood  that  a  much  better 
variety  can  be  obtained,  and  at  a  much  lower 
price,  by  simply  selecting  from  stock.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  order  large  quantities  of  any  single 
card — you  can  always  send  repeat  orders,  and 
new  views  can  be  added  as  they  come  out. 
Quite  a  good  trade  can  be  done  by  arrangement 
with  printers,  whereby  customers'  own  photo- 
graphs for  private  circulation  can  be  printed 
on  postcards.  This  trade  is  fairly  profitable, 
and  has  the  special  recommendation  that  there 
are  no  "  remainders "  or  bad  stock.  Again, 
if  the  dealer  be  himself  a  "  knight  of  the 
camera  " — and  who  is  not,  nowadays  ? — he 
can  utilise  his  accomplishment  in  some  interest- 
ing local  event,  print  off  his  cards,  and  sell  them 
while  the  incident  is  still  fresh  in  the  memories 
<>f  his  customers.  There  is  no  need  to  make 
suggestions  here,  as  each  district  will  readily 
supply  its  own  incidents. 

Stock  to  Avoid.  The  picture  postcard 
has  come  to  stay.  It  may  readily  be  added 
as  a  valuable  adjunct  to  almost  any  busi- 
ness, especially  to  that  of  the  fancy  stationer, 
who  Avill  find  in  it  more  than  a  compensation 
for  tin-  <lerrease  in  the  sale  of  notepaper.  For 
then-  is  no  <loul>t  that  since  the  advent  of  the 
|ti<-tnre  postcard  letter  writing  has  to  a  large 
extent  gone  out  of  fashion. 

4612 


Now  let  us  give  a  word  of  warning.  In 
order  to  retain  and  develop  this  business, 
which  is  at  once  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the 
customer  and  of  profit  as  well  as  pleasure  to 
the  seller,  all  dealers  should  beware  of  allowing 
anything  vulgar,  indecent,  or  suggestive  of 
indecency,  to  creep  into  stock.  There  have 
been  and  there  are  such  cards  on  the  market, 
and  there  are  dealers  vile  enough  to  engage  in 
the  traffic.  The  British  public  is  clean  minded, 
and  will  on  no  account  tolerate  this.  Nothing 
will  more  quickly  kill  this  business  than  the 
publication  and  sale  of  such  filth.  The  Stationery 
Trades  Association  is  aware  of  this  fact,  and, 
we  are  glad  to  note,  has  taken  up  a  strong 
position  in  regard  to  it.  It  rests  with  dealers 
themselves  to  be  vigilant  in  stamping  it  out, 
and  they  will  find  that  they  have,  as  a  rule,  loyal 
allies  in  the  magistrates  and  police  throughout 
the  country. 

PLUMBERS 

The  business  of  a  plumber  is  one  in  which 
scientific  knowledge  must  be  wedded  to  mechani- 
cal skill.  The  days  when  mechanical  skill  was  all 
or  nearly  all  of  the  plumber's  qualification  are 
passing  swiftly.  Mechanical  and  physical  science, 
the  principles  of  sanitation,  ventilation,  and 
water  supply,  and  more  than  a  smattering  of 
chemistry,  are  elevating  the  "  trade "  into  a 
profession,  and  the  increasing  appreciation  of 
the  requirements  of  sanitary  science  is  bringing 
to  the  expert  plumber  some  of  the  recognition 
which  is  his  due. 

Apprenticeship.  Apprenticeship  formerly 
lasted  seven  years,  but  for  some  time  there 
has  been  a  tendency  towards  its  curtailment. 
Five  years  is  now  not  uncommon.  When 
apprenticeship  in  the  workshop  is  united  to 
technical  and  scientific  instruction  in  the 
evening,  the  present-day  five  years'  apprentice 
emerges  much  better  equipped  than  the  former 
seven  years'  man.  Premiums  are  common  in 
the  trade,  but  not  universal.  They  vary  from 
£5  to  £50,  and  the  wages  from  2s.  6d.  to  5s. 
per  week  during  the  first  year  to  from  10s.  6d. 
to  20s.  during  the  last  year. 

Associations  of  Plumbers.  For  some 
years  two  bodies  have  been  striving  to  lead 
the  members  of  the  plumbing  craft  in  Great 
Britain — the  Worshipful  Company  of  Plumbers 
in  London,  and  the  National  Association  of 
Plumbers  with  headquarters  in  Hull.  The 
former  body  are  to  be  congratulated  upon 
being  one  of  the  few  London  livery  companies 
who  are  now  taking  an  interest  in  the  craft 
from  which  they  derived  their  origin  ;  but  on 
account  of  the  manner  in  which  they  have 
sought  to  secure  ruling  powers  over  the  trade 
their  efforts  have  been  regarded  with  cold 
neutrality  by  sanitary  and  other  representative 
bodies  who  might  have  furthered  their  aims. 
Opposition  also  has  been  strong,  and  the  tide  of 
battle  seems  to  be  favouring  the  National 
Association  of  Master  Plumbers,  composed  of 
practical  men  who  know  what  they  want,  and 
who  are  more  likely  to  lead  the  plumbing  trade 
into  professional  recognition.  The  Association 


was  formed  in  1895,  and  registered  two  years 
later.  The  objects  of  the  original  society, 
briefly  stated,  are : 

(a)  To  improve  the  status  of  the  trade  by  schemes  of 
education  for  employers,  operatives,  and  apprentices, 
and  to  act  in  conjunction  with  any  or  all  of  the  exist- 
ing educational  authorities  for  the  purpose. 

(b)  To    establish   an   official   organisation    having 
authority   to   represent   the   craft   of   plumbing,  and 
managed  by  persons  bona  fide  in  the  trade,  to  act  on 
behalf  of  the  trade  in  its  relation  to  the  Government, 
county  councils,  municipal    and  other  local  authori- 
ties, associations  of  architects,  and  all  other  institu- 
tions having  any  connection  with  the  plumbing  trade. 

(c)  To  organise  and  to  bring    into  existence  local 
associations   or   branches    of    the   national    be  \v  for 
the  purpose  of  dealing  more  readily  with  max    TS  of 
a  purely  local  character,  and  generally  to  crea    »  and 
maintain    a    brotherhood    and    community    of    good 
fellowship  amongst  all   engaged  in  the  trade. 

The  association  is  being  reconstructed  as  we 
write,  and  is  acquiring  additional  powers.  It 
is  proposed  to  give  it  a  new  title — the  Institute 
of  Plumbers — and  to  raise  it  to  the  dignity 
enjoyed  by  the  Surveyors'  Institute,  the  Insti- 
tution of  Civil  Engineers,  and  the  Sanitary 
Institution.  The  Board  of  Trade  is,  at  the 
moment,  considering  the  proposed  constitution. 

The  new  institute  will  have  power  to  deal 
with  examinations  in  plumbing,  but  in  the  mean- 
time it  co-operates  with  other  associations  in 
a  joint  examination  scheme,  syllabus  of  which 
is  appended. 

Technical  Instruction.  Instruction  in 
plumbers'  work  may  be  had  at  technical  schools 
and  institutions  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
the  fees  are  merely  nominal.  Examinations 
are  held  annually  at  the  schools  where  instruc- 
tion is  imparted,  and  certificate  awards  are 
made  by  the  examiners  of  the  City  and  Guilds 
of  London  Institute  (Department  of  Technology), 
South  Kensington. 

Students  who  compete  successfully  in  the 
written  examination  receive  a  certificate  in 
the  "  Principles  of  Plumbing."  Those  who  pass 
in  both  the  written  and  the  practical  sections 
are  awarded  a  certificate  for  "  Plumber's  Work." 
Students  are  recommended  to  attend  a  two 
years'  course  of  instruction  before  presenting 
themselves  for  the  preliminary  examination, 
and  those  who  consider  themselves  competent 
may  enter  for  the  ordinary  grade  examination 
without  having  attempted  the  more  elementary 
part. 

Registered  Plumbers.  Examination  by 
the  Plumbers'  Company  secures  the  qualification 
of  "  registered  plumber,"  but  this  City  company 
has  decided  to  cease  holding  examinations.  Most 
of  the  master  plumbers  who  hold  the  certificate 
of  registration  have,  however,  secured  it  by 
"testimonial"  and  not  by  examination.  It  is 
probable  that  the  examination  of  the  City  and 
Guilds  of  London  Institute,  mentioned  above, 
will  entitle  to  the  degree — if  it  may  be  called 
so — of  registered  plumber.  It  may  be  added 
that  the  wearer  of  the  title  "  registered  plumber  " 
possesses  no  specific  privileges  above  his  fellow 
who  has  not  earned  the  right  to  the  title.  The 
title  which  may  be  assumed  by  plumbers 
who  shall  have  passed  the  examination  of  the 


8HOPKEEPING 

new   Institute  of  Plumbers  will  be  member  or 
associate  or  certificated  plumber. 

EXAMINATION  IN  PLUMBING  BY  CITY  AND 

GUILDS      OF     LONDON     INSTITUTE. 

PRELIMINARY     EXAMINATION. 

[Annually,  in  April.     Fee,   ls.1 
The  preliminary  examination  is  written  only. 

1.  Workshop  arithmetic,  geometry,   and  drawing. 

2.  Elementary  science  for  plumbers. 

3.  Alloys,  solders,  etc. 

4.  Workshop  appliances  and  the  principles  of  their 
action. 

ORDINARY     GRADE. 

[Annually,  in  April.     Fee,   Is.  6d.) 

Written  and  practical. 

1.  Elementary  science  for  plumbers. 

2.  Drawing  for  plumbers. 

3.  Properties  and  uses  of  materials. 

4.  Mechanical    appliances    and    the    principles    of 
their  action. 

5.  External  roof  work. 

6.  Hot  water  apparatus. 

7.  Sanitary   appliances  in   common  use,   and   the 
principles  of  their  action. 

8.  Drainage. 

9.  Practical  test  in  marking  out  and  cutting  off 
sheet  lead  ;    in  bending  pipes  of  from  l£  in.  to  3  in. 
in    diameter  ;     in     joining     lead    pipes    with    wiped 
soldered  joints,  and  in  bossing  lead. 

HONOURS  GRADE. 

[Annually,  in  May.      Fee,   5s.     If  the  written  exami- 
nation only  is  taken,  the  fee  is  Is.  6d.] 
Written  and  practical. 

1.  Water.     Qualities  and  properties  of  water  from 
deep  wells,  shallow  wells,  springs,  and  other  sources, 
water   storage,    filtration,    general   distribution,    and 
arrangement  of  services   in  buildings,   flow  through 
pipes,  loss  of  head,   and  retardation  by  bends  and 
branch  pipes. 

2.  Plans  and  Specifications.     Preparation  of  plans 
and  specifications    for  general  plumbers'  work    and 
house   drain   construction,    in   compliance   with    the 
local    sanitary  authorities'  by-laws   and  regulations. 

3.  External     Roof      Work.     Details      of     covering 
domical    and    turret    roofs,    finials,    Mansard    curbs, 
making  plain  and  ornamental  rain-water  pipes  and 
heads,  lead  burning. 

4.  The    Warming   of   Buildings.     Heating    by   hot 
water  arid  steam,  high  and  low  pressure,  and  hot  air. 
Amount  of  heating  surface  required  for  rooms  and 
buildings    of   different   sizes,     principles    of   heating 
water  for  domestic  use  by  steam  heaters,  etc. 

5.  Sanitary   Appliances.     Their   arrangement    and 
position    in    dwelling-houses,    hospitals,    and    public 
buildings.      Principles   of   construction.     Methods   of 
automatically   removing     grease     from     traps,     and 
flushing  public  conveniences  and  drains.     Entry  of 
tidal,   storm,    and   other   waters   into   basements   of 
buildings,  and  the  prevention  of  same. 

6.  Ventilation.     Ventilating    apparatus    for   apart- 
ments  in   dwelling-houses   and     public    buildings   in 
which     sanitary     fittings     are     fixed.     Systems     of 
mechanical    ventilation,  and    methods    for    washing 
and  purifying  air,  ventilating  stoves,  etc. 

7.  Drainage.     Principles  and  construction  of  house 
drainage  with  disconnecting  and  inspection  chambers, 
gullies,    interceptors,   and    other   traps.     Ventilation 
of   drains   and   soil-pipes,   etc.        Drain    testing    by 
water,  smoke,  chemical  substances,  and  air  pressure. 
Simple    methods    of    sewage    disposal    for    isolated 
country   houses. 

8.  Practical  Tert.     Bending  lead  pipes  of  all  sizes  ; 
joining  them  by  wiped  soldered  joints  without  the 
use  of  lamp  or  gas-jet,  or   by  lead  burning,  in  such 
positions  as  would  occur  in  practice  ;     bossing  lead 
to  a  given  form,  and  any  other  piece  of  plumbing 
work.      Practical   tests   are   held   locally  only   if  five 
candidates    enter.     If   less    than    five    enter,    special 
arrangements  are  made. 

4613 


SHOPKEEPING 

The  Plumber  in  Business.  The  busi- 
ness of  a  plumber  is  not  one  demanding  a 
large  capital,  unless  it  be  attempted  on  an 
ambitious  scale  and  with  large  stock  of  material. 
Nowadays,  many  plumbers'  businesses  are  run 
from  an  office  only,  without  workshops  or 
\\.nrhouse  accommodation  It  is  becoming  com- 
mon to  do  all  plumber  work  on  or  in  the  build- 
ings in  course  of  construction  or  under  repair,  and 
the  plumber  merely  draws  upon  the  manufac- 
turer or  plumber's  merchant  for  supplies  as  he 
requires  them,  and  returns  any  material  left  over, 
the  workmen  employed  providing  their  own 
manual  tools. 

A  business  run  on  these  lines  is  possible  only 
in  a  city  or  very  large  town.  The  country  and 
provincial  plumber  must  have  his  shop  fitted 
with  benches  and  some  shop  tools.  Even  the 
city  plumber  who  does  a  jobbing  trade  must 
also  have  his  shop  and  warehouse. 

The  jobbing  trade,  being  the  most  remunerative, 
should  be  cultivated.  The  price  got  for  labour 
represents  a  large  profit  upon  its  cost.  The 
wages  of  workmen  vary  from  6d.  per  hour  in 
some  country  districts  to  lid.  per  hour  in 
London,  and  their  hours  from  47  in  London  to 
56£  in  some  country  towns.  The  price  charged 
for  labour,  even  in  towns  on  the  lowest  scale, 
is  seldom  less  than  lOd.  an  hour,  and  in  London 
a  charge  of  Is.  (3d.  an  hour  is  not  uncommon. 
The  profits  on  material  are  also  good — from 
33 J  to  100  per  cent,  on  cost  prices — when 
the  work  is  ordinary  jobbing,  so  that  the  plumber 
with  even  only  half  a  dozen  men  in  his  employ 
may  make  a  very  good  thing  out  of  his  business. 

Estimate  Work.  New  work  is  seldom 
secured  otherwise  than  by  competitive  tender, 
and  in  most  districts  such  work  is  cut  down  in 
price  until  profits  are  bare  or  non-existent. 
The  new  man  must  take  a  hand  in  this 
game  of  "  beggar-my-neighbour  "  if  he  would 
establish  himself.  He  has  the  advantage  that 
in  his  eagerness  to  make  a  business  he  will  work 
hard  himself,  and  exercise  a  stricter  super- 
vision than  his  competitor  claiming  earlier 
•  Mjiblishmcnt.  Thus,  he  may  be  able  to  make 
a  profit  when  the  firm  in  a  larger  way  could  not 
come  out  of  the  job  with  a  profit.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  may  be  under  the  disadvantage  of  not 
being  familiar  with  the  practice  of  the  architect 
or  clerk  of  works,  who  may  put  him  to 
expense  by  the  arbitrary  enforcement  of  useless 
clauses  in  the  specification. 

A  non-remunerative  job  may  often  be  made 
to  pay  by  the  extras,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
habits  of  an  architect  in  adhering  to  the  details 
of  his  specification  is  worth  having  when  tender- 
ing for  work  under  his  charge. 

Allies  of  Plumbing  Proper.     The  term 

ttmbtng  h&i   com.-   i<>   l><.  wider  in  its  scope 

than  the  mnv  working  in  lead,  and  house  sanitary 

Ijt  t  mjrs.  which  was  the  origin  of  the  name.     It  is 

usually    allied    to    gas    fitting,    and    hot    water 

ttmg,    and    sometimes   to  the  installation    of 

hydraulic   plant,  to  the  work  of  an  electrician 

and    to  nnsmithing.     It   is  probable  that  from 

the    various     tradesmen     engaged    upon     th«- 


installation  of  sanitary,  ventilating,  and  heating 
apparatus,  a  new  profession — that  of  the  domes- 
tic engineer  [see  page  2218] — will  be  evolved. 
The  Merchant  Side  of  the  Business. 
Development  of  the  merchant  side  of  the 
plumber's  trade  is  usually  wise,  particularly 
since  the  trade  in  incandescent  gas  fittings 
began  to  assume  its  present  large  dimensions. 
The  plumber  who  keeps  no  front  shop 
neglects  an  important  means  of  feeding  the 
working  department,  and  allows  to  go  to  other 
shopkeepers  trade  which  he  might  easily  have. 
In  such  things  as  sanitary  fittings,  the  best 
method  of  display  is  to  have  a  showroom 
arranged  with  samples  of  the  best  style  of 
lavatory  basins,  baths,  and  closets,  with  water 
supply  connected  up.  These  samples  should 
meet  the  demands  of  modern  ideas  on  the 
subject  of  sanitation.  The  sum  of  £50  plus 
the  labour  would  pay  for  fitting  up  a  very  fine 
show-room,  say,  two  baths — one  of  the  shower 
type — three  or  four  lavatory  basins,  a  similar 
number  of  closets,  and  perhaps  a  foot  bath.  A 
tiled  floor,  and  walls  of  tiles,  or  of  "  Emdeca,"  will 
add  to  the  expense,  but  may  be  worth  it,  and 
will  make  a  handsome  sanitary  show-room  sure 
to  attract  custom.  The  tile  fitting  can  be  done 
in  his  slack  hours  by  any  workman  sufficiently 
expert.  From  the  rodf  should  be  suspended  some 
samples  of  gas  pendants,  and  brackets  should  be 
mounted  on  the  walls.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
carry  heavy  stocks  of  sanitary  and  gas  fittings. 

Stock  of  cisterns,  faucets,  unions,  and  plumber's 
brass  work  must,  of  course,  be  held  in  a  fully 
equipped  plumber's  business.  In  the  sale  shop 
and  windows  the  public  should  be  shown  the 
latest  things  in  gas  lighting.  Excellent  use  is 
sometimes  made  of  tiny  models  of  sanitary  fit- 
tings in  the  window.  The  competition  of  the  gas 
companies — municipal  or  otherwise — may  qualify 
the  wisdom  of  stocking  gas  fittings  upon  a  heavy 
scale,  but  gas  mantles  and  other  accessories 
of  incandescent  gas  lighting  can  be  sold  freely 
in  spite  of  all  the  competition  which  companies 
and  corporations  can  bring. 

Buying.  The  plumber  who  keeps  stock 
of  plumbing  materials  can  usually  do  better  in 
his  purchases  than  the  mere  "  office  "  plumber. 
He  is  not  tied  to  the  merchant  so  much,  and  can 
draw  many  of  his  supplies  from  the  manufacturers, 
thereby  securing  keener  prices.  The  terms 
offered  by  both  merchants  and  manufacturers 
differ.  When  the  standing  of  the  plumber  is 
known  to  be  good,  he  can  usually  get  three 
months'  credit,  or  should  he  pay  monthly  or  at 
shorter  date— always  an  advisable  course  when 
it  is  possible— he  will  secure  better  terms. 

Gas  Cookery.  A  department  which  at 
one  time  gave  promise  of  developing  to  the  bene- 
it  of  the  plumber  is  that  of  gas  cooking  and 
heating  stoves,  but  the  policy  of  hiring  these 
appliances  and  of  fitting  them  free  of  charge, 
which  has  been  adopted  by  gas  service  companies, 
has  killed  whatever  promise  there  was.  There- 
fore, except  in  a  few  exceptionally  favoured 
districts,  the  plumber  is  wise  in  leaving  this 
department  severely  alone,  reserving  his  energy 
for  matters  more  likely  to  be  remunerative 


Acetylene  Plant.  The  scale  and  in- 
stallation of  acetylene  lighting  plants  offer 
scope  for  the  enterprising  plumber  in  the  pro- 
vinces. The  work  needs  a  good  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  acetylene  generation  apparatus 
and  supreme  care  in  its  fitting.  The  man 
who  makes  himself  an  authority  on  the  subject 
has  at  command  a  means  of  making  good  profits. 
There  is  not,  for  the  work,  the  competition 
which  prevails  elsewhere.  The  prospect  of 
securing  business  from  the  owners  of  country- 
mansions  and  farmhouses  is  very  good  if 
energetic  efforts  be  made  to  obtain  it.  These 
efforts  may  be  made  in  the  distribution  of  cir- 
culars, in  personal  visits,  and  by  the  exhibition 
of  acetylene  apparatus  at  local  exhibitions. 
The  purchaser  of  a  plant  becomes  a  constant 
customer  for  carbide  of  calcium,  the  storing 
of  which,  however,  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
legal  provisions  governing  its  sale. 

WorK  for  Public  Bodies.  Some  muni- 
cipalities, large  institutions,  and  local  educa- 
tional authorities  offer  the  work  of  keeping 
their  property  in  sanitary  repair  for  public 
tender.  To  estimate  for  such  a  work  is  a  pure 
gamble.  A  severe  winter  may  involve  in  a  heavy 
loss  the  plumber  who  secures  it,  and  a  favourable 
year  may  enable  him  to  come  out  of  the  con- 
tract fairly  well.  The  wisdom  of  entering  the 
competition  for  such  work  depends  upon  several 
conditions.  If  the  plumber  be  a  man  of  very 
small  capital,  he  will  do  well  to  refuse  to  look 
at  it.  There  may  be  circumstances  when  it  is 
politic  to  risk  the  loss,  but  even  this  is  question- 
able. 

Textbooks.  In  recommending  textbooks 
for  plumbing  students,  we  cannot  do  better 
than  enumerate  the  works  of  reference  suggested 
by  the  Department  of  Technology  of  the  City 
and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  :  "  The  Plumber 
and  Sanitary  Houses,"  by  Hellyer  (Batsford. 
12s.  6d.)  ;  "  Standard  Practical  Plumbing,"  by 
Davies  (Spon.  Vol.  i.,  7s.  6d.  ;  Vol.  ii.,  10s  6d. ; 
Vol.  iii.,  5s.) ;  "  Building  Construction,"  by 
Mitchell  (Batsford.  5s.  6d.);  "Treatise  on 
Warming  Buildings,"  by  Hood  (Spon.  15s.)  ; 
"  Hydraulics,"  by  Box  (Spon.  5s.);  "Hot  Water 
Supply,"  by  Dye  (Spon.  3s.) ;  "  Pump  Construc- 
tion," by  Bjorling  (Spon.  5s.);  "Plumbing," 
by  Hellyer  (G.  Bell  &  Sons.  5s.)  ;  "  Domestic 
Sanitary  Drainage,"  by  Maguire  (Kegan 
Paul.  12s.)  ;  "  Plumbing  Practice,"  by  Clarke 
(Batsford.  5s.)  ;  "  Metal  Plate  Work,"  by  Millis 
(Spon.  9s.) ;  "  Hydrostatics  and  Pneumatics," 
by  Magnus  (Longman.  Is.  6d.);  "External 
Plumbing  Work,"  (1896),  by  J.  Hart  (Scott, 
Greenwood  &  Co.  7s.  6d.)  ;  "  Water  Supply," 
by  Thresh  (Rebman.  7s.  6d.) ;  "  Plumbing  and 
Sanitation,"  by  Davis  &  Dye  (Spon,  55s.)  ; 
"  Hints  to  Plumbers,"  by  Hart  (Scott,  Green- 
wood. 7s.  Cd.);  "Pumps,"  by  J.  W.  Clark 
(Batsford.  3s.  6d.)  ;  "  Hydraulic  Rams,"  by 
J.  W.  Clark  (Batsford.  2s.). 

POSTAGE-STAMP  DEALERS 

In  stamp  dealing  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
know  every  stamp  issued,  but  a  general  acquaint- 
ance with  the  postal  emissions  of  all  countries 
is  a  necessity.  It  may  be  assumed  that  a 


3HOPKEEPINQ 

young  man  desiring  to  enter  the  stamp  trade  has 
had  his  thoughts  turned  in  that  direction  by  a 
familiarity  with  stamp  collecting  as  a  hobby. 
Knowledge  gained  from  forming  a  collection  of 
his  own  will  stand  him  in  good  stead  in  the 
business.  If  the  prospective  dealer  has  not  this 
experience  of  stamps,  he  will  have  to  start  col- 
lecting judiciously,  bearing  in  mind  that  the 
collection  he  is  forming  will  ultimately  become 
his  stock,  and  ought  to  yield  a  substantial 
interest  on  the  money  invested  in  it.  He  will 
get  his  elementary  knowledge  from  the  various 
primers  soli,  along  with  which  he  must  study 
the  price:!  catalogues  issued  by  other  dealers, 
and  watch  the  fluctuations  in  the  prices,  not  so 
much  of  individual  stamps  as  of  classes  of 
stamps. 

Assistants  in  Small  Shops.  If  the 
beginner  has  a  moderate  knowledge  of  stamps, 
a  position  might  be  obtained  as  an  assistant  in  an 
established  firm.  These  openings  in  the  highest 
class  firms  are  extremely  rare,  however,  so 
it  is  likely  he  will  have  to  be  content  with  serving 
a  small  dealer  at  a  remuneration  of  20s.  to  30s. 
a  week  in  order  to  gain  experience  in  the  hand- 
ling of  stamps.  A  warning  may  be  urged  here 
that  he  should  not  allow  himself  to  be  led  away 
by  the  lack  of  business  method  displayed  by 
many  small  dealers.  He  had  better  spend  his 
evenings  after  work  in  studying  bookkeeping, 
and  the  systems  of  card  indexing,  advertisement 
writing,  and,  where  possible,  in  attending  displays 
of  fine  collections  at  the  meetings  of  the  local 
philatelic  societies. 

Shop  or  Office  ?  In  'England,  most  of 
the  stamp  businesses  have  shop  premises, 
although  a  very  large  portion  of  their  work  is 
done  by  correspondence.  A  few  highly  successful 
ones  are  conducted  postally  from  private  ad- 
dresses. In  America,  the  businesses  are  mostly 
carried  on  from  offices  upstairs — many  of  them 
necessitating  a  journey  in  an  "  express  elevator  " 
to  reach  them.  One  Boston  firm  has  met  with 
considerable  success  in  employing  a  travelling 
salesman,  who  visits  private  collectors,  customers 
of  the  firm,  all  over  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  taking  with  him  selections  of  the  finest 
things  in  stock  at  the  time. 

The  Cheap  Packet  and  Approval 
Sheet  Trade.  There  are  three  distinct  classes 
of  stamp  trade  on  which  one  may  embark,  ac- 
cording to  capital  and  knowledge  of  the  subject 
on  the  part  of  the  intending  dealer.  The  trade 
in  packets  and  low-priced  approval  sheets,  or  the 
"  boy  trade,"  can  be  started  with  a  very  small 
amount  of  stamp  knowledge,  and  only  a  few 
pounds  of  capital.  The  profits  are  high,  but  the 
business  is  not  great.  Doing  this  class  of  business 
postally  from  one's  home  address,  a  capital  of 
£10  would  suffice  for  a  start.  One  main  feature  of 
this  business  is  that  the  packets — which  must 
contain  good  value — are  the  chief  means  of 
introducing  approval  sheet  business. 

Capital  and  Profits.  In  this  class  of 
trade  a  third  of  the  £10  capital  might  go  to  the 
purchase  of  stamps  for  retailing  at  -|d.  to  Is., 
and  a  quantity  of  cheaper  stamps  for  enclosing 
in  packets.  Another  third  should  go  towards 

4615 


8HOPKEEPINQ 

supplying  the  dealer  with  a  stock  of  ruled  and 
spared  approval  sheets,  small  envelopes  for 
}>uk<:ts,  gummed  hinges  for  mounting  the 
stamps  on  the  sheets,  and  a  few  other  trifling 
requisites.  A  portion  of  the  remaining  third 
should  be  devoted  to  one  or  two  small  advertise- 
ments in  papers  which  reach  the  class  of  cus- 
tomers whom  the  dealer  is  trying  to  interest. 

Stamps  for  retailing  at  £d.  on  cheap  approval 
sheets  may  be  had  from  wholesalers  at  from  4d. 
to  as  much  as  Is.  6d.  per  100.  Stamps  to  sell  at 
Id.  and  2d.  each  are  about  double  and  treble 
respectively  in  wholesale  price.  The  wholesale 
rate  on  stamps  for  retailing  above  3d.  and  4d. 
each  do  not  yield  quite  the  same  profit,  but  they 
represent  better  returns.  The  profit  on  this 
trade  should  work  out  at  not  less  than  40  per  cent. 

The  Small  Shopkeeper.  To  start  a 
small  shop  entails  a  considerably  larger  capital. 
It  could  be  done  with  from  £50  to  £75.  The 
nucleus  of  the  stock  of  stamps  is  generally  the 
collection  formed  by  the  proprietor  before 
entering  the  trade,  a  portion  of  the  monetary 
capital  going  to  purchase  small  wholesale  lots 
for  making  up  into  packets  and  for  making  a 
window  display.  A  stock  of  accessories  in  the 
way  of  albums,  handbooks  on  stamp  collecting, 
tweezers  for  handling  stamps,  gummed  hinges 
for  mounting  specimens,  and  other  goods  will 
be  required.  Select  a  small  shop  on  the  shady 
side  of  the  street  if  possible,  as  the  colours 
of  some  stamps — violets,  purples,  blues,  etc. — 
fade  quickly  if  exposed  to  excessive  light,  and 
much  good  stock  may  be  spoiled.  Another 
important  thing  to  consider  in  taking  a  shop 
is  to  get  it  in  a  good  business  quarter  — 
where  much  foreign  business  is  conducted — so 
that  you  will  get  opportunities  of  buying  good 
stock  cheap  and  first  hand.  Clerks  and  business 
men  will  often  look  in  with  stamps  for  sale,  and 
in  this  way  you  may  pick  up  some  good  things 
and  sell  them  to  other  dealers,  or  keep  them  in 
stock  for  your  own  customers.  Small  dealers 
often  get  rare  stamps  in  this  way  for  which  they 
have  no  customers,  so  they  sell  them  to  a  dealer 
who  has  customers  for  them.  It  pays  the  small 
dealer  to  get  a  quick  turnover  by  selling  in  this 
way,  and  the  man  with  the  customer  for  the 
rarities  can  command  a  very  high  profit,  as  much 
as  400  to  500  per  cent,  in  many  cases. 

In  the  stamp  trade  successful  buying  is  as 
important  as  successful  selling.  It  is  more 
difficult  to  get  good  stamps  than  it  is  to  sell 
them.  A  dealer  should  get  into  touch  with 
correspondents  all  over  the  world  who  will 
supply  him  with  stamps  direct.  Advertise- 
ments in  papers  with  foreign  circulations  will 
help  to  form  such  a  connection. 

Have  a  Speciality.  The  small  shop- 
k'-rjK'r  will  find  it  worth  his  while  to  have  a 
speciality.  That  is  to  say,  that  while  not  neglect- 
ing to  keep  a  representative  general  stock  of  the 
world's  stamps  (that  is,  as  representative  as  his 
capital  will  allow),  he  should  also  make  a  special 
feature  of  one  country  or  small  group  of  coun- 
tries. He  should  thoroughly  master  the  study 
of  the  stamps  of  the  country  or  group  selected, 
and  stock  them  well.  In  this  way  he  will  come 

4616 


into  contact  with  customers  who  are  forming 
specialised  collections  of  that  country,  and  his 
sales  to  these  collectors  should  be  considerable. 

The  Question  of  Prices.  With  regard 
to  prices,  there  are  certain  priced  catalogues  of 
dealers'  stocks  issued  annually,  or  at  slightly 
longer  intervals,  which  have  come  to  be  recog- 
nised as  reflecting  the  approximate  values  of 
nearly  every  stamp  known.  These  catalogues 
are  extensive  and  valuable  works  of  reference, 
and  are  indispensable  to  every  dealer.  The 
catalogues  are  published  by  big  firms  with  heavy 
expenses  for  large  and  centrally- situated  shops 
and  highly-salaried  staffs,  and  these  have  to  be 
paid  for  by  the  sale  of  the  stamps  at  good  prices. 
Proprietors  of  small  shops,  with  but  trifling 
expense  for  paid  assistance,  can  afford  to  sell 
a  very  large  number  of  stamps  at  less  than 
catalogue  prices.  The  small  dealer  will  have  to 
decide  what  discount  he  can  allow  off  stamps 
according  to  the  prices  he  has  to  pay  for  them  in 
the  first  place.  New  issues,  and  current  unused 
stamps,  cannot  be  sold  much,  if  at  all,  under 
catalogue  quotations,  as  theje  is  usually  only 
10  per  cent,  above  face  value  charged  upon  them, 
and  the  cost  of  importation  and  handling  has  to 
be  deducted  from  this  10  per  cent. 

Stamps  to  StocH.  In  Great  Britain,  the 
class  of  stamps  which  must  chiefly  be  stocked  by 
the  small  dealer  are  old  English  stamps  and 
British  Colonials.  Probably  about  75  per  cent, 
of  a  small  dealer's  customers  will  be  collectors 
of  British  Colonial  stamps  only.  Unfortunately, 
the  old  trade  in  foreign  stamps  (as  distinct  from 
Colonial  issues)  is  not  as  it  used  to  be.  An 
American  dealer  will  have  to  stock  both  the 
United  States  (with  Colonial  possessions)  and 
British  Colonies.  Hawaii,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 
Philippines,  Guam,  Panama,  and  South  American 
States  are  in  good  demand  in  the  United  States, 
as  also  are  the  issues  of  the  Haytian  and 
Dominican  Republics. 

The  Importance  of  Condition.  An 
all-important  point  for  the  dealer  with  a  medium- 
class  trade  is  to  see  to  the  condition  of  his  stamps. 
A  thorough  philatelist  insists  on  absolute  per- 
fection in  every  stamp  purchased.  The  colour 
must  not  have  been  faded  or  the  paper  stained. 
No  particle  of  the  perforated  edge  may  be 
missing,  and  if  the  stamp  has  been  through  the 
post,  the  fastidious  customer  will  want  it  only 
if  it  has  a  light  or  clearly  impressed  postmark, 
and  not  an  inky  smudge.  If  unused,  the  gum 
on  the  back  should  be  in  its  original  untouched 
state.  There  is  little  or  no  sale  for  damaged  or 
soiled  stamps. 

The  High=class  Business.  To  conduct 
a  high-class  stamp  business  a  large  capital  is 
required  ;  though,  of  course,  with  persevering 
hard  work  and  a  little  daring,  such  a  trade  might 
easily  grow  out  of  the  beginnings  described  in 
the  case  of  the  small  shop  proprietor.  The 
first-class  firms  all  hold  very  extensive  stocks, 
large  portions  of  which  must  necessarily  lie  idle 
for  years.  They  also  keep  deposits  with  a 
number  of  foreign  postal  departments  to  secure 
a  good  supply  of  new  issues  as  they  come  out. 


Advertising  is  another  big  item  here,  as  the  firm's 
name  has  to  be  kept  constantly  before  the  minds 
of  the  stamp-collecting  public. 

Stock,  Premises,  and  Staff.  In 
addition  to  the  more  comprehensive  stock  of 
stamps,  he  will  require  a  more  varied  assortment 
of  albums,  handbooks,  and  other  accessories. 
His  shop  fittings  will  be  more  elaborate,  and  the 
shop  will  be  situated  in  a  thoroughfare  frequented 
by  the  well-to-do.  A  private  office  in  which  the 
manager  can  interview  important  customers, 
and  transact  "deals"  which  require  diplomatic 
secrecy  until  effected,  will  be  necessary.  A  shop 
manager  at  £3  to  £5  a  week,  and  a  shop  assistant 
at  £1  to  80s.,  will  probably  be  required  for 
counter  sales.  A  staff  of  girls,  at  15s.  to  25s. 
each  per  week,  will  be  employed  making  up 
neat,  attractive-looking  packets  for  sale  from 
Is.  to  £15.  Clerical  assistance  will  also  be 
required. 

Stock  Keeping.  Most  leading  dealers 
have  wholesale  stocks,  and  can  supply  wholesale 
as  well  as  retail.  Heavy  stock  of  common  stamps 
may  be  warehoused,  but  stocks  of  used  or  unused 
good  stamps,  if  laid  away  for  a  rise  in  value,  will 
have  to  be  deposited  in  a  safe  vault.  The 
general  stock  is  kept  in  big  stock  books,  supplied 
with  shelved  strips  in  which  the  stamps  are  all 
classified.  From  these  big  stock  books  the 
shop  counter  and  approval  books  (usually  one 
and  the  same,  "counter  books  being  sent  out  on 
approval  when  first  made  up)  are  compiled  at 
intervals  as  required. 

Approval  Books.  These  books  will 
contain  stamps  of  individual  countries,  and  each 
book  will  have  to  be  made  up  by  men  who  have 
knowledge  of  the  particular  country.  Payment 
for  such  work,  if  done  at  home,  varies  from  £1 
to  £3  per  book  for  the  smaller  countries,  and 
£5  to  £10  for  the  more  important  ones.  A  book 
when  made  up,  with  notes  pointing  out  the  special 
features  of  the  stamp,  will  be  priced  by  the  head 
of  the  firm,  or  another  responsible  member  of 
the  staff,  and  the  book  will  be  sent  to  the  most 
important  customer  known  to  be  interested  in 
the  stamps  of  the  country.  He  will  pick  out  the 
"  plums,"  the  book  will  then  be  sent  to  another, 
and  so  on.  Or  if  there  are  no  specialists  in  that 
particular  country's  stamps  on  the  firm's  lists, 
the  book  will  be  placed  in  the  safe,  and  produced 
whenever  required  for  counter  sales. 

Following  Up  Rarities.  The  pro- 
prietor of  a  high-class  business  must  be  keen  in 
following  up  the  scent  when  an  important 
collection  or  a  great  rarity  is  for  sale.  If  a  firm 
sell  a  £1,000  stamp,  even  on  commission  terms 
at  10  per  cent.,  it  is  a  good  deal,  and  brings 
credit  and  advertisement  to  the  firm.  A  col- 
lector is  greatly  influenced  in  favour  of  a  dealer 
if  the  latter  secures  for  him  a  specimen  for  which 
he  has  hunted  everywhere  else  in  vain.  The 
leading  dealer  must  devote  his  best  energies  to 
tracing  and  securing  the  rarities.  Such  stamps 
need  never  be  put  into  stock.  As  soon  as  they 
are  found,  there  are  purchasers  eager  for  them  to 
complete  their  collections.  The  special  fancies 
of  every  customer  of  note  will  be  familiar  to  the 
dealer,  so  that  he  knows  where  to  place  every 


SHOPKEEPING 

uncommon  variety  as  soon  as  it  turns  up.  In 
fact,  a  card  index  should  be  kept  of  collectors' 
addresses  and  the  countries  in  which  they  are 
interested,  what  their  collections  contain,  and 
what  they  lack.  Want  lists  will  be  solicited 
from  all  collectors,  and  must  be  executed  as 
far  as  possible  when  they  come  in,  and  the 
remainder  filed  and  indexed  to  supply  at  the 
first  opportunity. 

Trade  Discounts.  If  one  dealer  send 
to  another  for  a  stamp  which  the  first  wants  for 
a  customer,  he  is  generally  allowed  a  discount 
of  10  per  cent.  This  is  also  the  discount  allowed 
on  a  large  sale  on  commission,  while  a  similar 
transaction  in  a  small  way  would  be  worth 
25  per  cent. 

POST  OFFICE    SUB-AGENTS. 

A  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  a  dis- 
tiict  office,  a  branch  office,  and  a  sub-office.  The 
first  two  are  completely  under  Government 
control.  The  whole  of  the  office  is  devoted  to 
postal  work,  and  the  wages,  hours  of  labour, 
and  holidays  of  the  employees  come  under  the 
regulations  of  the  Postmaster-General.  For 
particulars  of  this  branch  of  the  Civil  Service  see 
"  The  Post  Office  Service  "  [page  2807]. 

A  Sub=office.  We  are  here,  however, 
dealing  with  a  different  kind  of  postal  work — 
that  of  a  sub-office  which  is  under  a  district 
office,  and  is  undertaken  by  a  shopkeeper  as 
an  addition  to  his  ordinary  trade.  Such  a 
combination  offers  distinct  advantages  to  him.  It 
introduces  customers,  who,  when  once  on  the  pre- 
mises, take  the  opportunity  of  making  purchases. 
Then,  the  profits  reaped  from  the  postal  depart- 
ment are  by  no  means  to  be  despised. 

Naturally,  certain  businesses  are  tabooed  by 
the  authorities.  In  villages  the  office  is  fre- 
quently located  in  the  shop  of  a  general  dealer 
or  draper,  but  in  towns  or  surburban  districts 
those  most  favoured  are  chemists,  stationers, 
confectioners  and  grocers,  md  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  bakers.  A  post-office,  for  obvious 
reasons,  is  seldom  granted  to  a  man  holding  a 
licence  for  the  sale  of  wines  and  spirits.  Occa- 
sionally the  grant  is  withdrawn ;  it  would 
be  so  were  gambling  or  betting  known  to  take 
place  in  the  shop.  Only  .two  months'  notice  of 
withdrawal  of  the  grant  is  given,  and  no  com- 
pensation or  pension  is  forthcoming. 

The  Grant  from  Government.  The 
method  of  procedure  followed  by  a  shopkeeper 
wishing  to  add  a  post-office  to  his  or  her  business 
is  to  send  to  the  authorities  a  petition  signed 
by  the  local  residents.  Such  a  petition  would 
be  available  for  signature  in  the  shop,  and  would 
naturally  indicate  the  need  for,  and  the  advan- 
tages of,  such  a  grant.  In  a  growing  neighbour- 
hood several  such  petitions  may  be  received 
almost  simultaneously.  Inquiries  are  then  made, 
and  the  shop  most  suitable,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  position  and  character  of  trade,  is  then 
chosen. 

Commissions.  At  first  sight  the  coveted 
distinction  may  appear  a  somewhat  empty  one, 
when  one  finds  that  a  postmaster  in  a  village 
may  get  the  small  salary  of  £10  or  £12.  A  certain 
busy  grocer  in  a  surburban  district  is  allowed  the 

4617 


SHOPKEEPING 

somewhat  nominal  "  responsibility "  salary  of 
£48,  increased  later  to  £50  ;  but  he  gets  a  good 
commission  on  certain  sales— in  the  case  here 
ivf.-rri'd  to  £200  a  year— out  of  which,  however, 
he  has  to  pay  his  staff.  The  postmaster  has  no 
information  as  to  the  working  out  of  commis- 
>i,.ns  on  his  business.  That  is  all  calculated  in 
tin-  head  office,  to  which  accounts  are  sent 
every  day  to  be  worked  out  by  the  clerks  em- 
ployed there.  The  result  may  not  be  called  in 
question  by  the  postmaster. 

The  items  on  which  commissions  are  reaped  are 
telegrams,  postal-orders,  savings  bank  trans- 
actions, and  money-orders.  The  commission  is 
at  the  rate  of  one  penny  on  every  telegram 
forwarded  or  received.  On  postal-orders  it  is 
now  paid  once  a  year,  at  £1  per  1,000.  On 
money  orders  it  is  one  penny  on  each  order, 
and  the  same  holds  good  of  savings  bank  trans- 
actions. 

A  sub-office  may  be  knocked  up  to  send  a  tele- 
gram after  closing  hours,  on  which  there  is 
an  extra  fee  of  2s.,  or  more,  out  of  which  a  messen- 
ger has  to  be  paid  to  fetch  the  clerk,  the  clerk 
paid  for  coming  to  telegraph,  and  probably 
porterage  paid  for  delivery  at  the  other  end. 
Therefore,  the  margin  of  profit  is  in  this  case 
small,  though  to  the  public  2s.  seems  a  high  fee. 

Express  letter  work  is  naturally  undertaken 
only  by  an  office  open  for  telegraph  work,  and 
the  Government  reaps  the  benefit  of  the  sale  of 
extra  stamps.  The  sale  of  stamps,  by  the  way, 
which  involves  most  work  in  a  post-office,  brings 
absolutely  no  profit,  nor  is  there  any  commission 
on  letters  or  parcels. 

The  postmaster,  on  undertaking  postal  work, 
signs  a  bond,  under  which  he  is  responsible  for 
a  certain  amount,  all  of  which  he  runs  the  risk 
of  losing ;  but  the  step  is  necessary  as  a 
guarantee  of  his  financial  soundness. 

Assistants.  In  a  sub-office  one,  two,  or  three 
assistants  may  be  necessary,  whose  salaries, 
unlike  those  of  fellow-workers  in  a  Government 
office,  vary  very  much,  not  merely  according  to 
the  amount  and  value  of  their  work,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  liberal-handedness  or  stinginess  of  the 
postmaster.  Applicants  are  certainly  more  likely 
to  apply  for  posts  in  a  neighbouring  office 
attached  to  a  grocer's  shop,  -where  the  three 
clerks  have  their  meals,  but  sleep  at  their  own 
homes,  and  receive  respectively  18s.,  16s.,  or 
1-Js.  a  week.  Three  clerks  to  a  sub-office  is  a 
generous  allowance.  The  hours  of  work  average 
nine  a  day,  but  are  in  some  cases  12.  Leave  of 
absence  is  arranged  by  the  chief  clerk.  The  usual 
holidays  are  Sundays,  Christmas  Day,  and  Good 
Friday,  in  addition  to  a  fortnight  in  the  summer. 

The  clerks  take  it  in  turn  to  be  away  on  Bank 
Holidays.  They  get  no  pension  or  wedding- 
present,  as  clerks  in  Government  offices  do. 

Telegraph  boys  and  postmen  are  all  under 
Government  control,  except  in  a  country  office, 
which  is  hardly  worth  having. 

How  to  Enter  a  Post=office.  A  girl 
cWm MIS  of  Ix-coming  a  clerk  in  a  sub-office 
has  no  competitive  examination — in  fact,  no 
examination  whatever  to  encounter.  She  comes 


into  the  office  as  a  learner  without  salary.  If  she 
proves  capable,  after  a  time  she  receives  a  small 
salary.  Every  branch  of  the  work  has  to  be 
mastered  by  her.  Advertisements  for  such 
learners  will  frequently  be  found  in,  for  instance, 
the  "  Christian  World."  The  sub-agent  is  not 
allowed  to  take  premiums  with  his  employees. 
In  a  country  office  the  junior  clerk  may  be 
wanted  to  keep  the  books  of  the  business  or 
perform  housework ;  not,  however,  in  a  London 
sub-office.  She  occasionally  assists  in  a  light 
business  when  the  postal  work  is  slack ;  but 
all  such  additional  work  is  discountenanced  by 
the  officials,  who  sometimes  institute  inquiries 
respecting  this  matter. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  it  is  an  ad- 
vantage to  a  postmaster  to  employ  one  or  more 
members  of  his  own  family  in  the  post-office, 
especially  in  country  districts.  The  daughters 
often  naturally  slip  into  such  vacant  posts. 

Fittings.  The  rear  end  of  the  shop  is  a 
favourite  place  for  conducting  post-office 
business.  Here  is  a  counter  usually  wired  off 
above,  with  two  or  three  drawers  underneath, 
and  space  for  stationery  stores,  two  or  three 
stools,  pigeonholes  at  the  side  for  papers, 
and  scales  for  weighing  parcels.  The  scales 
are  supplied  by  Government,  and  are  marked 
with  the  broad  arrow.  Fitted  to  the  wall  on  the 
public  side  of  the  counter  are  compartments, 
with  ink,  pens,  and  blotting-pads  for  the  use  of 
the  public.  Letter  boxes  are  also  affixed  outside. 
£20  covers  the  initial  expenditure. 

Telegraphy.  This  is  an  important  part 
of  post-office  work,  requiring  considerable  gump- 
tion, knowledge,  nerve,  and  energy  as  well  as 
physical  strength  when  the  work  is  continuous. 
A  learner  takes,  on  an  average,  two  years  to 
master  the  Morse  code  thoroughly.  The  code 
is  put  into  her  hands  to  be  studied ;  then  other 
clerks  send  messages  to  her,  as  opportunity 
offers.  Occasionally  one  learner  interchanges 
messages  with  another,  a  plan  which  has  dis- 
advantages. In  many  sub-offices,  telephones 
are  now  found.  This  subject  is  dealt  with  in  a 
separate  article. 

London  sub-offices  have  sorting  offices  in  a 
separate  building,  the  sorters  being  Govern- 
ment employees. 

BooKs  of  Reference.  All  necessary 
information  concerning  new  rules,  or  alterations 
in  old  ones,  is  supplied  to  the  sub-office  for  the 
information  of  the  clerks.  Guide-books  for  re- 
ference are  forwarded  in  abundance  once  a 
quarter,  as  well  as  "  rule-books "  concerning 
telegrams,  money-orders,  and  details  of  office 
work,  so  that  all  information  is  ready  to  hand. 
This  is  an  important  matter  in  a  busy  office, 
as  anyone  will  agree  who  notices  the  stream  of 
questions  which  the  public  put  to  the  post-office 
clerks.  Post-office  servants  are  sworn  to 
secrecy,  and  have  to  promise  not  to  open  letters, 
delay  their  delivery,  divulge  the  contents  of 
telegrams,  or  give  information  about  another 
customer.  A  formal  declaration  has  to  be  made 
at  the  police-station. 


4618 


Continued 


THE  HOSIERY  INDUSTRY 

The  Growth  of  Hosiery.     Yarns  and  Fabrics.     Hand  Knitting-. 
The  Knitting  Frame  ;    Its   Details  and  Methods  of  Working 


Group  28 

TEXTILES 
32 

Continued  from 
page  4W2 


By  W.  S.  MURPHY 


\Y700LLEN  cloth  caps  were  worn  by  the 
peasants  of  Northern  Europe,  and  of 
England  and  Scotland,  before  the  Norman 
Conquest,  and  knitted  wool  gradually  and 
quietly  superseded  the  woven  cloth.  The 
first  historical  record  of  which  we  can  find  trace 
is  in  the  Act  of  Parliament,  dated  1488,  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  in  which  the  price  of 
knitted  caps  is  stated  to  be  2s.  8d.,  about  9s. 
of  our  money.  During  the  following  century 
knitting  was  frequently  mentioned  in  legislation, 
and  in  the  famous  Statute  of  Labourers,  passed 
in  1563,  the  hosiers  are  classed  among  the  crafts- 
men whose  contracts  were  to  be  regulated  by  that 
Act.  The  great  Churchmen  and  Royal  person- 
ages of  Europe  had  set  the  fashion  of  covering 
the  lower  limbs  with  hose,  at  first  of  cloth,  and 
later  of  knitted  silk,  and  the  Royalty  and 
nobility  of  England  followed  suit.  Howell,  in 
his  "  History  of  the  World,"  states  that  Henry 
VIII.  ordinarily  wore  cloth  hose,  "except  there 
came  from  Spain,  by  great  chance,  a  pair  of 
silk  stockings." 

From  the  high  importance  which  the  Court 
chroniclers  seemed  to  give  to  the  gift  of  a  pair 
of  silk  stockings  to  Edward  VI.  by  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham,  those  commodities  must  have  been 
rare  and  costly  at  that  time.  We  may  take  that 
gift,  however,  as  marking  the  end  of  the  mediaeval 
age  of  the  industry.  During  the  reign  of 
Edward's  sister  Elizabeth  the  modern  era  began 
— the  age  of  invention,  of  machinery,  of  vast 
industrial  expansion. 

Hosiery  Yarns.  The  hosiery  industry 
uses  many  classes  of  woollen,  worsted,  merino, 
cotton,  and  silk  yarns.  During  the  past  thirty 
years  important  changes  have  taken  place 
in  the  yarn  department.  Before  the  period 
indicated,  thick  worsteds,  five-ply  and  over, 
were  the  staple  yarns  of  the  popular  stocking 
trade.  Merinos  were  almost  wholly  mixed 
cotton  and  wool.  The  cottons  most  favoured 
were  soft  and  thick.  Silk,  both  thrown  and 
spun,  was  in  very  small  demand.  Fancy  hosiery 
had  almost  gone  out  of  fashion.  Between  1870 
and  1900,  however,  a  vast  change  occurred. 
Fine  merinos  of  pure  wool,  formerly  reckoned  too 
costly  for  hosiery,  came  into  use  ;  cotton  yarns 
of  the  finest  counts  and  the  highest  quality 
became  common  ;  silk  hosiery  once  more  revived  ; 
fancy  hosiery  regained  its  hold  on  the  popular 
market.  All  over,  the  demand  for  hosiery  has 
increased  enormously,  and  the  desire  for  good 
quality  has  grown  in  even  greater  proportion. 
Silk  stockings,  socks,  and  other  articles  of 
underwear,  are  largely  worn  by  members  of  the 
upper,  middle,  and  professional  classes,  both 
male  and  female.  In  the  fancy  hosiery  trade 


the  change  is  equally  well  marked.  No  design 
is  too  fanciful  to  command  a  sale,  though  good 
taste,  combined  with  bold  originality,  is  surer 
of  a  permanent  hold  than  mere  eccentricity.  The 
artistic  pleasure  in  wearing  dainty  and  pretty 
things  for  personal  satisfaction,  not  for  display, 
has  spread  into  all  ranks  of  society.  Woollen 
hosiery  has  also  come  into  larger  demand 
because  of  the  higher  standards  of  life  which 
obtain  among  the  labouring  classes.  These  are 
facts  which  should  be  observed  by  the  worker 
in  the  hosiery  industry.  Supplying  a  personal 
need,  he  should  pay  very  particular  attention 
to  the  changes  in  personal  need  and  taste  pre- 
vailing among  large  classes  of  the  community. 

Fabrics.  The  range  of  articles  made  by  the 
hosiery  industry  is  very  great.  Between  5,000 
and  6,000  articles  are  regularly  manufactured 
and  sold.  Stockings,  socks,  shirts,  vests,  pan- 
taloons, pyjamas,  petticoats,  caps,  baby-hoods, 
jerseys,  bonnets,  gloves,  mittens,  slippers, 
and  a  vast  number  of  other  things  of  many 
varieties  and  classes  employ  the  hosiery  workers. 
On  the  one  side,  the  hosier  comes  into  close  com- 
petition with  the  lace  manufacturer,  and  on  the 
other  side  he  encounters  the  cloth  weaver.  In 
most  cases  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  the 
invading  party,  the  spheres  of  all  three  shading 
so  gradually  into  one  another. 

Hand  Knitting.  Knitted  fabrics  are 
formed  by  a  single  thread,  linked  loop  into  loop, 
and  may  be  made  with  two  wooden  pins  or  metal 
wires,  named  needles.  Suppose  we  watch  a 
knitter  at  work.  First  the  basis  must  be 
formed.  Holding  the  end  of  the  worsted  firmly 
against  the  needle  in  the  left  hand  the  knitter 
makes  a  loop  on  the  right-hand  needle  like 
a  running  knot,  and  lifts  it  on  to  the  left-hand 
needle.  As  many  loops  are  made  as  there  are 
stitches  in  the  breadth  of  the  fabric.  Having 
got  this  foundation,  the  knitter  inserts  the  right- 
hand  needle  into  the  end  loop  on  the  left-hand 
needle,  passes  the  thread  over  the  point  of  the 
inserted  needle,  with  which  she  draws  it  through 
in  the  form  of  a  loop,  while  slipping  the  first  loop 
off  the  wire,  thus  making  a  loop  or  stitch.  She 
works  along  the  whole  row  in  this  way,  and  at  the 
end  we  find  that  the  right-hand  needle  has  taken 
on  all  the  thread,  and  now  carries  a  row  of 
stitches  and  a  row  of  loops.  The  bared  needle, 
which  is  always  the  working  one,  should  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  right  hand,  and  the  loop -covered 
needle  taken  into  the  left  hand.  Again  the 
knitter  inserts  the  bare  needle  into  the  top  loop 
on  the  left-hand  needle,  passes  over  the  thread, 
draws  it  through  as  before,  slipping  the  stitch 
thus  formed  on  to  the  side  of  the  row  of  stitches 
already  made,  forming  another  row  of  stitches 

4619 


TEXTILES 

and  another  set  of  loops  on  the  wires.  When 
this  row  is  completed,  you  can  see  clearly  the 
beginnings  of  a  knitted  fabric,  formed  by  the 
linked  loops  of  a  single  thread. 

Styles  and  Qualities  of  Knitting. 
There  are  numerous  styles  of  knitting  ;  but  two 
methods  form  the  basis  of  most  of  our  hosiery  pro- 
duction. These  are  known  among  knitters  as 
"plain"  and  "purl."  Plain  is  the  stitch  we 
have  just  seen,  and  purl  is  the  reversal  of  the 
same.  One  of  the  supreme  merits  of  knitting 
is  the  facilities  it  affords  for  any  shape  or  form 
being  made  without  any  seam.  A  seamless  round 
web,  shaped  as  a  stocking  or  feMrt,  may 
be  made  with  four  wires.  Knitted  fab- 
rics, being  constituted  of 
one  thread  continuously  /  £>^ 
looped,  and  having  neither  4.  j^j^ 
warp  nor  weft,  are  soft,  i.  Mattes 
flexible,  and  elastic,  lie 
close  to  that  part  of  the  m  <siwr 
body  for  which  they  have  n,  pulU 
been  made,  and  retain  their 
shape  after  much  wear. 

Invention  of  Knitting 
Frames.  William  Lee,  M.A.,  of 
Calverton,  in  the  county  of  Notting- 
ham, is  entitled  to  rank  among  the 
very  few  original  inventors  the  world  has 
seen.  Originality  in  invention  is  much 
rarer  than  most  people  suppose.  By  far 
the  greater  number  of  even  the  greatest 
inventors  were  merely  improvers  of  mechanisms 
already  existing.  James  Watt  transformed  the 
steam  engine  ;  but  there  were  steam-engines 
working  before  he  was  born.  With  William 
Lee  the  case  was  quite  different.  No  knitting 
machine  had  ever  been  constructed  or  even 
thought  of,  so  far  as  we  can  gather,  before 
he  made  the  stocking  frame  [210].  He  had  to 
form  the  idea,  and  work  it  out  in  practical 
shape  without  one  ray  of  guidance  from  past 
experience.  Gravener  Henson,  in  his  "  History 
of  the  Frame-Work  Knitting  and  Lace  Trades," 
thus  describes  Lee's  method : 

"  The  web  of  a  stocking  is  knitted  by  hand,  on 
three  or  four  long  pins,  of  a  row  of 
loops,  and  in  a  round  shape ;  it  seemed 
to    Lee    impossible    to    construct    a 
machine  to  make  a  round  web,  hav- 
ing   as 
many 
needles 
as  loops 
in  the 

circumference  of  the  hose.  Pondering  on 
the  difficulty,  he  one  day  saw  his  mistress 
knitting  the  heel,  using  two  needles  only  ;  one 
held  the  loops,  while  the  other  was  employed 
in  making  a  new  series.  It  struck  him  he 
could  makr  tin-  web  flat,  or  in  a  straight  line 
of  loops,  and  when  thus  made,  join  the  sel- 
vage by  seaming  them  together  and  thus  make 
it  round.  He  was  thus  led  to  the  idea  of 
throwing  a  thread  across  a  long  elastic  hook, 
tin-  point  of  which  would  be  pressed  down  into 
a  hole  in  the  stem  of  the  wire,  and  thus  loop 
at  pleasure.  He  bored  the  holes,  and  tried  to 

4620 


211.    PRESSEB  BAR  AND   NEEDLE 


insert  the  point,  but  though  he  could  make  the 
loop  on  the  wire,  since  called  a  needle,  it  would 
not  slide  easily  over  the  inserted  point.  At  length 
he  thought  of  the  groove  instead  of  the  hole. 
In  his  first  attempt  at  looping  he 
inserted  firmly  into  a  piece  of  wood  a  dozen  of 
these  needles,  eight  to  an  inch,  fixing  this  piece 
of  wood  upon  a  wooden  framework,  and  <  )• 
deavoured  to  make  a  succession  of  loops  upo  i 
them  by  hand,  which  he  finally  accomplished, 
knitting  on  this  row  of  hooks  a  pair  of  garters 
in  this  manner. 

"  The  next  point  needed  was  to  form  and  fix  a 
wooden  bar  [211  A]  to  press 
down  at  one  movement  all 
the  barbs  of  the  hooks  into 
the  grooves,  using  the  one 
hand  to  bring  forward  the 
loops,  while  he  put 
down  all  the  beards 
into    the    grooves 
with  the  other.  So, 
by  passing  the  row 
of  loops   over  the 
beards     and     the 
heads     of    the 
needles,  he  formed 

210.    STOCKING  FRAME  rQW    ftfter     row    Q{ 

loops  to  pass  upon  the   previously-made   rows, 
till  several  inches  of  web  were  produced  [212]. 

"  He  now  tried  to  deal  with  the  single  thread 
with  which  his  web  was  to  be  made,  so  as  to  gain 
a  sufficient  length  of  yarn  on  each  loop,  and  so  to 
form  a  succession  of  loops  across  a  series  of  needles 
[210i]  placed  in  a  straight  line.  .  .  .  This, 
after  many  efforts,  was  effected  in  the  most 
ingenious  manner  by  the  construction  of  what 
are  called  the  jack  and  sinker.  The  jack  [21Qh]  is 
a  lever  working  freely  on  a  wire,  upon  which  it  is 
balanced.  In  Lee's  frame  these  were  of  wood, 
one  to  each  needle,  and  the  whole  row  of  jacks 
were  kept  in  place  by  working  in  a  comb.  In 
the  round  head  of  the  jack  is  a  slit  from  which 
the  sinker  hangs  and  works  perpendicularly.  The 
sinker  [210/]  was  made  by  Lee  from  a  thin  plate  of 
tin,  and  is  shaped  by  passing  between  the  needles 
so  as  to  carry  down  as  much  thread  as  will  form 
a  loop  between  each  pair,  then  to  carry  them 
forwards  under  the  needle  beards  and  close  to 
their  heads  ;  and  after  the  presser  had  placed 
the  points  of  the  beards  in  their  grooves  the 
sinkers  brought  forward  the  web  of  loops  already 
formed,  and  passed  it  over  the  last  row  formed, 
then  took  the  work  back  to  the  stems  of  the 
needles  ready  for  a  new  course. 

"  The  jacks,  when  the  sinkers  were  attached, 
were  lighter  behind  than  in  front,  so  he  placed  a 
row  of  light  springs  [210&]  at  their  tails  to  hold 
them  from  falling  forwards,  except  when  wanted 
to  form  a  fresh  row  of  loops.  Then  they,  following 
the  thread  thrown  by  the  workmen  each  way, 
were  forced  down  in  rotation  by  an  iron  instru- 
ment of  suitable  shape,  called  a  slur  cock  [210w], 
which,  pulled  by  a  string  attached  to  treadles, 
runs  backwards  and  forwards  on  a  bar  [210Z],  and 
by  striking  against  the  jack  tails  in  succession, 
causes  the  hissing  sound  heard  in  framework 
knitting." 


Fixed  Sinkers.  Aston,  an  apprentice 
taught  by  Lee,  devised  a  frame  which  had  one 
fixed  sinker  between  every  movable  jack-sinker, 
and  double  the  number  of  needles,  thus  doubling 
the  gauge  and  capacity  of  the  knitting  frame  [213]. 

Tuck  Presser.  Invented 
about  1740,  the  sliding  tuck 
presser  is  a  thin  bar  of  iron 
attached  to  the  frame  presser, 
its  lower  edges  grooved  so  as  to 
lift  some  of  the  loops  over  the 
heads  of  the  needles,  while  let- 
ting others  remain,  till  the  ordin- 
ary presser  comes  and  passes  the 
whole  range  of  loops  over  the 
heads  of  all  the  needles. 

Ribbing    Appliance.     The  tuck  presser 
gave  the  knitter  a  certain  power  of  changing  the 
action  of  the  needles,  and  this  suggested  further 
development.     In    1758,    Jedediah    Strutt,    of 
Derby,    invented    an    appliance    which 
solved    the    problem    of    ribbing,    and 
opened  up  the  way  for  a  succession  of 
inventions     which     revolutionised     the 
hosiery  trade.     Strutt's  apparatus  [214] 
consists  of   an   iron   machine   hung   in 
jointed     arms,     /,     in     front     of     the 
ordinary    frame.      The  needles,  a  c,  in 
this   apparatus  are    similar  in  form  to 
those  already  in  use,  but  the  frame  needles 
are  set  horizontally,  while  those  of  the 
ribbing  appliance  are  placed  almost  per- 
pendicularly, so  as  to  work  in  between 
the  former.      The   number    of   needles 
fixed  in  the  added  machine  is  regulated  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  loops  to  be  reversed.     In 
working  one  "  purl  "  and  one  "  plain,"   for  in- 
stance, there  are  as  many  needles  in  the  ribbing 
apparatus  a3  there  are  on  the  knitting  frame. 
When   the  knitting-frame    needles   have    had 
their  heads  pressed,  the  needles  of  the  ribbing 
machine  are  brought  by  its  swinging   motion 
in  between  them,  penetrating  those  loops  which 
are  to  form  the  ribbing,  which,  being   passed 
under  their  teards,   are   reversed  ;    then,  being 
pressed   again   by   the    pressers.   6  d,   the  loops 
pass  over  the  needle  heads  with  the  others,  but 
with    the    visible    part    of    the    ribbing    loops 
showing  the  opposite  way. 

Many  Inventions.     A  method  of  form- 
ing fancy  patterns  on  the  plain  knitting  frame 
Avas  by  the  use  of  a  long  wire  named  a  tickler. 
With    this    the   weaver  shifted 
the  loops  according  to  the  pat- 
tern.   To  make  this  automatic 
would  effect  a  saving  of  labour. 
A  poor  stocking  maker  of  Mans- 
field, named    Butterworth, 
of 


R.  Loops  of  single 
S .  Loops  of  wet  to  pas 
over  oe-a.> 
212.    LOOPING   ON    NEEDLES 


TEXTILES 

first  step  towards  the  development  of  the  lace 
loom.      Felkin  thus  describes  it :     "  The  tuck 
presser  and  ribbing  apparatus  were  combined. 
The  tuck  presser  brought  the  loops  to  be  shifted 
to  the  needle  heads  ;  and,  in  order  to  make  the 
eyelet  holes,  these  were  removed 
by  a  short,  flat-pointed   tickler 
fastened  to  a  bar.    These  ticklers 
covered     the     beards,     pressed 
them  into  the  grooves,  and  then 
took  of?    the  loops,    and  by  a 
side  movement  placed  each  of 
them   on    the   next   needle    on 
either  side,  leaving  a  series  of 
fast  holes  below  the  next  course 
of  loops." 

Improved  Tickler.    A.  Else,  an  ingenious 
inventor,  devised  an  apparatus  to  regulate  the 
tickler's  action  on  a  sliding  bar,  doubling  the 
speed    of    the    machine    patented    by    Morris. 
Though  Strutt  might  have  sued  Morris 
for  infringement  of  his  patent  rights,  he 
let    him    alone  ;    but    Morris    pursued 
Else,  on  the  ground  that  the  improved 
tickler    was    an    infringement    of    his 
tickler  patent,  won  the  case,  and 
annexed  the  improvement. 

Hand  Knitting  Frames. 
At  this  point  we  must  leave  the 
story     of     hosiery     invention. 
Except  in  a  few  particulars,  afterwards 
dealt  with,  the  course  of  invention  took 
two  directions  not  cognate  to  the  pres- 
ent  stage    of   our   inquiry.     The   one 
direction  was  towards  the  development 
of  netting  and  lace  frames  ;    the  other 
turned   directly    to    transforming    the 
knitting   frame    from    a    loom    into    a 
machine,    ultimately  to  be  driven  by 
213.  FIXED  power   motors.     In  our  study  of  the 
SINKER*     hosiery  factory,  the  latter  part  of  the 
outline  of  the  vast  subject  is  glanced 
through.     Meantime,  our  interest  is  in  the  hand 
frames.    By  adding  on  to  Henson's  description 
of  Lee's  frame  the   improvements  enumerated, 
we  can  obtain  a  fair  view  of  the  general  character 
of  the  various  hand  frames  now  in 
use  ;     but    we    purpose    making 
ourselves    thoroughly  sure   of   an 
understanding  of  the  machine  by 
viewing    the  principal    details   in 
order. 

Needles.  Two  forms  of 
needle  may  be  taken  as  typical  of 
the  whole  class — these  are  the 
bearded  and  the  latch  needles. 
Lee's  needles  were  wires,  pecu- 
liarly hooked.  The  hook  was 
turned  straight  at  the  head,  but 
the  sharpened  point  wras  given  a 


on  a  practical  solution 
problem,    and,    by   one    means 

or  another,  John   Morris,    a    Nottingham  waved  curve,  which  was  called  the  beard, 

hosier,  obtained  possession,  and  patented  Just  under  the  curved  point  the  stem  of 

the  idea  in  1764.  Morris's  specification  214.  STRUTT'S  the  hook  was  grooved  so  as  to  admit 
runs :  "  For  making  by  a  machine  to  MACHINE  the  point  of  the  needle  when  pressed 
be  fixed  to  a  stocking  frame,  eyelet  down  and  to  form  a  solid  loop  of  steel, 

holes,  or  network,  having  an  additional  row  The  form  of  this  needle  has  been  improved, 
of  frame  tickler  needles."  This  machine  is  the  beard  being  straighter  and  easier  to  press  down, 
worthy  of  special  attention,  because  it  shows  the  thus  obviating  the  risk  of  splitting  the  threads. 

4621 


TEXTILES 

The  latch  needle,  invented  by  M.  Townshend 
in  1858,  does  away  with  the  need  of  a  presser 
bar,  and  is  very  useful  in  many  kinds  of  modern 
frames.  Instead  of  the  curved  beard,  which  is 
pressed  into  the  groove,  this  needle  has  a  hinged 
latch,  or  pin,  with  a  fork  at  its  point.  The  pin 
is  hinged  into  the  stem  of  the  needle  just  below 
the  point  of  the  hook,  with  which  it  forms, 
when  closed,  a  solid  loop  of  steel.  As  the  thread 
comes  into  the  hook  it  throws  back  the  latch. 
As  it  approaches  to  pass  over  the  hook,  the  loop 
throws  the  latch  into  position 
and  so  passes  over  clear. 

Sinkers.  The  function  of 
the  sinkers  is  to  depress  the 
threads  for  the  formation  of  the 
loops.  Originally  the  stocking 
frame  had  only  one  set  of  sinkers; 
but  as  we  have  it  at  present  there 
are  two  sets— the  jack  sinkers 
and  the  frame  sinkers.  The 
former  depend  singly  on  levers, 
or  jacks  ;  the  latter  are  fixed  in 
a  frame  bar.  Sinkers  are  thin 
metal  plates,  shaped  like  broad  '  A 
hooks  with  round  points,  which 
gently  form  the  loops  on  the 
threads. 

Jacks.  The  long  levers 
which  hold  and  move  the  sinkers 
are  named  jacks.  They  are 
actuated  by  springs  driven  by 
the  slur  cock. 

Slur   Cock.      Along  a  bar 
under   the  jacks   runs   a  small 
block  named  the  slur  cock, 
which,  as  it, passes,  lifts  the 
jacks  and  so  depresses  the 
sinkers.       The      to-and-fro 


215.    HAND    KNITTING    FRAME 


motion  of  the  slur  is  imparted  by  a  pulley  at 
the  side. 

Locker  and  Bar.  When  the  sinkers  have 
formed  the  loops,  the  locker  [2100]  is  brought 
forward  to  fix  them  in  position.  The  bar  [210p] 
extends  along  the  back  of  the  frame,  to  be  out 
of  the  way  of  the  rest  of  the  mechanism. 

Pressers.  There  are  different  forms  of 
presser.  On  the  common  hand  frame  the  presser 
is  a  strong  bar  extending  above  the  needles.  At 
the  moment  the  loops  are  passing  over  the 
needles  the  bar  is  brought  down  to  depress  the 
beards  and  form  the  hook  into  a  smooth  loop. 
The  pressers  on  the  rib  hosiery  appliance  have 
a  similar  action. 

Mountings.  Ribbing  apparatus,  ticklers, 
brocade  cylinders,  and  various  other  appliances 
for  the  making  of  fancy  figures  are  fitted  on 
to  the  knitting  frame,  and  are  technically 
described  as  mountings.  These  mountings  are 
very  numerous  and  varied  in  character. 


Treadles.  On  the  common  hand  frame 
there  are  three  treadles.  Two,  one  right  and  one 
left,  are  for  bringing  down  the  jacks  ;  the  centre 
treadle  brings  down  the  presser  bar. 

Working  the  Old  Hand  Frame. 
These  parts  are  supported  in  a  strong  framing  of 
wood,  and  at  the  centre  is  the  weaver's  seat  [215aj. 
Taking  up  his  position,  the  weaver  throws  his 
thread,  h,  over  the  hooks  by  hand.  Pressing  the 
right  foot  on  the  treadle,  /,  he  brings  the  slur 
along  under  the  jacks,  k,  forcing  down  the  sinkers, 
and  so  forming  the  loops  between  every  alter- 
nate pair  of  needles.  Then  he  brings  the  lead 
sinkers,  e,  down  on  the  loops,  to 
divide  the  loops  over  all  the 
needles,  locking  up  the  jacks  at 
the  same  time  with  the  thumbs, 
and  equalising  all  the  loops  by 
these  combined  movements.  He 
brings  the  loops  thus  formed  to 
the  needle  heads,  b,  throws  up 
the  frame  with  the  help  of  the 
strong  central  spring,  presses  the 
centre  treadle,  g,  to  bring  down 
the  presser  bar,  c,  carries  the  web 
over  the  needle  heads,  and  lets 
the  presser  rise.  Lowering  the 
frame  to  the  point  at  which  the 
noses  of  the  sinkers  can  catch  in 
the  work,  he  draws  the  web 
gently  back.  Finally,  the  knit- 
ter allows  the  frame  to  resume 
its  balance,  holding  his  thumbs 
firmly  on  the  thumb-plate  the 
while.  When  the  frame  has  re- 
turned to  its  normal  position, 
he  lets  go,  and  begins  another 
course. 

Cottage     and      Factory. 


The  use  of  the  hand  frame  has  greatly  decayed, 
and  the  factory  threatens  to  absorb  the  whole 
hosiery  industry.  On  this  fact  Mr.  Mundella, 
a  well-known  authority,  passes  the  following 
judgment :  "  Notwithstanding  the  growth  of 
the  factory  system,  there  is  still  a  use  for 
some  thousands  of  the  old  hand  frames  ;  and 
the  framework  knitters,  with  their  free  choice 
of  work  hours,  their  independent  position, 
their  healthy  life  in  rural  villages  far  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  factory  bell  and  the  noise 
and  unnatural  conditions  of  modern  manufac- 
turing towns,  preserve  some  traces  of  the  days 
before  the  tall  chimneys  claimed  human  beings 
as  mere  details  in  a  vast  machine.  They  may 
only  be  a  survival,  but  perhaps  they  may  main- 
tain an  old  tradition  until  the  dawn  of  a  coming 
time  when  some  motive  power  other  than  coal  and 
steam  shall  restore  to  our  toilers  in  many  trades 
the  conditions  of  life  and  work  which  the  factory 


svstem  has  destroyed.' 


Continued 


4022 


TRIANGLES  AND  PARALLELS 

Perpendicular  Lines.    Construction  of  Parallels.    Use  of  Set-squares. 
Third  Case  of  Equality  of  Two  Triangles.     Right-angled  Triangles 


Group  21 

MATHEMATICS 
32 

GEOMETRY 

continued  from  page  4478 


By  HERBERT  J.  ALLPORT,  M.A. 


Proposition    1 5.     Problem 

To  draw  a  straight  line  perpendicular  to  a  given 
straight  line  at  a  given  point  in  it. 

First  Method.  Let  AB  be 
the  given  straight  line,  and 
P  the  given  point  in  it. 

Construction.  From  AB  cut 
off  any  two  equal  parts  PC 
and  PD. 

With  centres  C  and  D,  and 
any  radius  greater  than  CP,  draw  two  arcs  cutting 
at  E.     Join  PE.     Then  PE  is  JL  to  AB. 
Proof.     Join  CE,  DE. 
Tn  the  As  CPE,  DPE, 

CP=  DP,  PE  is  common  to  both  As, 

CE  =  DE,  since  they  are  radii  of  equal  0s. 

.'.  Z_CPE=  ^DPE  (Prop.  7). 
.'.  each  of  these  z_s  is  a  right  L  (Def.  8). 
Second  Method.     Let  AB  be  the  given  straight 
line  and  P  the  given  point. 

Construction.  With  centre 
P  and  any  radius,  draw  an 
arc  CD.  With  centre  C 
and  the  same  radius  cut 
this  arc  at  E,  and  with 
_  centre  E  and  the  same 

A    P       c  $  radius   cut  the   arc   at    F. 

From    centres    E    and    F, 

with  any  radius  greater  than  half  EF,  draw 
two  arcs  cutting  at  G.  Join  PG.  Then  PG  is 
J_  to  AB. 

Proof.     Join  PE,  IF,  CE. 
The  A  PCE  is  equilateral,  since  its  sides  are 
radii  of  equal  0s. 

.'.  A  PCE  is  equiangular  (Cor.  Prop.  5). 
But    the    three    ^s    of    the    A    make    180° 
(Prop.  14). 

.'.  ^.CPE=  A  of  180°=  60°. 
Similarly,  it  can  be  shown  that  L  EPF  =  60°. 
But   Z.EPF  is  bisected  by  the  straight  line 
PG  (Prop.  8). 

'    .iEPG=30°. 
/.  ^BPG=  60°+  30°=  90°, 
i.e.,     PG  is  _L  to  AB. 
Proposition   16.     Problem 
To  draw  a  straight  line  perpendicular  to  a  given 
straight  line  from  a  given 
point  outside  it. 

First  Method.  Let  AB 
be  the  given  straight  line, 
P  the  given  point. 

Construction.  With 
centre  P,  at  d  any  radius 
great  enough  to  reach  a 
point  on  the  other  side  of 
AB,  draw  an  arc  cutting 
AB  at  C  and  D.  With  centres  C  and  D  and  any 
radius  greater  than  half  CD,  draw  two  arcs 


cutting  at  E,  on  the  other  side  of  AB  from  P. 
Join  PE,  cutting  AB  at  F.    Then  PF  is  J_  to  AB. 

Proof.  The  AS  CPE,  DPE  can  be  proved 
equal  in  all  respects  (Prop.  7). 

/.  ^CPF=  Z.DPF. 

Hence,  the  As  CPF,  DPF  have  two  sides  and 
the  contained  L  of  the  one  equal  to  two  sides 
and  the  contained  L  of  the  other. 

.'.  they  are  equal  in  all  respects  (Prop.  4). 


.*.  PF  is  J_  to  AB  (Def.  8). 
Second  Method.   Construction.   In  AB  take  any 
two  points  C  and  D.     With  centre  C  and  radius 
CP,  describe  an  arc.  With 
centre  D  and  radius  DP, 
describe  an   arc   cutting 
the  first  arc  at  E.     Join 
PE,    cutting    AB   at    F. 
Then  PF  is  J_  to  AB. 

Proof.  The  As  PCD, 
ECD  are  equal  in  all 
respects  (Prop.  7). 


Hence,  the   AS  FDP,  FDE  have  two  sides 
and  the  contained  L   of  the  one  equal  to  two 
sides  and  the  contained  L  of  the  other. 
.'.  ^PFD=  LEFT)  (Prop.  4). 

.'.  PF  is  J_  to  AB  (Def.  8). 
Proposition   17.     Problem 
At  a  given  point  in  a  given  straight  line,  to  make 
an  angle  equal  to  a  given  angle. 

Let  P  be  the  point  in  the  straight  line  DE  at 
which  an  angle  is  to  be  made  equal  to  the  given 

L  ABC. 

Construction. 
With  centre  B 
and  any  radius, 

describe  an  arc 

B  r  c  o  f>  HE    cutting  AB  and 

BC  at  G  and  F. 

.    With  centre  P  and  the  same  radius,  describe 
an  arc  HK,  cutting  DE  at  H. 

With  centre  H  and  radius  FG,  draw  an  arc 
cutting  the  arc  HK  at  L.  Join  PL.  Then 
L  EPL  is  equal  to  the  given  L.  . 

Proof.  Join  FG,  HL.  Then  the  As  BFG, 
PHL  are  equal  in  all  respects  (Prop.  7). 

•        /      A  T>/^  /    T  T>T7* 

.  .  L  A±>L>  =   L  Lii:fj. 
Proposition   18.     Problem 

Through  a  given  point  to  draw  a  straight  line 
parallel  to  a  given  straight 

Q. *•  line. 

Let  AB  be  the  given 
straight  line,  P  the  given 
point. 

^     ^  Construction.        In     AB 

take  any  point  C.      Join 

PC.     At  the  point  P  in  the  straight  line  CP 

4623 


MATHEMATICS 

make,  by  the  construction  of  Prop.  17,  the 
_DPC  equal  to  the  Z.PCB,  and  alternate  to  it. 
Then  DP  is  ||  to  AB. 

Proof.  Since  the  straight  line  CP  meets  the 
two  straight  lines  DP,  AB,  and  makes  the  alter- 
nate angles  equal, 

.'.  DP  is  H  AB  (Prop.  11). 
Note  on  Drawing  Perpendiculars 
and  Parallels.  In  practical  work,  per- 
pendiculars and  parallels  are  not  drawn  by  using 
the  constructions  given  in  Picoositions  lo,  1C 
and  18.  A  set-square  is  used  instead.  Ihis  is 
simply  a  right-angled  triangle,  cut  from  thin 
wood,  or  other  suitable  material. 

Suppose  AB  is  a 
given  straight  line, 
and  P  a  point  through 
which  we  wish  to  draw 
a  straight  line  _L  to 
AB.  If  we  place  a 
straight  ruler,  CD, 
along  the  line  AB, 
c^~  °  and  put  one  of  the 

perpendicular  edges  of  the  set-square  against  it, 
we  can  then  slide  the  square  along  the  ruler 
until  the  edge  LTVT  passes  though  the  point  P. 
By  drawing  the  line  LM  we  get  the  perpendicu- 
lar we  required. 

There  are  two  objections  to  this  method. 
The  one  is  that  the  corner  M  of  the  set-square 
gets  rounded,  through  constant  use.  The  other 
is  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  the  point  of  the 
pencil  right  up  into  the  corner  formed  by  the 
ruler  and  set-square  at  M.  It  is  therefore  much 
better  to  proceed  as  follows  : 

Place  the  longest 
edge  of  the  square 
IP 


A 


along  the  line 
AB,  and  put  the 
ruler  up  to  one  of 
the  other  edges. 
Next,  holding  the 
ruler  firmly,  turn 
the  square  about 
the  corner  M, 
into  the  position 

by  tne  dotted  lines.  We  have  thus 
turned  the  square  through  a  right  angle,  and 
the  edge  LN  is  therefore  at  right  angles  to 
its  former  direction.  Hence,  if  we  now  slide 
the  square  along  the  ruler  until  its  long  edge 
through  the  point  P,  i.e.,  into  the 
position  L'M'N',  we  can  draw  the  perpendicular 
required. 

Proposition  19.     Theorem 

//  two  triangles  have  two  angles  of  the  one  equal 
t'i  tu-'>  angles  of  the  other,  and  a  side  of  the  one 
equal  t<>  tin'  r <>r responding  side  of  the  other,  the 
triangles  are  equal  in  all  respects. 

If  two  z_s  of  one  A  are  equal  to  two  Ls  of 
another  A,  it  follows  that  the  third  z_sof  the 
two  As  must  be  equal.  For  the  sum  of  the 
three  LS  of  a  triangle  is  equal  to  two  right  Z_s 
(f'mp.  14). 


Let,  then,   ABC,  DEF  be  two  AS  in  which 
the  L  s  A,  B,  C  are  respectively  equal  to  the  L  s 
A  D,  E,  F,  and  the  side 

BC  =  the  side  EF. 

It  is  required  to 
prove       that       the 
.A  ABC  =   A  DEF 

in  all  respects. 

Proof.  Place  the  A  ABC  on  the  ADEF,  so 
that  B  falls  on  E,  and  BC  along  EF.  Then, 
since  BC  =  EF, 

.'.  C  must  'ill  on  F. 
And  since  L.  B  =  L  E 

.'.  BA  must  fall  along  ED. 
And  since  L  C  =  L  F 

.'.  CA  must  fall  along  FD. 
/.  the  point  A,  which  is  the  intersection  of 
the  lines  BA,  CA,  must  fall  on  the  intersection 
of  the  lines  ED,  FD,  i.e.,  on  the  point  D. 

.'.  A  ABC  coincides  with  the  ADEF,  and  is 
equal  to  it  in  all  respects. 

Proposition  20.     Theorem 
//  the  hypotenuse  and  one  side  of  a  rigM-angled 
triangle  are  respectively  equal  to  the  hypotenuse 
and   one    side  of    another  right-angled    triangle, 
the  triangles  are  equal  in  all  respects. 

Let  ABC, 
DEF  be  two 
right-  angled 
AS,  in  which 
the  LsABC, 
DEF  are 
right  angles,  the  hypotenuse  AC=  the  hypo- 
tenuse DF,  and  AB=  DE. 

It  is  required  to  prove  that  the  AS  are  equal 
in  all  respects. 

Proof.  Place  the  ADEF  so  that  DE  coincides 
with  the  equal  side  AB,  and  F  falls  on  that  side 
of  AB  away  from  C.  Let  F'  be  the  new  position 
of  F. 

Then,  since  L  s  ABC  and  ABF'  are  right  L  s, 
.*.  BC  and  BF'  are  in  a  straight  line  (Prop.  2). 
.*.  AF  C  is  a  A,  in  which  AF'  =  AC. 
'  /.  ^.AFB  =  LACK  (Prop.  5), 

i.e.,      ^DFE=  Z_ACB. 
•   in  the  As  ABC,  DEF, 
'L.  ABC  =  L  DEF,  L  ACB  -  L  DFE,  AB  =  DE. 
.'.  the  AS  are  equal  in  all  respects  (Prop.  19). 

Proposition  21.     Theorem 
.//  one  side  of  a  triangle  is  greater  than  another, 
the  angle  opposite  to  the  greater  side  is  greater  than 
the  angle  opposite  the  less. 

Let  ABC  be  a  A ,  in  which 
AC  is  >  AB. 

It  is  required   to   prove 
that  L  ABC  is  >  L  ACB. 

Proof.     From  AC  cut  off 
AD  =  AB.    JoinBD.    Then, 
since  AB  =  AD, 
Z.ADB  (Prop.  5). ._ 


XIX  K 

'  B  C      £  * 


.'.  Z.ABD 

But  the  exterior  Z.ADB  of  the"  A  BCD,  is 
the  interior  opposite  L  DCB  (Prop.  10).         _ 
z_s  .'.  L  ABD  is  >  z_ACB. 

Still  more,  therefore,  is  L  ABC  >  L  ACB. 
Continued 


4624 


ACIDS 


Appliances    and   Processes  in  the  Manufacture 
of    Sulphuric,    Nitric,    and    Hydrochloric    Acids 


Group  5 

APPLIED 
CHEMISTRY 

3 

Continued  from 
l>a<re  4416 


By  CLAYTON  BEADLE  and  HENRY  P.  STEVENS 


Sulphur  and  Brimstone.  This  sub- 
stance is  usually  associated  in  our  minds  with 
fire  and  the  nether  regions.  The  popular  super- 
stition has  some  foundation  in  fact,  as  brim- 
stone is  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  volcanoes. 
Sulphur  or  brimstone  is  the  main  constituent 
of  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  chemical 
substances — namely,  sulphuric  acid.  It  occurs 
in  nature  as  native  sulphur  in  certain  parts  of 
the  world,  particularly  Southern  Italy,  where 
it  is  sometimes  extracted  in  a  rather  primitive 
manner.  The  sulphur  ore,  when  poor  in  sulphur, 
is  made  into  a  heap,  and  the  heat  derive,;  from 
burning  a  part  of  the  sulphur  melts  the  rest, 
which  runs  out  and  is  collected.  Such  a  process 
is,  of  course,  very  wasteful,  but  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  simplicity  and  cheapness.  A  better 
plan  is  to  supply  the  heat  by  burning  fuel 
and  to  allow  the  molten  sulphur  to  collect. 

Various  Sulphur  =  recovery  Prp= 
cesses.  In  other  processes  the  sulphur  is 
melted  out  by  treating  with  a  hot  liquid,  such  as 
a  saturated  solution  of  calcium  chloride,  or  by 
using  superheated  steam.  All  these  processes  are 
based  upon  the  principle  that  the  sulphur  melts, 
leaving  the  earthy  material  behind.  A  recent 
adaptation  of  this  process  has  been  made  use 
of  to  obtain  sulphur  from  deposits  in  the  State 
of  Louisiana.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake 
Charles  City  there  is  a  large  deposit  of  sulphur 
under  a  layer  of  shifting  sand,  and  200  ft.  to 
250  ft.  below  the  surface.  The  sand  formed, 
until  recently,  an  impassable  barrier  to  the 
sulphur  deposit,  and  all  attempts  to  freeze  the 
sand,  a  method  which  at  other  times  has  given 
satisfactory  results,  proved  in  this  case  un- 
availing. However,  Frasch  has  recently  patented 
and  developed  a  method  in  which  super-heated 
water,  at  a  temperature  of  166°  C.  is  forced  down 
into  the  sulphur  deposit  through  a  steel  tube, 
and  the  molten  sulphur  forced  up  another  tube 
placed  inside  the  former  (German  Patents,  461429, 
461430,  461431). 

Sulphur  can  also  be  distilled,  and  it  may  pay  to 
treat  lich  ores  in  this  manner.  The  vapours  are 
condensed  and  form  flowers  of  sulphur  if  the 
cooling  chamber  be  large  and  the  temperature 
not  allowed  to  rise  too  high,  otherwise  the  sulphur 
melts.  Molten  sulphur  run  out  and  cast  into 
blocks  is  known  as  roll  sulphur.  Distillation, 
however,  is  usually  resorted  to  for  refining 
sulphur. 

Besides  native  sulphur,  the  element  can  be 
obtained  from  certain  sulphides,  particularly 
that  of  iron,  known  as  iron  pyrites,  which  occurs 
abundantly  in  various  parts  of  Europe.  This 
substance,  if  heated,  parts  with  rather  less  than 
half  of  its  sulphur,  but  the  process  is  not  used 


to  a  large  extent  for  obtaining  sulphur.  Pyrites 
are  more  suitably  employed  for  producing 
sulphur  dioxide,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 
Sulphur  may  also  be  obtained  from  coal  gas 
by-products,  such  as  the  spent  oxide  from  the 
gasworks.  Here,  again,  it  is  better  to  prepare 
sulphur  dioxide  rather  than  sulphur  from  such 
sources.  Sulphur  can  also  be  obtained  by  a 
number  of  processes  from  alkali  waste,  which 
consists  largely  of  sulphide  of  calcium. 

Carbon  Disulphide.  We  have  just  men- 
tioned this  substance  as  a  suitable  solvent  for 
sulphur.  It  is  also  largely  used  as  a  solvent  for 
other  substances.  It  is  prepared  by  passing 
vapour  of  sulphur  over  red  hot  coal  or 
charcoal.  Vertical  retorts  are  used  constructed 
of  cast  iron,  or  earthenware,  glazed  inside 
[shown  diagrammatically  at  A,  in  1].  The  lid 


1.    CARBON    BISULPHIDE    PLANT 

of  the  retort  is  provided  with  two  openings — 
one,  B,  for  the  introduction  of  fresh  charcoal, 
the  other,  C,  for  leading  off  the  vapours  to 
the  condenser,  while  the  sulphur  is  introduced 
through  an  opening  at  D  at  the  bottom  of  the 
retort.  This  opening  is  fitted  with  a  tube 
sloping  gently  upwards,  down  which  the  sulphur 
runs,  and  is  vaporised  on  flowing  into  the 
retort.  The  vapour  passes  up  through  the  mass 
of  charcoal,  whereby  the  larger  quantity  is 
converted  into  carbon  disulphide.  The  vapours 
leave  the  retort  by  a  wide  tube,  E,  sloping 
upwards,  in  which  the  sulphur  condenses  and 
flows  back  again  into  the  retort,  while  the 
carbon  disulphide,  which  is  far  more  volatile, 
passes  on  into  another  vessel,  F,  in  which  any 
residue  of  sulphur  is  deposited.  The  vapours 
are  condensed  in  a  suitable  condenser,  G,  and  the 
liquid  is  collected  in  a  receiver,  H,  and  may  be 
drawn  off  through  the  cock,  K. 

Any  vapours  of  carbon  disulphide  which 
escape  condensation  are  absorbed  in  a  vessel,  L, 
containing  shallow  trays  filled  with  a  vegetable 
oil.  The  crude  carbon  disulphide  which  still  con- 
tains a  small  quantity  of  sulphur,  is  purified 
by  distillation.  When  large  quantities  are  taken, 

c.  4625 


APPLIED   CHEMISTRY 

such  as  five  tons  at  a  time,  the  distillate  is 
collected  in  several  portions  ;  that  which  comes 
over  first  contains  most  of  the  evil-smelling 
constituents.  Sometimes  the  crude  product  is 
distilled  over  caustic  soda,  which  holds  back 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  other  impurities. 

In  place  of  caustic  soda,  certain  metallic  salts 
wfcich  react  with  sulphides,  such  as  copper 
sulphate  or  chloride  of  lime,  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose. Thus,  100  parts  of  crude  material  may  be 
treated  with  two  or  three  parts  of  dry  copper 
sulphate,  and  then  redistilled  over  a  fresh 
quantity  of  the  same  substance. 

Carbon  disulphide,  or  bisulphide,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is  a  colourless,  very  volatile, 
and  heavy  liquid,  which  has  usually  a  very 
repugnant  odour,  due  to  the  presence  of  small 
quantities  of  sulphur  compounds.  As  already 
stated,  it  is  an  excellent  solvent,  and  will  dissolve 
elements  such  as  phosphorus,  iodine,  bromine, 
chlorine,  and  sulphur,  and  a  great  variety  of 
organic  substances,  such  as  rubber,  camphor, 
fats,  and  grease  of  all  kinds. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  inhaling  the 
vapours,  as  it  is  of  a  very  poisonous  nature,  and 
would  probably  find  a  much  wider  use  were  it 
not  for  this  circumstance.  As  it  is,  it  is  very 
largely  employed  in  a  number  of  industries  for 
extracting  fat  and  grease.  It  is  also  used  in 
rubber  factories  [see  INDIARUBBER]  and  for 
making  viscose  [see  PAPERMAKING]. 

Sulphur  Dioxide.  The  preparation  of 
sulphur  dioxide  from  native  sulphur,  pyrites, 
spent  oxide,  or  other  sources,  is  the  first  stage  in 
the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Spent  oxide  is  a  mixture  of  about  equal  parts  of 
oxide  of  iron  and  of  sulphur.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  large  towns,  where  much  gas  is  burned, 
it  is  plentiful,  and  forms  a  good  material  for 
making  sulphur  dioxide.  Brimstone  is  practi- 
cally free  from  arsenic,  and  gives  the  purest 
product ;  spent  oxide  is  somewhat  inferior,  and 
pyrites,  which  always  contains  much  arsenic, 
yields  the  lowest-grade  acid.  The  brimstone, 
pyrites,  or  spent  oxide,  is  heated  in  a  small 
furnace,  with  the  admission  of  sufficient  air 
to  combine  with  the  sulphur  to  form  sulphur 
dioxide.  As  a  rule,  rather  more  air  than  is 
necessary  must  be  admitted  into  the  furnace, 
and  the  process  must  be  regulated  so  that  as 
little  sulphur  as  possible  vaporises  and  sub- 
limes unchanged.  Owing  to  the  excess  of  air 
present,  some  of  the  sulphur  combines  with 
more  oxygen  than  is  required  to  form  the 
dioxide  so  that  it  becomes  contaminated  with 
sulphur  trioxide  (or  sulphuric  anhydride),  S03. 

Since  the  air  contains  only  one-fifth  part  by 
volume  of  oxygen,  the  strongest  gas  produced 
cannot  possibly  contain  more  than  20  per  cent,  of 
sulphur  dioxide.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  does  not 
usually  contain  more  than  15  per  cent,  when  burn- 
ing sulphur,  and  only  8  per  cent,  when  burning 
pyrites.  In  working  with  sulphur  and  spent  oxide 
it  is  easy  to  avoid  using  a  large  excess  of  air,  but 
with  pyrites  a  larger  excess  is  necessary  in  order 
to  effect  a  thorough  roasting  of  the  material. 
In  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  this  is 
of  little  importance,  as  an  excess  of  air  always 

4026 


has  to  be  admitted  into  the  chambers,  sufficient 
to  oxidise  the  sulphurous  to  sulphuric  acid. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  preparing  sulphites  or 
a  solution  of  sulphur  dioxide  in  water,  an 
excess  of  air  should  be  avoided.  Large  quan- 
tities of  acid  calcium  bisulphite  are  prepared 
for  the  manufacture  of  sulphite  cellulose  [see 
PAPERMAKING],  and  here  also  an  oven  which 
will  produce  sulphur  dioxide  gas 
with  as  small  a  percentage  of  free 
oxygen  as  possible  will  have  the 
advantage.  Liquid  sulphur  dioxide 
is  often  supplied  in  "syphons"  [2]. 
Brimstone  and  Pyrites 
Burners.  The  ovens  for  burn- 
ing sulphur  (brimstone  burners) 
and  spent  oxide  are  comparatively 
simply  constructed.  They  consist 
SULPHUROUS  of  a  tray to  contiam  material  placed 
ACID  SYPHON  in  a  furnace,  composed  of  an  iron 
retort  in  the  form  of  a  long  box 
provided  at  one  end  with  well-fitting  doors  for 
charging,  the  other  end  leading  to  the  flue. 
These  doors  have  ventilating  holes  which  can 
be  opened  or  closed  at  will.  In  this  way  the 
supply  of  air  can  be  satisfactorily  regulated  and 
the  formation  of  sulphur  trioxide  avoided. 

Pyrites  burners  are  provided  with  a  grate 
formed  of  bars  on  which  the  material  is  placed. 
Besides  the  lumps  there  is  always  some  fine 
powder  or  "  smalls,"  for  which  special  furnaces 
have  to  be  provided.  In  some  works,  when 
pyrites  are  burnt  for  preparing  sulphite  liquor 
the  gases  are  led  through  a  Kellner  filtering 
tower,  which  contains  lumps  of  limestone,  so 
that  the  sulphuric  acid  is  retained  by  the  lime- 
stone as  calcium  sulphate.  The  tower  is  washed 
out  from  time  to  time  with  water. 

Sulphuric  acid  has  a  greater  tendency  to  be 
formed  in  the  burners  if  moisture  be  present. 
If  the  temperature  of  the  oven  should  get  too 
high,  some  sulphur  will  be  sublimed  unchanged, 
and  block  the  outlet  pipes  and  flues,  so  that  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  furnace  does  not  get 
too  hot.  This  may  be  done  partly  by  avoiding  an 
excess  of  air,  and  partly  by  cooling  the  furnace. 
We  can  cool  the  furnace  by  placing  a  water- 
jacket  round  it,  or  else  by  playing  a  jet  of  water 
on  to  it.  The  colour  of  the  burning  sulphur 
is  an  indication  whether  the  right  amount  of 
air  is  being  admitted,  as  the  sulphur  should 
burn  with  a  pale-blue  flame  tipped  with  white. 
If  the  furnace  gets  too  hot,  yellow-brown  clouds 
of  sulphur  vapour  make  their  appearance. 

In  some  plants,  that  part  of  the  sulphur  which 
is  not  burnt  straight  away,  but  sublimes,  has 
an  opportunity  of  burning  in  an  intermediate 
chamber  before  the  gases  are  led  away.  In 
this  manner  the  drawback  common  to  most 
sulphur  burners  where  the  sulphur  sublimes  if 
the  temperature  gets  too  high  may  be  avoided. 
In  another  plant  a  continuous  supply  of 
molten  sulphur  is  burnt  by  subliming  it  and 
introducing  air  to  burn  the  sulphur  vapours. 
The  sulphur  dioxide  then  passes  through  a 
chamber  loosely  packed  with  bricks  in  which 
any  sublimed  sulphur  deposits.  The  great  dis- 
advantage in  working  pyrites  burners  lies  in  the 


formation  of  much  flue  dust;  which  is  carried 
along  by  the  gases.  Long  settling  chambers 
where  the  dust  is  deposited  are  necessary.  In 
some  plants  the  chambers  have  baffle  plates, 
which  effectively  hold  back  the  finely  divided 
particles  suspended  in  the  current  of  gas. 

Sulphurous  Acid  and  Sulphites. 
The  gas  is  led  through  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
which  soon  becomes  saturated  and  no  longer 
absorbs  the  sulphur  dioxide  but  retains  small 
quantities  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  gas  then 
passes  into  towers  filled  with  coke,  over  which 
water  is  allowed  to  trickle,  the  excess  of  nitrogen 
escaping  into  the  air. 

For  the  preparation  of  liquid  sulphur  dioxide 
it  is  necessary  to  have  the  gas  free  from  nitrogen, 
for  which  purpose  a  saturated  solution  of  sul- 
phurous acid  is  heated  in  a  leaden  retort. 
The  sulphur  dioxide  which  escapes  is  passed 
through  oil  of  vitriol,  which  retains  the  moisture, 
and  then  on  to  a  compressor,  where  it  is  condensed 
to  a  liquid  in  a  very  similar  manner  to  the 
preparation  of  liquid  ammonia  [see  AMMONIA]. 

This  liquid  sulphur  dioxide  is  in  a  convenient 
form  for  use  in  many  industries.    Sulphurous  acid 
is    used    for    extracting   calcium 
phosphate  from  bones,  for  bleach- 
ing all  sorts  of  vegetable    fibres 
and  animal    products,  and   also 
for     disinfecting.      The     sodium 
and    calcium    salts    of    sulphur- 
ous acid  are  of  importance. 

Sodium  bisul- 
phite is  prepared 
by  saturating  a  so- 
lution of  soda  with 
the  gas.  The  bisul- 
phite (NaHSO.,) 
is  converted  into 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

up  oxygen  to  sulphur  dioxide,  converting  it 
into  sulphur  trioxide,  which  oaa  contact  with 
water  produces  sulphuric  acid.  This  is  the 
chamber  process  in  a  nutshell. 

The  lower  oxide  so  formed  reforms  the  higher 
oxide  by  contact  with  air  and  is  again  reduced 
with  formation  of  more  sulphuric  acid.  The 
oxide  of  nitrogen  acts  merely  as  a  carrier 
without  itself  undergoing  any  permanent  change. 
Theoretically,  then,  a  very  small  quantity  of 
oxides  of  nitrogen  is  sufficient  to  convert  an 
unlimited  quantity  of  sulphurous  into  sulphuric- 
acid  provided  sufficient  air  and  water  be  present. 
In  practice,  however,  there  is  always  a  loss  of 
oxides  of  nitrogen,  as  will  be  seen  shortly.  The 
chemical  changes  may  be  represented  thus  : 

S02     +      NO,    +    H,0  =   H,S04     +  NO 
Sulphur      Nitrogen     Water      Sulphuric    Nitric 
dioxide       peroxide     or  steam 

2NO      +        (X, 

Nitric          Oxygen 

oxide       from  the  air 


oxide 


normal      sulphite 


3.  PLANT  FOE  MAKING  SULPHURIC  ACID  BY  CHAMBER  PROCESS 


acid 
2N02 
Nitrogen 
peroxide 
Fig.  3  illustrates 
the   formation   of 
gf*    sulphuric    acid  in 
w£*  the  chamber  pro- 
cess.      Sulphur 
dioxide     (SO,),      ob- 
tained by  burning  p}'- 
rites,  spent  oxide,  or 
brimstone,      reacts 
with  higher  oxides  of 
nitrogen    (NO.,),    ob- 
tained from  nitre,  to 
yield  sulphur  trioxide 
(SO.O  and  the  lower 
oxide      of      nitrogen 
(NO).      The   sulphur 
trioxide    (SO.,)    com- 


(Na2SO;!7H20)  by  adding  to  it  a  solution  of  sodium 
carbonate  in  the  correct  proportion.  [For  calcium 
and  magnesium  sulphites  see  PAPERMAKING.] 

Sulphuric  Acid.  It  is  considered  by 
some  that  the  manufacturing  activity  of  any 
country  may  be  very  closely  estimated  by  its 
consumption  of  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  perhaps 
the  most  important  of  chemical  substances,  and 
the  basis  of  many  important  industries.  There 
are  two  methods  of  manufacture  termed  respec- 
tively the  chamber  and  contact  processes,  both  of 
which  are  worked  on  a  very  large  scale  in  this 
country.  The  contact  process  is  comparatively 
new,  but  is  likely  to  supersede  the  older  chamber 
process. 

We  shall  consider  the  chamber  process  first. 
We  have  already  shown  how  large  quantities  of 
sulphur  dioxide  and  sulphurous  acid  may  be 
prepared  by  burning  sulphur  or  spent  oxide, 
or  by  roasting  iron  pyrites.  The  whole  process 
of  the  conversion  of  this  substance  into  sulphuric 
acid  lies  in  the  addition  of  one  atom  of  oxygen 
to  the  molecule  of  sulphurous  acid  (H2S03V+  O 
-  H2S04).  Sulphurous  acid  solution  in  contact 
with  air  is  slowly  converted  into  sulphuric  acid, 
but  the  process  is  too  slow  and  cumbersome  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  It  has  long  been 
known  that  the  higher  oxides  of  nitrogen  give 


bines  with  the  water 
(H.,0)  from  the  steam  to  form  sulphuric  acid 
(H,SO4),  while  the  lower  oxide  of  nitrogen  (NO) 
combines  with  the  oxygen  (0)  from  the  air  to  form 
the  higher  oxide  of  nitrogen  (NO.,),  ready  to  give 
up  this  oxygen  again  to  a  further  quantity  of 
sulphur  dioxide  with  the  formation  of  more 
sulphuric  acid,  and  so  on  indefinitely. 

Working  Processes.  Having  now  ex- 
plained the  principle  of  the  "  chamber  "  pro- 
cess, we  will  shortly  describe  the  construction 
of  the  plant  [3]  and  its  mode  of  working. 

The  flue  gases  from  the  sulphur  or  pyrites 
burners  are  brought  into  contact  with  oxides 
of  nitrogen  evolved  from  pots  containing  nitre 
and  sulphuric  acid  placed  in  the  flue,  whence 
they  pass  together  into  a  series  of  "  lead  cham- 
bers," supported  on  a  woodwork  frame  and  re- 
sembling boxes  without  bottoms.  They  stand 
in  large  leaden  trays  sealed  by  a  water  joint  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  They  have  to  possess  a  cer- 
tain cubic  capacity  for  every  pound  of  sulphuric 
acid  produced.  Steam  jets  supply  the  water 
necessary  to  complete  the  reaction.  The  sul- 
phuric acid  condenses  and  collects  at  the  bottom 
of  the  chamber  from  which  it  is  drawn  off. 

The  escaping  gases  consist  of  atmospheric 
nitrogen  and  unconsumed  oxygen  and  steam. 
They  hold  mechanically  some  quantity  of  oxides 

4627 


4.  ACID  EGG 


APPLIED     CHEMISTRY 

of  nitrogen  and  sulphuric  acid.  If  allowed  to 
escape  they  would  pollute  the  atmosphere 
and  add  to  the  cost  of  production  through  waste 
of  the  valuable  oxides  of  nitrogen.  To  avoid 
this  loss  they  are  conducted  to  the  bottom  of 
the  "  Gay-Lussac  "  tower  [see  3].  This  tower 
is  usually  cylindrical, 
and  built  of  lead  like 
the  chambers.  It  is 
filled  with  coke  and 
provided  at  the  top 
with  a  cistern  to  hold 
"  chamber  acid."  This 
acid  collects  in  an  ob- 
long vessel  under  the 
chamber,  termed  an 
acid  "  egg  "  [3  and  4], 
whence  by  air  pressure 
it  is  forced  up  to  the  cistern  in  the  top  of 
the  tower.  Thence  it  finds  its  way  through  a 
number  of  "  lutes  "  [5]  fixed  in  the  lead  roof  of 
the  tower,  and,  trickling  down 
over  the  coke,  absorbs  and  carries 
with  it  the  greater  portion  of  the 
nitric  fumes  contained  in  the 
ascending  current  of  gases.  A 
means  must  now  be  found  for 
freeing  the  acid  from  the  oxides 
of  nitrogen  and  conveying  the 
latter  into  the  chambers  for 
further  action  on  the  sulphur 
dioxide.  This  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  "Glover"  tower,  5 .  ACID  LTJTEj 
which  is  built  on  a  similar  prin-  OR  DBIP 
ciple  to  the  Gay-Lussac  tower. 

The  sulphuric  acid  containing  the  oxides 
of  nitrogen  is  forced  up  into  the  cistern  at  the 
top  of  the  tower,  and  as  it  descends  it  meets  the 
hot  flue  gases  from  the  pyrites  burners,  with 
the  result  that  the  sulphuric  acid  gets  heated, 
and  most  of  the  oxides  of  nitrogen  and  some 
of  the  water  are  driven  off  and  carried  along  with 
the  flue  gases.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the 
sulphuric  acid  in  the  Glover  tower  not  only  gives 
up  its  oxides  of  nitrogen,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
is  concentrated,  while  the  steam  and  oxides  of 
nitrogen  are  carried  together  into  the  chambers. 
Chambers.  Most  works  possess  at  least 
two,  but  usually  not  more  than  four  of  these 
chambers.  The  chambers,  of  course,  vary  in  size 
according  to  requirements  and  output.  They  are 
connected  together  by  leaden  flues,  the  last  cham- 
ber being  connected  with  the  Gay-Lussac  tower. 
As  already  explained,  there  must  be  plenty  of 
room  in  the  chambers  for  the  sulphur  dioxide, 
nitrogen  oxides,  and  steam  to  react  with  one 
another  before  they  reach  the  Gay-Lussac  tower. 
Of  course,  the  faster  the  gases  are  fed  into  the 
chambers  the  larger  the  chambers  must  be  built. 
Avoidable  and  Unavoidable  Losses. 
In  any  manufacturing  process,  the  actual 
chemical  changes  which  take  place  are  never 
exactly  represented  by  the  theoretical  chemical 
<<|intions;  and  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric 
acid  these  chemical  reactions  are  never  quite 
complete,  so  that  a  certain  proportion  of  sulphur 
dioxide  and  nitric  oxides  which  is  not  dissolved 
in  the  Gay-Lussac  tower  escapes  and  is  lost. 

4li28 


It  is  a  question  for  the  manufacturer  of  sul- 
phuric acid  whether  it  will  pay  him  best  to 
increase  his  production  by  feeding  in  the  gases 
faster,  and  losing  a  larger  proportion,  or  going 
to  the  expense  of  building  and  up-keeping 
larger  chambers.  In  France  a  method  known 
as  forced  working  is  employed.  The  amount  of 
nitric  fumes  carried  away  from  the  chambers  is 
considerable,  but  the  plant  is  provided  with  extra 
large  Gay-Lussac  towers  to  counteract  this.  As 
j  ust  stated ,  the  lower  oxide  of  nitrogen,  nitric  oxide 
(NO),  is  not  dissolved  in  the  Gay-Lussac  tower,  but 
only  the  higher  oxides,  so  that  to  prevent  loss  of 
oxides  of  nitrogen  we  must  have  a  plentiful  supply 
of  air  in  the  last  chamber.  This  will  ensure  the 
conversion  of  any  of  the  lower  into  the  higher 
oxides  before  reaching  the  Gay-Lussac  tower. 
For  this  purpose  sufficient  air  must  be  admitted 
with  the  other  gases,  and  the  excess  of  air  neces- 
sary will  vary  with  the  circumstances — that  is, 
as  to  whether  the  sulphur  dioxide  is  got  by 
burning  sulphur,  spent  oxide,  or  pyrites,  and  in 
the  last  case,  whether  rich  or  poor  ore.  From 
the  equations  we  have  already  given  it  will  be  seen 
that  enormous  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid  can 
be  made  with  only  the  smallest  quantity  of  oxides 
of  nitrogen,  but  in  practice  the  action  is  too  slow 
unless  larger  quantities  of  nitre  are  used. 

Working  Conditions.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  design  and  working  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  plant  necessitates  careful  control  and 
experience  in  using  the  right  proportions  of 
ingredients  if  the  process  is  to  work  economically. 
To  give  some  idea,  it  may  be  stated  that 
under  the  most  favourable  circumstances,  work- 
ing with  plant  which  is  in  efficient  repair  and 
using  a  good  class  of  pyrites,  the  supply  of  gas 
during  the  twenty-four  hours  must  not  exceed 
ten  to  eleven  times  the  volume  of  the  chambers 
when  using  three  to  four  parts  of  nitre  for  every 
hundred  parts  of  sulphur  burnt.  Under  these 
circumstances,  perhaps  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  sulphur 
dioxide  will  escape  conversion  into  sulphuric  acid. 
To  put  it  into  other  words,  for  every  pound  of 
sulphur  burnt  daily  we  must  allow  16'2  cubic  ft. 
of  chamber  space.  If  we  economise  the  nitre, 
and  use  only  2'5  to  3  parts  per  100  parts  of 
sulphur,  we  must  allow  instead  19'8  cubic  ft.  In 
many  works  anything  up  to  25  cubic  ft.  may  be 
found.  By  the  method  of  "  forced  working  " 
just  spoken  of,  only  some  12  cubic  ft.  are  allowed. 
Chamber  Construction.  The  construc- 
tion of  chambers  varies  considerably.  Of  course, 
the  larger  the  contained  space  per  square  foot 
of  lead  sheeting  the  better,  so  that  the  ideal 
chamber  would  be  spherical. 

In  practice,  chambers  are  usually  made  rect- 
angular in  form,  using  as  few,  and  making  them 
as  large,  as  possible.  A  good  method  is  to  make 
the  first  chamber  much  the  largest — say,  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole — as  it  is  here  that  most  of  the 
chemical  action  takes  place.  The  second  chamber 
may  have  a  capacity  of  two-ninths  of  the  whole, 
and  the  third  one-ninth.  The  weakest  acid  collects 
in  the  last  chambers,  so  that  they  should  be  built 
each  standing  a  little  higher  than  the  first,  the 
weaker  acid  running  down  to  the  first  chamber. 
The  substance  of  the  sheet  lead, /of  which  the 


chambers  are  made,  is  in  most  cases  somewhere 
about  6  Ib.  to  the  square  foot.  Sometimes  the 
first  chamber  is  built  of  heavier  sheet,  as  the  tem- 
perature is  higher,  and,  in  consequence,  the  wear  of 
this  chamber  is  greater.  The  lead  is  attached  to 
a  wooden  scaffolding 
by  tongues  [6]. 

Chambers  are    con- 
nected    by     tunnels, 


6.   LEAD   TONGUE  FIXED 
TO  A  WOODEN  BEAM 

bottom  of  one   chamber 


which  interfere  least 
with  the  draught  wrhen 
they  lead  out  of  the 
into  the  top  of  the 


next  ;    otherwise    they    are    near    the    bottom, 
f«s  illustrated. 

Testing  Progress  of  Operations.     The 

whole   process   has   to   be    carefully  controlled. 
For   this   purpose   instruments    very   like   rain 

fiiuges  are  placed  on  the  floors  of  the  chambers. 
he  rain  of  fine  drops  of  acid  is  caught  as  it 
descends  in  the  chambers.  These  "  tell-tales  " 
are  provided  at  the  bottom  with  a  syphon  from 
which  the  acid  "  drips  "  are  collected.  By  taking 
the  (specific  gravity  of  these  "  drips,"  and  also  of 
the  bottom  acid  —  namely,  that  which  has  col- 
lected on  the  bottom  of  the  chambers  —  the 
progress  of  the  reaction  can  be  followed,  and 
the  supply  of  sulphur  dioxide,  nitric  fumes,  and 
steam  regulated  in  accordance. 

Chambers  are  also  provided  with  glass  peep- 
holes, so  that  the  colour  of  the  nitric  fumes 
can  be  judged.  Reference  to  the  Pure  Chemis- 
try course  will  show  that  the  lower  oxide  of 
nitrogen,  nitric  oxide  (NO),  is  colourless,  but 
when  it  combines  with  oxjgen  it  forms  the  higher 
oxide,  nitric  peroxide  (N02),  which  has  a  deep 
orange  red  shade.  If  the"  contents  of  the  last 
chamber  are  pale  yellow  or  colourless,  it  shows 
that  there  is  either  an  insufficient  supply  of 
nitric  fumes  or  else  that  there  is  not  enough 
oxygen  to  convert  them  into  the  higher  oxides. 
In  the  former  case  more  nitre  must  be  burnt,  and 
in  the  latter  more  air  let  in.  It  is  essential  that 
the  nitric  fumes  should  be  thoroughly  oxidised 
before  they  reach  the  Gay-Lussac  tower,  as  the 
higher  oxides  only  are  absorbed  there. 

Chamber  Acid.  The  strength  of  the  acid 
which  collects  on  the  bottom  of  the  chambers 
will  depend  .partly  upon  the  amount  of  steam 
supplied.  If  the  acid  gets  too  strong  —  above 
125  Tw.,  which  equals  s.g.  1'625—  it  begins  to 
dissolve  large  quantities  of  the  oxides  of  nitrogen, 
and  not  only  would  there  be  a  loss  of  this  valuable 
substance,  but  the  acid  would  begin  to  act  vigor- 
ously on  the  lead  of  the  chambers.  To  avoid 
undue  corrosion  the  acid  is  drawn  off  a  little 
below  this  strength. 

Acid  cocks  are  very  liable  to  get  oat  of  order, 
and  it  is  usual  to  draw  off  the  sulphuric  acid 
(chamber  acid)  by  means  of  a  syphon.  As 
the  acid  frequently  has  to  be  concentrated,  some 
makers  find  that  it  pays  them  to  allow  the 
strength  to  rise  to  140  Tw.,  the  increased  value 
of  the  acid  compensating  for  the  loss  due  to  the 
corrosion  of  the  chambers. 

Gay=Lussac  and  Glover  Towers.  For 
the  Gay-Lussac  tower  to  do  the  work  of  recover- 
ing the  oxides  of  nitrogen  efficiently  its  capacity 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

should  be  not  less  than  1  per  cent.,  but  preferably 
nearer  2  per  cent.,  of  the  capacity  of  the  cham- 
bers. The  same  applies  to  the  Glover  tower.  The 
latter  is  usually  built  shorter  and  broader,  and  of 
heavier  lead,  often  lined  with  firebrick,  as  the 
gases  which  enter  it  are  very  hot,  and  conse- 
quently have  considerable  action  on  the  walls. 
It  is  filled  with  lumps  of  flint,  as  the  coke  used 
in  the  Gay-Lussac  tower  might  catch  fire  if  the 
supply  of  steam  or  acid  were  accidentally  cut  off. 
It  is  said  that  a  considerable  amount  of  sulphuric 
acid  is  formed  in  this  tower — sometimes  as  much 
as  10  per  cent,  or  15  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 
In  this  w&y  it  acts  as  an  extra  chamber,  besides 
concentrating  the  chamber  acid,  which  trickles 
down  it  from  the  cistern  on  the  top,  and  freeing 
it  from  the  nitric  fumes,  which  are  carried  on  to 
the  chambers.  Gay-Lussac  towers  are  some- 
times built  up  of  perforated  acid-proof  earthen- 
ware plates,  which  take  the  place  of  the  coke. 
These  plates  are  moulded  so  that  a  little  pool  of 
acid  collects  over  each  hole  and  drops  through  on 
to  the  plate  below.  This  construction  is  more 
effective  than  towers  filled  with  lumps  of  coke. 
These  so-called  plate-columns  have  also  been 
used  to  replace  chambers,  and  in  some  works 
alternate  chambers  and  plate  columns  are  em- 
ployed. The  latter  are  said  to  be  ten  to  twenty 
times  as  effective  as  the  former. 

Concentration.  Acid  as  concentrated  in 
the  Glover  tower  is  impure.  If  pyrites  acid, 
it  contains  arsenic  and  iron  from  the  flue  dust 
o*f  the  pyrites  burners,  also  some  oxides  of 
nitrogen  and  lead  sulphate  from  the  walls  of  the 
tower  and  chambers.  The  arsenic  can  be  got  rid 
of  by  passing  sulphuretted  hydrogen  through  the 
acid,  when  it  is  precipitated  as  a  sulphide,  or  by 
heating  it  with  a  little  common  salt,  when  the 
arsenic  chloride,  being  volatile,  is  driven  off. 

To  get  rid  of  the  oxides  of  nitrogen  a  little 
ammonium  sulphate  is  added.  The  nitrates  and 
nitrites  of  ammonia  formed  are  decomposed 
when  the  acid  is  heated. 

Having  got  rid  of  the  nitric  fumes  the  acid 
can  be  concentrated  in  lead  pans  to  145-150  Tw. 
When  stronger,  the  acid  goes  for  the  pans,  and 
for  final  concentration  some  more  resistant 
material  must  be  chosen.  Glass  and  porcelain 
have  the  disadvantage  that  they  are  liable  to 
crack  and  break  suddenly,  and  cause  much  loss 
of  acid,  while  platimim  is  very  much  acted  upon, 
and  the  wear  of  the  vessels  is 
a  very  serious  item  in  the 
cost  of  the  process,  in 
Webb's  plant  [7]  porcelain 
pots  provided  with  hoods  are 
used,  and  the  concentrating 
operation  is  continuous  — 
that  is  to  say,  20  pots  or  so 
are  set  in  a  line  on  a  brick 
oven  ;  each  pot  is  provided  with  a  lip,  from 
which  the  acid  trickles  into  the  next  pot,  placed 
on  a  lower  level.  The  acid  flowing  in  weak  at  the 
top  end,  passes  from  pot  to  pot,  and  flows  out 
concentrated  from  the  bottom  one.  The  acids, 
concentrated  to  94  per  cent,  to  95  per  cent.,  can 
be  obtained  absolutely  free  from  water,  either 
by  adding  to  them  some  fuming  sulphuric  acid 

4629 


7.  CONTINUOUS 

CONCENTRATION  OF 

SULPHURIC  ACID 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

to  convert  the  water  into  sulphuric  acid,  or  by 
freezing  the  liquid,  when  the  niono-hydrated  acid 
(acid  with  one  molecule  of  water)  separates  out. 

Contact  Process.  We  have  explained  the 
chamber  process  for  making  sulphuric  acid ; 
we  now  come  to  the  second  commercial  process, 
which  works  without  chambers.  Although  in 
some  respects  simpler,  it  is  complicated  by  the 
fact  that  special  precautions  have  to  be  taken 
to  ensure  the  purity  of  the  flue  gases  from  the 
sulphur  or  pyrites  burners.  This  section  need 
not  be  studied  except  by  the  more  advanced 
student  and  those  who  are  anxious  to  acquaint 
themselves  with  the  very  latest  methods  for 
making  sulphuric  acid. 

Reference  to  the  course  on  Inorganic  Chemistry 
will  show  that  one  of  the  methods  of  pre- 
paring sulphur  trioxide  is  to  pass  a  mixture  of 
oxygen  and  sulphur  dioxide  gas  over  platinised 
asbestos,  heated  in  a  glass  tube.  2S02  + 
O.,  4-  2H20  =  2H,S04.  Sulphur  trioxide,  when 
dissolved"  in  water,  gives  sulphuric  acid,  and 
the  question  naturally  arose,  Could  this  prin- 
ciple be  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric 
acid  ?  Early  experiments  in  this  direction 
seemed  to  show  that  the  action  is  only  par- 
tial when  the  sulphur  dioxide  and  oxygen  are 
much  diluted  with  nitrogen,  as  would  be  the  case 
in  practice,  where  air  would  replace  oxygen  in  the 
experiment  mentioned  above.  We  may,  per- 
haps, mention  here  that  the  original  discovery 
is  due  to  Davy,  1817,  and  the  first  real  attempts 
to  apply  it  on  a  manufacturing  scale,  to  Phillips, 
1831  (British  patent  6096).  It  was  soon  found 
that  a  number  of  conditions  would  have  to  be 
carefully  complied  with  if  the  process  was  to 
be  successful. 

In  the  first  place,  the  gases  must  be  dry,  and 
all  dust  and  other  impurities  carefully  excluded. 
The  flue  gases  leaving  the  pyrites  burners  con- 
tain about  6  per  cent,  excess  of  oxygen  over 
that  necessary  for  the  conversion  of  sulphur 
dioxide  into  sulphur  trioxide.  Knietsch  has 
patented  a  successful  process  now  working  at 
Ludwigshafen  on  the  Rhine.  He  found,  in  the 
course  of  his  early  experiments,  that  an  excess 
of  air  had  no  influence  on  the  oxidation  process. 
His  first  experiment  was  made  with  artificial 
gases,  and  with  such  success  that  he  soon  began 
experimenting  with  the  actual  flue  gases.  These 
he  led  off  from  pyrites  burners,  through  long 
tubes  to  deposit  dust,  and  then  dried  them  with 
sulphuric  acid. 

Contact  Poisons.  It  was  soon  found, 
however,  that  the  platinised  asbestos,  or  contact 
substance,  as  it  was  called,  began  to  lose  its' 
power,  and  no  improvement  was  obtained  by 
cooling  the  gases  or  further  filtration  and 
washing  with  sulphuric  acid.  This  entailed 
a  considerable  amount  of  experimental  work. 
Eventually,  a  number  of  laboratory  experiments 
showed  that  certain  elements  are  extremely 
injurious  to  the  action  of  the  contact  substance — 
in  particular,  arsenic,  mercury,  and  phosphorus, 
the  last-named  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  arsenic 
it  contained.  A  number  of  other  metals,  such 
as  antimony,  bismuth,  lead,  iron,  and  zinc, 
were  also  found  to  clog  up,  and  mechanically 

-J030 


envelop  the  contact  mass  when  introduced  in 
large  quantities.  However,  arsenic  is  the  most 
troublesome  "  poison,"  not  only  because  1  to 
2  per  cent,  on  the  weight  of  the  platinum 
entirely  destroys  its  activity,  but  arsenic  is  con- 
tained" in  all  flue  dust  from  pyrites  burners. 
Moreover,  the  contact  substance  once  "  poi- 
soned," it  is  difficult  to  effect  a  cure. 

Having  now  discovered  the  cause  of  failure,  it 
remained  to  find  a  remedy. 

Prevention  Better  than  Cure.  Even 
the  purified  flue  gases  were  found  to  contain 
a  finely  divided  whitish  mist  of  sulphuric  acid, 
which  could  not  we  precipitated.  The  method 
eventually  employed  for  purifying  the  gases 
consisted  in  gradually  cooling  them  by  leading 
them  through  a  long  dust  flue  and  a  set  of  lead 
pipes  so  that  their  temperature  was  reduced 
100°  C.,  and  then  through  a  series  of  mechanical 
washers,  which  were  found  more  effective  than 
washing  towers,  to  retain  the  sulphuric  acid.  The 
gas  is  then  dried  over  strong  sulphuric  acid  and 
subjected  to  an  optical  and  chemical  test  before 
going  further.  In  the  optical  examination  a 
layer  of  gas  is  viewed  through  a  tube  several  feet 
in  length  to  see  if  it  is  free  from  dust  and  mist. 

In  the  chemical  examination  a  current  of  the 
gas  is  passed  for  24  hours  or  more  through  water, 
and  the  water  tested  for  arsenic  by  the  Marsh 
test  [see  ANALYTICAL  CHEMISTRY].  Great  care  has 
to  be  taken  to  see  that  sulphuric  acid  does  not 
condense  on  the  iron  flues  on  its  way  from  the 
burners,  as  a  certain  amount  of  arsenuretted 
hydrogen  is  produced,  owing  to  the  liberation 
of  hydrogen  by  the  action  of  acid  on  the  iron 
pipes.  Arsenuretted  hydrogen  is  a  gaseous 
substance,  and,  once  formed,  would  be  carried  on 
to  the  contact  substance  and  rapidly  poison  it. 

In  the  pyrites  kilns  there  is  always  some 
very  finely  divided  sulphur,  which,  under  or- 
dinary circumstances,  is  carried  forward  by  the 
flue  gases.  This  sulphur,  as  it  would  contain 
traces  of  arsenic,  has  to  be  got  rid  of  by  some 
means  or  other.  It  was  found  that  directing  a 
jet  of  steam  into  the  kilns  aids  the  combustion 
of  the  sulphur  dust,  and  also  brings  about  the  con- 
densation of  any  sulphuric  acid  present,  so  that 
the  coolers  do  not  become  encrusted  with  solid 
impurities  in  combination  with  sulphuric  acid. 

By  close  attention  to  the  foregoing  details, 
it  is  possible  to  produce  mixed  gases  on  a  com- 
mercial scale,  and,  in  quality,  free  from  traces  of 
arsenic  and  other  contact  poisons. 

How  the  Heat  Reaction  is  Controlled. 
When  sulphur  dioxide  combines  with  oxygen  to 
form  sulphur  trioxide,  a  very  large  amount  of 
heat  is  evolved.  This  is  in  accordance  with  the 
equation  (SO  +  O  =  SO3  +  32'2  calories).  A 
calorie  is  the  unit  for  measuring  quantities  of 
heat.  Put  in  other  words,  sulphur  dioxide  and 
oxygen  combine  to  form  sulphur  trioxide,  while 
at  the  same  time  32-2  units  of  heat  are  produced, 
so  that  the  sulphur  trioxide  formed  is  much 
hotter  than  the  sulphur  dioxide  and  oxygen 
before  they  entered  into  combination. 

The  reaction  between  the  sulphur  dioxide  and 
oxygen  in  the  presence  of  the  contact  substance 
takes  place  only  when  the  gases  are  hot  enough 


at  the  start— that  is,  when  raised  to  a 
sufficiently  high  temperature.  The  heat  pro- 
duced by  the  chemical  union  of  the  already 
heated  gases  may  be  so  great  as  to  raise  the 
mass  to  a  bright  red  heat,  and  so  prevent 
the  permanent  formation  of  sulphur  trioxide, 
which  tends  to  dissociate  at  very  high  tem- 
peratures. At  the  same  time  the  iron  parts 
of  the  apparatus  are  quickly  destroyed  by 
the  action  of  the  sulphur  compound,  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  contact  mass  is  also  reduced. 
This,  of  course,  is  due  to  the  reverse  action, 
the  sulphur  trioxide  being  broken  up  again 
into  sulphur  dioxide  and  oxygen,  the  re- 
action taking  in  both  directions  as  shown  by 

the  arrows  (SCX,  +  O  ^  S03). 

The    Plant    Described   in    Detail. 

It  is.  therefore,  necessary  to  cool  the  con- 
tact substance,  and   in   the  early  form   of 
apparatus  this  was  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  current  of  air.     The  plant  for  this  pur- 
pose is   shown  in  8,   according    to   patent 
No.  15947,  1898. ,  In  a  brickwork  structure, 
or    an    iron    tube,  M,  is  fixed  a  tube  R, 
leaving  a  space  between  the  outside  of  the 
tube  R  and  the  inside  of  the  brickwork  of 
tube  M.  The  two  portions,  a  and  6,  of  the 
tube  R  serve  different  purposes  and  may 
consequently  differ    from   one  another        " 
in  length  and  diameter,  and  both  parts 
can  be  replaced  by  a  number  of  tubes. 
The  one  part,  &,  is  occupied  by  the  con- 
tact substance  (indicated  by  the  cross 
lines),    and    is    cooled    by    cold    air 
entering  by  the  inlet  n,  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  outer  tube.     In  the 
other  part,  a,  of  the  inner  tube, 
the  gases  containing  the  sul- 
phur dioxide,  which  enter  at 
the  upper  end,  are  heated  to 
the  temperature  necessary  for 
the  reaction. 

When  beginning  the  opera- 
tion, the  whole  apparatus  is 
first  raised  to  the  tempera- 
ture necessary  for  the  reaction 
by  heating  by  means  of  gas 
flames,  h.  Then,  if  con- 
centrated gases  are  used 
after  the  reaction  has  once 
begun,  further  heating  is 
unnecessary,  because  the  air 
cooling  the  contact  mass 
absorbs  heat  and  transfers 
sufficient  heat  to  the  other 
portion,  a,  of  the  tube  con- 
taining the  sulphur  dioxide 
gases,  to  allow  of  the  neces- 
sary reactions  taking  place  in 
the  contact  mass  b.  The 
stream  of  air  can  be  regulated 
by  means  of  adjustable  up- 
draught  openings,  L.  in  such  a 
way  that  the  contact  mass  in 
the  part  b  is  constantly  main- 
tained at  the  temperature 
most  favourable  for  the 


•fl 


PROESS 

>s 


CONTACT   PROCESS  FOR 
SULPHURIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

reaction.  When  the  gases  contain  but  little 
sulphur  dioxide,  the  air,  which  is  somewhat 
heated  by  its  cooling  action,  is  further 
heated  by  means  of  the  gas  flames,  h'h', 
so  that  the  gases  flowing  in  through  the 
part  a  of  the  tube  get  more  strongly  heated. 
The  gases,  which  now  contain  sulphur 
trioxide  issuing  from  the  contact  mass  in 
the  part  b,  leave  the  apparatus  by  a  pipe,  c. 
An  Improved  Method.  Instead  of 
using  air  for  cooling  the  contact  mass,  it 
is  much  more  economical  to  use  the  flue 
gases  themselves.  They  thereby  become 
heated  up  to  a  temperature  sufficiently 
high  for  the  reaction  to  begin.  This 
apparatus  is  shown  in  9.  It  will  be  noticed 
at  once  that  we  have  here  a  battery  of  five 
tubes  instead  of  one,  and  that  the  whole 
of  the  tubes  are  filled  with  the  contact  mass. 
In  order  that  the  cooling  gases  may  pass  as 
closely  as  possible  in  contact  with  the  walls 
of  the  tubes  which  contain  the  contact 
mass,  there  are  inserted  at  intervals  a 
number  of  partitions,  C,  C,  extending 
across  the  chamber  S,  sufficient  space  being 
left  for  the  gases  to  pass  through  close  to 
the  walls  of  the  inner  tubes,  R,  R,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  small  arrows. 

The    gases   should    be    thoroughly 
mixed    before    they    pass    into    the 
contact  mass,   in   order    to    equalise 
their  temperature.      This  is  done  by 
^oc  means  of  mixing  apparatus,  N,  fitted 
in  the  cover,  D,  the  gases  passing  up 
the  passage   O   F   and  between  the 
"  baffle "     plates     as     shown.      The 
strength  of  the  current 
and  the    temperature 
of  the  cooling  gases  is 
regulated    by    noting 
the  readings  of  ther- 
mometers     fixed      in 
various   parts  of    the 
apparatus,   and  especially 
within  the  covers  D  and 
D".    Analyses  of  the  gases 
entering  and   leaving   the 
apparatus  show  when  the 
most  favourable  practical 
result  is  being  obtained. 

The  Plant  in  Opera= 
tion.  In  order  to  explain 
the  mode  of  action  we  may 
give  an  instance  taken  from 
actual  working. 

The  apparatus  is  heated 
first  (say,  by  means  of  gas 
flames  at  h'),  until  a  ther- 
mometer in  the  upper  cover 
D'  indicates  a  temperature 
of  about  300°  C.     Then  the 
gas      flames      are      extin- 
guished, and  the  whole  gas 
stream  passes  into  the  apparatus  A. 
The  temperature  within  the  cover 
D  first  rises.     When  it  has  reached 
a  temperature  favourable  for  the 
reaction,  a  valve  in  the  upper  part 
4031 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

of  the  apparatus  is  opened,  so  that  a  part  of  the 
gases  may  enter  directly,  as  shown  by  the  arrows. 
The  gases  entering  and  leaving  the  apparatus  are 
analysed  to  determine  their  contents  of  sulphur 
dioxide,  and  in  this  way  we  can  see  how  the 
plant  is  working. 

To  Regulate  the  Temperature.  About 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  gas  current  passes  in  at 
the  entrance  A  to  the  chamber  S  surrounding 
the  inner  tubes  R,  and  one-third  directly  into  the 
top  cover  D.  The  temperature,  which  becomes 
uniform  owing  to  the  action  of  the  mixing  cham- 
ber N,  in  the  cover  is  about  380°  C.,  while  the 
thermometer  in  the  lower  cover  D'  indicates 
about  234°  C.  In  this  actual  case,  taken  from 
experimental  practice  on  the  factory  scale,  a 
conversion  of  from  96  per  cent,  to  98  per  cent,  of 
that  theoretically  possible  has  been  obtained 
while  making  from  40  to  50  kilogrammes  of 
SO3  per  tube  in  24  hours.  The  conversion  can 
be  increased  to  99  per  cent,  if  the  gas  be  per- 
mitted to  remain  longer  in  the  presence  of  the 
contact  substance. 

Filling  the  Contact  Substance  into 
the  Tubes.  The  method  of  packing  the 
tubes  with  platinised  asbestos  so  that  the  gases 
shall  come  thoroughly  into  contact  with  the 
mass  without 
having  their 
flow  too  much 
impeded  is 
seen  in  the 
next  diagram 
[10].  A  cen- 
tral iron  rod, 


SULPHURIC   ACID   BY   CONTACT 
PROCESS 


a,  passes  up 
the  axis  of  the 
contact  tube 
R;  surround- 
ing the  bot- 
tom end  is  the 
short  tube  6, 
on  which  rests 
the  perforated 
plate  c.  On 
this  sieve 

heaped  the 
platinised  as- 
bestos, and  then  another  short  piece  of  tube, 
d,  is  fitted  on  to  the  rod  a.  This  is  followed  by 
a  second  sieve  tube,  c',  carrying  its  layer  of 
platinised  asbestos  ;  and  then  another  short 
piece  of  tube,  d',  followed  by  a  third  sieve  plate, 
c',  and  so  on. 

Instead  of  asbestos  as  a  carrier  for  the  platinum, 
a  mass  can  be  used  prepared,  for  example,  by 
heating  barium  chloride  with  ammonium  sul- 
phate. These  substances  interact  and  form 
l)Hi  ium  sulphate  and  ammonium  chloride,  and,  on 
heating,  the  ammonium  chloride  is  driven  off, 
leaving  a  very  porous  mass  of  barium  sulphate. 
Further,  an  economy  in  the  platinum  can  be 
effected  by  conducting  the  operation  in  two 
stages— thus,  whereas  100  parts  of  platinum 
would  in  one  operation  yield  97  per  cent,  of  the 
theoretical  quantity  of  sulphuric  anhydride, 
15  parts  of  platinum  would  yield  80  per  cent.  If, 

4632 


now,  this  80  per  cent,  be  removed  by  absorption, 
the  remaining  20  per  cent,  could  be  subjected  to 
the  same  treatment,  yielding  eventually  80  + 

(2JL  x  8°)  =  96  per  cent,  yield  of  theoretical. 
100 

Spent  contact  substance  may  be  regenerated 
by  passing  the  vapours  of  hydrochloric  acid 
mixed  with  some  inert  gas  through  them  until 
all  impurities  are  removed. 

Sulphuric  Acid  from  Sulphur  Tri= 
oxide.  The  absorption  of  the  sulphur  trioxide 
or  sulphuric  anhydride  with  the  formation  of 
sulphuric  acid  is  not  so  simple  a  process  as  it 
would  seem.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  dissolve 
sulphur  trioxide  completely  in  water  or  dilute 
acid.  As  one  kilogramme  of  sulphur  tridxide  liber- 
ates 500  calories  when  dissolved  in  water,  300 
calories  when  dissolved  in  66°  Be  sulphuric  acid, 
it  would  seem  that  the  best  plan  would  be  to 
have  a  continuous  arrangement  with  a  number  of 
absorbing  vessels,  and  to  pass  the  gases  through 
them  in  one  direction  and  the  current  of  water 
in  the  other,  so  that  the  strongest  gas  passes  into 
the  strongest  acid,  while  the-  gas  from  which 
practically  all  the  acid  has  been  removed  passes 
through  pure  water.  Such  an  arrangement,  on 
the  same  principle  as  Webb's  sulphuric  acid  con- 
centrating apparatus  already  described,  does  not 
work  in  practice,  as  there  is  much  loss  of  acid 
owing  to  a  whitish  mist  carried  away  .in  the 
current  of  gases.  It  is  found,  however,  that  a  very 
strong  acid,  97  to  98  per  cent.  (H2SO4),  absorbs 
sulphuric  anhydride  immediately  and  completely, 
so  that  the  absorption  can  be  carried  on  in  a 
single  absorbing  apparatus  which  is  fed  continu- 
ously with  water  or  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  main- 
tain the  strength  at  97  to  98  per  cent.  (H2SO4). 

Sulphuric  Acid  in  the  Atmosphere. 
We  should  not  omit  to  mention  that  large 
quantities  of  sulphuric  acid  are  produced  quite 
unintentionally,  the  whole  of  which  finds  its  way 
into  the  atmosphere.  All  coal  contains  larger  or 
smaller  percentages  of  sulphur  due  to  the  pyrites 
in  it,  and  when  burnt,  whether  on  the  domestic 
hearth  or  under  a  steam  boiler,  or  in  other  manu- 
facturing operations,  the  sulphur  is  oxidised  to 
sulphurous,  and  eventually  sulphuric  acid.  All 
the  acid  derived  from  house  coal  escapes  up  our 
chimneys  into  the  air. 

Combustion  of  a  ton  of  coal  produces  about 
68  Ib.  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  taking, 
say,  the  amount  of  coal  raised  annually  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  as  250,000,000  tons,  of 
which  we  burn  three-quarters  ourselves,  the 
atmosphere  of  Great  Britain  is  contaminated 
with  5,700,000  tons  of  strong  sulphuric  acid 
per  annum.  A  cubic  yard  of  strong  oil  of 
vitriol  weighs  approximately  1'4  tons,  so  that 
the  foregoing  amount  of  sulphuric  acid  would 
occupy  4,000,000  cubic  yards,  sufficient  to  fill 
a  canal  eight  yards  broad,  two  yards  deep  and  1 15 
miles  long.  This  appalling  quantity  of  sulphuric 
acid  produced  unintentionally  by  the  coal  we 
burn  is  more  than  twice  as  much  as  we  manu- 
facture for  industrial  purposes.  Fifteen  per  cent, 
of  the  coal  raised  in  Great  Britain  is  burnt  in 
our  houses,  so  that  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  enormous  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid 


mentioned  is  produced  by  coal  burnt  for  domestic 
purposes.  All  this  acid  poured  into  the  atmo- 
sphere cannot  but  affect  the  buildings  of  large 
towns.  It  is  carried  down  by  the  rain  and 
dissolves  away  the  surface  of  stone  work, 
corrodes  iron,  and  brings  about  decay  generally. 
The  whole  subject  was  very  fully  gone  into  by 
Dr.  Angus  Smith  many  years  ago,  but  very  little 
has  been  done  since  then  to  mitigate  the  evil. 

Fuming  Sulphuric  Acid.  This  acid 
consists  of  ordinary  sulphuric  acid  with  sulphur 
trioxide  dissolved  in  it.  It  was  originally  made 
at  Nordhausen,  in  Germany,  by  distilling  green 
copperas  (crystallised  sulphate  of  iron)  which 
had  been  exposed  to  the  air.  The  acid  collects 
in  the  receiver,  while  oxide  of  iron,  or  colcothar 
[see  PAINTS],  remains  in  the  retort.  Nowadays  it 
is  made  by  the  contact  process  already  described  ; 
obviously  this  should  prove  the  most  rational 
method  of  manufacture  on  a  large  scale.  It 
is  used  in  the  colour  industry. 

Nitric  Acid.  We  have  already  explained 
how  nitric  acid  is  prepared  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sulphuric  acid.  Some  manufacturers' 
use  ready-made  nitric  acid.  It  is  prepared  by 
distilling  Chili  saltpetre  [see  MANURES]  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid  from  iron  retorts.  It  is  a 
very  curious  thing  that  nitric  acid,  when  weak  or 
moderately  dilute,  rapidly  dissolves  iron,  but  has 
little  or  no  action  on  the  metal  when  it  is  strong. 
The  iron  retorts  are  sometimes  arranged  so  that 
the  whole  of  them,  including  the  upper  part,  is 
kept  heated,  in  order  that  no  acid  condenses 
on  the  metal  cover. 

In  the  Valentia  plant  [11],  as  adopted  by 
Berk  &  Co.,  the  retort,  A,  is  about  6  ft.  broad 


11.    VALENTIA   NITRIC    ACID    PLANT 

and  4  ft.  deep.  The  acid  is  distilled  off  under 
diminished  pressure  (say  two -thirds  of  an  atmo- 
sphere). The  acid  fumes  are  led  into  suitable 
condensing  arrangements  made  of  porcelain  or 
glazed  earthenware,  and  consisting  of  a  series  of 
Woulff  bottles,  that  is  to  say,  earthenware  bottles, 
with  two  tubulars  or  flanged  holes  in  the  top. 
Each  bottle  is  connected  up  with  the  next  by 
means  of  an  earthenware  tube  in  the  shape  of  an 
inverted  U  luted  into  the  holes.  From  the  retort 
the  fumes  pass  into  a  Woulff's  bottle,  B,  to  con- 
dense any  sulphuric  acid  carried  over.  The  tem- 
perature here  is  too  high  to  condense  any  nitric 
acid.  Next  comes  a  "worm,"  C,  in  which  a 
good  deal  of  acid  condenses.  The  "  worm  "  is 
an  earthenware  tube,  corkscrew  shaped  and  sur- 
rounded by  cold  water.  Much  of  the  nitric  acid 
condenses  in  the  worm  and  collects  in  two  Woulff 
bottles,  D  and  E.  What  escapes  condensation 
passes  through  a  second  worm,  F,  and  a  long  series 
of  Woulff  bottles,  G,  the  last  of  which  contains 
water  to  hold  back  any  remaining  traces  of  acid. 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

The  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  taken  is  some 
30  per  cent,  in  excess  of  that  theoretically 
required  in  accordance  with  the  equation, 
2NaN03  +H2S04=Na,S04  +  2HN03  in  order 
that  the  resulting  nitre  cake  (sulphate  of 
sodium)  may  remain  sufficient  fluid  to  be  run 
out  of  the  retort  when  the  operation  is  over.  It 
is  utilised  for  making  "  salt  cake  "  [see  below]. 
The  stronger  the  acid  used  for  decomposing  the 
nitrate,  the  stronger  the  nitric  acid  produced. 

Pure  nitric  acid  decomposes  rapidly  when 
heated,  so  that  the  crude  product  is  always 
contaminated  with  red  fumes.  These  consist  of 
oxides  of  nitrogen  such  as  are  used  in  the  chamber 
process.  These  red  fumes  condense  with  the 
nitric  acid  in  the  first  bottles,  and  are  easily 
driven  out  of  the  acid  by  a  current  of  air.  From 
what  has  been  said  it  will  be  understood  that 
the  strongest  nitric  acid  cannot  be  distilled  un- 
changed. Strong  nitric  acid  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  1'42  and  contains  about  70  per  cent,  of  pure 
acid.  The  very  strongest  and  purest  acid  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  1'5,  that  is  to  say,  it  is 
half  as  heavy  again  as  water,  and  contains  over 
90  per  cent,  of  pure  acid.  The  strongest  acid 
is  used  for  making  guncotton,  smokeless  powder, 
and  other  explosives. 

Hydrochloric  Acid  and  Salt  Cake. 
Hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid  is  a  combination 
of  hydrogen  with  chlorine,  and  is  used  in  con- 
siderable quantities  in  the  preparation  of 
chlorine,  bleaching  powder,  and  for  pickling 
iron  in  the  manufacture  of  galvanised  sheets. 
Although  in  itself  of  considerable  importance, 
it  is  formed  as  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  alkali.  The  raw  material  consists  of 
common  salt,  which  is  a  compound  of  the  metal 
sodium  arid  chlorine.  When  decomposed  with 
sulphuric  acid  the  chlorine  is  liberated  as 
hydrochloric  acid  gas  and  the  sodium  is  left 
combined  with  the  sulphuric  acid  as  sodium 
sulphate.  The  operation  is  carried  out  in 
a  special  salt  cake  furnace,  consisting  of  a  pan 
to  contain  the  salt  covered  with  a  brick  hood 
or  dome,  with  a  tube  leading  out  of  it  for  carry- 
ing away  the  hydrochloric  acid  gases. 

In  this  pan  the  operation  carried  out  is 
represented  in  the  main  by  the  following  chemical 
equation  : 

NaCl       H-H^SO^  =    NaHSO^  +        HC1 
Common  Sulphuric         Acid  Hydrochloric 

salt  acid  sodium  acid 

sulphate 

Sulphuric  acid,  sp.  gr.,  about  1'7,  such  as 
comes  from  the  Glover  tower,  is  run  into  the 
pan,  and  the  decomposition  promoted  by  a  fire 
underneath. 

Absorption  of  the  Gas.  The  reaction 
takes  place  with  considerable  violence,  and 
torrents  of  gas  are  given  off.  These  gases 
are  led  into  towers  filled  with  coke,  similar  in 
construction  to  the  towers  used  in  the  chamber 
process  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid, 
except  that  in  this  case  water,  and  not  sulphuric 
acid,  trickles  down  from  a  cistern  above.  The 
water  from  the  cistern  flows  into  a  trough  which, 
as  soon  as  full,  tips  over  and  discharges  water 
automatically  into  the  tower,  and  then  re-fills 

4633 


12. 

WATER  DISTRIBUTOR 
AT  TOP  OF  HYDRO- 
CHLORIC  ACID 
ABSORBING    TOWER 


APPLIED     CHEMISTRY 

automatically  and  discharges  again  [12].  It 
is  found  in  practice  that  an  intermittent  dis- 
charge is  I  letter  than  a 
continuous  one.  Two  or 
three  of  these  towers 
stand  together,  and  when 
gas  is  not  absorbed  in 
one  tower,  it  passes  on, 
and  is  absorbed  in  the 
next.  The  Alkali  Act 
sets  a  limit  of  '2  grain  per 
cubic  foot  for  the  amount 
of  acid  which  may  be 
allowed  to  escape  into 
the  air. 

Although  hydrochloric 
acid  is  very  soluble  in  water— the  latter  dissolves 
some  500  times  its  own  volume  of  the  gas — its 
absorption  in  the  towers  is  not  such  an  easy  pro- 
cess as  would  at  first  appear.  The  gas  is  not  given 
off  evenly  and  uniformly  during  the  reaction,  but 
the  greater  part  of  it  comes  off  with  a  rush  at  the 
beginning.  At  this  time  the  absorbing  power 
of  the  towers  is  taxed  to  the  utmost.  Then  the 
gases  are  hot  and  require  cooling,  and  they  are 
also  diluted  with  large  volumes  of  inert  gases. 
such  as  air— all  which  circumstances  render  it 
more  difficult  to  ensure  complete  absorption  in 
the  towers.  At  the  bottom  the  concentrated 
muriatic  acid  is  drawn  off. 

Open  and  Close  Roasters.  When  the 
reaction  in  the  iron  pan,  A,  is  complete,  which 
will  be  in  the  course  of  an  hour  or  so,  the  solid 
mass  is  raked  forward  on  to  a  brick  floor  in 
another  part  of  the  furnace,  B,  where  the  heat 
is  greater  ;  here  the  reaction  is  completed,  the 
mass  being  stirred  up  from  time  to  time  by  a 
workman  with  a  long  iron  crowbar,  to  prevent  it 
from  caking  or  crushing  on  the  hearth. 

The  chemical  reaction  may  be  represented  thus : 
NaHS04  +  NaCl  -  NaoS04  +  HC1. 

Acid  Common  Neutral  Hydrochloric 
Sodium  salt  sodium  acid, 

sulphate  sulphate 

But  in  practice  these  two  reactions  take  place 
simultaneously,  and  cannot  be  sharply  separated 
from  one  another.  A  small  excess  of  sulphuric 
acid  is  often  taken,  over  and  above  that  actually 
required  to  produce  the  decomposition. 

This  part  of  the  furnace  is  differently  con- 
structed, according  to  the  purity  of  the  product 
required  [13  and 
14].  If  the  salt 
•  cake  be  wanted  for 
making  alkali,  tin- 
on  Unary  reverbera- 
tory  furnace,  or  open 
roaster,  is  employed 
[13],  where  't  In- 
flames and  hot  gase-< 
from  the  fire  on  the 
grate,  C,  play  over 
the  surface  of  the 
material  on  the 
hearth,  B.  If  a 
purer  and  whiter  product  is  \\anted.  such  as  i> 
need  by  glassmakers  and  wood  pulp  hollers,  a 


13.   OPEN    ROASTKi- 


CLOSE   ROASTER 


( 'ont'inued 


Tnuffle  furnace,  or  close  rodder,  is  used  [14].  one 
in  which  the  flames  and  hot  gases  do  not  come 
directly  into  contact  with  the  material,  but  play 
round  the  firebrick  box,  B,  in  which  the  salt 
is  contained.  It  is  usual,  in  this  case,  to  use  a 
slight  excess  of  sulphuric  acid ;  the  gases  given 
off  are  not  so  pure  as  in  the  first  part  of  the 
process.  They  are  carried  away  and  the  acid 
absorbed  in  separate  towers. 

One  hundred  parts  of  salt  yield  something 
like  116  to  120  parts  of  salt  cake. 

Mechanical  Furnaces.  Many  inven- 
tors have  devoted  themselves  to  the  construc- 
tion of  mechanical  furnaces  in  the  place  of  the 
roasters  just  described,  to  economise  labour  and 
fuel,  and  to  avoid  the  risk  of  breaking  the  pans. 
The  most  successful  of  these  is  Maetear's,  which 
consists  of  a  revolving  circular  bed  or  pan  into 
the  middle  of  which  the  salt  and  acid  are  con- 
tinuously fed.  Over  the  bed  is  a  fixed  arch, 
the  fire  passing  between  them.  The  pasty  mass 
gradually  spreads  towards  the  outer  edge  of  the 
pan  and  stirrers  carry  it  to  the  circumference, 
where  it  falls  off  the  edge,  collecting  in  a 
trough  underneath,  whence  it  is  carried  away. 
The  salt-cake  round  the  edge  of  the  pan  forms 
a  lute  and  prevents  the  escape  of  hydrochloric 
acid  under  the  pan,  flues  above  being  provided 
to  carry  it  off.  As  the  process  is  perfectly 
regular,  the  hydrochloric  acid  is  given  off  in  a 
continuous  stream. 

Salt  CaKe  Without  Sulphuric  Acid. 
By  the  Hargreaves  and  Robinson  process,  salt 
is  decomposed  by  a  mixture  of  gases  from  the 
pyrites  kilns — chiefly  sulphur  dioxide  and  air — 
without  the  direct  intervention  of  sulphuric 
acid.  The  gases,  mixed  with  steam,  are  led 
into  cast-iron  cylinders  containing  salt,  when  the 
following  reaction  ensues  : 

2NaCl      +      SO,,         +       O      +    H,,O 

Common          Sulphur         Oxygen      Steam 
salt  dioxide 

=  Na,S04      +   '  2HC1 
Sodium          Hydrochloric 
sulphate  acid. 

In  ordur  that  the  reaction  may  be  complete. 
a  s?ries  of  iron  cylinders  is  provided,  and  the 
fresh  gases  are  led  first  into  the  cylinders  in 
which  the  salt  has  already  been  exposed  for  some 
time  to  treatment,  finally  reaching  those  freshly 
filled  with  salt,  when  the  gases  are  nearly  ex- 
hausted. Special  precautions  are  necessary 
to  allow  of  free  passage  of  the  gases  ;  the  salt  i.s 
moistened  with  steam,  pressed  into  cakes,  and 
dried.  In  this  state  it  is  fed  into  the  cylinders,  the 
whole  operation  being  conducted  mechanically. 

Properties  of  the  Acid.  The  com- 
mercial hydrochloric  acid  is  a  fuming  liquid, 
generally  coloured  yellow  by  the  iron  it  contains. 
This  iron  is  derived  from  the  pans.  Its  purity 
will  generally  depend  upon  the  purity  of  the 
sulphuric  acid  used  to  discompose  the  salt.  If 
pyrities  acid  has  been  employed,  the  hydro- 
chloric acid  will  contain  arsenic.  The  common 
muriatic  acid  contains  from  30  to  32  per  cent. 
of  hydrochloric  acid  gas. 


THE   MAKING    OF   WROT    IRON 

Finery    Methods.       Puddling.       Modified    Pro- 
cesses.    Rolling  Mills.     Rolling  Special  Sections 


Group  14 

METALS 
6 

IRON  AND  STEEL 

continued  from 
page  4471 


By  A.    H.    HIORNS 


""THE  production  of  malleable  iron  from  pig  iron 
is  divisible  into  two  classes — the  ancient  or 
finery  methods  and  the  reverberatory  or  puddling 
methods,  although  the  reactions  are  similar 
in  both  cases. 

Finery  Method.  The  graphite  first 
passes  into  combined  carbon  and  is  then  con- 
verted into  carbonic  oxide  by  the  oxygen  of  the 
blast  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  action  of  oxide 
of  iron  dissolved  in  the  slag.  At  the  time  of 
fusion  the  foreign  elements  begin  to  be  rapidly 
oxidised.  The  silica  unites  with  the  oxide 
of  manganese,  together  with  some  oxide  of  iron, 
and  forms  the  slag.  The  ferrous  oxide  (FeO)  of 
the  slag  acts  as  a  vehicle  for  oxygen,  uniting 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  is  converted 
into  the  magnetic  oxide  (Fe:JO4).  This  coming 
into  contact  with  impure  iron  oxidises  the  iron 
itself,  being  converted  into  FeO.  After  a  time 
the  slag  becomes  neutral,  and  is  in  part  removed  ; 
then  fresh  basic  and  hammer  slag  are  added. 
To  complete  the  operation  the  iron  in  masses  is 
lifted  up  to  the  twyer  level  in  order  to  oxidise 
the  carbon  thoroughly.  The  white-hot  mass  of 
iron,  which  is  of  a  spongy  consistency,  is  then 
taken  to  a  heavy  hammer  and  compressed  to  a 
slab,  termed  a  bloom.  The  subsequent  treatment 
of  the  bloom  varies  in  different  countries.  In 
Italy  the  partially -refined  mass  is  taken  out  and 
cooled  with  water,  then  broken  up  and  reheated 
sufficiently  to  allow  the  iron  and  the  slag  to 
cake  together,  when  it  is  again  removed.  In 
the  third  stage  the  above  mass  of  iron  is  reheated 
with  a  rich  slag  until  it  is  practically  refined. 

Charcoal  Iron.  In  South  Wales  a  superior 
quality  of  tin-plate  iron  is  made  from  the  best 
pig  iron  in  a  charcoal  finery.  The  pig  iron  is 
first  partially  refined  in  a  special  hearth,  termed 
a  refinery,  and  then  treated  in  charges  of  3  cwt. 
in  the  finery.  The  bloom  of  refined  iron  is 
then  shingled  and  drawn  out  into  a  bar  under 
a  lever  hammer.  This  bar  is  nicked,  broken 
and  made  into  bundles,  then  reheated  and 
welded  under  a  hammer  and  rolled  into  sheets. 
Before  finishing,  the  sheets  are  annealed,  pickled 
to  remove  scale,  and  rolled  cold  into  sheets. 

Materials  for  Wrot  Iron.  In  the 
above  finery  methods  white  cast  iron  is  more 
suitable  for  conversion  into  wrot  iron  than  grey 
iron,  since  it  does  not  pass  directly  into  the 
liquid  state,  but  assumes,  when  near  its  melting 
point,  an  intermediate  pasty  mass,  which  is  ' 
favourable  for  the  more  effective  oxidising 
action  of  the  air  and  slags.  Grey  iron,  on 
the  other  hand,  requires  a  higher  temperature 
for  fusion  and  becomes  very  liquid,  and  in  a  deep 
hearth  sinks  below  the  level  of  the  blast,  becomes 
covered  with  slag,  and  is  completely  protected 
from  the  action  of  the  air  ;  the  refining  is  delayed 


with  the  consequent  expenditure  of  extra  fuel 
and  labour.  For  this  reason  grey  iron  was  first 
converted  into  white  iron  in  the  refinery.  In 
former  times  hearth  refineries  were  called 
bloomeries.  The  reheating  or  welding  fires  were 
termed  chafferies. 

The  old  finery  is  a  rectangular  hearth,  formed 
of  cast-iron  plates  lined  with  charcoal,  the  bottom 
being  exposed  to  the  air.  Three  sides  are  verti- 
cal, while  the  remaining  side  slopes  outwards. 
The  blast  is  supplied  by  a  single  twyer.  The 
fuel  is  charcoal.  In  the  Lancashire  hearth  the 
blast  is  heated  to  about  100°  C.,  and  used  at  a 
pressure  of  i  Ib.  to  1J  Ib. 

Reverberatory  or  Puddling  Process. 
The  method  of  dry  puddling  in  a  reverberatory 
furnace  was  developed  by  Cort  in  1784.  The 
furnace  bottom  was  dished  out  and  lined  with 
sand,  which  became  glazed  over  with  slag 
during  the  working.  In  later  years  the 
bottom  was  covered  over  with  oxide  of  iron, 
formed  by  oxidising  scrap  iron  in  a  strongly 
oxidising  atmosphere.  Each  operation  was 
composed  of  three  periods — fusion,  rabbling,  and 
forming  the  blooms  —  white  or  refined  iron 
being  used.  About  4  cwt.  of  refined  iron  were 
charged  into  a  hot  furnace,  and  partially  melted 
in  half  an  hour,  forming  a  pasty  mass,  which 
was  then  stirred  with  iron  tools  to  bring  all  parts 
under  the  influence  of  oxygen.  As  the  impurities 
were  removed  and  passed  into  the  slag  the  iron 
became  less  fusible,  requiring  the  temperature  to 
be  raised.  The  particles  of  refined  iron  were 
then  collected  into  balls  by  the  puddler,  which 
were  taken  to  the  hammer  and  subsequently 
rolled.  The  reactions  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  finery,  and  the  same  kind  of  iron  is  used. 

In  1830,  Hall  found  that  by  using  old  furnace 
bottoms,  which  contained  much  oxide  of  iron, 
as  a  material  for  lining  his  puddling  furnaces, 
the  process  was  shortened  and  the  preliminary 
fining  in  a  refinery  could  be  dispensed  with. 
This  caused  the  old  brick  furnace  to  be  dis- 
carded and  to  be  replaced  by  a  frame  of  air- 
cooled  iron  plates.  This  was  lined  with  calcined 
tap  cinder  (bulldog),  which  is  still  partially  used. 
This  method  is  characterised  by  the  complete 
fluidity  of  the  pig  iron,  and  grey  iron  may  be  used. 

The  Puddler  at  Work.  When  the  furnace 
is  charged,  the  door  is  kept  closed  and  the  fires 
made  up.  When  the  iron  is  softened,  the 
puddler,  by  means  of  an  iron  bar  termed  a  rabble, 
moves  the  unmelted  portions  into  the  centre  of 
the  furnace  and  increases  the  temperature  of  the 
fire.  When  the  whole  is  melted,  it  is  rendered 
uniform  by  stirring  and  the  damper  lowered  until 
the  surface  is  covered  with  slag.  In  order  to 
cause  the  slag  to  react  on  the  molten  metal,  the 
whole  is  well  stirred.  The  slag  is  also  made  more 

4635 


METALS 

basic  by  the  addition  of  hammer  slag  and  mill 
cinder.  The  oxide  and  silicate  of  iron  ivact 
on  the  combined  carbon,  forming  carbonic  oxide, 
which  by  its  rapid  escape  causes  a  rapid  com- 
motion in  the  metal,  which  is  said  to  boil.  The 
action  is  facilitated  by  constant  stirring.  As 
the  carbon  diminishes,  the  action  becomes  less 
violent,  the  iron  begins  to  separate — termed 
coming  to  nature — in  bright  spots,  which  gradually 
collect  together.  This  reduced  iron  is  subjected 
to  a  final  heat  to  separate  the  fluid  cinder.  The 
iron  is  then  collected  into  balls  of  about  80  Ib. 
each.  These  balls  are  separately  lifted  by  tongs 
to  a  table  in  front  of  the  door  and  dragged  or 
carried  to  a  shingling  hammer  or  squeezer  to 
consolidate  the  iron  and  to  remove  the  slag. 
The  process,  therefore,  includes  the  following 
operations  : 

1.  Melting  the  pig  iron  with  or  without  pre- 
heating. 

2.  Addition  of  oxidising  materials. 

3.  Removal  of  carbon  by 
oxidation  at   high  tempera- 
tures. 

4.  Consolidation  of  the  re- 
fined iron  into  balls. 

The  excellence  of  the  iron 
produced  will  depend  on  the 
kind  of  pig  iron  used  and 
a  high  temperature  during 
the  boil,  for  if  the  tem- 
perature be  too  low  the 
reducing  action  of  the  car- 
bonic oxide  prevents  the 
complete  liberation  of  car- 
bon, and  hard,  steely  iron 
results.  The  slag  is  essen- 
tially a  silicate  of  iron  con- 
taining many  of  the  impuri- 
ties originally  present  in  the 
iron,  and  is  termed  tap  cinder. 

Yorkshire  Method 
of  Fettling.  The  cele- 
brated brands  of  iron 
known  as  Bowling  and  Low- 
moor  are  made  by  a  pro- 
cess intermediate  between 


34.    SECTION    OF   FUDDLING   FURNACE 


35.   PLAN   OF  PUDDLING   FURNACE 


reverberatory,  with  a  low,  flat  roof,  generally 
sloping  from  fireplace  to  flue.  The  fire-bridge 
and  the  flue- bridge  are  formed  of  hollow  castings 
encased  in  firebrick  ;  the  bed  is  likewise  formed 
of  iron  plates  re  batted  together ;  and  the 
sides  consist  of  hollow  iron  castings.  These 
hollow  castings  are  kept  cool  by  the  circulation 
of  air  or  water  through  them.  The  laboratory, 
or  working  part,  is  about  6  ft.  long  and  4  ft. 
wide,  tapering  towards  the  flue-bridge.  The 
grade  area  varies  from  one-third  to  one-half 
that  of  the  laboratory.  The  bed  is  lined  with 
broken  slags,  hammer  scale,  and  red  oxide  of 
iron,  or  puddlers'  mine,  and  the  sides  with  bull- 
dog, all  being  well  rammed  down,  which  is 
termed  fettling.  The  whole  of  the  brickwork 
is  cased  with  side  plates  of  iron,  united  by 
flanges  and  bolts  and  bound  with  tie-rods. 

In  Cleveland  burnt  pyrites  (blue  billy)  is  used 
as  a  fettling.  The  working  door  is  on  the  same 
side  as  the  fire-hole,  and  is  made  of  firebrick, 
set  in  an  iron  frame;  it  is 
suspended  by  a  chain  at- 
tached to  a  counterpoised 
lever.  A  flue  is  generally 
provided  for  each  furnace, 
and  communicates  with  its 
own  chimney  or  passes  into 
a  boiler  for  utilising  the 
waste  heat.  The  flue  slopes 
down  towards  the  stack,  its 
sectional  area  being  about 
one  -  fifth  to  one  -  seventh 
that  of  the  fireplace.  The 
draught  is  usually  regulated 
at  the  top  of  the  chimney 
by  a  damper,  which  is 
moved  by  a  hanging  chain. 
Two  men  are  required  for 
each  furnace — the  puddler 
and  the  under-hand.  About 
six  heats  are  worked  off  in 
12  hours,  the  charge  being 
about  4  cwt.  to  4|  cwt.  The 
smaller  amount  refers  to 


grey  iron,  and  the  larger  to 
a  mixture  of  white  and  grey 
that  of  the  dry  method  and  36.  ELEVATION  OF  PUDDLING  FURNACE  iron.  The  loss  of  weight 
the  wet  method.  Cold-  between  the  pig  iron  charged 

Mast   pig  iron  is  used.     This  pig  iron  is  first      into    the    furnace    and    the    puddled    bars    is 


treated  in  refineries,  the  plates  of  metal  thus 
obtained  being  reheated  and  charged  hot  into 
the  puddling  furnace,  where  a  high  temperature 
is  used.  The  metal,  being  free  from  silicon,  is 
soon  refined,  and  the  balls  of  iron  produced  are 
shingled  into  blooms  or  "  noblins "  about 
12  in.  square  and  2  in.  thick.  They  are  then 
broken,  the  most  fibrous  and  least  crystalline 
ones  l>eing  selected  as  the  best  iron.  These  are 
pik'd,  reheated,  and  welded  into  billets,  and 
after  again  being  reheated  are  rolled  into  bar*. 
The  success  of  the  operation  lies  in  using  good 
pig  iron  and  using  only  the  best  of  the  puddled 
blooms.  It  is  uniform  in  quality,  and  stands 


about  1|  cwt.  to  2  cwt.  per  22  cwt.  of  pig  metal. 
or  from  7  to  10  per  cent.  The  coal  required  is 
about  20  cwt.  to  22  cwt.  per  ton  of  puddled 
bars.  The  fettling  materials  required  in  a  turn 
of  12  hours  are  from  6  cwt.  to  7  cwt.  of  bulldog 
and  from  2  cwt.  to  3  cwt.  of  puddlers1  mine,  in 
addition  to  the  mill-scale  added  to  the  charge. 

Fettling.  The  fettling  used  in  puddling 
furnaces  is  of  three  varieties,  depending  on  the 
quality  of  the  pig  iron  employed.  It  may  bo 
classified  as  fusible,  moderately  fusible,  and  in- 
fttxihh'.  The  fusible  kind  is  a  silicate  of  iron 
containing  some  magnetic  oxide.  Haminer- 
slag  is  tin-  material  used  for  this  purpose.  It  is 


several  times   reheating    and    welding    without      regarded  as  a  flux,  and  the  obiect  is  to  yield  a 

fl»'tr>rinr;Lt  inn  a..u     u_tu     •    .«.„      -   i.:,  i.     ^.i.  _  ;  r    • 


deterioration. 

Puddling    Furnace.      The  modern   pud- 
dling   furna<e    [34    to    36]    is    a    single-bedded      downstage,  and  thus  hasten  the  operation.     The 

4036 


fluid  bath   into   which  the  grains  of  iron  may 
trickle  and  become  purified  during  the  melting- 


amount  of  slag  required  is  about  one-sixth  that 
of  the  pig  iron  used.  The  moderately  fusible 
kind  is  used  to  form  the  sides  of  the  furnace. 
It  must  have  a  higher  melting  point  than  the 
pig  iron,  and  melt  only  as  the  temperature 
rises,  so  as  to  nourish  the  iron  at  the  later  stages 
of  the  refining.  Bulldog  and  similar  material 
which  contain  much  ferric  oxide  are  used  for  this 
purpose.  Bulldog  is  calcined  tap  cinder,  the 
calcination  being  conducted  in  open  heaps  or 
in  kilns.  This  fettling  is  used  for  ordinary 
varieties  of  iron,  but  for  the  best  brands  of 
wrought  iron  a  more  infusible  fettling  is  employed, 
such  as  purple  ore  or  blue  billy.  The  infusible 
fettling  consists  of  ferric  and  magnetic  oxides, 
such  as  haematite  and  pottery  mine,  used  in 
compact  lumps. 

Pig  Iron  for  Fuddling.  White  pig 
iron  is  sometimes  employed  for  puddling, 
especially  on  the  Continent,  for  making  sheet 
iron,  as  the  sheets  are  less  liable  to  black  streaks 
of  slag.  White  iron  works  more  quickly  than 
grey,  as  it  contains  less  silicon  and  manganese, 
but  it  gives  a  smaller  yield  of  puddled  iron  per 
ton  of  pig  iron  used.  The  iron  chiefly  used 
in  England  is  No.  4,  which  is  a  strong  and  close- 
grained  grey  pig-iron.  As  already  mentioned, 
the  fettling  used  depends  on  the  quality  of  the 
pig  iron,  for  if  much  silicon  and  phosphorus  are 
present  a  more  infusible  fettling  is  required. 
Such  irons  are  said  to  be  "  hungry."  They 
require  more  time,  more  fettling,  make  the 
slag  too  thin,  and  tend  to  yield  a  brittle  bar  iron. 
A  little  phosphorus  is  an  advantage,  as  it 
increases  the  yield  of  iron  and  prevents  the 
cinder  from  getting  too  thick  towards  the  end 
of  the  operation,  which  would  produce  red- 
shortness.  The  presence  of  manganese  is  an 
advantage,  since  it  covers  the  carbon,  delays 
its  removal,  gives  greater  fluidity  to  the  slag, 
and  helps  to  remove  phosphorus  and  sulphur. 

Special  Furnaces.  In  Anderson's  fur- 
nace the  end  and  crown  of  the  fireplace  are 
made  with  a  double  wall  of  bricks  forming  an 
air  passage  between.  The  air  in  passing  through 
this  becomes  heated  and  thus  supplies  hot  air 
to  the  furnace ;  it  also  serves  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  outside  walls  cooler.  This  system 
is  employed  in  the  North  of  England  for  ball 
and  mill  furnaces.  Double  furnaces  are  also 
employed  and  consist  of  two  furnaces  placed 
back  to  back  with  the  dividing  wall  removed. 
They  have  the  disadvantages  of  unequal  working 
of  the  men  and  the  greater  difficulty  of  working 
with  larger  masses  of  metal. 

Mechanical  Puddling.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  introduce  mechanical 
.puddling  tools  in  order  to  lessen  the  enormous 
manual  labour  expended  in  hand  puddling,  but 
with  little  success.  Such  tools  are  arranged' 
so  as  to  be  capable  of  a  compound  motion 
over  the  bed  of  the  furnace.  The  rabble  is 
supported  in  a  stirrup  connected  with  a  lever 
actuated  by  overhead  mechanism,  and  by 
means  of  a  fast  and  loose  pulley  can  be  put  in 
or  out  of  gear  at  will. 

Revolving  Furnaces.  The  best  form 
is  that  of  Danks,  which  consists  of  an  iron 


METALS 

cylinder  with  conical  ends,  4  ft.  long  and  5£  ft. 
in  greatest  diameter.  On  the  inside  are  twelve 
ribs  to  keep  the  fettling  in  position.  The 
cylinder  is  encircled  at  each  end  with  a  roller- 
way,  which  rests  on  anti-friction  rollers.  One 
end  is  open  to  the  fireplace  and  the  other  opens 
into  an  elbow-shaped  movable  flue  leading 
to  the  chimney.  The  fireplace  is  provided 
with  an  air-blast  pipe  placed  below  the  grate, 
and  also  small  twyers  for  introducing  air  at  the 
fire-bridge.  The  furnace  is  lined  initially  with 
a  mixture  of  crushed  ore  and  lime ;  then  on  this 
there  is  laid  a  lining  of  iron  ore  and  hammer 
slag,  into  which,  when  soft,  lumps  of  hard  ore 
are  thrown.  The  charge  consists  of  pig  iron 
with  20  per  cent,  of  cinder,  and  as  this  melts 
the  furnace  is  revolved,  the  action  being  the 
same  as  in  the  ordinary  puddling  furnace.  The 
process  is  automatic,  and  the  puddled  iron  is 
collected  into  a  large  ball  ready  for  the 
hammer. 

Gas  Puddling  Furnaces.  By  the  use 
of  a  gas  furnace  a  higher  temperature  can 
be  obtained  than  by  using  solid  fuel.  Of  such 
furnaces  that  of  Siemens  is  one  of  the  best. 
It  is  of  the  ordinary  regenerative  type,  and  it 
possesses  the  advantage  of  having  the  tem- 
peratures more  under  control,  and  an  oxidising, 
reducing,  or  neutral  atmosphere  can  be  obtained 
at  will. 

Treatment  of  Puddled  Iron.  This 
consists  of  shingling,  or  hammering,  and  rolling. 
Squeezers  are  also  used  instead  of  the  hammer. 
The  white  balls  of  puddled  iron  are  taken  to 
the  hammer  or  squeezer  to  expel  slag,  to  weld 
the  iron  into  a  compact  mass,  and  to  confer  a 
shape  suitable  for  rolling.  The  tilt  hammer  is 
used  for  small  work.  The  helve  hammer  was 
universally  employed  for  heavy  work,  but  has 
been  largely  replaced  by  the  steam-hammer. 
This  is  now  used  both  for  shingling  and  welding. 
It  is  a  simple  direct-acting  machine,  and  takes 
but  little  room  compared  with  the  cumbrous 
wheel  work  of  the  old  helve.  The  force  of  the 
blow  in  shingling  is  generally  required  to  be 
light  at  first,  and  with  the  steam-hammer  the 
force  can  be  varied  with  the  work  to  be  done. 

Another  advantage  is  that  the  hammer 
always  works  parallel  with  the  piece  under 
operation,  which  is  not  the  case  with  helves, 
the  hammerman  having  to  use  thickness  pieces 
to  overcome  this  difficulty.  Both  sides  of  the 
steam-hammer  are  also  accessible  for  working. 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  vertical  high-pressure 
engine  with  an  inverted  cylinder.  The  piston 
rod  is  attached  to  a  heavy  block  or  tup  moving 
between  guides  on  the  inner  faces  of  the  stand- 
ards, which  form  part  of  a  massive  cast-iron 
framing.  The  ordinary  hammer  is  double- 
acting,  the  steam  being  exhausted  above  and 
below  the  piston.  The  hammer  varies  in 
weight  from  30  cwt.  to  60  cwt.,  but  the  force  of 
the  blow  is,  to  a  great  extent,  independent  of 
the  mass  of  the  hammer  head. 

Squeezers  are  of  two  kinds — lever  and  rotatory. 
In  the  former  a  movable  upper  jaw  is  actuated 
by  a  crank  and  connecting  rod  attached  to  one 
end.  The  rotatory  squeezer  consists  of  a 

4637 


METALS 

cylindrical  casting,  tlic  inner  surface  being 
studded  \\ith  teeth.  Within  this  also  revolves 
:i  ( •viinder  similarly  studded  and  placed  eccen- 
trically with  regard  to  that  of  the  outer  casing. 
The  hall  is  carried  forward  along  a  gradually 
narrowing  path  and  compressed  to  smaller 
dimensions. 

Rolling  Mill.  The  rolling  mill  for 
puddled  iron  contains  two  sets  of  rolls — the 
roughing  and  the  finishing  rolls.  The  rough- 
ing rolls  are  usually  5  ft.  long,  and  about 
20  in.  in  diameter,  forming  a  series  of  gothic 
and  diamond -shaped  grooves  between  them, 
diminishing  in  size  from  right  to  left.  The 
larger  grooves  are  gothic  shaped  and  roughened, 
so  as  to  lay  hotU  of  the  iron  more  effectually  ; 
the  smaller  ones  are  diamond  shaped.  The 
distance  between  the  rolls  is  regulated  by  the 
screws  and  the  connection  between  them  is 
established  by  means  of  the  cogs  attached  to 
the  ends.  The  journals  or  necks  of  the  rolls 
run  into  metal  bearings,  which  are  supported 
in  cast-iron  frames  or  housings.  The  finishing 
rolls  are  arranged  in  housings  similar  to  the 
roughing  pair,  but  have  rectangular  channels 
instead  of  the  diamond  grooves.  These  channels 
diminish  in  size  from  right  to  left.  The  two  sets 
of  rolls  are  generally  connected  together  by 
heavy  couplings  keyed  tightly  together.  The  two 
rolls  of  each  pah-  revolve  at  the  same  speed, 
which  in  the  roughing  rolls  is  about  70  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  and  in  the  finishing  rolls  about 
00  per  minute  when  separate. 

The  bloom  of  iron  is  first  passed  through  the 
largest  groove  of  the  roughing  rolls,  then  lifted 
back  over  the  top  roll,  turned  one  quarter 
round,  and  passed  through  the  next  smaller 
hole.  This  operation  is  repeated  until  the 
bloom  is  reduced  to  a  square  bar  small  enough 
to  enter  the  flat  grooves  of  the  finishing  rolls. 
In  this  pair  the  process  of  reduction  is  continued 
until  a  puddled  bar  of  the  desired  thickness  is 
obtained.  Puddled  bars  may  have  ragged 
edges  and  a  rough  surface,  and  for  the  produc- 
tion of  good  bars  they  are  cut  up,  piled,  re- 
heated and  welded. 

Reheating.  Bars  and  slabs  of  iron 
obtained  by  shingling  and  rolling  puddled  iron 
require  to  be  refined  if  best  malleable  iron  be 
defied.  They  are  cut  up  into  short  lengths, 
arranged  in  faggots  or  bundles,  then  reheated  and 
welded  by  hammering  and  rolling.  The  rever- 
beratory  furnace  for  reheating  is  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  the  puddling  furnace,  but  the  bed  is  flat, 
with  a  slight  slope  downwards  towards  the  flue, 
so  that  the  liquated  cinder  flows  out  at  the  flue 
bottom  and  is  termed  flue  cinder.  Ordinary 
reheating  furnaces  are  relatively  inexpensive 
to  erect  and  are  easily  worked,  but  are  ex- 
travagant in  fuel,  while  the  waste  due  to  oxida- 
tion is  considerable.  On  this  account  gas-fired 


furnaces  are  largely  used  with  consequent  saving 
of  fuel  and  diminution  of  oxidation. 

Mill  rolls  are  classified  according  to  their 
shape  into : 

1.  Flat  or  plain  rolls  for  sheets  and  plates. 

2.  Grooved  rolls,  for  bars,  angle  and  channel 
iron. 

For  the  production  of  sheets  and  plates  re- 
quiring a  fine  surface  chilled  rolls  are  used. 
The  mill  rolls  or  mill  train  for  rolling  merchant 
iron  also  consists  of  two  sets — the  billeting  or 
roughing  pair  and  the  finishing  pair.  The  rolls 
are  provided  with  tightening  and  adjusting 
screws  for  keeping  them  accurately  in 
position. 

Rolling  Small  Sections.  In  rolling 
small  and  light  sections,  which  are  difficult 
to  keep  from  distortion  while  hot,  a  fore  plate 
and  guide  jaws  are  added  to  the  arrange- 
ment so  as  to  keep  the  section  straight.  In 
two-high  trains  revolving  constantly  in  one 
direction,  it  is  necessary  to  return  the  work  over 
the  roll  after  each  pass,  and  this  takes  up  a  lot 
of  time  so  that  reversing  rolls  are  often  used 
and  reversed  at  each  passing  of  the  metal.  The 
reversal  is  effected  either  by  reversing  the 
engine  itself,  or  by  the  use  of  hydraulic  friction, 
or  other  clutches  and  gearing  on  the  engine  shaft. 
For  lifting  the  iron  on  to  the  top  of  the  single 
pair  of  roils  after  a  passage  through  them,  so 
as  to  return  it  to  the  man  for  another  passage, 
a  travelling  carriage  with  forked  levers  is  used 
for  light  work.  For  heavy  work  an  iron  table 
is  provided  which  is  raised  by  a  single-acting 
engine,  or  by  a  hydraulic  cylinder  and  ram. 
Three-high  rolls  consist  of  roughing  and  finish- 
ing rolls  each  of  which  is  a  combination  of  three 
rolls  in  its  own  pair  of  housings.  In  this  case 
the  mill  is  generally  driven  from  the  middle 
roll,  and  arranged  so  that  the  middle  roll  revolves 
forwards  with  the  lower  one  and  backwards 
with  the  top  one.  The  work  thus  passes  back- 
wards and  forwards  alternately  through  the 
upper  and  lower  pair.  The  various  shapes  into 
which  the  iron  is  finally  rolled  are:  plates, 
.strips,  sheets,  bars,  rails  and  various  sections. 
Bars  are  round,  half-round,  square,  flat,  oval, 
octagon,  etc. 

Special  Sections.  Other  shapes  are 
made,  such  as  tee-iron,  T  ;  angle-iron,  L ; 
channel-iron  LJ  ;  aitch-iron,  H  ;  Z-iron,  etc. 

There  are  three  chief  imperfections  in  finished 
iron  ;  these  are  (1)  spills,  which  are  due  to 
enclosed  foreign  matter,  such  as  slag  or  oxido 
of  iron  ;  such  parts  prevent  cohesion  and 
cause  the  metal  to  peel  off  after  rolling  ;  (2) 
blisters,  due  to  the  presence  of  enclosed  gases, 
such  as  carbonic  oxide  ;  (3)  ragged  edges,  due 
to  imperfections  in  the  rolls,  or  careless  working, 
or  it  may  be  due  to  the  iron  being  deficient  in 
cinder,  which  makes  the  metal  red-short. 


Continued 


Group  4 

HEAVY    TIMBERING 

BUILDING 

Flitching  and  Trussing.    Staging,  Towers,  and  Trestles.    Timber  Bridges.     Piles. 

32 

Cofferdams.   Staithes.  Crane-work.   Methods  of  Handling  Timber.  Gates  &  Fences 

CARPESTRY 

continued   from 

page  4448 

By  WILLIAM   J.     HORNER 


IN  heavy  carpentry  there  is  a  greater  proportion 
of  temporary  work  now  used  than  formerly, 
very  large  timber  structures  being  often  erected 
only  to  serve  as  stagings  for  permanent  buildings 
in  iron  or  stone.  At  the  same  time,  for  large 
work  of  a  permanent  and  substantial  character, 
wood  is  becoming  less  and  less  popular,  but  it 
is  still  employed  largely  in  those  countries  where 
it  is  plentiful  and  cheap.  One  result  of  the 
extensive  use  of  temporary  works  is  that  car- 
pentry is  often  of  a  simple  character,  for  there 
is  less  necessity  for  elaborate  and  neat  jointing 
than  there  is  in  permanent  structures.  Bolts, 
straps,  tie  rods  and  castings  are  used  more 
freely  to  unite  timbers,  and  less  time  is  spent 
in  making  joints  more  or  less  intricate  in  the 
wood.  They  are  of  the  simplest  possible 
character,  being,  as  a  rule,  nothing  more  than 
plain  butt  or  lap  joints,  united  by  suitable  metal 
connections.  In  permanent  work  more  regard 
has  to  be  paid  to  appearance,  and  though  in 
many  cases  the  same  metal  fastenings  are 
employed  the  finish  must  be  neater  and  the 
fitting  more  carefully  done  where  there  is  advan- 
tage in  making  it  so.  Heavy  carpentry,  how- 
ever, is  comparatively  simple  work,  and  largely 
repetitive  when  the  arrangement  and  dimensions 
of  the  timbers  have  been  decided  on.  Some 
selected  examples  are  given  in  this  article. 

Flitch  Beams.  When  beams  of  great 
strength  are  required  the  wood  is  often  fiitched. 
This  is  done  by  sawing  the  balk  down  the  middle 
and  bolting  it  together  again  with  a  wrought- 
iron  flitch  plate  between  [304].  The  plate  is 
about  £  in.  thick,  and  of  the  same  length  as  the 
beam,  but  generally  a  trifle  less  in  depth,  to 
allow  for  shrinkage  of  the  wood,  and  to  avoid 
the  consequent  projecting  ridge  of  metal.  The 
heart  of  the  wood  in  such  cases  is  turned  out- 
wards, to  expose  it  to  the  air  and  ensure  thorough 
seasoning.  Even  without  the  metal  plate 
between,  rather  more  reliance  can  be  placed  on  a 
balk  which  has  been  treated  in  this  way  than  on 
a  solid  one,  because  there  are  then  no  fissures 
hidden  in  the  interior  which  would  make  its 
actual  strength  uncertain.  Another  method  less 
commonly  practised  is  to  bolt  plates  on  the 
outside,  enclosing  the  beam  between  two  plates 
of  metal.  Flitch  beams,  however,  and  also  those 
in  which  great  depth  is  obtained  by  joggling,  or 
serrating  balks  together,  examples  of  which  were 
shown  in  238  and  239  [page  4115],  are  being  less 
and  less  employed,  owing  to  the  increasing  use 
of  rolled  iron  or  steel  girders. 

Temporary  Towers.  Timbers  of  un- 
limited length  and  section  can  also  be  built  up 
of  deals,  as  shown  in  237  [page  4115].  For  the 
support  of  the  Charing  Cross  Station  roof,  after 
the  collapse  of  the  tie  rod  in  December,  1905, 


the  uprights  were  built  in  this  way.  Each  up- 
right comprised  three  thicknesses  of  9  in.  by 
3  in.  planking,  bolted  together  to  break  joint. 
They  were  about  80  ft.  high,  and  covered  an 
area  of  25  ft.  There  were  eight  uprights  to 
each  tower,  and  all  braced  together  with  hori- 
zontals and  diagonals.  The  towers  were  con- 
nected by  strong  stagings  and  to  the  station 
walls.  Timber  lends  itself  better  to  rapid  work 
of  this  kind  than  metal  does,  for  these  massive 
towers  were  erected  in  eight  or  nine  days  and 
nights. 

Trussed  Beams.  These  are  very  fre- 
quently employed  in  preference  to  more  massive 
solid  beams  of  equal  strength.  Trussing  may  be 
done  by  tie  rods  within  the  depth  of  the  beam, 
arranged  to  prevent  it  from  sagging  in  the  middle, 
but  usually  the  truss  extends  below  the  timber, 
as  in  305  and  306.  Square  balks  are  thus  usually 
employed  sufficiently  rigid  to  resist  transverse 
strain  when  trussed,  the  stress  being  transmitted 
to  the  truss  rods  as  tensile  forces,  and  to  the 
struts  as  compressive  ones.  A  truss  with  two 
struts  is  properly  braced  by  diagonal  ties 
between,  as  dotted  in  306,  if  it  has  to  carry  a 
load  moving  from  end  to  end,  but  not  otherwise. 
The  reason  is  that  the  tie  rods  tend  to  straighten 
out,  and  bend  the  beam  unless  counterbraced. 
The  depth  of  beam  may  sometimes  be  made 
strong  enough  in  itself  to  resist  this  tendency, 
but  that  would  not  be  practicable  in  long  spans. 
If  there  is  no  moving  load,  but  a  dead  one 
imposed,  no  counter  bracing  is  necessary. 

Trussing  may  be  an  alternative  to  the  employ- 
ment of  diagonal  struts  from  the  posts  which 
support  the  ends  of  a  beam,  but  in  many  cases 
strutting  is  not  practicable,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  beams  of  an  overhead  travelling  crane,  which 
must  be  free  to  move  along  its  gantry. 

In  short  spans,  the  beam  is  trussed  with  a  single 
support  or  strut  in  the  middle  [305,  A] ;  in  longer 
ones  support  is  given  at  two  intermediate  points 
[306,  A  A].  The  struts  are  usually  castings, 
but  are  sometimes  made  of  timber.  Castings, 
B  B,  are  usually  necessary  also  on  the  ends  of 
the  beam,  having  lugs  to  receive  the  screwed 
ends  of  the  tie  rods,  and  provide  a  seating 
for  the  nuts  in  tightening  up  the  rods. 

The  carpenters  who  prepare  the  timbers  also 
fit  the  castings  and  complete  the  truss.  The 
recesses  in  the  castings  are  properly  |  in.  or  £  in. 
less  than  the  timber  sections  to  allow  a  little  for 
possible  shrinkage  and  fitting.  They  are  tapered 
to  drive  on  tightly,  the  timber  ends  are  smeared 
with  thick,  white  lead  paint,  and  the  shoes 
driven  on  with  heavy,  long-handled  mallets. 
In  many  cases  a  single  tie  rod  will  be  fitted  in  the 
centre  of  the  beam  instead  of  two,  as  shown  in 
305  and  306,  flanking  the  beam.  Then  diagonal 

4639 


BUILDING 

holes  have  to  be  l><>iv<l  \\ith  an  aiij^cr  to  pass  Un- 
bolts through.  The  threads  of  the  bolts  must 
never  measure  less  in  diameter  at  their  roots 
than  the  diameter  of  the  tie  rods. 

Built-up  Girders.  Instead  of  trussing  a 
beam  with  tie  rods  and  struts,  its  depth  may  be 
increased  by  separating  it  into  upper  and  lower 
members,  and  in  place  of  solid  material  between 
connection  is  made  by  diagonal  braces  [307].  This 
increase  in  depth  gives  enhanced  rigidity  without 
corresponding  increase  in  weight.  The  material, 
in  fact,  is  removed  from  the  middle  or  neutral 
plane  of  the  beam,  where  it  is  of  little  or  no  value, 
and  concentrated  along  the  planes  of  greatest 
stress.  Diagonal  bracing  and  vertical  posts  are 
usually  associated  in  this  connection  of  top  and 
bottom  rails,  but  the  diagonals  are  the  most 
essential ;  the  verticals  alone  would  be  useless. 
Often  the  verticals  are  of  iron  rod,  while  the 
horizontals  and  diagonals  are  of  wood  [307],  but 
frequently  all  the  members  are  of  timber. 

Trussing  and  strutting  are,  of  course,  neces- 
sary chiefly  for  horizontal  timbers  which  would 
otherwise  not  be  sufficiently  rigid  to  resist  stresses 
which  would  sink  or  fracture  them  about  the 
centre.  The  alternative  is  to  support  them  at 
frequent  intervals  throughout  their  length  by 
perpendiculars.  This  is  not  always  practicable  or 
advisable.  As  vertical  timbers  are  seldom  sub- 
jected to  direct  transverse  stress  as  horizontal 
ones  are,  they  require  lateral  support  to  bring 
them  into  the  condition  of  short  columns.  The 
methods  of  doing  this  necessarily  resemble  the 
strutting  and  trussing  of  many  horizontals,  for 
diagonals  are  required  in  both  cases.  It  is  true 
that  in  a  narrow  structure  like  a  ladder  diagonals 
can  be  dispensed  with,  but  if  length,  width,  and 
stability  were  the  only  considerations,  a  much 
smaller  number  of  transverse  members  would  be 
used,  and  equal  stability  would  be  attained  by 
diagonal  pieces  either  fitting  between  them  or 
over  all.  If  we  take  a  framework  that  is  wider. 
or  more  nearly  square  in  its  proportions  [308],  it 
is  obvious  that  diagonal  braces  from  corner  to 
corner  will  tie  the  frame  more  directly  and 
securely  than  a  far  greater  amount  of  material 
inserted  in  the  form  of  transverse  bars.  Diagonal 
bracing,  therefore,  is  always  employed  in  struc- 
tural work  between  horizontal  and  vertical 
members.  The  result  is  that  the  main  timbers 
of  the  structure  are  tied  at  so  many  points  that, 
no  matter  what  their  length  or  the  size  or  form 
of  the  structure  may  be,  stresses  produce  no 
alteration  in  form,  for  the  diagonals  come  at 
once  into  play  as  rigid  ties  and  struts. 

Looking  at  309,  which  is  a  typical  arrangement 
of  timbers  in  a  tall  structure,  each  vertical 
member  would,  if  unstayed,  become  bent  or 
broken  by  a  vertical  load  as  certainly  as  though 
it  were  stressed  by  direct  forces  acting  laterally. 
But  the  diagonals  and  horizontals  in  effect 
shorten  the  lengths,  bringing  the  structure  into 
a  condition  of  superimposed  short  columns, 
which  would  resist  bending,  the  effective  length 
of  the  columns  being  A  A,  even  without  the 
horizontals,  which  resist  tendency  to  bending 
midway  between  the  union  of  the  diagopals.  In 
310,  additional  rigidity  is  obtained  by  the 

4040 


outstanding  struts.  These  are  equally  suitable 
either  for  a  vertical  or  horizontal  structure. 

Trestles.  Trestles  are  structures  placed 
at  intervals  to  support  overhead  roads,  railways, 
bridges,  or  platforms.  They  are  built  up  of 
verticals,  horizontals,  and  diagonals,  similar  in 
principle  to  309,  but  to  give  increased  stability 
on  their  base  they  generally  taper,  as  shown  in 
311  and  312.  Their  design  may  vary  considerably. 
The  two  examples  given  are  suitable  either  for 
temporary  or  permanent  works,  and  are  typical 
of  many  American  bridge  trestles.  Some  arrange- 
ments of  timbers  for  temporary  staging  are 
illustrated  in  the  article  beginning  on  page  1170. 

In  permanent  structures  similar  arrangements 
are  adopted,  but  more  carefully  and  neatly 
designed  and  executed.  Instead,  for  instance,  of 
bolting  braces  or  transverse  members  on  to  sur- 
faces, they  would  be  stub  tenoned  between  in  the 
same  plane.  Or,  instead  of  securing  joints  by 
driving  in  dogs  or  spikes,  bolts,  coach  screws,  or 
straps  would  be  used  under  similar  circumstances. 

Plain  butt  joints  are  very  common  in  tem- 
porary work,  but  not  in  permanent  structures, 
where  stub  tenons,  joggles,  cogs,  notches,  or 
dowels  are  employed  to  prevent  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  parts  quite  independently  of  the 
means  which  hold  them  together. 

Bridges.  Bridges  entirely  or  partly  of  wood 
are  common,  especially  in  America,  where  timber 
is  the  material  most  readily  available.  Timber  is, 
of  course,  more  suitable  for  very  small  bridges 
than  for  large  ones.  Foundations  of  stone  or 
brick  for  a  wooden  bridge  are  more  permanent 
than  wood  piles.  If  a  bridge  runs  over  a  river, 
it  is  cheaper  to  drive  piles  for  intermediate 
supports,  but  masonry  can  be  employed  without 
difficulty  for  buttresses.  The  bridge  itself  is 
always  trussed  in  some  way  to  give  it  sufficient 
strength  to  span  from  one  support  to  another, 
and  to  carry  the  load  required.  The  trussing 
may  be  done  either  above  or  below  the  roadway, 
or  both.  Fig.  313  shows  a  horizontal  bridge 
timber  supported  by  struts  from  the  but- 


This,  of  course,  is  suitable  only  for  a  very  short 
span,  but  strutting  of  more  complicated  charac- 
ter is  often  practised  in  addition  to  trussing. 
Fig.  314  shows  a  simple  truss  of  the  king  post 
type  suitable  for  a  short  span,  or,  by  inserting  a 
series  of  posts  and  struts,  the  span  might  be 
extended.  It  might  also  be  further  increased  in 
rigidity  by  diagonals  or  counterbraces  in  the 
opposite  direction  as  dotted.  Fig.  315  is  a 
truss  of  the  queen  post  type,  suitable  only  for 
a  short  span  ;  316  is  suitable  for  long  spans.  The 
bridge  sides  are  built  up  of  a  series  of  posts  and 
diagonal  braces  between  the  upper  and  lower 
chords,  and  this  may  be  further  stiffened  by  an 
arched  rib  bolted  to  each  side  as  shown. 

Heavy  timber  work  has  probably  never  been 
so  fully  developed  in  any  country  as  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  where  hundreds  of 
railway  bridges  have  been  built  of  that  material. 
Timber  was,  and  is,  superabundant  and  cheap, 
and  the  sawmills  convert  it  into  squared  sections 
of  all  sizes  at  low  cost.  But  for  this  fact  many 
of  the  primitive  railways  in  sparsely  populated 


317 


HEAVY   TIMBERING 

304.  Flitch  beam     305  and  306.    Trussed  beams     307.    Built-up  girder     308.   Braced  frame     309-312.   Examples  of 
trestle  work    313-316.  Methods  of  imparting  rigidity  to  bridge  timbers    31 7.  A  Howe  truss  for  a  large  timber  bridge 

s  4641 


BUILDING 

districts  could  not  have  been  constructed. 
Though  the  timber  bridges  and  viaducts  are^not 
long  lived,  neither  are  those  of  steel.  The 
first  part  to  decay  is  the  bottom  chords,  or  booms, 
which  have  to  be  repaired  or  renewed  in  about 
from  seven  to  ten  years  if  unprotected  from  the 
weather.  But  if  covered  in  they  last  for  about 
thirty  years.  Timber  has  been  used  for  spans 
of  over  200  feet.  The  ingenuity  which  has  been 
displayed  in  building  up  these  spans  is  an  interest- 
ing study  in  how  to  obtain  maximum  strength 
with  materials  in  themselves  relatively  weak, 
and  with  the  simplest  kinds  of  joints.  These 
trestle  bridges  are  constructed  of  trusses  with 
triangular  panels,  one  example  of  which  is  shown 
in  317,  being  a  Howe  truss  supported  on  trestles, 
or  towers,  some  of  which  are  of  great  height. 
One  section  of  a  trestle  is  a  repetition  of  other 
sections,  and  one  panel  of  a  truss  is  like  another, 
so  that  the  work  is  repetitive.  Cast  and  wrought 
iron  enter  into  the  construction  only  at  the  joints 
and  fastenings.  As  the  sticks  of  timber  do  not 
exceed  from  50  to  60  ft.  in  length,  a  number  of 
fish  joints,  or  clamp  joints,  as  they  are  termed, 
are  necessary  in  making  up  the  total  lengths. 
They  are  made  to  break  joint  at  long  intervals, 
and  iron  or  wooden  clamps  are  employed  to 
tie  them.  Figs.  317  to  324  show  these  arrange- 
ments, and  also  the  method  of  building  up  the 
top  and  bottom  booms  or  chords,  while  their 
position  in  the  bridge  truss  is  seen  in  317,  which 
shows  a  panel,  and  318  a  cross  section  through 
the  bridge,  including  the  rail  track. 

The  top  and  bottom  chords,  A  B,  are  each 
built  of  four-  rows  of  jointed  balks,  breaking 
joint  as  already  mentioned,  so  that  the  joints 
in  one  row  or  length  come  several  feet  away 
from  those  in  the  one  adjacent.  They  are  not 
in  lateral  contact,  but  separated  about  2  in.  [319 
and  320],  which  gives  spaces  for  the  clamping 
plates  while  avoiding  having  to  notch  the  tim- 
bers deeply.  To  key  these  open  balks  together 
into  a  practically  solid  mass  packing  blocks 
[319  A]  are  inserted  at  intervals,  each  set  arranged 
in  line  across,  and  bolts  are  inserted  through  them 
and  the  timbers,  as  shown  in  319.  To  ensure  a 
tight  fit  these  packings  are  tapered  edgewise, 
being  about  £  in,  narrower  at  the  bottom  than 
at  the  top,  and  are  thus  driven  in  firmly.  The 
grain  runs  in  the  same  direction  as  that  in  the 
balks,  so  that  they  will  not  loosen  by  shrinkage. 

When  end  joints  meet  they  are  variously 
secured  by  iron  or  wooden  clamps.  If  of  iron, 
£-in.  plates  are  used  with  iron  joggles  riveted  or 
bolted  across  them  to  enter  into  grooves  in  the 
timber  [321].  The  plates  fit  on  opposite  faces, 
and  bolts  pass  through  the  whole.  Tf  wood 
clamps  are  used  they  are  notched  to  enter  into 
notches  in  the  main  timbers  on  each  side  of  the 
joint.  Two  wooden  clamps  are  shown  at  320  bb. 
and  a  clamp  separately  in  322.  Figs.  323  and 
324  show  similar  clamps  uniting  horizontal  with 
vertical  members.  The  top  and  bottom  booms 
are  identical  in  construction,  differing  only  in 
dimensions,  but  the  bottom  booms  are  connected 
by  cross  bracings,  and  they  carry  heavy  cross 
timbers  [C,  317  and  318]  to  receive  longitudinals. 
D,  upon  which  the  rail  sleepers  are  laid.  The 

4642 


top   and  bottom   booms   are  connected  by  the 
diagonals     [317],  .which     are    stepped    against 
castings  through  which  vertical  tie   bolts  pass. 
All  this  notching  and  fitting  seems  tedious,  but 
in    America    the  sawmills    are    erected    in    the  ; 
forests  and  in  the  course   of  the  railways,  and  . 
woodworking  machinery  is  greatly  developed.        ; 

Jointing      and      Fastening.      Fig.     325 
illustrates  the  joggling  of  heavy  balks,  involving 
but  a  small  amount  of  work,  yet   being  abso- 
lutely secure  when  bolted ;    328  shows  a  stub-  : 
tenon  and  strap  connection.     The  latter  makes  a  , 
very  secure  union  between  timbers  which  cannot  ; 
be  conveniently  held  by  other  means.     Fig.  327  : 
is  a  case  where  a  long  bolt  and  stub-tenon  jbints  : 
are   suitable.     If  the  timbers  were  of  very  large 
section,  and  great  strength  was  required,  more 
than  one  bolt  would  be  employed.      Bolt  holes 
slightly  weaken  the  timbers  through  which  they 
are  put,  while  straps  round  the  outside  have  the 
contrary  effect.     Fig.  328  is  a  stub-tenon  joint 
similar  to  the  two  preceding  ones,  but  instead 
of  holding  the  parts  together  by  a  strap  or  long 
bolt  comparatively  short  bolts  are  fitted  into  the 
tenoned  ends.     This  might  be  done   either  for 
neatness   or  when  the  tenoned  member  is   too  . 
long  for  a  through  bolt  to  be  suitable.    Recesses 
are  bored  for  the  nuts  in  one  of  the  faces  of  the 
timber,  and  the  bolt  holes  are  bored  to  suit. 
The  recesses  are  generally  plugged  after  the  nuts  • 
are  in,  and  the  bolts  have  to  be  screwed  into  their 
nuts. 

Work  Involving  Piles.  Piles  are  very  , 
often  used  for  foundations  both  in  temporary  and 
permanent  work,  and  both  on  land  and  under 
water.  The  piles  commonly  used  are  balks  of 
firwood,  but  the  best  are  of  greenheart  or  elm, 
because  more  durable.  Piles  are  pointed,  and 
usually  sheathed  in  iron  to  enable  them  to  pene- 
trate. An  iron  ring  is  also  fitted  round  their 
tops  to  prevent  splitting  when  driving.  They 
are  driven  by  a  weight  called  a  monkey,  which 
slides  in  vertical  guides,  and  is  hoisted  and 
allowed  to  fall  by  gravity  repeatedly  on  the 
head  of  the  piles. 

Piles  for  the  foundations  of  structures  are 
spaced  according  to  the  weight  they  have  tc 
carry.  Those  for  cofferdams  and'  caissons, 
which  have  to  be  made  watertight,  are  driven 
closely  side  by  side,  and  the  joints  filled  with 
clay  or  other  packing  when  necessary.  This  is 
called  sheet  piling.  Piles  are  braced  and  tied 
together  after  being  driven,  by  waling  pieces,  and 
the  heads  are  sawn  level  where  necessary.  Often 
piles  are  driven  at  angles  instead  of  vertically, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  structure  which 
they  have  to  support.  On  land  large  horizontal  ; 
balks  are  sometimes  laid  to  bed  the  verticals  on  " 
instead  of  driving  piles  into  the  ground.  For 
permanent  structures  a  concrete  bed  is  often 
made,  the  bed  itself  being  laid  on  the  tops  of 
piles,  which  are  driven  flush  with  the  ground 
and  tied  together  by  a  horizontal  framework. 

Cofferdams.  '  These  are  constructed  of 
double  rows  of  piles,  which  are  driven  in  close 
contact,  usually  with  sawn  edges.  To  keep  them 
in  line  they  are  connected  by  horizontal  waling 
pieces  at  intervals  of  4  ft.  or  5  ft.  Short  bolts 


^ 


ffl 


318 


319     .-= 


i*  j   I  3   3    I- 


HEAVY   TIMBERING 

318-324.  Details  of  large  timber  bridge  325.  Jogtrlinsr  of  heavy  balks  326.  Timbers  united  by  stub  tenon  and  strap 

327.  Timbers  united  by  loot?  bolt        328.  Insert«d  bolts        329-331 .  Examples  of  strutted  dams 

4643 


BUILDING 

pass  through  waling  pieces  and  pile*.  The  water 
is  then  pumped  out  from  the  enclosed  space, 
and  well-tempered  puddle  clay  is  filled  in  and 
rammed  down  in  layers.  Thus  a  watertight  wall 
is  I  milt,  within  which,  the  water  having  been 
pumped  out,  excavation  can  be  earned  on  in  the 
dry.  In  plan  view  a  cofferdam  may  be  of  any 
required  outline,  circular  or  rectangular,  or 
simply  fulfil  the  function  of  a  dam  of  sheet  piling 
to  enclose  an  area  from  which,  without  such 
protection,  water  might  be  expected  to  burst  out 
on  works  in  progress.  When  a  dam  is  not  a  self- 
contained  structure  it  is  often  strutted.  Figs. 
329  and  330  show  dams  of  this  kind,  the  struts 
being  combined  with  the  dam.  In  these  illustra- 
tions, A  A  are  the  timber  piles  shod  with  iron, 
connected  by  waling  pieces,  B,  and  fastened  with 
bolts  ;  C  is  the  clay  puddle.  In  both  cases  the 
dam  is  shown  in  proximity  to  an  old  dock  wall. 
The  struts.  D,  take  the  external  pressure.  In  one 
case  they  are  simply  driven  into  the  old  wall. 
In  the  other  they  are  connected  to  a  row  of  piles 
tied  together  with  horizontal  timbers.  The  coffer- 
dam often  takes  the  form  of  a  strong  sea  barrier 
to  keep  out  the  ocean  when  tidal  docks  are  in 
course  of  construction.  In  some  cases  they 
themselves  have  to  be  protected  by  groynes.  In 
such  work  the  construction  has  to  be  very 
strong.  The  seaward  piles  are  then  often  driven 
at  a  considerable  angle  to  broaden  the  base,  and 
the  sea  face  is  protected  with  rubble.  The  inner 
face  is  tied  to  a  row  of  piles.  Timbers  are  often 
creosoted.  Fig.  331  shows  a  section  through  a 
barrier  of  this  class. 

Staithes.  Some  fine  examples  of  heavy 
timbering  are  found  in  the  staithes  on  Tyneside 
and  other  Northumbrian  ports.  They  are  coaling 
stages  along  which  the  old  chaldron  waggons  or 
the  modern  trucks  are  run  out  by  gravity  over 
the  water  for  the  shipment  of  coals.  They  carry 
loading  cranes  if  fixed,  or  gantry  or  travelling 
types.  The  staithes  are  built  on  piles.  As  they 
go  out  from  the  banks  into  water  deep  enough  to 
allow  vessels  to  come  under  the  cranes  the  length 
of  the  piles  becomes  considerable  next  the  vessel's 
side.  At  the  shore  end  the  timbering  is  plain, 
but  as  the  staith  goes  out  farther  the  piles  are  put 
closer  together  ;  sometimes  two  or  more  timbers 
are  bolted  together  or  single  piles  are  heavily 
fished.  Struts  and  diagonal  bracings  are  intro- 
duced with  horizontal  timbers,  and  bolts  and 
iron  straps  reinforce  the  various  joints.  Some 
typical  constructions  are  shown  in  332  and  333. 
The  former  is  a  staging  built  on  piles  and  tied 
back  to  other  piles  driven  in  higher  up  the  slope 
of  the  river  bed.  The  top  horizontal  members 
carry  the  flooring  ;  333  is  a  face  or  end  view 
of  one  set  of  timbers  in  a  staging.  A  A  are  double 
longitudinal  balks  that  tie  the  several  sets 
together.  The  general  arrangement  of  other 
horizontals  and  of  diagonals  is  clearly  shown. 

Fig.  334  shows  a  staith  end  or  staging  carrying 
;i  steam  crane.  The  timber  work  is  for  the  staging 
only,  the  crane  being  carried  on  a  deep  founda- 
tion cylinder  of  cast-iron  rings  bolted  one  on  top 
of  another  with  internal  flanges.  This  is  more 
rigid  than  timber  foundations  for  cranes  doing 
heavy  service.  Fig.  335  illustrates  an  alternative 

4644 


to  piling  when  a  rocky  bed  is  encountered  into 
which  piles  cannot  be  driven.  Balks,  A,  are 
laid  upon  the  rock  and  bolted  down  with  lewis 
bolts,  or  retained  with  rubble  thrown  on  top. 
These  then  form  ties  between  the  uprights  and 
the  diagonal  struts,  which  form  stays  to  the 
uprights  against  the  pressure  of  the  water.  The 
interior  between  the  uprights  is  filled  with  clay 
puddle,  and  the  sea  front  is  protected  with  rubble 
or  boulders. 

Dock  Gates.  Dock  gates  are  often  built 
of  timber.  Greenheart  is  the  best  for  this  pur- 
pose, because  it  resists  better  than  any  other  the 
attacks  of  the  teredo  navalis.  Another  advantage 
is  its  great  weight.  The  difficulty  is  to  obtain 
balks  large  enough,  dimensions  of  as  much  as 
20  in.  square  being  sometimes  required  for  ribs 
and  heel  posts. 

Crane  Work.  In  the  manufacture  of  some 
classes  of  cranes  there  is  a  good  deal  of  heavy 
timbering  employed.  Many  cranes  for  foreign 
and  colonial  service  also  are  made  cheaply  by 
purchasing  the  necessary  ironwork,  gears,  etc.,  in 
England,  and  building  timber  work  in  the  country 
where  required.  The  principal  elements  in  \vhich 
timber  is  frequently  used  are  jibs,  the  beams  for 
some  overhead  travellers,  the  gantries  ;  the 
masts,  guys,  and  sleepers  of  derricks,  the  poles 
of  sheer-legs,  and  sometimes  the  trucks  of  tra- 
velling cranes  used  in  quarries  and  on  wharves. 
All  these,  without  exception,  have  some  metal 
fittings  in  the  forms  of  castings  and  forgings; 
and  as  these  have  to  be  fitted  accurately  into 
their  places  on  the  crane  to  which  they  belong 
the  carpenter  in  the  engineer's  works  is  somewhat 
of  a  specialist. 

Some  parts  are  fitted  by  driving  only.  Among 
such  are  the  socketed  feet  and  heads  of  timber 
jibs  [336].  The  ends  of  the  stock  are  sawn  nearly 
to  size,  and  then  eased  with  chisels  and  planes. 
The  castings  are  tried  from  time  to  time,  being 
driven  on  with  a  sledge,  the  easing  being  thus 
done  tentatively.  When  they  are  within  about 
l-|  in.  or  2  in.  of  bedding,  the  surfaces  are  well 
smeared  with  thick  white-lead  paint  and  the 
final  driving  done.  The  castings  are  not  driven 
right  home,  but  only  to  within  about  1  in.  of 
the  shoulder.  This  allows  for  a  little  further 
driving  subsequently,  as  at  the  right  hand  of 
336,  when  the  timber  has  shrunk.  At  the  left 
hand  the  timber  is  seen  partly  out  of  its  casting. 
Many  castings  fit  around  three  sides  only  of 
timber,  leaving  one  side  open.  Driving  is  still 
practised,  but  security  is  ensured  by  means  of 
bolts  [337],  In  some  cases  bonds  are  shrunk  011 
the  ends  of  timber,  as  in  pile  tops,  ends  of  gantry 
beams,  but  this  practice  is  of  limited  use. 

Tools  and  Machinery  Employed. 
Among  hand  tools  the  two-handled  cross-cut,  the 
ordinary  handsaw,  the  auger,  the  chisel,  and 
axes  and  adzes  are  the  chief  cutting  tools 
employed.  The  timber  in  heavy  carpentry 
is  not  usually  planed.  Where  a  considerable 
amount  of  work  has  to  be  done,  preparation  of 
each  piece  of  timber  by  hand  is  slow  and  ex- 
pensive. The  parts,  therefore,  are  either  pre- 
pared before  they  leave  the  sawmill,  or  suitable 
machinery  is  brought  to  -the  place  where  the 


340 


HEAVY    TIMBERING 

332-334.  Examples  of  staithes          335.  Barrier  erected  on  horizontal  balks  instead  of  piles          336  and  337.  Crane  timbei« 

fitted  into  castings        338-340.  Field  grates 

4045 


BUILDING 

work  is  being  erected.  In  the  latter  case  the 
machines  are  usually  of  a  different  character 
from  those  which  would  be  installed  for  permanent 
\\c.v.  in  a  shop  or  sawmill.  A  small  reciprocating 
-a\\  of  the  three-feller  type,  for  instance,  would 
lie  brought  in  preference  to  a  large  band  or  cir- 
cular saw.  Steam  power  would  be  obtained 
from  a  portable  boiler.  Light  machines,  per- 
haps worked  by  hand,  would  be  used  for  boring 
bolt-holes,  or  a  combination  machine  for  boring, 
both  horizontally  and  vertically,  and  cutting 
rebates,  half  laps,  and  mortises  and  tenons. 
If  a  great  majority  of  either  of  these  classes  of 
work  was  required,  machines  specially  for  it 
would  be  employed. 

Appliances  of  various  kinds  are  necessary  for 
handling  heavy  pieces  of  timber.  Transpor- 
tation to  the  locality  is  effected  by  railway  or  on 
timber  carriages  drawn  by  horses.  Very  large 
balks  are  carried  by  the  latter  method  suspended 
beneath  the  axle  of  a  large  two-wheeled  carriage  ; 
smaller  ones  on  a  four-wheeled  carriage,  the 
distance  of  the  back  wheels  from  the  front  being 
adjustable  by  sliding  them  along  the  pole  which 
forms  the  connecting  body.  Transportation  for 
short  distances  at  the  place  where  the  work  of 
erection  is  proceeding  is  effected  by  travelling 
cranes,  hauling  apparatus,  derricks,  crowbars 


Field    Gates.     These   are  a   light  class  of 
carpentry.     Examples   of   gates   are   shown   in 

338  to    340.     Heavier    and    more    ornamental 
varieties  are  often  used  for  entrances  to  parks 
and   villas.     Fig.    338   is   a   wicket   gate.     The 
diagonal  brace  in  this  and  in  all    other  gates 
slopes  from  the  lower  part  of  the  hinged  or 
hanging  post  to  the  upper  part  of  the  front 
post.    A  counter  brace  as  dotted  may  be  added, 
but  the  brace  in  the  other  direction  is  the  most 
essential.     The  hinge  post  is  stouter  than  the 
other,    and   the   hinges   extend   some   distance 
along  the  rails,  packing  pieces  being  put  on  the 
latter,  if  necessary,  to  form  a  level  bed  to  attach 
the  hinge  to.     The  rails  are  mortised  into  the 
posts,  and   are   generally   spaced  farther   apart 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  of  the  gate.     Fig. 

339  is  an  ordinary  field  gate,  which,  when  open, 
leaves  a  clear  9  ft.  way,  the  gate  itself  measuring 
about  8  in.  more  than  that.     The  brace  in  this 
case  is  made  to  support  the  gate  more  effectively 
by  carrying  it  up  to  a  point  some  distance  short 
of  the  front  post  and  adding  a  vertical  bar,  so  that 
all  the  rails  are  supported  at  this  point,  and  the 
overhang  beyond  is  a  trifle.     In  340  two  braces 
are    employed    in    each    direction.     The    two 
main  ones  slope  as  in  the  previous  examples. 
The  first  goes  from  the  foot  of  the  hinge  post  to 


cf) 

4 

3 


341.  Fence  rails  nailed  to  posts 


342.  Rail  ends  scarfed  to  fit  in  mortises 


343.  Palings  nailed  to  rail 


and  rollers,  and  numerous  other  means.  Lifting 
is  done  with  ropes  or  chains  round  the  timber, 
or  wrought-iron  timber  clips,  which  grip  it  tightly 
as  hoisting  power  is  applied.  These  are  also 
used  to  assist  in  turning  very  heavy  balks. 
Hoisting  may  be  done  by  cranes  or  crabs,  or 
by  hand  tackle  worked  through  a  block  attached 
to  any  suitable  support  overhead. 

Railway  Carpentry.  A  good  deal  of 
heavy  work  is  done  in  railway  shops,  but  it  is 
almost  wholly  that  of  machinery — sawing, 
planing,  tenoning,  grooving ;  everything,  in 
short,  but  the  actual  putting  of  parts  together. 
The  explanation  of  this  is  that  it  is  a  class  of 
work  in  which  similar  parts  jointed  similarly 
are  constantly  required,  and  when  this  is  the 
i  isc  machinery  for  doing  the  work  is  always 
infinitely  more  expeditious  and  cheaper  than 
hand  methods.  In  many  cases  hand  work  on  a 
large  scale  would  be  out  of  the  question,  and  if 
the  employment  of  machinery  were  not  possible 
i  he  work  would  have  either  to  be  done  in  a  much 
^implcr  and  more  primitive  style  or  to  be  left 
undone.  The  woodwork  in  railway  shops  con- 
-i.-ts  chiefly  in  the  construction  of  rolling  stock. 
Oak  is  the  wood  chiefly  employed. 


the  middle  of  the  top  rail,  and  the  second  from 
the  middle  of  the  bottom  rail  to  the  top  of  the 
front  post.  These  braces  might  be  still  further 
increased  in  number  with  beneficial  results,  except 
that  the  gate,  being  made  heavier,  would  strain 
the  hinges  more.  Often  the  top  hinge  is  made 
longer  than  the  bottom  one,  because  the  strain 
on  the  top  connection  is  tensile,  while  at  the 
bottom  it  is  compressive. 

Fences.  Examples  of  these  are  shown  in 
341  to  343.  In  all  cases  posts  have  to  be  inserted 
in  the  ground  to  support  the  rails.  The  posts 
are  generally  about  6  ft.  apart,  and  the  rails  in 
12  ft.  lengths,  so  that  the  stability  of  the  fence  is 
increased  by  alternating  the  joints.  Rails  may 
be  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  posts,  as  in  341,  or 
mortised  in  with  scarfed  ends,  as  in  342.  In 
the  latter  the  ends  are  supposed  to  be  mortised 
into  thick  posts  and  nailed  to  the  intermediate 
post,  which  is  of  smaller  dimensions.  Fig.  343 
shows  how  pales  may  be  attached  to  the  rails. 
When  strained  wire  is  used  instead  of  wood 
rails,  the  end  posts  have  to  be  substantially 
strutted  to  resist  the  strain.  Where  durability 
is  important,  creosoted  or  kyanised  wood  should 
be  used  for  gates  and  fences. 


CARPENTRY  concluded  ;  followed  by  FIREPROOF  CONSTRUCTION 


ITALIAN-FRENCH-SPANISH-ESPERANTO 

Italian  by  F.  de  Feo  ;  French  by  Louis  A.  Bar  be,  B.A.  ;  Spanish  by 
Amalia  de  Alberti  and  H.  S.  Duncan  ;  Esperanto  by  Harald  Clegg 


Group  18 

LANGUAGES 
32 

Continued  from  page  4">]2 


ITALIAN 


By  Francesco  de  Feo 


IRREGULAR     VERBS 
Second   Conjugation 

Verbs  in  ere  (short) 

Of  the  following  verbs,  only  the  irregular 
forms  will  be  given. 

Conoscere,  to  know  (I  know  somebody) 

Past  Def. — Conobbi,  conobbe,  conobbero. 

Past  Part.—Conosciuto. 

Conjugate  like  conoscere :  riconoscere,  to 
acknowledge,  to  recognise  ;  disconoscere,  to 
deny. 

Crescere,  to  grow 

Past  Def. — Crebbi,  crebbe,  crebbero. 

Past  Part.—Cresciuto. 

Conjugate  like  crescere  :  accrescere,  to  increase  ; 
decrescere,  to  decrease ;  rincrescere,  to  be  sorry. 

Assistere,  to  assist  ;  consistere,  to  consist ;  de- 
sistere,  to  desist  ;  eslstere,  to  exist ;  inslstere,  to 
insist :  persistere,  to  persist  ;  reslstere,  to  resist  ; 
susslstere,  to  subsist,  are  all  irregular  only  in  the 
past  participle,  which,  instead  of  ending  in 
•uto,  ends  in  -ito :  assistito,  consistito,  esistito,  etc. 

Esigere,  to  exact  ;  redigere,  to  redact.  These 
two  verbs  are  regular,  except  in  the  past 
participles  :  esatto  and  redatto. 

Nascere,  to  be  born 

Past  Def. — Nacqui,  nacque,  nacquero. 

Past  Part.—Nato. 

Conjugate  like  nascere  :  rinascere,  to  be  born 
again. 

Nubcere,  to  hurt 

Ind.  Pres. — Noccio,  nuoci,  nuoce,  nocioino. 
nocete,  nocciono. 

Past  Def. — Nocqui,  nocque,  noajm  n>. 

Subj.  Pres. — Noccia,  noccia,  etc. 

Past  Part. — Nociuto. 

Bere  (bevere),  to  drink 
Ind.  Pres. — Bevo,  bevi,  beve,  beviamo.  <>tc. 
Imperf. — Bevevo,  bevevi,  etc. 
Past  Def. — Bevvi  and  bevetti,  bevesti,  bevve,  and 
bevette,  bevemmo,  beveste,  bevettero  and  htnvro. 
Future. — Bevero  and  berro,  etc. 
Subj.  Pres. — Beva,  beva,  etc. 
Gerund. — Bevendo. 
Past  Part.— Bern t<>. 

Piovere,  to  rain 
Past  Def. — Piovve. 

Rompere,  to  break 
*     Past  Def. — Ruppi,  ruppe.  ruppero. 
Past  Part.—Rotto. 

Conjugate  like  rompere :  interr ampere,  to 
interrupt ;  irrompere,  to  rush  in  :  prorompere, 
to  burst  out. 

Essere,  to  be 
[See  pages  2194  and  2484-5.] 


NOTE.  When  the  past  definite  is  irregular, 
only  the  first  and  third  person  singular  and  the 
third  person  plural  are  irregular.  Thus  : 

Conoscere — Past  Def.  :  conobbi,  conoscesti, 
cvnobbe,  conoscemmo,  conosceste,  conobbero. 

Piacere — Past  Def. :  piacqui,  piacesti,  piacqne, 
piacemmo,  piaceste,  piacquero. 

When  the  future  is  irregular,  the  conditional  is 
also  irregular.  Thus  :  Bere — Future :  berro,  ber- 
rai,  etc. ;  Condit.  :  berrei,  berresti,  etc.  Vedere — 
Future :  vedro,  vedrai,  etc ;  Condit.  :  redrci, 
vedresti,  etc. 

EXERCISE  XL. 

1.  Dove  hai  conosciuto  quel  signore  '!  2.  Lo 
conobbi  a  Nizza  1'anno  passato.  3.  Riconosco  il 
mio  torto  e  le  domando  scusa.  4.  La  mia  stima 
per  il  giovine  marinaio  crebbe  di  molto,  quando 
lo  sentii  lodare  in  tal  modo  dal  suo  capitano. 
5.  Si  sa  dove  si  e  nati,  ma  non  si  sa  dove  si 
muore.  6.  Egli  nacque  di  genitori  poverissimi, 
ma  con  1'assiduo  lavoro  e  riuscito  a  mettere  in- 
sieme  una  discreta  fortuna.  7.  Essi  hanno 
insistito  tanto  che  ho  finite  per  cedere.  8.  Alia 
fine  del  pranzo  tutti  bevvero  alia  salute  degli 
sposi.  9.  I  ladri  ruppero  i  vetri  di  una  finestra 
a  pian  terreno,  e  penetrarono  nella  casa.  10. 
Oggi  ho  assistito  a  una  scena  terribile ;  un 
povero  muratore  e  caduto  e  si  e  rotta  una 
gamba. 

RELATIVE    PRONOUNS 

The  relative  pronouns  are : 
chi  (kee),  he  who,  she  who 
che  (keh),  who,  whom,  that,  which 
il  quale,  la  quale,  who,  whom  (sing.) 
i  quali,  le  quali,  who,  whom  (plur.) 
cui  (koo-ee),  whom  (compl.) 
quanto,  all  that  which 
quello  che..  do  che,  what 
chiunque,  every  one  who 

1.  (a).  Chi  never  refers  to  a  preceding  word. 
It  means  colui  che,  colei  che,  and  also  qualcuno  che 
(someone  who).  Examples :  Chi  ben  comincia  e  alia 
meta  delVopera,  Well  begun  is  half  done  (liter- 
ally :  He  who  begins  well  is  half  wray  through  his 
work).  Troveremo  chi  ci  mostrera  la  via,  We 
shall  find  someone  who  will  show  us  the  way. 

(b).  Chi  .  .  .  chi  has  a  partitive  mean- 
ing. Example :  Chi  dice  una  cosa  e  chi  un'olt-ra, 
Some  say  one  thing  and  some  another. 

(c).  In  exclamative,  interrogative,  and  dubita- 
tive  propositions  chi  means  qual  persona.  Ex- 
ample :  Non  so  a  chi  rivolgermi,  I  don't  know  to 
whom  to  apply. 

(d).  Chi  in  a  conditional  construction  may 
be  used  absolutely  with  the  meaning  of  se  uno 
(if  one),  per  chi  (for  him  who).  Example:  Questo, 
"hi  lo  ruol  sapere  (=  se  uno  lo  ruol  sapere  ;  per 

4647 


LANGUAGES- ITALIAN 

••hi  lo  miol  sapere),  appartiene  a  me.  This  (if 
anyone  wishes  to  know;  for  him  \\h<>  \\ishcs 
to  know)  belongs  to  inc. 

2.  Che   is  used   both  as  subject  and  object, 
jind  refers    to    any  preceding    word,    masculine 
or  feminine,  singular  or  plural.     Examples :   Lo 
xcularo   che     stadia,    The    pupil    who    studies  ; 
/  libri  che  avete  comprati,  The  books  that  you 
have  bought.     It  may  refer  to  a  whole  propo- 
sition,    and     then    it     is    generally    preceded 
by  the   article.      Example:    Gli   era   saltata  la 
fantasia    di    farsi    frate,    (il)   che  a   quei  tempi 
era    il  ripiego  piu  comune   per    usclr  d'impicci, 
The   fancy   had   come  into   his  head  to   turn 
friar,  which  in  those  times  was  the  commonest 
device    for    getting    out    of    difficulties.      Che 
may  also  be  used  instead  of  in  cui,  per  cui, 
da  che.     Examples:  II  giorno  che  (in  cui)  ti  vidi, 
The  day  when  (in  which)  I  saw  thee.     Ecco  la 
ragione  che  (per  cui)  non  son  venuto,  That  is  the 

.  reason  why  (for  which)  I  did  not  come.  Sono 
due  anni  che  (da  che)  e  partito,  It  is  two  years 
since  he  went  away. 

3.  II  quale,  la  quale,  i  quali,  le  quali  are  used 
like  che,  but  are  not  referred  to  pronouns  ex- 
pressing things  :    fate  quello  che  vi  dico  (and  not 
quello  U  quale  vi  dico),  Do  as  (what)  I  tell  you. 

II  quale,  la  quale,  etc.,  must  be  used  before 
nouns  (for  example,  le  quali  case,  and  not  che  case), 
after  a  preposition  (la  scatola  nella  quale,  and  not 
in  che),  and  where  che  might  be  ambiguous  (/ 
figli  della  signora,  i  quali  ho  incontrati,  and  not 
che  ho  incontrato,  because  che  might  be  referred 
to  signora). 

4.  Cui  is  generally  used  instead  of  il  quale, 
etc.,   after    a    preposition    for     both    genders, 
and  in  the  singular  as  well  as  in  the  plural. 
Examples :  II  motivo  per  cui  io  venni,  The  reason 
why  I  came  ;    La  persona  di  cui  le  parlai,  The 
person  of  whom  I  spoke  to  you  ;  L1  amico  da  cui  mi 
aspettavo  un  favore,  The  friend  from  whom  I  was 
expecting  a  favour.      Placed  between  the  article 
and  the  noun  cui  means  "  whose."     Example : 
E  un  giovane   i  cui  costumi   (i  di  cui  costumi 
would  be  incorrect)  sono  degni  di  lode,  He  is  a 
youth  whose  manners  are  deserving  of  praise. 

5.  Chiunque  means  "  any  person  who,"  and  is 
used   like  chi.      Example:    Ammettete    chiunque 
venga,  Admit  whosoever  comes.     It  may  be  used 
also     as     an    indefinite    pronoun.       Example : 
Questo  lo  sa  fare  chiunque,  Anyone  can  do  this. 

EXERCISE  XLI. 

1.  La  casa  della  quale  le  ho  parlato  si  trova 
in  via  Roma.  2.  Chi  non  sa  ubbidire  non  sa 
nemmeno  comandare.  3.  Fate  cio  che  vi  ho 
detto,  e  vi  troverete  bene.  4.  Dobbiamo 
amare  chi  ci  ama,  ma  non  dobbiamo  odiare  chi 
ci  odia.  5.  La  ringrazio  delle  tante  prove  di 
amicizia  che  mi  ha  sempre  inostrate.  6. 
Fatemi  vedere  che  cosa  avete  in  tasca.  7. 
Gli  ho  ivstituito  il  danaro  che  mi  presto.  8.  La 
signora  che  avete  veduta  e  la  moglie  del  noslro 
padrone  di  casa.  9.  L'ordine  che  mi  avete  dato 
e  state  puntualmente  eseguito.  10.  Ecco 
(jiianto  so,  non  posso  dirle  di  piu.  11.  II  vec- 
ehio  agricoltore  pone  il  seme  deiralbero,  i  cui 
frutti  vedranno  i  figliuoli  e  nipoti. 
4048 


CONVERSAZIONE 

Dove  volete  andare  ?     Non  vedete  che  piove. 

Se  aspettiamo  che  finisea  di  piovere,  ho  paura 
che  resteremo  qui  tutta  la  notte. 

Bisogna  aver  pazienza  ;  chi  sa  che  non  capiti 
una  vettura  vuota. 

Sarebbe  una  vera  fortuna  ;  ma  chi  volete 
che  venga  fin  quassii  con  questo  tempaccio  ? 

Intanto  si  gela.  Se  si  potesse  fare  un  bel 
fuoco  ! 

Lasciate  fare  a  me  che  son  nato  e  cresciuto 
nelle  montagne. 

Senti  come  tuona !  Meno  male  che  abbiamo 
portato  abbastanza  viveri. 

Beva  un  po'  di  questo  vino,  vedra  che  non 
sentira  piu  il  freddo. 

C'e  da  fumare  ? 

Ce  n'e  per  una  settimana. 

E  quello  che  ci  vuole :  fra  una  sigaretta  e 
1'altra  il  tempo  passera  presto. 

INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are :  chi  ?  who  ? 
di  chi  ?  whose  ?  che  ?  che  cosa  ?  what  ?  quanto-i- 
a-e  ?  how  much  ?  how  many  ?  quale-i  ?  which  ? 
what  ? 

1.  Chi  ?   means  "  which  person  ?"  (sing.)  but 
\vhen  used  with  the  verb  essere  it  is  also  plural. 
Examples  :    Chi   vi   manda  ?    Who   sends   you  ? 
Chi  sono  quelle  signore  ?    Who  are  those  ladies  ? 

2.  Che?  means  "  which  thing?"    Example: 
Che  fate  ?    What  are  you  doing  ?     As  an  adj  ecti ve 
it  is  masculine  and  feminine,  singular  and  plural. 
Examples :  Che  libro  vuole  ?  Which  book  do  you 
want  ?     Che  libri  leggete  ?  Which  books  are  you 
reading  ? 

3.  In  familiar  language  cosa  ?  is  used  as  an 
interrogative    pronoun     instead    of    che  cosa  ? 
Examples  :    Cosa    dite  ?      What    do  you  say  ? 
Non  so  cosa  voglia  dire,  I  do  not  know  what  he 
means.     The  past  participle  referring  to  cosa 
is  always"  in  the  masculine :     Cos'  e  accaduto  ? 
What  has  happened  ?     Cosa  ha  fatto  ?    What 
have  you  done  ? 

4.  Quanto?    expresses     the     English    "how 
long?"    Example:    Quanto  dobbiamo  aspettare? 
How  long  must  we  wait  ? 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  often  strength- 
ened by  mai,  e.  Examples:  Che  did  mai?  What 
are  you  saying  ?  E  cosa  importa  ?  And  what  dees 
it  matter  ?  Questions  are  answered  in  Italian  by 
si,  gia,  certo,  etc.,  in  the  affirmative,  and  by  no, 
ma  che,  etc.,  in  the  negative. 

The  English :  Are  you  ?  Are  you  not  ?  Do  you  ? 
Do  you  not  ?  Did  you  ?  etc.,  which  accompany  a 
question,  are  rendered  in  Italian  by  non  e  vero?  (is 
it  not  true?).  Example:  Lei  viene  con  noi,  non 
e  vero  ?  You  are  coming  with  us,  are  you  not  ? 
EXERCISE  XLIL 

1.  Quanto  ha  page-to  questo  cappello  ?  2. 
Di  chi  e  questo  portafogli  ?  3.  Chi  ha  portato 
questo  bagaglio  ?  4.  Quel  signore  e  un  inglese,  * 
non  e  vero  ?  Qual"  e  il  treno  per  Roma  ?  6. 
Cosa  hanno  comandato  per  il  Natale  ?  7.  Cosa 
hanno  quest  i  ragazzi  ?  8.  Chi  e  costui  ?  9. 
A  quale  stazione  ci  fermeremo  ?  10.  A  chi 
avete  dato  il  biglietto  ?  11.  Che  cosa  ha  detto 
suo  padre  ?  12.  Di  quale  signora  parlate  ? 


13.  In  clie  anno  siete  nato  ?  14.  A  ehe  pensa 
sua  cugina  ?  15.  Chi  ha  domandato  di  essere 
ammesso  ? 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXV. 
1.  When  I  entered  they  had  already  gone. 
2.  I  am  pleased  that  you  have  succeeded  in 
this  affair.  3.  The  performance  has  lasted 
more  than  two  hours.  4.  I  have  fallen,  and  have 
hurt  myself.  5.  I  am  not  sleepy  ;  I  have  slept 
all  day.  6.  I  am  waiting  for  my  brother  ;  he 
was  to  have  come  by  the  seven  o'clock  train, 
and  I  wonder  that  he  has  not  yet  arrived.  7. 
If  you  had  come  ten  minutes  earlier,  you  would 
have  met  Mr.  N.  8.  A  man-of-war  has  sunk  in 
the  Baltic.  9.  A  Japanese  torpedo-boat  has 
sunk  two  Russian  ships.  10.  I  have  wandered 
about  all  day  without  settling  anything. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXVI. 
1.  Put  them  aside  ;  we  shall  make  use  of  them 
when  we  have  need  of  them.  2.  That  is  not 
correct.  3.  This  man  is  so  full  of  himself 
that  it  seems  that  all  the  world  belongs  to  him. 
4.  This  is  an  author  of  great  merit ;  that  is  a 
most  genial  poet.  5.  I  dare  not  speak  openly, 
because  I  fear  to  be  misunderstood  by  these, 
and  combated  by  those.  6.  You  do  not  know 
what  you  are  talking  about.  7.  I  don't  know 
how  things  will  end  ;  for  my  part,  I  do  not  see 
clearly  in  this  business.  8.  Here  are  two  bottles 
large  enough  ;  in  this  one  we  will  put  the  wine, 
and  in  that  one  the  water.  9.  Do  not  speak 
to  me  of  those  people  ;  they  do  not  deserve  to  be 
helped  any  longer.  10.  Lewis  aimed  rather  at 
avoiding  the  blows  of  his  enemy,  and  at  disarm- 
ing him,  than  at  killing  him  ;  but  the  latter 
desired  his  death  at  any  price.  11.  That  woman 
speaks  only  out  of  envy ;  it  is  better  not  to 
listen  to  her.  12.  Those  who  make  most  noise 
(literally,  shout  more)  are  always  right  in  this 
world.  13.  The  prize  will  be  given  to  him  who 
has  deserved  it. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXVII. 

1.  I  am  glad  to  see  that  you  are  well.     2.  I 

do   not  remember  you,   but    it    seems    to   me 

that   I   have   seen  you   somewhere.     3.  I   had 

the  pleasure  of  knowing  you  in  Rome  two  years 


LANGUAGES— FRENCH 

ago.  4.  When  in  the  country  we  are  used  to 
taking  a  long  walk  before  breakfast.  5.  Fear 
nothing  ;  I  will  think  of  your  future.  6.  I  am 
sorry  to  be  obliged  to  speak  to  you  in  this  w&y. 
1.  My  head  aches  ;  it  will  be  better  for  me  to 
remain  in  the  house.  8.  It  had  seemed  to  me 
that  they  had  rung  the  bell.  9  Till  now  we 
have  always  done  as  you  liked  ;  now,  it  seems 
to  me  that  you  should  do  as  we  like. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 
1.  That  poor  man  must  have  put  together 
a  fair  sum,  because  everyone  has  given  him 
something.  2.  I  am  speaking  generally,  and 
I  should  not  like  anyone  to  consider  my  words 
as  referring  to  him.  3.  Iniquity  is  often  based 
upon  the  credulity  and  goodness  of  others. 
4.  Always  act  rightly,  and  do  not  care  what 
other  people  may  think  of  you.  5.  Knock 
again  ;  someone  must  be  in,  because  there  is 
a  light  in  the  rooms  upstairs.  6.  It  seems  that 
some  people  rejoice  at  other  people's  mis- 
fortunes. 7.  If  you  do  not  tell  me  everything 
exactly,  we  shall  do  nothing.  8.  Always  tell 
the  truth  if  you  wish  others  to  esteem  you. 
9.  Those  who  possess  nothing  are  always  the 
most  generous.  10.  Nothing  is  useless  ;  every- 
thing has  its  reason  for  existing. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXIX. 
1.  In  that  country  it  snows  very  seldom,  but 
it  always  rains.  2.  It  rains  hard  ;  we  must 
take  a  carriage.  3.  It  will  be  necessary  to  leave 
early  if  we  wish  to  arrive  in  time.  4.  It  has 
hailed  and  rained  all  night.  5.  It  does  not 
thunder  any  more,  but  it  lightens  still.  6.  It 
is  better  not  to  go  out  to-day;  it  is  very  foggy. 
7.  Let  us  go  ;  it  is  not  worth  while  to  stay  here  to 
speak  of  useless  things.  8.  Your  friend  seems 
very  happy  ;  he  must  have  done  good  business 
on  the  exchange.  9.  It  seems  that  he  is  happy, 
but  really  it  is  not  so.  10.  Russia  has  imported 
a  great  quantity  of  corn  this  year.  11.  It  is  of 
consequence  to  decide  at  once,  because  there  is 
no  time  to  lose.  12.  You  have  already  spoken 
enough  ;  it  is  my  turn  now.  13.  One  is  sorry 
to  see  young  people  so  idle.  14.  One  must 
enjoy  oneself  a  little  in  this  life ;  one  lives 
only  once. 


Continued 


FRENCH 


Continued  from 
page  4508 


By  Louis  A.  Barbe,  B.A. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS 
Second   Conjugation 

1.  Acquerir,  to  acquire,  acquerant,  acquis. 

2nd.  Pres. — j'acquiers,  tu  acquiers,  il  acquiert, 
nous  acquerons,  vous  acquerez,  Us  acquierent. 

Imperf.  — j'acq  uerais. 

Past  Definite — j' acquis. 

Future. — j'acq  uerrai. 

Cond.  Pres. — facquerrais. 

Subj.  Pres. — q ue  j'acquiere,  que  tu  acquieres, 
fju'il  acquiere,  que  nous  acquerions,  que  vous 
acqueriez,  qu'ils  acquierent. 

Imperf. — que  facquisse. 

Conquerir,  to  conquer,  reconquerir,  to  recon- 


quer, s'enquerir  de,  to  inquire  about,  a,nd 
requerir,  to  request,  to  call  upon,  are  conjugated 
in  the  same  way. 

In  the  Future  and  the  Conditional,  each  "r"' 
must  be  pronounced  separately,  though  the 
break  in  the  trill  must  be  very  slight.  This 
pronunciation  is  necessary  to  distinguish  these 
tenses  from  the  Present  and  Imperfect  In- 
dicative. 

2.  Courir,  to  run,  courant,  couru. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  cours,  tu  cours,  il  court,  nous 
courons,  vous  courez,  Us  courent. 

Imperf.  — je  co  u  ra  is. 

Past  Def. — je  courus. 

Future. — je  courrai. 

4649 


LANGUAGES-FRENCH 

Cond.  Pre-s.  —  je  courrni*. 

Subj.  Pres.  —  r//"'  /'<•  fnure.  '/tic  tu  coures,  </u'i! 
I/in-  ,,,ni*  rniirioH*.  if  HP  ro/i*  ruurii-:.  i/u'il* 


Imperf.  —  (jne  }e 

The  other  verb:*  conjugated  like  this  are: 
accourir,  to  rusli  up,  hasten  ;  rinn'ourir,  to  concur, 
to  compete  ;  discourir,  to  discourse  ;  enema  •//  . 
to  incur  ;  parcourir,  to  run  through  ;  recourir,  to 
have  recourse  ;  and  seco-urir,  to  succour.  In 
all  these  verbs  also,  the  t\vo  "r's"  of  the  Future 
and  of  the  Conditional  are  to  be  pronounced 
separately. 

3.  Cueillir,   to   gather,   to  pluck,   cueillnuf. 
eueSK. 

In'L  Pres.  —  je  cueille.  tu  rueillcs,  il  cm-  Hit. 
ttoii*  c/u  illoH*,  roii*  nifillf:..  if*  onilli'ttf. 

Imperf.  —  CM  tilii  i*. 

Past  Def.  —  je  c  in-ill  i*. 

h'  a  tu  re.  —  je  cueillerai. 

Cond.  Pres.  —  je  cueillvnti*. 

Subj.  Pres.  —  que  je  cueille,  que  tu  cmilles, 
((it'll  cueille,  que  nous  cueillons,  que  vous  cueillez. 
qu'ils  cueillent. 

Imperf.  —  que  je  cueillisse. 

Accueillir,  to  receive,  to  welcome  ;  and 
recueillir,  to  collect,  are  conjugated  in  the  same 
way. 

4.  Mourir,  to  die,  mourant,  mort. 

Ind.  Pres.  —  je  meurs,  tu  meurs,  il  meurf.  mm* 
mourons,  vous  mourez.  Us  meurent. 

Imperf.  —  je  monrais. 

Pa#t  Def.  —  je  mourn*. 

F  it  fun.  —  je  mourrai. 

Cond.  Pres.  —  je  mourrais. 

Subj.  Pres.  —  que  je  meure,  que  tu  meurcs,  quil 
meure,  que  nous  mourions,  que  vous  mouriez.  ifu'il* 
meurent. 

Imperf.  —  que  je  mourusse. 

This  verb  has  a  reflexive  form,  se  mourir,  to  be 
dying.  Mourir  is  conjugated  with  etre  in  its 
compound  tenses.  Both  "r's"  of  the  Future  and 
of  the  Conditional  are  to  be  pronounced  dis- 
tinctly. 

5.  Tenir,  to  hold,  tenant.  f<  ////. 

Ind.  Pres.  —  je  tiens,   tu   tiens,    il    tient, 
tenons,  vous  tenez,  Us  tientunt 

Imperf.  —  je  tenais. 

Past  Def.  —  je  tins,  tu  tin*,  il  tint.  uou* 
ivus  ttntes,  ils  tinrent. 

Future.  —  je  tientlrni. 

Cond.  Pres.  —  je  tiendnii*. 

Subj.  Pres.  —  que  jetienni.  t/nt  hi  ti<-nn<*.  i/n'i'l 
tiennr.  >/»<  ///,//.v  trni'tn*.  </n<  ran*  (>„/'<:.  t/n'il« 
tiennent. 

Imperf.—  que  je  tinsse. 

Idiomatic  Uses  of  Tenir.  («).  '/'»////•//» 
followed  l>v  a  persoTiid  noun  means  "  to  take 
after,"  "  to  resemble." 

Cd  infant  tii  nt  ilv  .sy/  /////•/..  That  child  takes 
after  his  mother. 

(h).  Toil,-  a  followed  by  a  noun  or  j»reeeded 
by  •  •//"  means  -jo  value.'"  "to  set  store  by." 

\i  i»  fill  :  i«i*  r,  l,','f(.  ',',,  tiens.  Do  not  lose  t'ha,t 
book,  I  value  it. 

\\  hen  followed  by  -,\\\  infinitive,  it  means.  "  to 
l»e  anxious  to." 

46T>0 


J<  fii'ii*  a  lui  <!/<•<'  a'  </»<>  j'l.H  pense,  I  am 
anxious  to  tell  him  \vliat  I  think  about  it. 

Tenir  ii  n-  i/u<  followed  by  a  personal  tense  lias 
the  same  meaning.  It  is 'followed  by  the  Sub- 
junctive : 

Je  tiens  a  ce  qu'il  nous  dise  ce  quil  en  pense, 
I  am  anxious  he  should  tell  us  what  he  thinks 
about  it. 

Tenir  a  used  impersonally  means,  "  to  depend 
on" :  II  ne  tient  qit'a  vous  de  reussir,  It  only  de- 
pends on  you  to  succeed — i.e.,  It  will  be  your 
fault  if  you  do  not  succeed. 

The  derivatives  of  tenir  are  :  s'abstenir,  to 
abstain  ;  appartenir,  to  belong ;  contenir,  to 
contaui  ;  detenir,  to  detain ;  entretenir,  to  keej) 
up  ;  maintenir,  to  maintain ;  obtenir,  to  obtain  ; 
retenir,  to  retain,  to  remember ;  soutenir,  to 
sustain;  se  tenir,  to  stand,  to  hold  oneself. 

6.  Venir,  to  come,  venant,  venu. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  viens,  tu  viens,  il  riait,  -tutu* 
venons,  vou#  venez,  ils  viennent. 

Imperf. — je  venais. 

Past  Def. — je  vins,  tu  rin*.  if  rint,  HOH* 
rinmes,  vous  vintes,  Us  vinrent. 

Future. — je  viendrai. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  viendrais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  vienne,  que  tu  vienne*, 
(/u'il  vienne,  que  nmis  venions,  que  vous  veniez, 
ijidls  viennent. 

Imperf. — que  je  vinsse. 

Venir  is  conjugated  with  etre.  in  its  compound 
tenses. 

Idiomatic  Uses  of  Venir.  (a).  Venir  d>- 
followed  by  an  infinitive  means,  "  to  have  just ": 
Je  viens  de  le  voir,  I  have  just  seen  him  ;  // 
venait  de  sortir,  He  had  just  gone  out. 

(b).  Venir  a  followed  by  an  infinitive  means 
" to  chance  to,"  "to  happen  to"':  Pendant  que 
le  marquis  de  Carabas  se  baignait,  le  roi  vint  a 
passer,  Whilst  the  Marquess  of  Carabas  was 
bathing,  the  King  happened  to  pass. 

(c).  There  is  also  a  reflexive  form,  s'en  venir, 
"  to  come  along,  to  come  away  " : 

Xnit-s  nous  en  vinmes  ensemble.  We  came  away 
together. 

The  derivatives  conjugated  like  venir  are  : 
circonvenir,  to   circum-    provenir,  to  proceed 

redevenir,     to     become 

again 

revenir,  to  come  back 
subvenir,  to  provide 
survenir,   to    come    by 

chance 

*i    xourenir   de,    to   re- 
member 
se    ressouvenir    de,     to 

recollect  again 
KXKK.  i si:   XXXIII. 

1.  Little  Red  Riding  Hood  (Le  Petit  Chaperon 
f)  set  out  to  go  to  her  grandmother's,  who 
lived  in  another  village. 

±  The  wolf  that  she  met  asked  her  where 
she  was  going. 

.'}.  The  little  girl  said  to  him  :  "  I  am  going 
to  see  my  grandmother  and  to  take  (porter) 
her  a  cake  (une  c/aleUe)  with  a  little  pot  (le  pot)  of 
butter  (bcmrf)  which  my  mother  is  sending  her." 


vent 

contrevenir,  to  infringe 
convenir,   to   agree,    to 

suit 

devenir,  to  become 
disconvenir,  to  disagree 
intervenir,  to  intervene 
parvenir,    to    rejHi.    to 

succeed 
l>n'rrnir,  to  warn 


4.  The  wolf  began  to  run  with  (de)  all  his 
might   (la  force)   by   the   road   which   was   the 
shortest,    and   the    little   girl   went   off   by   the 
longest  road,  loitering  (s'amuser)  to  gather  nuts 
(la   noisette)    and   to   run   after    butterflies    (le 
papillori). 

5.  Puss  in  Boots  (le  Chat  Botte)  said  to  the 
Ogre  (Ogre):    "I  have  been  assured  that  you 
had  the  power  (le  pouvoir)  to  change  (changer) 
yourself  into  (en)  a  rat,  and  a  mouse  (la  souris)  ; 
I  confess  (avouer)  to  you  that  I  consider  (hold) 
that  quite  impossible."--"' Impossible,"  replied 
(reprendre)  the  Ogre,  "  you  are  going  to  see." 

6.  "It  will  depend  only  on  you,  Marquess " 
(Monsieur  le  marquis),  said  the  King  "to   be 
(that  you  be,  subj.  pres.  preceded  byne)  my  son- 
in-law"  (gendre). 

7.  The  Cat  became   (a)  great  lord,   and  no 
longer  ran  after  mice,   except   (qne]  to   amuse 
himself  (se  divertir). 

8.  The  fairy  (la  fee)  said  to  Cinderella  (Cen- 
drillon):  "Go  (thou)  into  the  garden;  you  will 
find  there  six  lizards  (le  lezard)  behind  (derriere) 
the    watering-can    (arrosoir,    m.)  ;     bring    them 
to  me." 

9.  "  I  recommend  you  (recommander)  above 
all    (surtout)    not    to    pass    midnight ;     if   you 
remain  (demeurer)  at  the  ball  a  moment  longer 
(more)  your  coach  (le  carrosse)  will  become  (a) 
pumpkin  (la  citrouille)  again,  your  horses  mice, 
your  footmen  (laquais)  lizards,    and  your   old 
clothes  (les  habits,  m.)  will  resume  (reprendre) 
their  first  form"  (la  forme). 

10.  The  old  fairy  said  that  the  princess  would 
pierce  (se  percer)  her  hand  with  (de)  a  spindle 
(le  fuseau)  and  that  she  would  die  of  it. 

11.  The   princess   will   pierce   her  hand,    but 
she  will  not  die  of  it  ;    instead  of  dying  of  it, 
she  will  fall  into  a  deep  sleep  which  will  last  a 
hundred  years,  at  the  end  (le  bout)  of  which  the 
son  of  a  king  will  come  and  (to)  awaken  (reveiller) 
her. 

12.  Little  Hop  o'  my  Thumb  (le  Petit  Poucet) 
went  to  bed  again  (se  recoucher)  and  did  not 
sleep  for  the  (du)  rest  of  the  night  ;   he  got  up 
early   (de  bon  matin)   and   went   to   the   bank 

bord)  of  a  stream  (le  ruisseau),  where  he 
illed  (emplir)  his  pockets  (la  poche)  with  (de) 
little  white  pebbles,  and  then  (ensuite)  came 
back  to  ths  house. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXII. 

1.  Quand   les   anciens  assiegeaient   une  ville, 
ils  battaient  les  murs  a  coups  de  belier. 

2.  On   n'est  jamais    battu   sans  etre  frappe ; 
mais  on  peut  etre  frappe  sans  etre  battu. 

3.  Le   muletier   qui    nous   servait   de   guide, 
battait  ses  mules  d'une  fa$on  epouvantable. 

4.  Nous  n'avons  rien   conclu,  mais   ce   n'est 
pas  ma  faute. 

5.  C'est    un    auteur    dont    les    ouvrages    ont 
ete  traduits  dans  toutes  les  iangues. 

6.  Selon  un  ecrivain  distingue,   si   vous  tra- 
duisez  toujours,   pn  ne  vous  traduira  jamais  ; 


LANGUAGES— FRENCH 

et  cependant,  un  autre  ecrivain  tout  aussi 
distingue  a  dit  que  si  vous  voulez  qu'on  vous 
traduise  un  jour,  vous  devez  commence!'  par 
traduire  vous-meme. 

7.  Je  ne  1'ai  vu  qu'une  fois,  mais  je  le  con- 
naitrais  entre  mille. 

8.  Cette  jeune  fille  coud,  chante,  lit ;    c'est 
tout  ce  qu'il  lui  faut  pour  etre  heureuse. 

9.  Qui   est-ce  qui  disait  que,   partout  ou  la 
peau  du  lion  ne  suffisait  pas,  il  fallait  y  coudre 
la  peau  du  renard,  c'est  a  dire  joindre  la  ruse  a 
la  force  ? 

10.  II  y  a  des  gens  qui  ne  eomptent  le  reste 
des  hommes  pour  rien,  et  ne  croient  etre  nes 
que  pour  eux-memes. 

11.  Un  honnete  homme  qui  dit  oui  et  non 
merite  d'etre  cru  ;    son  caractere  jure  pour  lui. 

12.  Tout  auteur  qu'on  est  oblige  de  lire  deux 
fois  pour  Pentendre  ecrit  mal. 

13.  Ce  qui  est  ecrit  est  ecrit  veut  dire  qu'on 
ne  peut  rien  changer  a  ce  qui  est  ecrit. 

14.  Le  boh  pasteur  a  dit :    "  Je  connais  mes 
brebis  et  mes  brebis  me  connaissent." 

15.  II  est  admis  par  tous  les  peuples  civilises 
que  la  personne  d'un  ambassadeur  est  inviola- 
ble et  sacree. 

16.  Vous  nous  peignez  si  bien  les  charm es 
de   la   vie   champ  etre   que   vous  nous   donnez 
1'envie  d'aller  habiter  an  village. 

17.  Les  Gaulois  se  transmettaient  les  nouvelles 
en  allumant  des  feux  sur  les  hauteurs. 

18  Les  jours  croissent  du  vingt  et  un  decembre 
an  vingt  et  un  juin  ;  ils  decroissent  du  vingt  et  un 
juin  au  vingt  et  un  decembre. 

19.  Les  hommes  sont  comme  les  fleurs  qui 
paraissent  et  disparaissent  avec  une  incroyable 
rapidite. 

20.  Le    onze   novembre   mil  cinq  cent  soix- 
ante-douze,  une    etoile   nouvelle  apparut   tout 
a  coup  dans  le  ciel,  ou  elle  brilla  du  plus  vif  eclat ; 
elle   disparut   au   mois   de  mai  mil  cinq  cent 
soixante-quatorze  apres  avoir  dure  seize  mois. 

21.  On  lit  dans   la  Genese   que   les   anciens 
patriarches    vivaient    fort    longtemps,    et    qu' 
Abraham  vecut  cent  soixante-quinze  ans. 

22.  Nous  ecrivons  de  gauche    a   droite  ;    les 
Juifs  ecrivent  de  droite  a  gauche  ;    les  Arabes 
ecrivent  egalement  de  droite  a  gauche. 

23.  Les  Fran§ais  vainquirent  les  Autrichiens 
a  Jemmapes  et  a  Marengo  ;    ils  furent  vaincus 
par  les  Anglais  a  Waterloo. 

24.  Les    anciens   moulaient   le    ble   avec    de 
petites  meules  mues  a  bras  d'hommes.. 

25.  Les  actions   injustes  nuisent  toujours  a 
leurs  auteur s. 

26.  Cleopatre  prit  une  grosse  perle,    qu'elle 
jeta  dans  une  tasse,   et,   quand  elle  1'eut  vue 
dissoute,  elle  1'avala. 

27.  Vous  riez,  et  avec  raison,  des  sottises  des 
hommes,  dont  je  ferais  bien  de  rire  aussi,   et 
dont  je  rirais  comme  vous,  si  je  digerais  et  si  je 
dormais  mieux. 

28.  Quelle    passion    que    1'envie !     Elle    suit 
1'homme  de  merite  jusqu'au  bord  de  sa  tombe. 


Continued 


4651 


LANGUAGES- SPANISH 


SPANISH 


pa*  4f.il 


By  Amalia  de  Albert!  &  H.  S.  Duncan 


UNCLASSIFIABLE   IRREGULAR 

VERBS— continued 

There  are  still  a  few  irregular  verbs  which 
cannot  be  classified  ;  these  are  given  in  the 
order  of  their  conjugation  : 

First  Conjugation 

Andar,  to  walk,  to  go  about. 

This  verb  is  perfectly  regular  except  in  the 
following  tenses : 

Past   Def. — anduve,  anduviste,  anduvo, 
vimos,  anduvisteis,  anduvieron. 

Subj.    Imperf. — anduvicra,  cmduvieras, 
vieramos,  anduvierais,  andui-ieran,  or  anduriese, 
etc. 

Subj.  Put. — anduviere,  auduvieres,  anduviere, 
anduvieremos,  anduviereis,  anduvieren. 

Dar,    to  give  ;    dando,  giving  ;    dado,  given. 

Ind.   Pres. — doy,  das,  da,  damos,  dais,  dan. 

Imperf. — daba,  dabas,  daba,  ddbamos,  ddb<ii*. 
daban. 

Past  Def. — di,  diste,  dio,  dimos,  disteis,  di</-i>n. 

Imperat. — da,  de,  demos,  dad,  den. 

Subj.  Pres. — -de,  des,  de,  demos,  deis,  den. 

Subj.  Imperf.— diera,  dieras,  diera,  dieramos, 
dierais,  dieran  or  diese,  dieses,  etc. 

Subj.  Fut. — diere,  dieres,  diere,  dicroHo*. 
diereis,  diren. 

The  future  and  conditional  of  the  indicative 
are  regular. 

Second    Conjugation 

Caber,  to  be  contained  in,  to  hold,  to  tit 
into. 

Ind.  Pres. — qnepo,  cabes,  cabe,  cabemos,  calx-i*. 
cnben. 

Imperf. — cabia,  cabias,  cabia,  cabiamos,  cabin i*, 
cabian. 

Past  Def. — cupe,  cupiste,  cn/»>.  cupiniox. 
cupisteis,  cupieron. 

Fut. — cabre,  cabrd*.  mnrd,  cabremos,  cttbreis, 
cabrdn. 

Condit. — cdbrin,  cabrias,  culnin.  cahriatnos, 
cfiliriais,  cabrian. 

Imperat. — cabe,  quepa,  quepamos,  cabed,  qnepan. 

Subj.  Pres. — <JIH  /HI.  <//i<  pas,  quepa, 
ijuepais,  qu<  i><m. 

Huh).  Imperf.— cupiera,  cnpieras, 
cupteramos,  cupitrais,  cupieran,  or 
etc. 

The  verb  Calcr  is  also  used  impersonallv. 
Riamples:  No  cabe  en  lo  posible,  It  is  im- 
possible; Si  cabe,  If  possible;  No  cabe  <l-mln. 
There  is  no  room  for  doubt. 

Caer,  to  fall. 

Ind.  Pres. — caigo,  caes,  cae,  <-aenx><.  nv/.s. 
caen. 

Sub}  Pre*.. — ctt'njn.  m/':/as,  caiga, .  caigamos, 
ceugau,  caigan. 

Imperat. — cae,  caiya,  caigamos,  caed,  caigan. 

All  the  otlict  t« uses  ot  this  verb  are  regalar. 
but  subject  lo  the  usual  change  of  »  to  y  wln-n 
the  diplithoims  ie  a»d  io  of  the  verbal  termina- 
tion meet  the  radical  vowel. 

Past   Def. — TV//',    rii'tiff,    rfif/d. 
fa //arm. 

46")2 


Hacer,  to  do  ;  liacicndo,  doing  ;  heclio,  done. 

Ind.  Pres. — lingo,  Jiaces,  hace,  JMcemos,  haceis, 
hacen. 

Past  Def. — hire,  Iticistc,  lir.o.  hiri'tii 
hicieron. 

Fut. — haria,     liarns,     hard,     liaremos, 
hofdn. 

Cond. — Jiare,  Jiarias,  harifi.   hariamos, 
harian. 

Imperat. — haz,  liaga,  Jiagamos,  iMced,  has/an. 

Subj.  Pres. — haga,  Iwgas,  haga,  hayanto*, 
hagais,  hagan. 

Subj.  Imperf. — hiciera,  hicieras,  hiciera,  Jticicra- 
mos,  hicierais,  hicieran,  or  niciese,  etc. 

Subj.  Fut. — hiciere,  hicieres,  hi  tier  e,  Jn'cu-rfn/o*, 
hiciereis,  hicieren. 

The  imperfect  of  the  indicative  is  regular. 

Poder,  to  be  able  ;  pudiendo,  being  nble  ; 
podido,  been  able. 

Ind.    Pres. — puedo,    pvcdes,    pnedf.    i><>d( 
podeis,  pueden. 

Past     Def. — pude,     pudiste,     pn/lo. 
pudisteis,  pudieron. 

Subj.  Pres. — pueda,  puedas,  pueda, 
podais,  puedan. 

Subj.  Imperf. — pudiera,  pudieras,  putlii-m, 
pudieramos,  pudierais,  pudieran,  or  pudiese,  etc. 

Subj.  Fut. — pudiere,  pudieres.  pudiere,  pudi- 
eremos,  pudiereis,  piidieren. 

There  is  no  imperative  ;  the  imperfect  of  the 
indicative  is  regular,  also  the  future  and  con- 
ditional, excepting  for  the  elision  of  the  e  in 
the  termination :  Fut.,  podre,  etc.  Condit., 
jwdria,  etc.  The  English  equivalent  of  poder 
is  can— I  can,  thou  canst,  etc. 

Poner,  to  put,  poniendo,  puesto. 

Ind.    Pres. — pongo,     pones,     pone, 
poneis,  ponen. 

Past     Def. — prise,     pusiste,     puso, 
pusisteis,  pusieron. 

Imperat.  —  pon,     ponc/a,     pongdmos, 
pongan. 

Subj.  Pres. — ponga,  ponqas,  ponga,  pongdinn.t, 
po ngd  is,  pongan . 

The  imperfect  of  the  indicative  is  regular, 
also  the  future  and  conditional,  save  for  the 
elision  of  e  as  in  poder.  The  remaining  tenses 
of  the  subjunctive  have  pus  for  stem  throughout 
with  regular  terminations  :  pusierd,  etc.  ;  PUKICXI  . 
etc.  ;  pusiere,  etc. 

Querer,  to  will,  to  wish  ;  queriendo, 
querido. 

Ind.  Pres. — quiero,  quieres,  quiere,  queremox. 
quereis,  quieren. 

Past  Def.—quise,  quisiste,  quiso,  qin'xim<>.«. 
11  a  i* i*f<  As-,  quisieron. 

Impsrat. — quiere,  quiera,  querdmos,  quered, 
'I  an' ran. 

Subj.  Pres. — quiera,  quieras,  quiera,  querd>n<>*. 
i/in-i-ais,  quieran. 

The  imperfect  of  the  indicative  is  regular  ; 
the  future  and  conditional  have  the  regular 
terminations  with  the  stem  querr,  querre,  etc. 
The  remaining  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  have 


regular     terminations     with     the     stem 
qiiisierais,  etc. 

Querer  also  signifies  to  love,  to  like. 

Saber,  to  know  ;  sabiendo,  sabido. 

Ind.  Pres.—se,  sabes,  etc.  (regular). 

Past  Def. — sepa,  sepas,  sepa,  sepdmos,  sep  ns, 
sepan. 

Imperat. — sabe,  sepa,  sepdmos,  sdbed,  sepan. 

Subj.  Pres.— sepa,  scpas,  sepa,  sepdmos, 
sepdis,  sepan. 

The  imperfect  of  the  indicative  is  regular  ; 
the  future  and  conditional  are  regular,  save  for 
elision  of  e,  sabre,  etc. 

The  subjunctive,  imperfect  and  future  have 
the  regular  terminations  with  the  stem  sup, 
supiera,  etc.,  supiese,  etc.,  supiere. 

Traer,  to  bring  ;    trayendo,  traido. 

Ind.  Pres. — traigo,  traes,  trae,  traemos,  traeis, 
traen. 

Past  Def. — traje,  trajistc,  trajo,  trajlmos, 
trajisteis,  trajeron. 

Imperat. — trae,  traiga,  traigamos,  traed,  traigan. 

Subj..  Pres. — traiga,  traigas,  traiga,  traigamos, 
traigais,  traigan. 

The  imperfect  and  future  of  the  indicative 
and  the  conditional  are  regular. 

In  the  subjunctive,  imperfect  and  future,  the 
stem  is  traj,  and  the  i  of  the  verbal  termination 
is  dropped:  trajera,  etc.;  trajese,  etc.;  trajere,  etc. 

Valer,   to  be  worth  ;    valiendo,  valido. 

Ind.  Pres. — valgo,  vales,  vale,  valemos,  voids, 
valen. 

Imperat. — vale,  valga,  valgdmos,  valed,  valgan. 

Subj.  Pres. — valga,  valgas,  valga,  valgdmos, 
valgais,  valgan. 

The  rest  of  this  verb  is  regular  save  for  the 
elision  of  e  in  the  future  of  the  indicative  and 
in  the  conditional :  valdre,  etc.  ;  valdria,  etc. 

Ver,  to  see  ;   viendo,  visto. 

Ind.  Pres.—veo,  ves,  ve,  vemos,  veis,  ven. 

Imperat. — ve,  vea,  veamos,  ved,  vean. 

Subj.  Pres. — vea,  veas,  vea,  veamos,  veais, 
vean. 

All  the  other  tenses  of  this  verb  are  regular. 
Vocabulary — Vocabulario 


The  table         La  mesa 

Humility         Humildad  (f.) 

The  facade       La  fachada 

To  humble       Humillar 

Ostentation      Fachenda  (  f  .  ) 

Idolatry           Idolatria  (f.) 

The  factory,     La  fabrica 

The  idol           El  idolo 

the  manu- 

The church      La  iglesia 

factory 

The  ignorance  La  ignorancia 

The  sash           La  faja 

An  ignorant     Un  ignorante 

The  defect       La  falta 

(person) 

The  fatigue      La  fatiga 
The  favourite  El  favorito 

The  magnet     El  iman 
Impartiality    Imparcialidad 

The  frecmasonElfrancmason 

(f-) 

A  reward          Un  galardon, 

An  impostor     Un  impostor 

una  recom- 

Imprudence     Imprudencia 

pensa 

(f.) 

A  gallery          Una  galeria 

Impulse            Impulse  (m.) 

The  cattle        La  ganaderia 

The  inaugu-     La  inaugura- 

farm 

ration               cion 

The  cattle-       El  gauadero 

Animals           Los  animales 

breeder 

A  rabbit           Un  conejo 

Cattle               Ganado  (in.) 

A  hare              Una  liebre 

A    sparrow-     Un  gairlan 

A  wolf              Un  lobo 

hawk 

A  vixen            Una  z6rra 

A  hammock     Una  hamaca 

A  wild  boar      Un  jabali 

A  rag                Un  harapo 
An  exploit        Una  hazaiia 

An  eagle           Un  aguila 
A  lark               Una  alondra 

To  stink           Heder 

A  quail              Una  codorniz 

The  thread       El  hilo 

A  duck              Un  pato 

The  cotton       El  algodon 

An  owl              Un  buho. 

A  bonfire          Una  hoguera 

A  sparrow        Un  gorrion 

An  ant             Una  hormiga 

A  magpie         Una  hurraca 

A  merrymaking  Una  huelga 

\  dove               Una  tortola 

LANGUAGES— SPANISH 

EXERCISE    XVII.   (1) 
Translate  the  following  into  Spanish  : 

1.  We  went  from  one  town   to  another.     I   walk 
a  good  deal  without  being  tired,  but  he  cannot  walk. 

2.  I  gave  alms  to  a  poor  man  ;    it  pleases  me  to 
give  to  the  really  needy. 

3.  I  sit  in   the  armchair  ;     those   (persons)   sit  on 
the  sofa,  and  the  child  lies  in  the  cradle. 

4.  You  can  take  this  ma'nuscript,  that  is,  if  you 
can  read  it.     I  cannot  decipher  it. 

5.  Put  the  bread  on  the  table,  and  afterwards  I 
will  put  it  (in)  on  the  sideboard  while  they  Jay  the 
table. 

6.  I  wish  them  to  listen  to  me,  and  they  will  not 
hear  me. 

7.  My   friends   know   the   history   of   England   by 
heart  ;    I  know  that  of  Spain  very  well,   and  with 
time  they  will  know  it  also. 

8.  Bring    back    good    luck    with    you,    and    when 
brought,  let  us  hope  it  wTill  remain. 

9.  This  picture  is  not  worth  much,  but  when  cleaned 
it  will  be  worth  more,  and  I  should  not  be  surprised 
if  it  were  then  worth  a  great  deal. 

10.  I  see  that  your  friendship  is  given  to  another  ; 
and,  seeing  it,  mine  decreases. 

11.  The    fables    of    Lafontaine    are    not    so    well 
known  as  those  of  JSsop. 

12.  That  man's  ostentation  is  ridiculous. 

EXERCISE    XVII.    (2) 
Translate  the  following  into  English  : 

1.  La  fabrica  de  tabacos  cle  Sevilla  es  una  de  las 
curiosidades  de  ese  pueblo. 

2.  La  gente  del  pueblo  en  Andalucia  usan  fujas  de 
colores  brillantes  ;  el  efecto  es  muy  pinto resco. 

3.  Se   usa   la   palabra   fatiga    ademas    del    sentido 
cansancio    como   una  exclamacion  que  quiere  decir. 
que  fastidio,  que  apuro. 

4.  En    tiempo    de    la   caballeria   andante    recibian 
los  caballeros  de  manos  de  sus  damas  un  galardon 
que  conservaban  y  defendiaii  con  su  vida. 

5.  La  Galeria  Nacional  en  Londres  contiene  muy 
buenos  cuadros. 

6.  Los   toros   que   vienen   a  los   pueblos   para   las 
corridas  son  siempre  llamados  el  ganado. 

I.  Hay    mendigos,  que,  vestidos  de  harapos.  con- 
servan  aun  alguna  dignidad. 

8.  Las  hazanas  del  Cid  son  conocidas  por  todo  el 
mundo  civilizado. 

9.  Se   hacen   muy  bonitas  telas  de  algodon  ;  las  de 
Manchester  son  las  mejores. 

10.  En    las    huelgas    baila    la    gente    del    campo 
alrededor  de  las  hogueras. 

II.  La  humildad  es  una  virtud,  pero   el   humillar 
al  humilde  es  el  acto  de   una  persona  despotica  y 
orgullosa. 

12.   La    ignorancia    es    atrevida.      Nadie    da    una 
opinion  mas  decidida  y  perentoria  que  el  ignorante. 
KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XVI.  (I) 

1.  Sirviendo  a  la  patria  se  ganan  honores. 

2.  Seguir  el  mal  ejemplo  es  malo,  sigamos  siempre 
el  bueno. 

3.  Al  ceiiirse  la  espada  grito  "  Viva  el  Rey." 

4.  No   compitamos  con   esa   casa  ;  sus  precios  son 
ridiculamente  baratos. 

5.  No   compres  esa  tela  ;   se  destine  y  mancha  Ins 
manos. 

6.  Gustosamente    despedimos    a   un    huesped    des- 
agradable  y  fastidioso. 

7.  Es  dificil  elegir  a  un  compaiiero  de  viaje,  pero 
una  vez  elegido  hay  que  avenirse  con  el  hasta  el  fin 
de  la  Jornada. 

8.  Hay  que  reflexionar  antes  de  investir  su  patri- 
monio,  pues  despues  de  investido  se  corre  riesgo  de 
no  poder  retirarlo. 

9.  Midamos   el   paiio   antes   de   cortar   la   capa,  y 
cortemoslo  segun  la  medida. 

10.  Persiguieron  al  eiiemigo  hasta  que  no  pudieron 
proseguir  mas  lejos. 

11.  Reiiir  con  sus  amigos  es  cosa  de  necios. 

12.  Contribuyamos  con  buenas  obras   al   bien   del 
projimo,  pero  que  la  contribution  sea  s^nsata. 

4653 


LANGUAGES— SPANISH 

KEY  TO  EXI:K<  isi;   XVI.  (2) 

I.  She  is  so  old  and  ugly  that  she  looks  like  a  witch. 
•J.    He  hurt  that  child  i    lie  i-  a   l«nil«-  ! 

3.  That  man  is  ft  brewer;  he  made  his  fortune 
>t-Hing  I»-.T. 

I  He  showed  me  n  very  ancient  dagger  :  the 
workmanship  is  very  fine. 

6.  The  strawberry- beds  in  my  garden  extend  for 
half  a  league. 

6.  There  are  very  fine  fruit  trees  in  the  orchard. 

7.  The  figs,  pears,  and  apples  are  very  delicious. 

8.  Heather  grows  on  mountains. 

9.  The   lemons   and   oranges   which   grow  on   our 
lemon  and  orange  trees  are  noted  for  being  good. 
Our  strawberry   beds   also  yield    very  large  straw- 
berries. 

10.  The  flower  of  the  pomegranate-tree  is  as  pretty 
as  its  fruit. 

II.  It  is  the  fashion  to  make  rush  furniture  ;    it  is 
pretty,  but  not  lastiiiL'. 

12.  The  box  of  the  Alcazar  of  Seville  is  celebrated 
for  its  age  and  beauty. 

13.  In  Spain  they  make  a  preserve  of  almonds  and 
nuts  called  turron,  which  is  very  good. 

14.  Olive  trees  are  sad  and  melancholy-looking  : 
their  foliage  is  nearly  black. 

PROSE     EXTRACT     XIV. 

From  "  La  Barraca "  (The  Hut),  by  Vicente 
Blasco  Ibanez. 

The  wide  plain  was 
rousing  itself  in  the  blue 
gleam  of  dawn,  which  rose 
like  a  broad  band  of  light 
above  the  sea. 


The  last  nightingales, 
weary  of  enlivening  with 
their  songs  the  spring-like 
mildness  of  the  autumn 
night,  sent  forth  their 
final  trills,  as  if  the  light 
of  morning  had  pierced 
them  with  its  steely  rays. 

Bands  of  sparrows 
arose  from  the  straw- 
thatched  roofs  of  the  huts, 
like  a  troop  of  street  arabs 
in  full  flight,  and  the  tre.  . 
tops  trembled  with  the 
'ir.-t  gambols  of  these 
urchins  of  the  air,  which 
was  all  filled  with  the 
noisy  rustling  of  their 
feather  tunics. 

The  noises  of  the  night 
died  slowly  away — the 
lapping  of  watercourses, 
th<-  whispering  of  rushes, 
the  barking  of  vigilant 
•iffs. 

The  plain  was  waking  : 
its  yawning  grew  louder 
and  louder  every  moment. 
'I'll'-  crowing  of  cocks 
spread  from  hut  t.. 
hut;  the  belfries  of  the 
little  villages  sent  forth 
their  noisy  peals  for  the 
first  Mass,  ringing  afar 
from  the  Mm-  turr.  t-  i,f 
.1.  which  showed 
misty  in  the  distance.  A 
discordant  animal  concert 
•TOM  from  th<-  farmvards 


Desperezabase  la  im- 
mensa  vega  bajo  el  re- 
splandor  agulado  del 
amanecer,  ancha  faja  de 
luz  que  asomaba  por  la 
parte  del  mar. 

Los  ultimos  ruisefiores, 
cansados  de  animar  con 
sus  trinos  aquella  noche 
de  otofio  que  por  lo  tibio 
de  su  ambiente  parecia  de 
primavera,  lanzaban  el 
gorjeo  final  como  si  les 
hiriera  la  luz  del  alba  con 
sus  reflejos  de  acero. 

De  las  techumbres  de 
paja  de  las  barracas 
salian  las  bandadas  de 
gorriones  como  tropel  de 

Eilluelos  perseguidos,  y, 
is  copas  de  los  arboles 
estivmecianse  con  los 
primeros  jugueteos  de 
aquellos  granujas  del 
espacio  que  todo  lo 
alborotaban  con  el  roce 
de  su  blusa  de  plumas. 

Apagabanse  lenta- 

mente  los  rumores  que 
poblaban  la  noche — el 
barboteo  de  las  acequias, 
el  mnnnullo  de  los  caiia- 
verales,  los  ladridos  de 
los  mastines  vigilantes. 

Despertaba  la  huerta, 
y  sus  bostezos  eran  cada 
vez  mas  ruidosos.  Rodaba 
el  canto  del  gallo  de 
barraca  en  barraca  ;  los 
campanarios  de  los  pue- 
blecito.s  devolvian  con 
rindosas  badajadas  el 
toque  de  misa  primeru 
que  sonaba  a  lo  lejos  en 
las  torres  de  Valencia, 
azules,  csfumadas  por  la 
distancia,  y  de  los  corrales 
salia  un  diseordaiite  con- 


-  I  he  neighing  of  hoises, 
the  lowing  of  meek  kine, 
the  cackle  of  hens,  the 
Meating  of  slice]),  and  the 
grunting  of  swine  ;  the 
noi>v  awakening  of  beasts 
which,  feeling  the  fresh 
OareflB  of  morning  laden 
with  the  acrid  smell  of 
vegetation,  IOHL'  to  roam 
the  li.-lds. 

All  space  was  gradually 
soaked  with  light  ;  the 
shadows  vanished  as 
though  swallowed  by  the 
open  furrows  and  masses 
of  foliage  ;  and  from  the 
vague  twilight  of  the 
dawn  emerged  the  bril- 
liant and  humid  outlines 
of  rows  of  mulberry  and 
fruit  trees,  the  swaying 
lines  of  rushes,  the  great 
squares  of  growing  vege- 
tables like  enormous  green 
handkerchiefs,  and  of 
carefully  ploughed  red 
earth. 

Upon  the  roads  appear- 
ed files  of  moving  black 
specks,  like  a  rosary  of 
ants  making  towards  the 
city.  From  every  corner 
of  the  plain  arose  the. 
creaking  of  wheels,  and 
a  sound  of  lazy  singing, 
interrupted  by  a  shout  of 
encouragement  to  the 
beasts  ;  and  every  now 
and  then,  like  the  sonor- 
ous trumpet-call  of  morn- 
ing, the  air  was  rent  by 
the  furious  braying  of  the 
four-footed  pariah,  as  if 
in  protest  against  the 
heavy  labour  which  fell 
upon  him  almost  at  break 
of  day. 

In  the  water-courses 
the  smooth  sheet  of  red- 
dish crystal  was  troubled 
by  loud  plungings,  which 
silenced  the  frogs,  and  in 
a  noisy  flapping  of  wings 
the  swans  advanced  like 
galleys  of  ivory,  their  long 
serpent-necks  moving  like 
fantastic  prows. 

Life,  which  inundated 
the  plain,  together  with 
the  light,  penetrated  into 
the  interior  of  the  huts 
and  farmhouses. 


Vicente  Blasco  Ibanez, 
who  was  bom  in  1867,  is 
considered  one  of  the 
foremost  living  novelists 
in  Spain.  "  The  Hut  "  is 
a  tragic  story  of  village 
life,  told  with  grim  power 
and  great  literary  beauty 
of  style. 


cieiio  animal,  relinehos 
de  .-a  hallos,  mugidos  do 
mansas  vacas,  cloquear 
de  gallinas,  balidos  tie 
corderos,  ronquidos  de 
eerdos,  el  despertar  rui- 
doso  de  las  bestias  que  al 
sentir  la  fresca  carieia  del 
amanecer  cargada  de  aire, 
perfume  de  vegetaeion, 
deseahaii  correr  por  los 
campos. 

El  espacio  se  empapaba 
de  luz,  disolvianse  las 
sombras  como  tragadas 
por  los  abiertos  surcos  y 
las  rnasas  de  follaje,  y  en 
la  indecisa  neblina  del 
amanecer  iban  fijando  sus 
contornos  humedos  y 
brillantes  las  filas  de 
moreras  y  frutales,  las 
oiidulantes  lineas  de 
cafias,  los  grandes  cuadros 
de  hortalizas  semejantes 
a  enormes  panuelos 
verdes  y  la  tierra  roja 
enidadosamente  labrada. 

En  los  caminos  marca- 
baiise  filas  de  puntos 
negrns  y  movibles  como 
rosarios  de  hormigas  que 
marchaban  hacia  la 
ciuclad.  Por  todos  los 
extremes  de  la  vega 
sonaban  chirridos  de 
ruedas,  canciones  pere- 
zosas  interrampidas  por 
el  grito  arreando  las 
bestias,  y  de  vez  en  cuando 
como  soiioro  trompetazo 
del  amanecer,  rasgaba  el 
espacio  un  furioso  rebuzno 
del  cuadrupedo  paria, 
como  protesta  del  pesado 
trabajo  que  caia  sobre  61 
apenas  naeido  el  dia. 

En  las  acequias  con- 
mo  viase  la  tersa  lamina  de 
cristal  rojizo  con  sonoros 
ehapuzones,  que  haciari 
callar  a  las  ranas,  y 
ruidoso  batir  de  alas  y 
como  galeras  de  marfil 
avanzaban  los  cisnes 
moviendo  cual  faiitasticas 
proas  sus  cuellos  de 
serpiente. 

La  vida  que  con  la  luz 
inundaba  la  vega,  pene- 
traba  en  el  interior  de  las 
barracas  y  alquerias. 


Vicente  Blasco  Ibanez, 
nacio  en  1867,  es  con- 
siderado  en  Espana  como 
uno  de  los  primeros 
novelistas  de  nuestro 
tiempo.  "  La  Barraca  " 
es  una  historia  tragica  de 
la  vida  de  aldea,  dicha 
con  una  fuerza  sombria, 
y  un  hermoso  estilo 
literario. 


Continued 


4654 


LANGUAGES— ESPERANTO 


ESPERANTO 


Continued  from 
page  4512 


By  Harald  Clegg 


PREPOSITIONS 

There  are  thirty- four  words  in 
Esperanto  which  are  essentially 
prepositions,  and  to  each  of  which 
a  fixed  meaning  and  power  are 
given.  They  govern  the  nomina- 
tive case  and  not  the  objective,  as 
in  English.  Care  must  be  taken 
in  translating  English  prepositions 
to  see  that  the  exa>ct  sense  required 
is  given  to  the  phrase.  When  we 
say  in  English,  ''  I  saw  a  man 
with  a  telescope,"  the  meaning  of 
"  with  a  telescope  ^  is  ambiguous, 
and  "  Lessons  in  Esperanto  "  may 
mean  that  instruction  on  a  sub- 
ject is  given  in  that  lan- 
guage, or  that  Esperanto  is  the 
subject  about  which  instruction 
is  given  ;  so  that  in  all  cases  the 
preposition  selected  must  be  that 
which  gives  a  logical  meaning 
to  the  idea  to  be  expressed. 
When,  however,  it  happens  that 
none  of  these  will  accurately 
convey  the  sense  desired,  there 
lies  in  reserve  the  preposition  je, 
with  no  definite  signification  ;  but 
as  proficiency  in  Esperanto  is 
acquired,  the  necessity  for  using 
that  word  decreases.  It  should 
only  be  used  as  a  last  resort.  An 
alternative  course  is  to  omit  the 
preposition  and  employ  the  objec- 
tive case,  but  this  should  only  be 
done  when  the  clearness  of  the 
meaning  is  not  affected.  Nearly 
all  prepositions  may  be  used  as 
prefixes  to  words.  We  thus  get : 

ceesti,  to  be  at,  to  be  present  at 
aliri,  to  go  to 
priparoli,  to  speak  about 
[See  Vocabulary.] 

It  is  important  to  remember 
that,  as  in  English,  prepositions 
do  not  end  phrases.  "  The  man 
John  spoke  to "  must  be  trans- 
"  La  viro  al  km  Joha.no 
'is  "  (The  man  to  whom  John 
ike). 

The     following     are    the    most 
monly  used  prepositions  : 

to,  towards 

at,  at  the  place  of,  at  the 

time  of,    with 
of  (used  after  words  indi- 
cating weight,  measure, 
and  quantity) 
of,      from,    by    (denoting 
origin  or  starting  point) 
out  of,    from  among,    ex- 
traction 
en,      in,  into 
jen,    behold.    Jen  estas,  here  is, 

here  are 

kun,  with,  in  company  of  (never 
indicating  the  instru- 
ment). 


per,  by,  by  means  of,  through, 
with  (marking  the  in- 
strument) 

por,%  for,  in  order  to 
pri,    concerning,  about,  relating 

to,  of 
pro,    on  account  of,  for  the  sake 

of,  owing  to 
sen,    without 
sub,    under 

sur,    on,  upon   (actually  touch- 
ing) 
tra,     through 

*  This  word  is  used  instead  of, 
and  to  distinguish  it  from,  de  in 
such  cases  as  the  following : 

A  plate  of  soup,  Telero  da  supo, 
meaning  a  plateful  of  soup,  and  : 

A  plate  for  soup  (soup  plate), 
which  is  Telero  de  (or  por)  supo, 

f  Also,  to  do  a  thing  thoroughly. 
Ex.  :  Ellerni,  learn  thoroughly. 

J  The  mood  of  any  verb  which 
immediately  follows  por  is  always 
infinitive. 

THE   VERB    (Past  Tense) 

The  past  tense  is  formed  by  the 
addition  of  is  to  the  root  word, 
and  is  the  same  for  all  persons, 
singular  and  plural.  Examples  : 

The  father  birched  the  child, 
La  patro  vergis  la  infanon.  The 
men  accepted  the  papers,  La  viroj 
akceptis  la  paperojn. 

VOCABULARY 
afer',  aftair,         hodiaii*,  to-day 

matter  ir',  go 

akv',  water         jaud',  Thursday 
add',  hear  kant',  sing 

atnas',  crowd      koncert',  concert 
arb',  tree  leori,  lion 

bezon',  need,       lund',  Monday 

want  mastro,  master 

blov',  blow  (v.)    mard',  Tuesday 
hotel',  bottle        merkred',    Wed- 
bol',  boil  (v.n.)        nesday 
bru',  noise  muzik',  music 

Sambr',  room,      nokt',  night 

chamber          parol',  speak 
eeriz',  cherry       pastr',  priest 
danc',  dance        pet',  ask  for,  beg 
demand',  ask,      popol',  people 

question          rest',  remain, 
dimanc',  Sunday     stay 
far',  make,  do     strat',  street 
fUf,  son  sabat',  Saturday 

frat',  brother      semajn',  week 
funt',  pound       sinjor',  sir,  Mr. , 
f/arden',  garden      gentleman 
general',  general  soldat',  soldier 

(army)  teatr',  theatre 

<ju',  enjoy  tag',  day 

glas',  glass          vend' ',  sell 

(wine,  etc.)  vendred',  Friday 
hierau*,  jester-  vent',  wind(s) 

day  vin',  wine 


EXERCISE- 2. 

The  soldiers  went  through  the 
streets.  Sunday,  Monday,  Tues- 
day, Wednesday,  Thursday,  Fri- 
day and  Saturday  are  days  of  the 
week.  In  the  night  the  son  heard 
a  noise.  The  water  and  the  soup 
are  boiling.  The  father  spoke  to 
the  soldier  about  the  matter.  The 
children  danced  in  the  room,  and 
the  birds  sang  on  the  tree.  The 
general  had  a  bottle  of  wine,  and 
asked  for  a  glass  of  water.  The 
cherries  remained  on  the  tree. 
On  Friday  and  Saturday  (the) 
father  and  (the)  brother  went  to 
the  theatre  to  hear  the  concert. 
Yesterday  the  priest  bought  a 
pound  of  cherries,  and  to-day  the 
son  of  the  general  sold  a  bottle  of 
wine  to  the  cousin.  Here  is  a  pipe 
and  the  gazette.  Here  are  some 
cherries  and  a  water-glass.  The 
lion  has  teeth.  The  water  re- 
mained on  the  table  in  the  room. 
Here  is  a  crowd  of  men  in  (on)  the 
street.  The  gentleman  and  the 
master  heard  the  noise  and  spoke 
to  the  priest  about  the  affair.  The 
son  saw  the  brother  at  the  theatre. 
At  the  concert  the  gentleman  sang 
and  the  people  enjoyed  the  music. 
The  bird  went  out  through  the 
window.  In  his  (the)  hand  the 
soldier  had  a  stick. 

PRONOUNS 
The  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  are  : 

Singular  : 

I  mi  she         Si 

thou       ci  he          li 

you        vi  it  gi 

Plural: 

we          ni  you         vi 

They     Hi 

There  are  also  si,  REFLEXIVE 
PRONOUN  (used  for  all  numbers 
and  both  sexes,  in  the  third 
person  only,  and  never  as  subject 
of  a  sentence),  and  oni,  an  indefi- 
nite pronoun,  which  represents 
it,  they,  people,  one.  It  is 
the  French  on.  All  the  above 
pronouns  (with  the  possible 
exception  of  oni),  like  the  noun 
when  the  direct  object  of  a  verb, 
take  the  accusative  n,  but 
naturally  they  cannot  take  the 
plural  /.  Ci  is  very  rarely  used, 
only  being  employed  in  trans- 
lation, where  fidelity  to  the 
original  requires  it.  As  will  be 
seen  ahovj,  vi  is  used  in  the 
second  person  both  singular  and 
plural.  Gi  is  used  in  speaking 
of  inanimate  objects,  or  to  indi- 
cate animals,  and  even  children, 
when  the  sex  is  not  particularly 
4655 


LANGUAGES-  ESPERANTO 

to  be  distinguished.  N/.  the 
retle\;ve  pronoun.  i>  somet hing 
new  to  the-  Knglish  learner,  and 
its  functions  must  In- carefully 
noted.  It  stands  for  the  English 
wonU  M-lt'  and  selves,  as  in 
himself,  h  el-self,  itself,  them- 
selves, and  is  employed  when 
the  idea  -expressed  by  the  verb 
in  the  sentence  refers  to  the 
subject.  Examples : 

He  spoke  to  himself,  Li 
parolis  al  si  (not  Zi).  The 
father  and  the  brother  bought 
wine  for  themselves,  La  patro 
kitj  In  frato  a-C-etis  vinon  por  si. 
She  washes  herself,  Si  lavas  sin 
(not  Sin). 

Emphasis  may  be  given  to  the 
meaning  by  adding  mem,  and  this 
word  may  be  used  after  any  of  the 
j>ersonal  pronouns.  Examples : 

I  myself  paid  the  man.  Mi  mem 
1x1:1!*  la  viron.  They  thanked 
themselves,  Ui  dankis  sin  mem. 

The  indefinite  pronoun  on! 
(third  person)  is  used  in  a  general 
-< •!!-<•  when  nobody  in  particular 
is  spoken  of,  as  : 

It  is  said,  They  say,  Oni  dims. 

I  was  told,  Oni  diris  al  mi. 

AFFIXES 

I5i -sides  the  prepositions  before- 
mentioned,  which  are  used  as  pre- 
fixes to  form  new  words,  there  is 
an  elaborate  system  of  affixes,  con- 
sisting of  thirty-two  words,  which 
arc  prefixed  or  added  to  the  regular 
roots.  It  is  of  the  first  importance 
for  learners  to  be  fully  acquainted 
with  the  meaning  and  value  of 
these  particles,  as  they  form  a  stock 
of  separate  words  which  will  not  be 
•jiven  in  the  attached  vocabu- 
laries. By  their  aid  it  is  possible 
to  form  an  indefinite  number  of 
cognate  words  which  express 
•  •very  possible  shade  of  thought, 
without  obliging  the  student  to 
learn  distinct  words  for  each 
object  or  idea.  The  vocabularies 
will  In-  searched  in  vain  for  such 
words  as  small,  bad,  woman, 
chicken,  forest,  as  these  are  con- 
-iriKtrd  I >y  means  of  affixes  from 
the  words  large,  good,  man.  eoeU. 
tree.  From  the  single  word  san', 
meaning  health,  fifty  jH-rteet 
words  can  be  formed,  thus  de- 
monstrating the  possibility  of  ac- 
Muii-im*  words  without  unneces- 
sary labour. 

Prefixes.     Mai  denotes  the 

direct  opposite  of  any  idea  (not 

simply  its  negative).     Example  : 

Admin',  admire  :   ,,i<il<i>/ /////•/.  do- 

Hniin.  <_;()(  ,(1  ;    tmilhnmt.  evil. 


I  In  denotes  a  relation  by  mar- 
riage. Example  :  Patro,  father  : 
bopatro,  father-in-law.  Frut<>, 
brother ;  bofrato,  brother-in-law. 
Dis  denotes  separation.  Ex- 
ample :  Jot,  to  throw ;  di*jc(i. 
to  scatter.  £tr»,  to  tear ;  rti««tri, 
to  tear  to  pieces. 

VOCABULARY 
adiau.   good-      Itar',  hair  (sing.) 

bye,  adieu      hejm',  home 
alumet',  lucifer  help',  help 
amik',  friend      horn',  man, 
aparten',  belong      human  being 
barb',  beard         liorloy',  clock 
bier',  beer  hund',  dog 

blek',  cry  (of      jes,  yes 

animals)          kaf,  coffee 
cigar',  cigar         Icon'*  know 
cit',  cite,  men-  kor',  heart 

tion  log,  live,  lodge 

ces',  cease,  stop  pov',  able  to 
reval',  horse        propon',  pro- 
decid',  decide          pose,  offer 
dev',  be  obliged  sem',  sow 

(to)  sci'  t  know 

don',  give  skatol',  box 

dub',  doubt         Sip',  ship 
entrepren',  Ston',  stone 

undertake       te',  tea 

',  extiu-     ven',  come 
guish  vintr',  winter 

fajr',  fire  viv',  live 

famili',  family    vol',  Avilling  to 
gas',  gas  vort',  word 

gorg',  throat        voj',  way,  road 
grup',  group       vund',  wound 

*  Kori  means  to  be  personally 
acquainted  with,  to  understand  the 
nature  of,  to  know  of,  to  know 
who  such  a  person  is,  or  what  such 
a  thing  is. 

f  Sci'  means  to  know,  to  per- 
ceive with  the  mind,  never  to 
know  a  person. 

EXERCISE  3. 

I  want  (beg)  a  glass  of  beer  and 
a  pipe.  You  must  extinguish  the 
fire  and  the  lamp.  I  heard  the 
neigh  of  the  horse  and  the  bleat  of 
the  sheep.  He  was  doubtful  about 
the  affair.  Father-in-law.  Brother- 
in-law.  The  ox  belongs  to  her.  I 
can  sing  and  dance.  Yes,  sir,  I 
have  a  cigar  and  matches.  He 
himself  was  in  the  garden.  She 
helped  me,  and  I  thanked  her  for 
the  offer.  They  gave  me  the  book, 
and  I  tore  it  up.  He  has  a  friend, 
and  she  has  an  enemy.  They  want 
t  ( >  h  inder  you.  In  the  winter  I  live 
in  the  house  and  work.  She  de- 
cided to  buy  the  clock.  You  men- 
tioned the  matter  to  me.  Man 
!I;IH  hair(s),  throat,  hands,  and  a 

Continued 


heart.  The  fire  is  burning.  You 
made  me  an  oiler,  and  1  accepted 
it.  The  matches  in  the  box  belong 
to  us.  I  know  you,  and  you  know 
me.  To-day  is  Wednesday  and 
yesterday  was  Tuesday.  The  son- 
in-law  remains  in  the  street  with 
the  cousin.  In  the  night  the  wind 
blew.  The  lion  wounded  itself ; 
it  roared  and  made  a  noise.  (Jood- 
bye,  friend,  I  want  to  thank  you 
for  the  help. 

ADJECTIVES 
The  adjective  is  formed  by  the 
addition  of  a  to  the  root  word,  arid 
always  agrees  in  number  and  case 
with  the  noun  which  it  qualities. 
Examples : 

Nona.  sing. :  Forta  viro  en  in'*, 
A  strong  man 
entered  ; 

„  plur.  :'  Forta j  viroj  eniris, 
Strong  men 
entered. 

Obj.  sing.  :  Mi  vidis  fortan  vi- 
ron, I  saw  a  strong 
man; 

,,  plur.  :  Mi  vidis  fortajn  vi- 
rojn,  I  saw  (some) 
strong  men. 

Adjectives     used    predicatively 
always  agree  in  number  with  the 
noun,    but    are    always    in    the 
nominative  case.     Examples  : 
La    viro    estas    forta,  The   man 

was  Strong. 
La  viroj  estas  fortaj,  The   men 

were  strong. 
Li  trovis  la  teon  bona,  He  found 

the  tea  (to  be)  good. 
In  the  latter  example  there  is  a 
supplemental  predication  which  is 
shown  by  the  easy  intermission  of 
the  auxiliary  infinitive,  and,  as 
before-mentioned,  the  accusative 
can  never  follow  any  form  of  the 
auxiliary  verb  esti. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  1. 
Onklo,  safo  (or  safoj),  la 
bastono,  la  fenestroj,  skribi, 
danki,  puni,  tondi,  vidi.  La 
kuzo  laboras.  La  edzo  skribas. 
La  safo  staras.  Onklo  punas. 
La  Safoj  kuras.  La  edzoj  acetas 
gazetojn.  Patro  admiras  la 
aglon.  La  infano  tondas  la 
paperon.  La  agio  estas  birdo. 
Onklo  havas  segon,  tablon,  kaj 
bastonon.  Safoj  kaj  bovoj  estas 
bestoj.  La  patro  fermas  la 
fenestrojn.  La  edzo  havas  cape- 
Ion  kaj  la  safoj  havas  vostojn. 
La  agio  vidas  la  infanojn.  La 
infano  dankas  la  patron.  La 
viro  acetis  tablon  kaj  aegojn. 
La  viro  akceptas  la  capelon. 


Yl,i,  .,,,.,,. 


MODERN      COMMERCE 

From   Hi.-    I'jiintiii^  l.\    FKVNK    I!KAM.W\N.    A.  II.  A..   in   the   Royal    K.x.-haiw 
tun-  t..  ••I'lm-iii.-iiin*  Tia.liiiK'  with  th.-  Karly  Hrit.,:  !  (  'urn  wall."  liy  I.<inl  L.-iirhion.  wliirh  is  tin 

Krollti-,,  ..-,•,-    t.,     VulllI,,,-     1.     ,,f     til,-    SKI.K-Kl.l-CATOR 


PRODUCTS   OF  THE  FOREST 

Temperate  and  Tropical  Timber.    Turpentine.     Tar.     Rubber. 
Tree    Oils.      Ground    Nuts.      Tropical    Gums    and     Resins 


Group  13 

COMMERCIAL 
GEOGRAPHY 

3 

Continued  from  page  4520 


By  Dr.  A.  J.  HERBERTSON,  M.A.,  and  F.  D.  HERBERTSON,  B.A. 


na 

s 

lei 


IN  a  limited  space  it  is  impossible  even  to 
enumerate  the  commodities  of  which  civilised 
man  makes  use.  The  depths  of  the  sea  and  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  are  ransacked  for  their 
treasures.  In  the  plant  world,  root,  stem,  sap, 
bark,  leaf,  bud,  flower,  and  fruit  are  all  utilised. 
The  very  parasites  of  the  tree  are  sometimes 
pressed  into  service.  In  the  animal  world 
there  is  hardly  a  creature  or  an  organ  for  which 
some  use  is  not  found.  Meat,  blood,  intestines, 
bones,  sinews,  horns,  hoofs,  hides,  and  furs,  all 
have  their  purpose  to  serve.  If  the  bounty  of 
Nature  is  almost  inexhaustible,  the  ingenuity  of 
man  is  hardly  less  so. 

The  Products  of  the  Forest.  Two  regions 
of  the  world  are  densely  forested,  the  temperate 
lands,  and  the  tropical  regions  near  the  equator. 
The  products  of  the  two  are  very  different. 

In  the  north  temperate  belt  of  the  Old  World 
forests  cover  Sweden  and  Russia  and  stretch 
eastwards  across  Siberia.  In  the  corresponding 
regions  of  the  New  World  are  the  dense  forests  of 
Eastern  Canada  and  the  Eastern  United  States. 
These  forests  are  coniferous  in  the  northern  and 
the  higher  parts,  and  deciduous  in  the  southern 
and  the  lower  parts. 

The  chief  products  of  the  temperate  forests 
are  timber,  lumber,  turpentine,  pitch  or  tar, 
and  resins  and  gums. 

Timber.  Timber  is  the  oldest  and  most 
widely  distributed  building  material  in  the  world, 
as  well  as  the  most  universal  fuel.  Its  other 
uses  are  innumerable,  from  the  great  cargo  ships 
of  trading  nations  down  to  the  nicely  adjusted 
handles  of  an  infinite  variety  of  tools.  Next  to 
he  food-stuffs,  timber  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
.dispensable  of  materials. 

No  natural  product  has  been  used  more  reck- 
ssly.  Before  the  introduction  of  coal,  enormous 
quantities  were  used,  not  merely  as  domestic 
fuel,  but  for  such  purposes  as  smelting  metals. 
The  Weald  of  Southern  England  is  one  of  many 
districts  thus  deforested.  This  method  of  smelting 
is  still  practised  in  forest  districts  of  Russia  and 
Sweden.  In  regions  as  far  apart  as  Mexico  and 
Amuria  wood  is  the  fuel  employed  both  for 
railway  and  steamboat  traffic.  Still  greater 
is  the  amount  of  valuable  timber  which  has  been 
wantonly  destroyed  in  clearing  land  for  culti- 
vation. Forest  fires  annually  destroy  vast 
quantities  both  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  The  demand  for  timber  is  steadily 
increasing  all  over  the  world,  while  the  more 
accessible  forests  have  been  greatly  reduced 
in  area.  Hence  the  price  is  steadily  rising. 
The  timber  imported  into  Britain  in  1905  was 
valued  at  over  £27,000,000.  [See  the  section  on 
Forestry  in  APPLIED  BOTANY.] 

T  G 


Timber,  being  bulky  and  heavy,  can  only  be 
cheaply  transported  by  water.  Where  the 
forested  regions  are  mountainous,  as  is  often  the 
case,  timber  can  be  cheaply  floated  down 
stream  to  the  sea.  Much  timber  is  sawn  by 
water  power,  and  transported  in  that  form. 
Much  is  reduced  to  wood  pulp,  of  which  paper  is 
made. 

Lumber.  Lumber  is  sawn  timber.  The 
value  depends  largely  on  the  absence  of  knots, 
to  avoid  which  the  tree  must  be  prevented 
from  branching  as  long  as  possible.  [See 
MATERIALS  AND  STRUCTURES,  page  57.]  Pine 
forests  require  a  century  to  mature,  but  a  solitary 
pine  only  half  that  time.  The  Scotch  pine,  one 
of  the  most  valuable  European  timber  trees,  may 
live  400  years.  Oak  forests  mature  still  more 
slowly. 

The  timber  exported  from  the  Baltic 
ports  is  the  red  wood  of  the  Scotch  fir,  and  the 
white  wood  of  the  spruce  fir.  Both  are  used  for 
roofing,  flooring,  street  paving,  etc.,  the  latter  in 
the  cheaper  lines.  The  Weymouth,  or  yellow 
pine — the  white  pine  of  the  United  States — is 
commercially  the  most  valuable  tree  of  Canada 
and  the  Eastern  United  States.  It  is  very  free 
from  resin.  The  pitch  pine,  ranging  farther 
south,  is  heavy,  resinous,  and  harder  to  work. 
It  is  extensively  used  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  giant  pines  of  the  Pacific  sea- 
board yield  timber  for  masts,  etc.  The  deodar, 
or  Indian  cedar,  is  abundant  in  the  Himalayan 
forests,  and  much  used  in  Northern  India. 

Of  deciduous  trees,  or  hardwoods,  the  strongest 
and  most  durable  is  oak,  but  it  is  too  expensive 
unless  durability  is  of  prime  importance,  as  in 
shipbuilding.  Unfortunately  it  rusts  iron.  Elm, 
ash,  beech,  the  tough  American  hickory,  and  the 
decorative  walnut  and  maple  are  the  other 
leading  hardwoods. 

Turpentine,  Pitch  and  Tar.  Many 
conifers  yield  a  resinous  sap.  The  resin  of  the 
New  Zealand  kauri  pine  is  used  for  the  finest 
varnishes.  Much  of  it  is  dug  out  of  the  ground 
on  the  site  of  former  forests.  [See  page  1034.] 

Turpentine,  largely  used  to  dilute  paints  and 
varnishes,  is  distilled  from  the  resinous  sap 
of  the  pine,  particularly  from  that  of  the  long- 
leaf  or  Georgia  pine.  The  forests  of  Georgia  and 
the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  generally  yield  most  of 
the  world's  supply  of  turpentine  through  the 
ports  of  Savannah  and  Brunswick.  The  tree 
is  cut  near  the  base,  allowing  the  sap  to 
exude  and  harden  into  crude  turpentine,  from 
which  commercial  turpentine  is  distilled.  The 
residuum  forms  resin,  or  rosin,  used  in  making 
varnish,  paper,  soap,  and  sealing  wax. 

4657 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

Little  turpentine  is  made  in  the  forest  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  which  supply  pitch  and  tar 
page  1103],  obtained  from  the  sap  by 
different  processes.  In  Russia  tar  is  made  by 
allowing  wood  to  smoulder  under  a  covering  ot 
turf  or  earth  which  excludes  the  air.  Improved 
methods  have  been  demised  by  which  charcoal 
can  be  made  at  the  same  time.  Creosote,  a 
powerful  preservative,  is  made  from  tar. 

Other  Temperate  Forest  Produce. 
Oak  bark  is  less  used  than  formerly  for  tanning  ; 
larch  bark,  hemlock  spruce  bark  (U.S.A.. 
Canada),  wattle  bark  (Australia)  and  Natal 
bark  being  common  substitutes.  Valonia,  the 
acorn  cups  of  an  oak  grown  in  the  Levant 
and  exported  through  Smyrna,  are  used  both 
for  tanning  and  dyeing.  An  evergreen  oak, 
found  in  Spain,  Portugal  and  round  the  Medi- 
terranean generally,  supplies  cork. 

Tropical  Forest  Produce.  The  wealth 
of  the  tropical  forest,  of  which  only  a  fraction  is 
yet  utilised,  far  exceeds  that  of  the  temperate 
forest.  Many  trees  yield  timber  of  great  strength, 
while  that  of  others  is  of  exquisite  beauty. 
Teak,  with  the  strength  of  oak,  is  largely  used 
for  backing  the  armour  plates  of  ships  because 
it  protects  iron  from  rust.  It  grows  in  Eastern 
Asia,  Java,  and  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies.  The 
British  supply  is  from  the  carefully  regulated 
forests  of  Upper  Burma.  Two  gigantic  species 
of  Australian  eucalyptus  supply  the  hard  jarrah 
and  karri  wood.  The  former  resists  sea  water, 
and  is  used  for  piles  and  the  foundations  of  piers, 
docks,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  railway  sleepers,  and 
for  street  paving. 

The  forests  of  the  West  Indies  and  Central 
America  supply  many  ornamental  woods,  the 
best  known  of  which  is  mahogany.  Rosew*ood, 
another  familiar  cabinet  wood,  comes  from  Brazil. 
Both  are  used  principally  for  veneering,  a  thin 
layer  of  the  expensive  ornamental  wood  being 
applied  to  a  cheaper  frame.  Ebony  is  the  heart- 
wood  of  a  tree  found  in  Ceylon  and  the  East 
Indies.  Boxwood,  another  Indian  tree,  which 
also  grows  round  the  Mediterranean,  is  hard  and 
very  fine  in  grain,  and  is  much  used  by  engravers. 
The  fragrant  sandalwood  is  abundant  in  the  East 
Indies  and  New  Guinea,  Another  important 
group  of  tropical  forest  trees  are  the  dye  woods. 
Logwood,  which  yields  a  range  of  blue  and  brown 
dyes,  grows  in  Yucatan  and  Central  America, 
including  British  Honduras.  Some  fine  dye- 
\vo..ds  are  also  obtained  from  the  forests  of 
\V.-t  Africa,  Cutch  is  the  juice  of  an  acacia, 
•A ported  as  a  dyestuff  from  Burma  and  the 
Sei  t  lements.  Gambier,  a  dyestuff  obtained 
from  tl<-  young  leaves  of  a  climbing  plant,  also 
•  •oini-s  fr,,m  the  Straits  Settlements. 

Rubber.       Of   the   tropical   trees   secreting 

valuable    jtiic.-^    tlu-    most    important    are    the 

robber-yielding  plants,  which  belong  to  many 

different    species  [see  page  808].       The   finest 

cornea  from  South  America.    Some  of  its 

•  iv  known  at   the  time  of  the  European 

«-om|ue>t.  but   it  Avas  of  little  eonnnereial  value 

till  the  discovery  of  m/r,, ,i>'^ifi,»i.  which  hardens 

rubiM'-r  without  destroying  its  H;i*tj:-ity.    Thi<  is 


effected  by  adding  sulphur,  in  quantities  varying 
with  the  degree  of  .  hardness  required.  The 
addition  of  about  50  per  cent,  of  sulphur  forms 
the  hard,  black  substance  known  as  ebonite. 
Vulcanised  rubber  is  used  for  innumerable  pur- 
poses, one  of  the  most  important  of  which  is  the 
making  of  pneumatic  tyres. 

The  finest  rubber  is  the  Para  rubber,  or  Hevea 
lirasiliensis,  from  the  Amazon  Valley,  shipped  from 
Para,  Manaos,  and  other  ports  of  the  Amazon. 
Inferior  rubbers,  from  other  species,  are  exported 
from  Ceara  and  Pernambuco.  The  rubber  ex- 
ported from  Brazil  in  1904  exceeded  £11,000.000 
in  value.  Many  tropical  trees  of  the  Old  World 
also  yield  rubber.  In  1904  the  Congo  Free  State 
exported  it  to  the  value  of  nearly  £2,000.000. 

The  demand  for  rubber  is  increasing  more 
rapidly  than  the  supply.  Increasing  quantities 
will  be  obtained  from  Nigeria,  Assam,  and 
Borneo,  but  less  wasteful  methods  of  collection 
must  be  adopted,  and  attention  devoted  to 
forming  rubber  plantations. 

Gutta-percha,  from  the  Dichopsis  gutta  and 
other  plants,  resembles  rubber,  and  is  also 
capable  of  vulcanisation.  It  is  obtained  from 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo, 
through  Singapore.  Its  chief  use  is  for  coating 
telegraph  wires,  especially  in  submarine  cables. 

Tree  Oils.  Many  tropical  trees  yield  useful 
oils.  [See  page  1032.]  The  fruit  of  the  oil  palm, 
when  crushed,  yields  palm  oil,  used  in  making 
soap  and  candles.  The  coconut  palm  is  a 
Avidely-distributed  tree  which  prefers  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  sea.  Its  seeds  are  enclosed  in  a 
thick  husk,  and  are  carried  by  ocean  currents 
from  shore  to  shore.  The  oil  yielded  by  the 
kernel  is  used  in  tropical  countries  for  food  and 
many  other  purposes,  and  commercially  for 
making  stearine  candles  and  soaps,  which  lather 
in  sea  water.  The  dried  kernel  forms  copra, 
100  Ib.  of  which  yield  about  five  gallons  of  oil. 
Eucalyptus  oil  is  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the 
Australian  eucalyptus.  Castor  oil  is  obtained 
from  a  plant  native  to  India,  but  cultivated 
round  the  Mediterranean  and  in  America.  It  is 
used  medicinally,  but  in  India  also  for  lighting 
and  lubricating.  The  finest  is  "  cold-drawn  "- 
that  is,  obtained  by  crushing  the  seeds  without 
heat, 

Ground  Nuts.  Ground  nuts  are  the  pods 
of  a  leguminous  plant,  so-called  because  they 
bury  themselves  in  the  ground  to  ripen.  They  are 
chiefly  exported  from  West  Africa,  but  are  also 
grown  in  Southern  Europe,  India,  South  America, 
and  the  Southern  United  States,  where  they  are 
called  peanuts.  The  oil  can  be  used  as  salad  oil, 
and  the  residuum  as  a  feeding  stuff  for  cattle. 

Gums  and  Resins.  The  tropical  gums  and 
resins  include  dammar,  obtained  from  a  coniferous 
tree  of  the  East  Indies.  Copal  grows  in  tropical 
Africa,  especially  in  Portuguese  West  Africa,  in 
India,  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  South 
America.  Dragon's  blood  is  a  reddish  resin  from 
Sumatra.  Frankincense,  or  olibanum,  is  obtained 
from  Southern  Arabia  and  India,  Gum  arabic 
is  secreted  by  various  acacia  trees  which  flourish 
chiefly  in  the  Sudan. 


Continual 


4fi.-,8 


PRACTICAL  POULTRY  BREEDING 

Group  1 

AGRICULTURE 

Breeding  for  Utility  rather  than  Ornament.    The  Chief  Varieties 
Enumerated.    Points  of  Good  Table  Birds.    Feeding  for  the  Table 

33 

Continued  from 
page  4576 

By   Professor  JAMES   LONG 


""THE  poultry  industry  has  made  great  strides 
during  the  past  ten  years.  During  the  pre- 
vious thirty  to  forty  years  Englishmen  devoted 
little  attention  to  the  economical  side  of  poultry 
breeding. 

The  Fascination  of  Poultry.  The 
number  and  beauty  of  the  varieties  appealed  to 
thousands  of  persons,  who  became  fascinated  with 
their  plumage,  their  form,  and  their  colours,  and 
who  devoted  their  efforts  to  the  perfecting  of 
those  fancy  points  which  form  the  basis  of  the 
awards  of  judges.  Wonderful  skill  has,  in  con- 
sequence, been  developed  and  exercised,  and  it 
is  entirely  owing  to  the  art  of  the  breeder  that 
the  most  perfect  varieties  of  to-day  owe  their 
brilliant  colours,  their  mathematical  marking, 
and  the  symmetry  of  their  combs,  ear  lobes,  and 
general  form. 

The  principle,  however,  which  is  necessarily 
adopted  in  the  selection  of  the  fittest  for  repro- 
ductive purposes  on  these  lines  is  entirely  opposed 
to  the  improvement  of  economical  properties  of 
poultry.  Instead  of  developing  the  breast  and 
the  merry-thought  from  the  point  of  view  of  an 
increase  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  meat, 
and  instead,  too,  of  increasing  the  laying  powers 
of  the  hens  by  breeding  from  the  best  layers,  the 
amateur  made  a  point  of  selecting  his  breeding 
stock  wholly  and  solely  on  the  basis  of  those 
qualifications  which  appeal  to  the  eye,  and  which 
are  alone  calculated  to  secure  prizes  in  competi- 
tion. We  must,  however,  in  discussing  this 
subject,  take  things  as  we  find  them,  and  our 
descriptions  of  the  pure  breeds  will,  therefore,  be 
based  upon  the  existing  standards  of  the  most 
perfect  exhibition  birds  of  each  breed,  a  few  of 
Avliich  may  still  be  regarded  as  utilitarian,  and 
if  not  precisely  all  they  should  be,  still  deserving 
employment  in  the  practice  of  breeding  for 
economical  purposes. 

The  Two  Main  Classes.  We  may 
divide  the  pure  breeds  of  poultry  into  two 
classes — those  which  are  useful,  whether  also 
ornamental  or  not,  and  those  which  are  essen- 
tially ornamental,  their  utility  being  so  compara- 
tively small  that  they  are  not  worth  the  attention 
of  those  connected  with  the  genuine  industry. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  hens  of  the  utility 
breeds  are  usually  sitters,  although  in  many 
cases  they  are  layers  of  an  inferior  order  ;  also 
that  they  are  comparatively  large  in  size,  whereas 
the  hens  of  the  ornamental  breeds  are  as  a  rule 
non-sitters,  smaller  in  size,  and,  in  some  cases, 
layers  of  a  larger  number  of  eggs.  Where  the 
non-sitting  and  the  sitting  varieties  are  crossed — 
and  we  apply  the  word  sitter  to  the  hen  which 
hatches  eggs — the  females  produced  are  usually 
sitters,  although  in  many  instances  they  are  too 


sensitive  and  excitable   to  be  generally  entrusted 
with  valuable  eggs. 

The  varieties  may  be  classified  as  in  this  table. 


THE  UTILITY  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY. 

Name. 

*3) 

II 

<=  ^  g 

sj 

£|! 

!S 

13 

fcfi        O 

§•53 

Is 

•<        & 

Dorking  (4  varieties)  .     . 

Sitters 

8-9 

oz. 

27* 

120 

Indij 

in  Game     .... 

7 

24 

100 

Oldl 

Snglish  Game 

(s 

everal  varieties)  .     . 

ft 

4*-5* 

24 

90 

Mod 

srn     Game     (many 

\i 

irieties)      .... 

6-7 

24 

85 

Plyn 

outh  Rock  (3  var.)  . 

I* 

7* 

27 

120 

Orpington  (several  vars.) 
Wyandotte    (ditto) 

6J-7 
6-6* 

27 
25 

120 
120 

-  « 

LaFleche      .     .     . 

Non-sitters 

6* 

30 

120 

•g.2 

Creve  Coeur  .     .     . 

fj 

7 

31 

120 

c  "S 

Houdan    .... 

M 

5J 

26 

125 

r*  '^ 

Bresse      .... 

5 

33 

155 

> 

Faverolle       .     .     . 

Sitters 

27 

115 

Spanish  (2  varieties) 

Non-sitters 

5 

30 

75 

£  £ 

Minorca  (2  varieties) 

5£ 

28 

130 

iH  &> 

Andalusian  .     .     . 

" 

51. 

28 

130 

«  i 

Leghorn  (sevl.  var.) 

4! 

23-27 

140-160 

s  ^ 

Ancona    .... 

4? 

24 

140 

Ham 

mrgh  (C  varieties)  . 

i> 

4 

17-19 

170-200 

Red 

Cap  

5* 

20 

170-200 

05 

Brahma  (2  varieties) 

Sitters 

8-9 

28* 

85 

°2  !3 

Langshan 

8 

27 

100 

Cochin  (5  varieties) 

J 

8-9 

25 

80 

Scotc 

h  Grey      .... 

|f 

6* 

29 

120 

Campines  (2  varieties)     . 
Scotch  Dumpies     .     .     . 

Non-sitters 
Sitters 

4* 
5 

25 

No 

150 
100 

data 

THE  ORNAMENTAL  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY. 

e'S- 

o>o« 

v'o  ^    • 

Name. 

Sitter  or 
Non- 
Sitter. 

£•»»£ 
||| 

Ifll 

*a>  Ȥ 

?iii 

<**< 

lb. 

oz. 

Malay      .... 

Sitter 

7 

21 

80 

Aseel  

5 

No  data 

No  data 

Polish  (six  varieties) 

Non-sitters 

5  to  6 

23 

„ 

Sultan      .... 

3 

16 

Silkies      .... 

Sitters 

3 

15 

50 

Frizzle     .... 

4 

Small 

No  data 

Among  other  ornamental  varieties,  of  which 
no  reliable  data  exist  as  regards  weight  and  egg 
production,  are  Yokohamas,  Rumpless,  Naked 
Necks,  and  the  following  varieties  of  Bantam  : 
Game  (in  several  sub- varieties),  Black  Rose  Game, 
White  Rose  Game,  Gold  and  Silver  Sebrights, 
Japanese,  Pekins,  Brahmas,  Booted,  Scotch 
Greys,  Nankins,  Malays,  and  Spanish. 

The  Mediterranean  breeds,  of  which  a  Leg- 
horn is  figured  in  1,  the  Hamburghs  [2],  Red 
Caps,  Campines,  and  most  of  the  French  breeds 
lay  white  eggs.  The  Asiatics,  Orpingtons, 

4659 


AGRICULTURE 

Plymouth  Rocks,  and  Scotch  Greys.  '>uff  eggs; 
\\hile  the  Wyandottes  and  Game  fowls,  as  a 
j.'nnip,  lay  eggs  slightly  tinted  or  creamy.  The 
Mediterranean  fowls  are  all  inferior  table  birds  ; 
the  Asiatic,  Langshans  excepted,  though  larger 
and  carrying  more  flesh,  produce  meat  of  second- 
r.itr  i|ua'lity  ;  while  the  best  table  .fowls  include 
the  Dorkings  [3],  the  Game  varieties,  and  the 
French  breeds,  which  are  followed  by  the 
Langshans,  the  Orpingtons,  the  Scotch  Greys, 
Wyandottes,  and  Plymouth  Rocks.  The  five 
last-named  may  be  termed  the  general  purpose 
varieties. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the.  weights  of 
the  cockerels  represent  young  birds  of  sixteen  to 
twenty  weeks  fit  for  the  table  but  not, fatted  or- 
e-rammed, and  that  the  average  number  of  .eggl 
indicates,  not  what  is  possible,  or  what  has  beei 
accomplished  in  public  competition,  but  what 
is  produced  in  the  ordinary 
poultry-yard. 

Eggs.  Whoever  keeps 
poultry  for  utility  purposes 
will  not  find  the  Bantams  of 
any  value  whatever,  and  the 
remark  applies  equally  to  a 
number  of  the  larger  varieties, 
and  especially  to  the  six  named 
in  the  Table  of  Ornamental 
Breeds.  The  best  layers  will 
usually  be  found  among  the 
modern  productions,  such  as 
the  Wyandotte  [4],  the  Orping- 
ton, and  the  Langshan.  The 
older  varieties,  however,  may 
be  so  stimulated  by  crossing 
or  by  the  infusion  of  alien 
blood  from  time  to  time  that 
their  laying  powers  may  be 
revived,  and,  indeed,  brought 
to  the  level  of  the  best  pro- 
ducers. As  a  group  the  non- 
sitters  are  the  most  frequent 
layers,  but  with  few  exceptions 
their  eggs  are  small.  This, 
fault  may  be  remedied  in  the 
ordinary  process  of  selection, 
under  which  the  birds  will  be  increased  in  size. 

We  may  take  it,  too,  as  an  axiom  that  a  bird 
of  tv  small  breed  lays  a  small  egg,  and  the' cant 
trary  obtains  in  the  case  of  the  large  breeds ', 
although  this  is  not  an  infallible  rule.  The 
breeder,  however,  for  productive  purposes  should 
make  it  an  invariable  practice  to  select  large  hens, 
inasmuch  as  the  usual  result  is  a  larger  egg  and 
•juently  a  larger  chicken. 

Fowls  for  the  Table.      Although  many 

of  our    remarks  apply  to  poultry  of  all  descrip- 

— that  is  to  say,  to  all  varieties  of  birds  bred 

for  the  purpose  of  exhibition,  as  well  as  to  those 

lomestic  use  or  for  the  market— this 

;-  intruded  to  be  chiefly  of  service  to  those 

dnew  is  the  production  of  poultry  for 

11  k«'t.     The  poultry  dealer,  curious  though 

the  fact   may  IK-,  is  not  at  all  disinclined  to  set 

.-i:ii>n  in  respect  of  the  points  of  the  birds 

ANhich   hr    >rlls   in    the   course   of   his  business. 

}\>  m  willing  to  accept  birds  of  first-class  quality, 

4*560 


and,  what  is  more,  to  pay  good  prices  for  them, 
so  long  as  they  satisfy  his  customers. 

The  Points  of  the  Table  Breeds.     The 

chief  points  of  a  table  fowl  are  size  without 
correspondingly  coarse  bone,  light-coloured  skin, 
abundance  of  meat  upon  the  breast,  the  merry- 
thought, and  the  wing,  well-fleshed  and  tender 
thighs,  and  a  small  proportion  of  offal ;  in  a 
word,  the  natural  requirements  of  the  buyer  are 
a  maximum  quantity  of  white  temlci:  jurat  and 
a  minimum  quantity  of  waste.  Tf  two  specimens, 
one  of  a  good  table  variety,  such  as  the  Indian 
Game  [5],  and  another  of  an  inferior  table  breed 
such 'as  the  Minorca,  are  selected'  as  nearly  as 
possible  of  .the  same  weight,  and  the  whole  of 
the  meat"  removed  as  in  the  process  of  boning ; 
'and  if  this  meat,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  waste, 
'which  includes  the -bone  and  all  that  is  inedible, 
,on  tHe  other,  are  weighed,  a  remarkable  difference 
will  be  shown  on  comparison,  and  the  amateur 
'will  acquire  some  very  definite  idea  of  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  the  table  and  the  non-table  breeds. 
Again,  if  we.  Select  an  imported  Russian 
chicken,  which  in  the 
spring  may  frequently  be 
purchased  in  the  retail 
shops  of  London  suburbs 
for  Is.  6d.,  and  make  it 
one  of  a  couple  by  adding 
an  English-bred  chicken 
of  first-class  quality,  we 
shall  find  that  when  both 
are  cooked  and  placed 
upon  the  table  the  con- 
trast in  the  quality  as 
well  as  in  the  quantity  of 
the  meat  is  very  marked. 
What  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  by  skilful  breed- 
ing and  feeding  may  be 
ascertained  by  visiting  a 
first-class  Bond  Street 
poulterer's  shop,  and 
examining  the  chickens 
and  capons  in  the  early 
season,  when,  as  we  have 
seen,  they  realise  as  much 
as  half  a  guinea  each.  Still  better  shall  we 
realise'  the  remarkable  character  of  the  modern 
industry  by  a  visit  to  the  exhibitions  at  the 
Sinithfield  and  National  Dairy  Shows,  at  the 
Agricultural  Hall  at  Islington,  in  December  and 
October  respectively.  At  these  meetings  ex- 
cessive fatness  obtained  by  the  process  of 
cramming  is  allied  to  quality  and  quantity  of 
meat. 

The  Best  Meat  Producer.  The  most 
fashionable  birds  for  the  table  as  we  write  are 
those  which  are  the  produce  of  a  cross  between 
the  Dark  Dorking  [3],  the  largest  of  the  Dorking 
varieties,  and  the  Indian  Game,  the  male  bird  of 
the  latter  being  mated  with  the  hens  of  the 
former  breed.  The  chickens  which  are  the 
produce  of  this  cross  are  precocious  in  growth, 
heavily  fleshed,  producing  meat  of  the  finest 
quality,  and  laying  on  fat  when  they  are  crammed 
for  the  purpose.  If  the  Indian  Game  cock  be 
mated  with  Cochin  hens,  which  closely  resemble 


1.    BROWN   LEGHORN 


AGRICULTURE 


Dorking  hens  in  size,  although  the  result  is  all  ?  The  answer  is  obvious,  and  it  applies  to 
a  great  improvement  upon  the  pure  Cochin,  the  many  other  varieties.  Poultry  keepers  have 
inferiority  of  the  produce  as  compared  with  their  fancies,  and  there  are  many  who  keep 


the     Indian    Game-Dorking    is    marked.      The 
excessive  quantity  of  offal   and   the  compara- 


2.    SILVER   PENCILLED    HAMBURGIIS 

tively  small  quantity  of  meat  carried  by  so  large 
a  fowl  entirely  rules  the  Cochin  breed  out  of  the 
category  of  table  poultry. 

How  Breeds  are  Improved.  In  cross- 
ing two  varieties,  the  one  naturally  supplies  in 
its  progeny  the  deficiency  of  the  other,  and  we 
obtain  a  combination  of  properties 
which,  if  the  mating  has  been 
wise,  is  an  advance  upon  those 
inherent  in  the  inferior  breed. 
In  practically  all  cases  crossing 
improves  the  constitution  and 
stamina ;  the  chickens  are  more 
precocious,  more  active,  and  more 
thrifty,  while  they  display  a 
greater  aptitude  to  lay  on  flesh 
and  to  be  ready  for  market  at  an 
earlier  period. 

It  is  on  almost  all  occasions 
advisable  in  crossing  two  varieties 
to  select  the  hens  of  the  larger- 
breed,  especially  if  the  eggs  are 
also  larger,  for  the  size  of  the 
chicken  is  usually  controlled  by 
the  size  of  the  egg.  Judicious 
crossing,  too,  should  result  in  the 
production  of  meat  of  better 
quality  as  well  as  of  larger  quan- 
tity. We  have  referred  to  the 
crossing  of  the  Cochin  ;  the 
Brahma,  also  an  Asiatic  breed, 
may  be  taken  as  an  example  in 
another  direction.  This  variety 
is  an  inferior  table  fowl,  but 
mated  with  the  Dorking  it  pro- 
duces large  robust  chickens  which  are  excellent 
layers  and  sitters,  and  which  on  the  table  are  by 
no  means  to  be  despised. 

Plumage      and      Exhibition      Fowls. 
But,  it    may  be   asked,  if   the   Dorking  be   so 


Brahman  as  a  hobby,  and  for  purposes  of  ex- 
hibition,   but    who,    nevertheless,    require    an 
occasional  couple  for  the  table.     In  such  a  case 
it  is  preferable  to  mate  a  separate  pen  of  Brahma 
hens  with  the  Dorking  cock,  and  in  this  way, 
while  maintaining  the  yard  of  Brahmas  practi- 
cally intact,  to  secure  chickens 
which   will   prove  much  more 
satisfactory    from   the   econo- 
mical   side.      If   there   be   an 
objection  to  this  plan,  two  or 
three    Dorking   hens   may   be 
placed   with    a    breeding    pen 
of  Brahmas,  their  eggs,  which 
are  easily  recognised  owing  to 
the  difference  in  colour, hatched, 
and  the  chickens  reared  with 
the   rest,    and    killed  for   the 
table  when  mature  enough. 

Uniformity.  There  are 
other  cases  in  which  poultry 
keepers,  while  not  necessarily 
fanciers  of  any  particular 
variety  of  pure-bred  poultry, 
prefer  to  see  something  like  uniformity  of 
colour  and  plumage  in  their  flocks.  There  are 
some  who  fancy  white  plumage  :  others,  in 
towns  and  the  suburbs  of  towns,  who  prefer 
black.  A  yard  of  excellent  black-plumaged 
birds  may  be  maintained  consistently  uniform 
and  splendidly  adapted  for  table  pur- 
poses by  crossing  the  male  Fleche 
with  the  female  Langshan.  The 


3.   DARK    DORKINQS 

Fleche  provides  white  meat  of  high  quality,  but 
although  it  is  of  large  size,  its  constitution  when 
highly  bred  is  somewhat  fragile.  Crossing,  how- 
ever, with  the  Langshan  results  in  the  production 
of  strong  chickens  which  are  large,  precocious, 


superior  to  'the   Brahma,  why  make  a  cross  at      rapid  growers,  producers  of  large  eggs  and  of 

4661 


AGRICULTURE 

plenty  of  tint  meat  on  the  bt-st  parts  of  the 
.  aiva'se.  The  birds  are  handsome,  square,  hardy, 
.aid  generally  useful.  After  all.  however,  has 
been  said,  there  is  no  single  breed  which  eclipses 
the  Dorking,  either  as  a  table  fowl  or  as  a  sitter 
and  mother,  but  the  variety  is  not  among  the 

•  >f  layers. 

Production  of  Young  StocK.  We  next 
come  to  some  questions  which  the  inexperienced 
breeder  must  carefully  consider 
in  making  and  conducting  his 
arrangements  for  the  pro- 
duction of  young  stock.  It 
will  usually  be  found  advan- 
tageous to  mate  two-year-old 
hens  with  a  cockerel  bred  in 
the  previous  year,  but  where 
early  chickens  are  essential  this 
may  be  impossible  owing  to  the 

fact  that  adult  hens  seldom  lay 

in  January  or  even  February; 

thus  the  breeder  is  driven  to 

employ  pullets  of  the  previous 

year's    hatch  ing  in   order    to 

obtain  what  he  requires. 
It  is  wise  to  keep  the  sexes 

entirely  apart  until  they  are 

mated.    The  male  birds  will  be 

fresher  and  lustier,  while  any 

possible  influence  .which  may 

follow  the  union  of  the  hens  with  any  other 

male  birds,  which  might  occur  should  they  be  at 

liberty,  will  be  prevented.     The  number  of  hens 

which  should  be  mated  to  a  cock  is  also  a  matter 

deserving  some  consideration. 

Wliere  all  the  birds  are  free 

and  roam   at   large,  as  in  a 

farmyard,  one,  two,  or  three 

males  may  be  found  sufficient 

for  a  large  number,  but  where 

they  are  practically  confined 

to  a  breeding  pen  some  re- 
striction must  be  placed  upon 

the  number  of  hens  allotted. 

In  the  early   months   of   the 

year   the   number   should    be 

smaller  than  in  later  months, 

as    in    spring,    which    is    the 

natural   breeding    season.      A 

larger  number  of  hens  may  be 

placed  with   a  cockerel   than 

with    a    cock,   while    as    the 

heavier  and  coarser  bre<-<U  an- 

pot  so  prolific  as  the  lighter  var- 

ieties,  fewer  hens  are  usually 

mated    with    a    single    male. 

Again,  it  is  unwise  to  mate  an  ~ 

artive  male  with  too  few  hens,   -. 

since  their  plumage  may  be 

spoiled.     In  the  early 

MX  hens  may  be  regarded  as 

sufficient,  while  a  little  later 

t  wo  or  three  may  be  added,  and 

later  still,  with  vi«r.,roiK  birds  of  the  previous  year, 

the  nural>er  may  be  increased  to  ten  or  twelve. 
Feeding    Poultry.      It  is   important,   too, 

that   attention  should  be  paid   to  the  feeding. 


4.    LACED    WYANDOTTE 


INDIAN    GAME 


If  food  be  supplied  in  abundance,  the  hens  are 
(  rrtain  to  obtain  all  they  require,  possibly  more, 
and  thus  over- feeding  must  be  guarded  against, 
as  that  may  interfere  with  prolific  laying.  It 
frequently  happens,  however,  that  the  male  birds 
will  not  feed  sufficiently  well,  and  when  this  is 
the  case  care  should  be  taken 
to  supply  them  not  only  with 
the  grain  they  require  but 
with  occasional  morsels  of 
meat,  which  they  cannot  pass 
on  to  their  wives,  in  order 
that  they  may  be  kept  in 
sufficiently  robust  condition. 
High  feeding  is  conducive  to 
early  laying  and  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  larger  number  of 
eggs.  This,  therefore,  should 
be  arranged  for  both  sexes, 
especially  for  mature  hens, 
but  instead  of  supplying  red 
meat  it  will  be  found  much 
more  advantageous  to  pro- 
vide white  meat,  which  is 
less  stimulating  and  equally 
nourishing,  and  this  can  be 
obtained  by  cleaning,  cooking, 
and  mincing  the  intestines  of 
the  sheep  or  the  bullock. 

In  breeding  for  the  table  it 
is  obvious  that,  on  account  of  their  larger  size, 
as  many  cockerels  should  be  produced  as  pos- 
sible. There  is  no  golden  rule  for  the  production 
of  an  excess  of  male  chickens,  but  in  practice 
it  frequently  happens  that  by  mating  a  lusty 
cockerel — by  which  we  mean  a  bird  produced 
in  the  preceding  year — to  equally  lusty  hens 
which  are  a  year  older,  and  which  practically 
have  commenced  their  third  season",  success  is 
achieved.  It  is  not  pre- 
cisely known  how  long  the 
influence  of  the  male  bird 
exists.  We  may,  however, 
take  it  for  granted  that 
after  a  week  has  elapsed 
between  the  removal  of  one 
male  and  the  introduction 
of  another,  the  eggs  laid 
by  the  hens  will  have  been 
fertilised  by  the  new  intro- 
duction. 

If  a  pen  of  birds  be  too 
small — namely,  if  the  hens 
be  too  few  in  number — some 
common  hens  may  be  added 
to  bring  it  up  to  a  normal 
proportion ;  but  in  this  case, 
in  order  that  the  eggs  may 
not  be  mixed  and  common 
chickens  unnecessarily 
reared,  it  will  be  well  that 
the  new-comers  should  be 
such  as  lay  eggs  of  a  differ- 
ent colour,  or,  if  this  be  impossible,  that 
the  chickens  which  are  hatched  from  them 
should  be  easily  distinguished  when  they  are 
hatched. 


Continued 


THE  FAMILY  AND  THE  RACE 

Marriage  Provides  the  Conditions  for  the  Ideal  Family.     The  Family 
is   the    Strength    of   the    Race.       Parental    and    Filial    Responsibility 


Group  3 

SOCIOLOGY 
7 

Continued  from  page  4539 


By    Dr.     C.    W.     SALEEBY 


TT  is  impossible  to  consider  the  subject  of 
marriage  and.  to  ignore  altogether  the  ex- 
tremely important  question  of  divorce.  Again 
we  make  the  observation  that,  from  a  purely 
sociological  point  of  view,  divorce  in  the  case  of 
a  childless  marriage  is  no  more  important  than 
such  a  marriage  itself.  From  the  impartial  stand- 
point of  our  science  we  are  concerned  merely 
Avith  divorce  in  cases  of  fertile  marriage.  It  is 
impossible  here  to  summarise,  even  briefly,  the 
various  laws  and  customs  of  divorce  which 
historians  of  the  subject  recognise.  So  far  as 
English-speaking  people  are  concerned,  the 
subject  is  exhaustively  discussed  in  Professor 
Howard's  great  book,  Avhich  is  the  standard  work 
on  the  subject. 

The  Extremes  of  Marriage.  Let  us 
briefly  observe,  however,  the  sociological  sig- 
nificance of  the  extremes  of  practice  in  this 
matter.  The  one  extreme  is  that  which  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  illustrates,  the  non- 
recognition  of  all  divorce.  At  the  other  extreme, 
disgracefully  illustrated  in  some  parts  of  America 
to-day,  Ave  have  a  facility  of  divorce  so  great 
that  marriage  really  ceases  to  be  marriage  at 
all.  It  is,  indeed,  no  better  than  "  leasehold 
marriage,"  into  which  the  parties  may  enter 
Avith  a  mutual  understanding  that  it  is  to  be  ter- 
minated at  their  convenience.  Such  marriages, 
it  is  true,  are  very  frequently  childless,  and  this 
fact  renders  them  less  objectionable  to  the 
sociologist  than  they  would  otherwise  be.  Where 
they  are  not  childless  it  is  evident  that  such 
practices  strike  a  mortal  blow  at  the  family, 
and  if  they  Avere  the  general  rule  of  any  com- 
munity, as  they  are  not,  that  community  AA'ould 
certainly  soon  disappear. 

As  regards  the  absolute  denial  of  all  divorce, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  sociologist, 
as  a  sociologist,  entertains  an  entirely  different 
conception  of  marriage  from  that  held  by  the 
Church.  If  the  Church  regards  marriage  as 
a  sacrament  of  its  OAATI  institution,  the  Church 
is  clearly  entitled  to  judge  of  its  conditions. 
It  has  more  than  this  life  to  think  of.  The 
sociologist,  however,  is  entitled  to  his  own 
opinion  upon  what  he  conceives  to  be  a  purely 
secular  and  social  institution,  and  no  scientific 
sociologist  Avill  be  found  who  does  not  admit 
the  propriety  both  of  diArorce  and  of  remarriage, 
under  certain  conditions. 

The  Obligation  of  Parentage.  Com- 
parative students  of  marriage  law  are  sometimes 
of  opinion  that  English  cuVorce  law  is  as  nearly 
Satisfactory  as  can  be,  though  Ave  must  remember 
that  it  is  still  disfigured  by  injustice  in  its  compara- 
tive treatment  of  the  tAvo  sexes.  It  is  unquestion- 
ably true  that  LIAVS  of  diArorce  are  open  to  abuse, 


and  have  at  all  times  been  more  or  less  abused.  It 
is  also  true  that  the  distinction  which  the  sociolo- 
gist draAvs  between  divorce  in  cases  of  childless 
marriage  and  in  cases  of  fertile  marriage  would, 
perhaps,  if  legally  recognised,  tend  still  further 
to  lower  the  birth-rate.  What  is  commonly  for- 
gotten, however,  by  those  observers  who  are 
not  acquainted  with  the  fundamental  facts  of 
biology  is  that  the  process  of  natural  selection 
or  survival  of  the  fittest  retains  its  automatic 
and  ceaseless  control  over  human  affairs.  Not 
merely  is  abuse  of  the  divorce  law  confined  to  the 
few,  the  great  mass  of  the  people  being  of  a  moral 
habit  in  these  respects,  but  also  these  few  who 
are  cast  up  by  each  generation  tend  constantly 
towards  their  own  extinction.  One  of  the  con- 
ditions for  the  survival  of  any  breed  or  stock  in 
society  is  evidently  the  willingness  to  undertake 
the  obligations  of  parentage  under  the  normal 
conditions  of  family  life.  Those  individuals  who 
do  not  comply  with  this  condition  are  of  no 
further  account  to  the  sociologist  after  their 
individual  lives  are  ended,  and  he  is  the  less 
likely  to  waste  his  time  in  useless  reprobation  of 
them  if  he  remembers  that  their  faults  provide 
their  own  doom,  and  that,  though  persons  of  such 
a  kind  have  always  been  produced  in  all  genera- 
tions and  in  all  civilisations,  they  are  not  capable 
of  arresting  the  progress  of  the  race.  This  is  yet 
another  instance  of  the  beneficent  working  of  that 
law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  which,  in  many 
of  its  applications,  seems  at  first  sight  to  be  cruel 
and  maleficent. 

Marriage  is  a  Means,  not  an  End.  We 
have  again  and  again  insisted  that  our  interest 
in  marriage  is  in  marriage  as  a  means  and  not  as 
an  end.  Thus  we  haA«  found  the  ultimate  sanc- 
tion for  the  form  of  marriage  practised  among 
ourselves  in  the  fact  that  it  provides  the  condi- 
tions for  the  ideal  family.  Now,  it  is  the  profound 
conviction  of  the  sociologist  that  the  poets  and 
the  moralists  are  right  in  teaching  that  family 
life  is  the  first  condition  for  the  welfare  of  any 
society,  and  we  must  discuss  this  question  all 
the  more  closely  and  completely  because  of 
the  tendency,  extremely  conspicuous  among 
ourselves,  towards  the  disintegration  of  the  family. 

Sir  Henry  Maine,  a  famous  pioneer  of  historical 
sociology,  laid  down  the  generalisation  that 
"  the  unit  of  an  ancient  society  Avas  the  family, 
and  of  a  modern  society  is  the  individual."  It 
is  a  definite  tendency  of  civilisation,  as  it  becomes 
more  complex,  to  supersede  family  relations  in 
large  measure  by  external  relations,  which  often 
take  the  form,  for  instance,  of  direct  relations  to 
the  State.  Not  only  the  complexity  of  social 
relations  in  our  own  time,  but  many  other  causes 
tend  towards  the  Aveakening  of  the  family 

4663 


SOCIOLOGY 

organism.  Conspicuous  among  these  is  our 
modern  facility  of  locomotion.  Yet  another  is 
the  radically  vicious  custom  of  married  women's 
labour.  Another,  in  such  a  country  as  Germany, 
is  conscription  ;  and  yet  another  in  all  civilised 
countries  is  the  interference  of  the  State  in 
education.  To  these  questions  we  must  return, 
but  first  of  all  let  us  consider  the  historical  reason 
why  the  individual  rather  than  the  family  has 
come  to  be  the  unit  of  modern  society. 

War  is  the  Enemy  of  the  Family.  A 
fundamental  truth,  the  consequences  of  which 
are  amazingly  forgotten  by  some,  is  that  there  are 
more  human  beings  on  this  planet  to-day  than 
there  ever  were  at  any  period  in  the  past,  and 
there  will  be  still  more  to-morrow.  This  great  fact 
of  the  constant  multiplication  of  man  has  to  be 
reckoned  with  as  perhaps  the  most  potent 
force  in  history.  If,  then,  we  turn  our  eyes  back 
to  a  time  when  societies  were  small  in  proportion 
to  the  land  which  they  occupied,  and  when  each 
society  was  complete  in  itself — a  period  this 
which  is  all  but  prehistoric,  though,  of  course, 
there  are  more  recent  exceptional  instances  of 
such  a  state— we  shall  realise  what  the  struggle 
between  societies  involved  for  family  life.  Time 
was  when  the  son's  duty  to  his  father  and  mother 
was  his  duty  to  his  society.  In  obeying  them,  in 
learning  his  father's  trade,  and  in  at  last  sup- 
porting his  aged  parents,  he  was  doing  his  duty 
to  his  society  as  a  whole.  There  was  no  conflict  of 
duty.  But  there  began  as  a  general  phenomenon 
of  human  life  the  history  of  that  appalling  thing 
which  we  call  war,  which  we  must  afterwards 
study.  It  is  not,  at  present,  our  business  to  ask 
whether  war  was  or  was  not  inevitable  at  a  certain 
stage  in  human  history  ;  whether  it  has  not  even 
played  a  part  in  progress.  Here  we  are  con- 
cerned merely  to  observe  that  when  the  state 
of  struggle  between  societies  came  to  be  a  normal 
condition  of  human  life,  constantly  and  every- 
where, a  great  blow  was  struck  at  the  ancient 
conception  of  the  family. 

Militarism  is  on  its  Last  Legs.  In 
the  first  place,  there  came  to  be  a  still  more 
<li- proportionate  appraisement  of  the  relative 
\\onh  of  the  two  sexes.  The  little  girl-baby 
rould  only  grow  up  to  be  a  weak  woman, 
but  the  little  boy-baby  would  grow  up  to 
be  a  soldier.  In  the  second  place,  there  came 
to  be  a  conflict  of  duty.  Family  life  might 
demand  of  a  son  that  he  should  work  for  his 
father  or  help  to  support  his  aged  mother,  but 
the  State  demanded  that  he  should  go  forth  to 
tiL'ht.  In  countries  where  there  is  conscription 
the  same  opposition  still  manifests  itself — con- 

-  iiption,  of  course,  being  nothing  more  than  a 
modern  survival  from  past  times,  when  every 
able-bodied  man    was   of  chief   interest   to   the 
State  because  he  was  capable  of  being  made  into 
a  >ol<lier.     Thus  we  may  lay  down  the  general 
proposition  that   militarism  and  family  'lit'   art 

•  t, ,  ,,,,11, /  n wined,  and  that  the  modern  disintegra- 
tion of  the  fAmiry  hag  chiefly  depended  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  military  struggle  between  societies  ; 
this,  in  turn,  being  mainly  dependent  upon  the 
fundamental  (act  of  the  cca>el.-<.<  multiplication 
of  man.     Mfflteriim,  however,  despite  War-lords 


and  Jingoes,  is  on  its  last  legs — a  fact  which 
the  biologist  explains  in  his  own  language,  as 
Ave  shall  see.  The  struggle  betAveen  societies  per- 
sists, as  does  struggle  between  individuals,  but 
just  as  this  latter  is  no  longer  a  struggle  of  muscle 
against  muscle  but  of  mind  against  mind,  so  also 
the  physical  struggle  called  war  is  becoming  ex- 
ceptional, while  the  main  field  of  battle  has  been 
transferred  to  the  psychical  plane.  Thus  the  chief 
historical  foe  of  the  family  life  is  nearing  its  end. 

But  the  reader  will  ask  whether  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  family  interest  to  the  State,  as  classi- 
cally illustrated  by  the  Spartan  mother,  who 
sent  her  son  to  battle  telling  him  to  return  with 
his  shield  or  upon  it,  has  not  justified  itself  by  its 
results ;  whether,  indeed,  the  subordination  of 
the  family  is  not,  as  some  tell  us,  the  sign  of  a 
progressive  society  ? 

Where  is  Sparta  Now  ?  But  to  this, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  at  any  rate,  a 
complete  answer  is  possible.  The  reader  must 
judge  of  its  value  for  himself.  We  have  already 
conceived  of  history  as  a  series  of  great  socio- 
logical experiments,  and  now  we  must  ask  our- 
selves whether  these  experiments  Avith  the  family- 
lead  to  any  positive  conclusions.  The  answer  is 
that  they  do — for  where  is  Sparta  now  ?  Where 
are  the  purely  military  nations  ?  They  cannot 
answer  to  their  names,  for  they  are  no  more. 
They  sacrificed  the  fundamental  social  institution 
in  the  supposed  interests  of  society,  and  the  sacri- 
fice involved  the  ultimate  destruction  of  the 
society.  The  purely  military  nations  have  a  brief 
record  of  success,  and  then  their  history  is  a 
permanent  blank.  So  long  as  the  capital  of 
strength  and  virtue,  which  spring  from  family  life. 
Avas  not  exhausted,  these  nations  were  successful, 
but  permanent  failure  thereafter  was  the  price 
they  paid.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  one  salient 
instance  which  proves  up  to  the  hilt,  in  our 
judgment,  that  the  great  social  institution  for 
Avhich  we  have  the  warrant  of  biology  must 
necessarily  be  upheld  by  any  race  that  \vould 
achieve  permanence. 

The  Secret  of  the  Jews.  There  is  perhaps 
only  one  such  race  in  the  whole  of  human  history. 
The  modern  Greeks,  as  physical  anthropology  lias 
shown,  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
only  in  name.  The  same  is  true  of  the  modern 
Egyptians  and  the  modern  Romans.  One  race, 
however,  has  persisted — and  this  despite  a 
measure  of  continuous  and  extreme  discourage- 
ment and  persecution  and  repression  to  which 
history  offers  no  parallel.  Exiled  from  their  natiA^e 
land :  subject  to  continual  massacre ;  scattered 
broadcast  over  the  whole  face  of  Europe ;  the 
object  of  repressive  legislation  for  2,000  years ; 
compelled  to  live  in  insanitary  cities,  so  that 
they  have  not  had  the  adA^antage  of  recruits  of 
peasant  blood  and  peasant  vigour ;  never  distin- 
guished in  the  arts  of  war — the  JCAVS  have  never- 
theless presented  the  unique  phenomenon  of  a 
continuous  history  such  as  no  other  race  has 
been  able  to  achieve,  even  Avithout  the  appalling 
disadvantages  under  AA'hich  they  haATe  laboured 

Where  are  AA^C  to  find  the  explanation  of  this 
fact  ?  It  is  amongst  the  JCAVS  that  Ave  lind 
the  ideal  of  family  life,  and  this  it  is  which  has 


nurtured  their  unconquerable  strength.  In  the 
first  place,  they  have  a  very  high  birth-rate, 
children  being  regarded  as  blessings  from  God. 
This  high  birth-rate  they  have  always  main- 
tained ;  it  makes  for  the  production  of  that 
kind  of  family  which  the  sociologist,  always 
remembering  that  human  nature  is  his  key, 
regards  with  the  greatest  satisfaction — the 
younger  children  learning  certain  lessons  from 
the  older  ones  and  the  older  children  learning 
certain  lessons  by  their  contact  with  and  duties 
to  the  younger  ones. 

The  High  Ideal  of  Parentage.  Now,  it 
is  the  rule  that  a  high  birth-rate  is  accompanied 
by  a  high  infant  mortality,  but  to  this  rule 
the  Jews,  like  the  present  day  Irish,  have  always 
offered  an  exception.  This  in  both  cases  is  directly 
due  to  the  high  ideal  of  parentage.  The  Jewish 
or  Irish  mother  who  will  not  nurse  her  own 
children,  though  she  can,  is  practically  unknown. 
After  this  early  period  the  care  of  the  children 
is  maintained.  Thus,  comparative  stud}'  of 
the  Jewish  and  Gentile  children,  in  the  schools 
of  Leeds,  by  Dr.  William  Hall,  has  lately  proved 
that  at  all  ages  the  Jewish  children  of  both 
sexes  have  a  very  great  advantage  in  height,  in 
weight,  and  in  physique,  the  difference  being 
very  similar  to  the  difference  between  board- 
school  boys  and  public-school  boys  of  similar 
ages.  But  the  explanation  is  not  exactly  the 
same,  for  the  board-school  boy  profits  not  by 
any  high  ideal  of  the  family  in  the  class  to  which 
he  belongs,  but  in  virtue  of  his  parents'  means  ; 
whereas  the  Jewish  children,  despite  their 
parents'  poverty,  profit  by  the  assiduous  care 
and  self-sacrifice  displayed  by  them.  Just 
as  a  drunken  Jew  is  practically  unknown,  so 
there  is  nothing  among  the  poor  Jewish  families 
in  any  part  of  Europe  which  corresponds  at  all 
with  the  fact  that  one-sixth  of  the  income  of 
the  working-class  family  in  this  country  is  spent 
upon  alcohol.  We  submit,  then,  as  a  lesson  of 
history,  that  the  sociological  value  of  the 
family  as  the  necessary  unit  of  any  stable 
society  or  race  is  demonstrated  in  the  amazing 
case  of  the  Jews. 

Science  and  the  Fifth  CommancU 
ment.  It  must  be  remembered  that,  for 
the  sociologist,  the  family  has  two  aspects 
of  value.  The  first,  and  the  most  important, 
is  that  which  is  concerned  with  the  up- 
bringing of  the  children ;  but  the  other  is 
expressed  in  the  commandment,  of  such  pro- 
found sociological  importance,  which  the  Jews 
have  obeyed  since  it  was  given  to  them,  "  Honour 
thy  Father  and  thy  Mother."  This,  as  has  been 
said,  is  the  "  first  commandment  with  promise," 
and  the  essence  of  the  promise  has  been  fulfilled. 
Part  of  the  ideal  of  the  family  is  that  the  parents, 
in  their  declining  years,  shall  be  supported  by 
the  children  for  whom,  in  time  past,  they  have 
made  so  many  sacrifices.  This  certainly  is  an 
arrangement  to  which  we  see  no  parallel  in  the 
case  of  sub-human  nature,  but  it  is  as  certainly 
part  of  the  ideal  of  the  human  family,  and 
makes  very  greatly  for  the  stability  and  security 
of  any  society.  We  can  hardly  say  that  any 
one  was  ever  encouraged  to  parentage  by  the 


SOCIOLOGY 

thought  that  his  children  would  afterwards 
become  the  staff  of  his  old  age,  though  it  is 
an  interesting  fact  that  this  argument  has  quite 
lately  been  employed  by  those  who  are  alarmed 
at  the  declining  birth-rate  in  this  country. 
The  neglect  to  obey  this  ancient  command- 
ment, gravely  threatening  as  it  does  the  ideal 
of  the  family,  is  of  the  greatest  concern  to  the 
philosophic  sociologist.  Probably  there  is  no 
other  commandment  so  generally  neglected  by 
the  mass  of  people  at  the  present  day. 

The  State  and  Filial  Responsibility. 
Herbert  Spencer  regarded  the  care  of  the  aged 
by  the  young,  who  owe  them  so  much,  as  the 
most  conspicuous  instance  in  which  our  practical 
morality  needs  mending.  The  recent  scientific 
study  to  which,  as  we  have  seen,  social  reformers 
are  nowadays  lending  themselves,  has  thrown  an 
extremely  sinister  light  upon  this  very  question. 
We  are  coining  to  see  that  under  our  modern 
social  arrangements  we  are  doing  our  utmost 
to  diminish  and  destroy  that  sense  of  filial 
responsibility  which  is  as  valuable  a  social  force 
to-day,  even  in  our  complex  state  of  society, 
as  it  was  at  the  foot  of  Sinai  more  than  three 
thousand  years  ago.  One  or  two  contemporary 
facts  bearing  upon  this  point  may  be  cited. 

Many  observers  have  lately  shown  that  among 
the  gravest  defects  of  our  system  of  outdoor 
relief,  for  which  the  responsible  and  valuable 
members  of  the  community  have  to  pay,  is 
its  encouragement  of  filial  irresponsibility.  A 
scandalous  proportion  of  the  whole  sum  spent 
upon  outdoor  relief  is  devoted  to  the  main- 
tenance of  elderly  persons  who  have  children 
living  and  able  to  support  them,  but  unwilling 
to  do  so.  The  legislator  must  reckon  with 
human  nature,  and  human  nature  being  what 
it  is,  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  a  very  large 
proportion  of  men,  forgetful  of  the  benefits 
they  have  received,  will  refrain  from  supporting 
their  parents  when  they  know  that  the  State 
will  do  this  for  them. 

A  Lesson  for  England  from  Japan. 
A  similar  theoretical  objection  applies  to  any 
hasty  and  ill-considered  scheme  of  old-age 
pensions.  In  considering  such  a  scheme  it 
is  at  least  right  that  we  should  steadfastly  hold 
before  our  minds  the  ideal — which  unquestion- 
ably is  that  in  the  case  of  aged  persons  who  have 
living  children  able  to  support  them,  the  support 
should  come  from  that  source.  And  the  further 
question  must  be  asked,  whether  we  are  not 
weakening  the  sense  of  filial  responsibility,  and 
therefore  complicating  the  problem  of  the 
aged,  by  all  such  measures  as  weaken  parental 
responsibility,  causing  children  to  be  cared  for 
by  others  than  their  parents,  and  therefore 
diminishing  those  feelings  of  filial  gratitude 
to  which,  in  an  ideal  world,  the  aged  parent 
would  not  have  to  look. in  vain? 

In  Japan,  as  in  some  other  parts  of  the  world, 
the  ancient  fear  and  worship  of  the  spirits  of  the 
departed  has  gradually  developed,  as  students  of 
religion  tell  us.  into  a  form  of  ancestor- worship 
that  has  many  beautiful  and  moral  features.  Now, 
wherever  we  find  such  ancestor-worship  we  have 
to  recognise  its  value  for  family  life.  It  leads 

4605 


SOCIOLOGY 

to  an  extremely  healthy  reverence  for  the  aged, 
and  especially  for  parents.  Practical  proof  of 
this  is  easily  forthcoming.  The  population  of 
Japan  is  much  larger  than  that  of  Great  Britain, 
but  in  that  country  there  are  yearly  relieved 
only  30,000  paupers,  as  against  very  nearly  a 
million  amongst  ourselves.  But  in  Japan  the 
young  man  puts  aside,  from  his  first  wage-earning 
days,  a  small  sum  towards  the  future  support 
of  his  aged  parents.  In  a  land  of  ancestor- 
worshippers  this  is  recognised  as  the  very  first 
duty  of  every  decent  son,  and  the  statistics  of 
pauperism  show  the  consequence.  It  was  not 
of  Japan  but  Great  Britain  that  Herbert  Spencer 
spoke  when  he  said : 

"The  last  to  show  itself,  among  the  bonds 
which  hold  the  family  together — the  care  of 
parents  by  offspring — is  the  one  which  has  most 
room  for  increase.  With  the  strengthening  of 
intellectual  and  moral  sympathy,  the  latter  days 
of  life  will  be  smoothed  by  a  greater  filial  care, 
reciprocating  the  greater  parental  care  bestowed 
in  earlier  life." 

The  Cradle  of  all  the  Virtues.  That 
the  phrase  parental  responsibility  corresponds  to 
a  great  reality  no  biologist  or  sociologist  can 
question  ;  but,  unfortunately,  it  has  been  so 
greatly  abused  in  recent  times  that  it  would 
almost  be  well  if  some  new  term  could  be  invented. 
The  value  of  parental  responsibility  has  been 
quoted  again  and  again  by  a  certain  school  of 
thinkers  as  a  sufficient  reason  for  permitting 
children  to  starve.  The  argument  apparently 
is  that  we  are  to  punish  and  reform  the  careless 
parent  in  the  hapless  body  of  his  child,  though  it 
would  appear  a  reasonable  argument  that,  just 
because  he  is  a  careless  parent,  this  method  is 
not  likely  to  reform  him.  There  is  no  socio- 
logical warrant  for  the  argument  that  it  is  worth 
the  while  of  any  society  to  injure  the  rising 
generation  in  order  to  uphold  the  doctrine  of 
parental  responsibility.  Unfortunately,  it  is 
arguments  such  as  these  that  have  cast  the  whole 
conception  into  discredit,  and  therewith  the 
true  conception  of  the  family.  Thus  it  is  possible 
for  the  Countess  of  Warwick  to  refer  to  this 
conception  as  "  some  malignant  eighteenth 
century  theory,"  and  to  speak  of  "  the  fetish  of 
parental  responsibility,"  so  that  the  truth  which 
the  phrase  expresses  has  become  discredited. 

It  is  well,  then,  for  us  to  realise  that  the  family 
and  the  home  necessarily  depend  for  their  integ- 
rity upon  the  realisation  of  the  idea  for  which 
this  phrase  stands.  No  one  would  dare  speak 
of  "  the  fetish  of  the  home  "  ;  the  good  sense  of 
the  people  would  not  tolerate  such  a  phrase.  In 
serious  argument  with  serious  and  intelligent 
people  it  is  always  possible  to  obtain  a  full  and 
free  admission  of  a  plea  for  the  family  and  home 
life  as  the  cradle  of  all  the  social  virtues  and  of 
worthy  character. 

Why  the  WelMo*do  Classes  are  Dis> 
appearing.  Once  this  is  admitted,  it  does 
not  require  much  reflection  for  anyone  to 
><•<•  that  the  idea  of  parental  responsibility  is 
inextricably  involved  in  any  true  conception 
of  the  family.  Postponing  for  the  moment  that 
part  of  our  argument  in  which  finance  is  involved, 

4666 


and  which  therefore  arouses  our  unscientific 
passions,  let  us  first  of  all  consider  this  question 
of  parental  responsibility  as  it  practically  affects 
the  well-to-do  classes.  We  shall  find  that  there 
exist,  and  have  long  been  patronised,  various 
means  by  which  the  family  and  the  home  may 
be  weakened  and  parental  responsibility  ignored, 
even  in  these  classes  of  society.  We  may,  or  we 
may  not,  according  to  our  judgment,  correlate 
these  facts  with  another  fact  of  the  most  serious 
kind  to  every  sociologist — namely,  that  society 
is  an  organism  which  recruits  itself  from  below. 
The  well-to-do  classes  constantly  tend  towards 
extinction,  and  are  kept  in  existence  only  by 
constant  reinforcement  from  the  classes  beneath 
them.  This  may  or  may  not  be  a  general  law 
of  all  societies ;  it  probably  is.  If,  however, 
we  believe  in  heredity,  we  cannot  but  deplore 
the  working  of  any  law  which  seems  to  select 
the  fittest  and  most  capable,  the  most  original, 
industrious,  and  intelligent  from  the  mass  of  the 
community  and,  after  making  them  into  a  special 
class,  leads  to  the  extinction  of  the  valuable 
stocks  which  they  represent. 

Neither  the  psychologist,  the  sociologist,  nor 
the  educationist  can  regard  with  satisfaction  the 
institution  which  is  known  as  the  boarding 
school.  It  is,  of  course,  an  obvious  necessity, 
though  in  the  nature  of  a  last  resort,  for 
orphans,  children  whose  parents  are  compelled 
to  live  abroad,  and  those  whose  parents  are  them- 
selves ignorant  and  undisciplined,  and  therefore 
incapable  of  teaching  or  training  their  children. 

A  Grave  Indictment  of  the  Boarding 
School.  But  in  controversion  of  the  general 
assumption  that  a  boarding  school  is  the  proper 
place  for  all  boys  and  girls  whose  parents  have 
sufficient  means  we  may  quote  two  authoritative 
and  recent  opinions.  The  first  is  that  of  one  of 
the  greatest  living  students  of  the  mind,  in  health 
and  disease — Dr.  T.  S.  Clouston,  of  Edinburgh : 

"  Unquestionably  the  ideal  mode  of  education 
for  both  sexes,  were  all  parents  wise  and  firm  and 
intelligent,  and  had  they  plenty  of  time  and 
opportunity  to  devote  to  their  children's  up- 
bringing, would  be  home  life  with  day-school 
teaching.  No  one  will  convince  me  that  the 
accumulated  wisdom  which  the  parents  have 
acquired,  and  the  family  ties  and  amenities  of 
home  life  are  not  the  best  educative  influences. 
I  have  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  general 
intelligence  of  the  educated  classes  in  England 
has  suffered  greatly  through  so  many  of  its  boys 
and  girls  having  lived  a  monastic  life  away  from 
home  for  most  of  their  time.  It  is  always  to  me 
pathetic  to  consider  the  way  in  which  the  boys 
at  Rugby  were  influenced  so  much  for  good  by 
Dr.  Arnold,  when  I  think  that  hundreds  of  those 
boys  must  have  had  parents  at  home  almost 
as  wise  as  Dr.  Arnold,  quite  as  good  in  the 
example  of  their  lives,  and  far  more  interested 
in  them.  Education  plus  affection  exhibited  in 
daily  life  must  surely  be  a  better  thing  than 
education  minus  affection  and  minus  intense 
personal  interest.  The  widely  held  assumption 
of  English  parents  that  their  duty  has  ceased,  and 
that  of  the  schoolmaster  begins,  when  their 
children  reach  eight  or  nine  years  of  age  seems 


to  me  an  essentially  selfish  notion.  It  implies 
an  incomplete  conception  of  fatherhood  and 
motherhood."  ("The  Hygiene  of  Hind," 
Methuen.  1906.) 

Artificial  Societies.  More  serious  still, 
perhaps,  because  of  the  peculiar  position  of 
the  author,  is  the  following  quotation  in  which 
Dr.  Gray,  the  headmaster  of  Bradfield  College, 
briefly  and  unanswerably  condemns — though 
he  remains  himself  quite  unaware  of  the 
condemnation — the  essential  facts  of  boarding 
schools.  "  It  must  be  remembered,"  he  says  : 

"  (1)  That  we  have  to  deal  with  a  society  of 
immature  minds  and  plastic  morality  ; 

"  (2)  That  this  society  is  artificially  consti- 
tuted— that  is,  it  does  not  proceed  on  the  lines 
of  family  relations,  which  Nature  intended  should 
be  followed  throughout  life,  but  is  isolated  and 
'  monastic.' 

"  Here,  then,  at  the  most  critical  stage  of  a 
boy's  life,  at  a  time  when,  along  with  violent 
physical  changes,  the  character  is  being  formed 
with  at  least  equally  startling  rapidity,  when 
reason  is  often  comparatively  weak,  and  senti- 
ment and  emotion  are  always  strong,  a  boy  is 
taken  away  from  the  formative  influences  of  the 
other  sex,  from  the  mother  and  sister,  and  thrust 
into  a  community  composed  of  one  sex  only, 
where  all  do  the  same  things,  think  the  same 
thoughts,  and  talk  round  the  same  confined 
circle  of  subjects."  ("  Hibbert  Journal."  July, 
1906.) 

Unfortunately,  a  much  graver  indictment 
even  than  anything  contained  in  the  above 
quotation  may  be  made  against  boarding 
schools,  but  that  is  not  strictly  relevant  to 
sociology.  It  is  worth  briefly  noting,  however, 
that  one  of  the  cardinal  objections  to  the 
boarding  school,  the  unnatural  isolation  of  the 
sexes,  is  removed  by  the  practice  of  co-educa- 
tion, which,  though  it  still  seems  startling  and 
dangerous  to  us,  has  been  found  highly  success- 
ful wherever  it  is  practised,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  United  States. 

A   Fatal   Blow  at  Family  Life.      The 

decadence  of  parenthood,  both  of  maternity 
and  paternity,  which  is  so  conspicuous  in  the 
upper  classes  and  of  which  their  vanishing 
birth-rate  is  the  most  fatal  indication,  remained 
of  relatively  small  importance  so  long  as  family 
life  throve  unvitiated  in  the  most  vital  part  of 
society — in  those  classes  whose  birth-rate  is 
high,  and  from  which  the  "  higher  "  classes  are 
ever  reinforced.  Fundamentally  bad  though 
the  boarding  school  system  may  be,  at  least 
its  influence  was  confined  to  a  relatively  small 
section  of  society.  But  there  now  arises  the 
question  whether  something  like  the  same 
system  is  not  threatening  to  introduce  itself 
even  amongst  the  masses  of  the  people — from 
whom  the  next  generation  mainly  springs. 
Now,  the  pivot  of  family  life  is  the  mother,  and 
though  we  must  leave  to  a  subsequent  chapter 
the  systematic  consideration  of  the  place  and 
function  of  woman  in  society,  .we  must  here 
consider  the  woman  as  mother  in  her  relation 


SOCIOLOGY 

to  the  family.  It  is  certain  that  the  employment 
of  a  wife  and  mother  in  a  factory  strikes  a  fatal 
blow  at  family  life,  and  from  the  point  of  view 
of  any  sound  sociology  is  a  fundamentally  vicious 
practice.  We  are  not  here  concerned  with  its 
financial  aspects,  though  it  is  worth  while  to 
note,  in  passing,  that  the  combined  wages  of 
husband  and  wife  in  such  cases  are  very 
frequently  found  to  be  no  greater  than  those  of 
the  husband  alone  in  cases  where  the  wife  con- 
fines her  activities  to  the  supremely  important 
work  which  she  alone  can  perform. 

The  Destruction  of  Childhood.  Quite 
apart  from  this  question,  we  have  to  consider 
the  effect  upon  society  of  this  blow  at  the 
family.  The  results  are  best  expressed  in  terms 
of  the  infantile  mortality. 

When  we  make  inquiry  into  the  condition  of 
those  towns,  such  as  Burnley,  Preston,  and 
Blackburn,  which  show  the  highest  infant 
mortality,  we  find  that  these  are  the  very 
towns  in  which  the  percentage  of  women  who 
work  outside  their  homes  is  highest.  Dr.  Newman 
has  gone  most  exhaustively  into  this  matter, 
and  has  proved  this  up  to  the  hilt.  He  says, 
"Broadly  it  is  true  that  to  whatever  town  "or 
district  we  turn  the  same  general  conclusion 
is  inevitable — mz.,  that  where  there  is  very 
much  occupation  of  women  away  from  home 
there  will  be  found,  as  a  rule,  a  high  infant 
death-rate."  His  chapter  on  the  Occupation  of 
Women  in  his  recent  book  on  Infant  Mortality 
constitutes  as  serious  and  as  painful  reading  as 
is  to  be  found  anywhere. 

The  Supremacy  of  Motherhood.     We 

have  chosen  the  infant  mortality  as  the  most 
expressive  index  of  the  injury  to  the  family, 
and  therefore  to  society  at  large,  caused  by 
married  women's  work.  We  cannot  here  discuss 
the  larger  question  of  the  effects  upon  the  female 
organism  in  general,  upon  its  supreme  functions, 
and  therefore  upon  society,  of  physical  labour 
such  as  men  can  undertake.  But  it  is  possible 
to  say,  without  the  smallest  qualification,  and 
in  the  earnest  desire  to  emphasise  the  gravity 
of  the  proposition,  that  the  factory  employment 
of  married  women  is  an  outrage  against  Nature, 
an  outrage  against  children,  an  outrage  against 
the  family  ;  and  that  no  industry  or  apparent 
prosperity  which  depends  upon  it  is  worth 
while.  In  time  to  come  it  will  be  regarded  as 
a  mark  of  the  shameful  social  state  of  our  age, 
and  of  the  wicked  carelessness  with  which  it 
defied  the  laws  of  Nature,  that  wives  and 
mothers  should  be  employed  as  beasts  of  burden, 
doing  the  work  which  a  man  or  a  horse  or  a 
dynamo  can  do,  while  their  children  were 
allowed  to  die  at  home.  It  is  the  lesson  of  history 
that  blasphemy  against  motherhood  is,  for 
societies,  the  unpardonable  sin,  and  never 
were  there  any  truer  and  worthier  words  spoken 
by  any  statesman  in  the  whole  of  the  past 
than  those  which  Mr.  John  Burns  addressed  to 
the  Infant  Mortality  Conference  last  May : 
"  We  must  glorify,  dignify,  and  purify  mother- 
hood by  every  means  in  our  power." 


Continued 


4G07 


Group  10 

TELEGRAPHS 
3 

Continued  from  page  4CQS 


MULTIPLE  NEWS  MESSAGES 

Quadruplex  Instruments  and  their  Working.     News 
Wires    and     Press     Messages.      Classified   News 


By  D.  H.  KENNEDY 


The  Quadruplex.  We  have  dealt  with 
the  duplex  system,  in  which  two  messages  can  be 
sent  in  opposite  directions  at  the  same  time. 
There  is  another  system  called  the  diplex,  in 
which  two  messages  can  be  sent  simultaneously 
on  one  wire  in  the  same  direction.  It  is  rarely 
used,  but  is  sometimes  installed  when  all  the 
traffic  between  two  stations  is  in  one  direc- 
tion. Duplex  and  diplex  have  been  combined 
in  the  quadruplex  [13],  by  means  of  which  two 
messages  in  each  direction  can  be  simultaneously 
telegraphed. 

Balancing  a  Quadruplex.  So  far 
as  the  operating  is  concerned,  the  quad,  as  it  is 
called,  corresponds  to  two  duplex  circuits,  one 
of  which  is  called  the  A  side,  and  the  other  the 
B  side. 

The  principle  will  be  dealt  with  in  another 
section,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  duplex,  it  is 
possible  to  give  instructions  for  balancing  and 
adjusting.  The  procedure  is  as  follows.  The 
controlling  office  requests  the  down  station  to 
"  earth."  For  this  purpose  a  two-way  switch  is 
provided  at  each  station,  which,  on  being  turned 
to  the  right,  cuts  out  the  batteries,  substituting 
a  resistance  coil.  The  balancing  of  the  circuit 
is  now  proceeded  with  on  the  same  lines  as  in  the 
case  of  the  duplex,  using  the  A  side  key  with  B 
key  held  down,  and  adjusting  both  rheostat  and 
condenser  until  the  needle  of  the  galvanometer 
remains  steady  at  zero,  and  no  false  marks  are 
received. 

If  necessary,  the  home  station  apparatus 
and  batteries  may  now  be  proved  by  with- 
drawing the  4,000-ohm  plug.  This  will  cause 
the  galvanometer  to  deflect  to  the  left.  Now 
press  the  A  side  key.  This  should  reverse  the 
deflection  on  the  galvanometer,  and  register  a 
signal  on  the  A  sounder.  Depress  the  B  side  key. 
The  galvanometer  deflection  will  increase,  and  a 
signal  will  be  registered  on  the  B  sounder.  Now 
send  on  the  A  key.  Corresponding  reversals 
should  be  observed  on  the  galvanometer  and 
signals  on  the  A  sounder.  There  should  be  no 
clicking  on  the  B  sounder,  which  is  being  held 
down  by  the  continuous  depression  of  the  B  key. 
It  (licking  occurs,  it  can  be  remedied  by  the 
judicious  adjustment  of  the  B  relay  and  sounder, 
usually  by  increasing  the  spacing  bias  on  the  relay 
and  reducing  the  spring  tension  on  the  sounder. 

Now  send  on  the  B  key  only.  The  left  de- 
flection of  the  galvanometer  will  be  increased 
by  each  depression  of  the  lever,  and  correspond- 
ing  signals  will  be  heard  from  the  B  sounder. 
Finally,  work  both  A  and  B  keys,  and  observe 
signals  on  the  related  receiving  instruments. 
The  4,000-ohm  plug  should  now  be  replaced,  and 
the  distant  station  told  to  "cut  in."  He  will 
4668 


return  the  two-way  switch  to  the  left,  and  his 
action  will  be  indicated  by  the  immediate  appear- 
ance on  the  up-station  galvanometer  of  a  "  left  " 
deflection,  due  to  his  "  spacing  "  current. 

The  up  station  will  now  "  earth,"  to  allow  the 
down  station  to  balance.  After  balancing  it  is 
good  practice  for  the  stations  to  take  readings 
from  the  galvanometers  of  each  other's  currents, 
to  ensure  that  the  respective  A  currents  and  B 
currents  correspond  in  value,  and  that  the  right 
proportion  between  A  and  B  exists. 

Standard  Practice.  The  standard  pro- 
cedure is  as  follows:  Observe  the  "spacing"' 
deflection  at  normal.  Ask  the  distant  station  to 
close  A  key  (the  abbreviation  C  A  is  used). 
Take  a  note  of  the  galvanometer  deflection, 
which  should  correspond  with  the  spacing 
deflection.  Now  say  •«  C  B  "  (close  B  key).  Take 
the  reading  of  his  increased,  or  B,  current, 
and  say  "  R  A  "  (release  A).  Observe  reversal 
of  big  current,  and  then  say  "  E  B  "  (release  B), 
which  completes  the  process  for  one  station. 
It  must  then  be  repeated  in  the  opposite  direction, 
and  the  results  compared. 

These  instructions  have  been  written  as 
applying  to  an  increment  quadruplex,  in  which 
the  depression  of  the  B  key  increases  the  current. 
By  reading  "  decrease  "  for  "  increase  "  through- 
out they  apply  equally  well  to  a  decrement 
quadruplex,  in  which  the  B  key  decreases  instead 
of  increasing  the  current. 

Faults  due  to  "  earth "  on  line  and  "  dis- 
connections "  affect  the  quadruplex  in  the  same 
way  as  the  duplex.  The  former  is,  however, 
much  more  sensitive.  A  steady  partial  earth, 
through  which  a  duplex  would  work,  will 
often  make  "  quad "  working  impracticable. 
The  leakage  has  the  effect  of  reducing  the 
difference  between  the  A  and  B  currents,  so  that 
the  B  relay  fails  to  respond.  Duplex  working 
on  the  A  side  is  resorted  to.  On  "  increment  " 
sets,  if  the  fault  .is  very  pronounced,  the  whole 
battery  is  brought  into  play  by  permanently 
depressing  the  B  key  at  each  end. 

News  Distribution.  It  is  fortunate, 
in  a  sense,  for  the  telegraphic  administration 
that  the  messages  on  short  suburban  and  local 
lines  are  usually  of  a  very  simple  character. 
They  are  an  admirable  training  ground  for  the 
novice,  who  probably  has  no  special  difficulty, 
unless  it  is  in  deciphering  the  betting  messages 
which  unhappily  bulk  so  largely  in  our  telegraph 
traffic.  He  must,  however,  be  well  advanced  in 
his  novitiate  before  he  is  allowed  to  take  part 
in  the  news  work,  to  which  we  now  turn  our 
attention. 

The  methods  adopted  for  dealing  with  new* 
are  entirely  different  to  those  employed  in 


ordinary  public  message  work,  and  this  is  due  to 
causes  which  are  somewhat  interesting. 

Press  Rates.  The  predominating  cause 
is  the  system  of  charges,  or  rates,  applied  to 
news  telegrams.  The  ordinary  day  rate  is  one 
shilling  for  75  words  ;  this  applies  between 
6  a.m.  and  6  p.m.  In  order  to  provide  induce- 
ment for  news  telegrams  to  be  sent  at  night, 
when  the  wires  are  free  from  commercial  work, 
the  6  p.m.  to  6  a.m.  rate  is  100  words  for  one 
shilling.  Second  and  subsequent  copies  of  the 
same  telegram  are  delivered  to  additional 
addresses  in  any  town  at  a  charge  of  twopence 
per  additional  address.  The  italicised  words 
have  had  a  wonderful  effect  in  reducing  the 
cost  of  Press  telegrams  and  in  concentrating 
the  distribution  of  news  into  the  hands  of  a  few 
powerful  organisations.  This  will  be  better  un- 
derstood if 
Ave  take  a 
case  and 
consider  it. 

Let  us 
suppose  a 
Press  mes- 
sage con- 
taining a 
text  of  100 
words  is 
handed  in 
for  trans- 
mission to 
100  news- 
papers. We 
will  sup- 
pose each 
add  r e  s  s 
c  ons  i  st  s 
of  three  words.  The  cost  will  be  calculated  thus 

Text  100  words,  and  addresses,  say, 
300  words  ;  total,  400  words 
at  Is 040 

09  additional  copies  at  2d 0  16     6 


13.    QUADRTJPLEX    CIRCUIT 


Total  cost 


£1     0 


Now,  if  we  divide  this  total  cost  of  20s.  6d. 
by  the  number  of  newspapers,  we  find  that 
the  average  cost  of  transmitting  and  delivering 
the  message  of  100  words  to  each  newspaper 
is  2'46d.  or  under  2£d. 

News  Agencies.  The'four  principal  Press 
agencies  are  the  Press  Association,  Central 
News,  Exchange  Telegraph  Company,  and  Ivan 
(Ashley  &  Smith). 

The  first  three  deal  with  all  classes  of  news, 
the  last-mentioned  deals  only  with  sporting 
reports. 

News  Wires.  London  is,  of  course,  the 
natural  centre  of  news  distribution,  and  on  the 
accompanying  map  [14]  is  shown  the  fourteen 
principal  news  distribution  circuits  radiating 
from  the  metropolis.  Altogether  33  cities 
and  towns  have  permanent  news  wires,  while 
13  of  these — namely,  Aberdeen,  Birmingham, 
Bradford,  Dundee,  Edinburgh,  Exeter,  Glasgow, 
Lei'ds,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Newcastle, 
Nottingham  and  Sheffield  have  two  wires  each. 


TELEGRAPHS 

These  are  the  normal  circuits,  but  it  is,  of 
course,  frequently  necessary  to  supplement 
these  at  night  by  making  up  additional  circuits 
from  wires  which  during  the  day  have  been 
used  for  commercial  work,  and  during  par- 
liamentary sessions  the  number  reaches  45. 
One  effect  of  the  multiple  address  rate  is  visible 
in  the  fact  that  the  circuits  are  of  the  omnibus 
kind,  several  towns  being  grouped  on  one  wire. 
The  apparatus  used  is  the  wonderful  Wheats  tone 
automatic  system.  It  is  specially  well  adapted 
to  the  peculiar  conditions. 

As  the  traffic  is  all  in  one  direction  the  trans- 
mitters are  at  the  London  end,  while  the  out- 
stations    are    provided    with    receivers.     Keys 
and  sounders  are   included  at  all  stations   to 
provide  for  communication  between  the  opera- 
tors.    The  perforators  at  London  are  specially 
arranged  so  that  by  using  pneumatic 
power  several   slips   can   be  prepared 
simultaneously    and     with    less 
labour  on  the 'part  of  the  operator 
than    the    ordinary    mechanical 
perforator  demands. 

A  News  Message.  Now 
us  take  the  simplest  case. 
Su  pp  os  e 
that  a 
Pressman 
hands  in  a 
despatch 
c  on  tain- 
ing,  say,  60 
words,  ad- 
dressed to 
a  provincial 
newspaper. 
The  charge 

will  be  one  shilling.  It  will  be  sent  by  pneumatic 
tube  to  the  news  division,  recorded  by  a  news 
distributor  and  passed  to  a  puncher.  He  will 
proceed  to  prepare  a  slip  beginning  with  the 
prefix  (which  will  be  "  S  P"),  coder  name  of 
sender,  "Address  to,"  and  then  follows  the 
texts. 

In  the  text  abbreviations  are  used  freely. 
Indeed,  this  applies  throughout  to  news  messages 
and  to  the  Pressmen  as  well  as  the  telegraphists. 
On  completion  the  perforated  slip  and  the 
message  sheet  are  handed  to  the  key  clerk.  He 
calls  up  the  distant  office  by  signalling  its  code 
three  times  and  adding  T  S,  the  code  of  the 
London  office.  Without  waiting  for  a  response 
he  switches  on  the  transmitter,  inserts  the  slip 
under  the  wheel  and  allows  it  to  run  through. 
This  done,  the  transmitter  is  switched  off,  the 

signal  ... .  sent  by  hand,  and   the  reception 

acknowledged  by  the  outstation  clerk,  who 
signals  the  code  of  his  office,  followed  by  .  —  . 

Classified  News.  Between  the  four  Press 
agencies  already  referred  to  and  the  depart- 
ment closer  relations  have  been  established  than 
ordinarily  obtains,  and  as  a  result  a  system  of 
classifying  news  has  been  instituted,  which 
considerably  simplifies  matters  for  all  con- 
cerned. One  instance  will  typify  the  general 
lines. 

4669 


TELEGRAPHS 

The  Press  Association  arranges  with 
its  newspaper  subscribers  to  supply  to 
them  each  day  items  of  general  news 
under  the  classified  heading  : 

P.  A.  Midday  Special. 
Each  month  a  list  of  the  newspapers 
entitled  to  this  service  is  furnished  to 
the  Post  Office,  and  the  various  pro- 
vincial cities  and  towns  concerned  are 
duly  advised  that  all  "  P.  A.  Midday 
Specials  "  are  to  be  delivered  to  certain 
newspapers. 

Now  let  us  follow  the  course  of  one 
of  these  despatches.  It  reaches  the  news 
division  by  tube  in  a  special  envelope 
with  space  for  initials,  so  that  its  pro- 
gress from  point  to  point  may  be  re- 
corded. It  is  written  on  flimsies,  and 
there  are  about  six  copies — duplicates 
prepared  by  the  ordinary  carbon  process. 
The  envelope  is  opened  by  a  clerk  in 
the  news  distribution  branch,  who  marks 
on  the  copies  the  codes  of  the  towns 
to  which  they  should  be  transmitted. 
The  despatch  now  goes  to  the  puncher 
who  prepares  the  slips.  It  would  be 
possible  to  use  only  one  slip  and  pass 
on  in  succession  through  all  the  trans- 
mitters, but  this  would  cause  delay,  and, 
moreover,  the  slips  deteriorate  if  used 
too  much.  It  is  usual  to  run  one  slip 
through  two  or  three  instruments,  and  the 
marking  of  the  towns  on  the  duplicates  is 
arranged  with  this  end  in  view.  Arrived  at 


14.    NEWS    CIRCUIT    ROUTES 

also  has  a  notice  board  showing  the  classified 
news,  but  in  this  case  it  gives  the  names  of  the 
addressees  and  so  enables  him  to  select  the 


the   transmitter,  the  method  is  a  repetition  of      proper  printed  envelopes  and  send  the  news  to 


what  has  been  described  for  a  single  address,  the 
only  modification  being  the  calling  and  the  use  of 
the  "C  Q"  signal  when  all  stations  are  required. 
At  the  Receiving  Stations.  Ths  slip  is 
taken  off  by  the  key  clerk  and  handed  to  one 
of  his  "  writers "  along  with  the  sheets  on 


the  delivery  department  for  the  messenger 
or  to  the  newspaper  by  pneumatic  tube,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

Long  Messages.  In  every  case  where  a 
news  message  is  longer  than  one  sheet  it  is 
paged  and  signalled  as  page  one,  page  two, 


which  it  is  to  be  written.     In  front  of  the  key  etc,    and  in  the  course  of    transmission    it    is 

clerk  is  a  notice  board  on  which  the  titles  or  split  up  and  no  order  is  observed  at  any  inter  - 

numbere  of  all  classified  news   are  displayed,  mediate   point   between   the   news   distributors 

...,,1  ..f4,,..  i^^'Lt          .n.          £-*.-.  1_  •      1_  •         Jl  •  1  Jl  T-  1  1,1  1  •       1        •!  A  J_1 


and    after   each   a  figure  which   indicates   the 
number  of  copies  required 


in  London   and  the  news   distributors    at   the 
provincial  offices.     On  the  former  devolves  the 


For  instance,  if   P.  A.  Midday   Special   is    to      duty  of  marking  the  pages  so  that  the  latter 


be  delivered  to  three  newspapers  the  figure 
will  be  four,  and  he  will  hand  out  what  is  called 
a  "  top  four."  It  is  made  up  of  four  flimsies 
and  two  carbons.  The  top  sheet  is  ruled  and 
the  under  sheets  plain. 


will  be  enabled  to  piece  together  the  fragments. 
When  this  has  been  done  the  complete  despatch, 
or  some  complete  portion  of  it,  is  issued  to  the 
addressee.  In  the  case  of  long  speeches  the 
despatch  is  divided  into  lettered  sections,  each 


The  writer  transcribes  the  slip  and  places  the      section   containing    anything    up    to   ten   or   a 


sheets  on  the  wire  basket  near  him,  from  whence 
it  is  collected  by  the  messenger  boy  and  con- 
veyed  to  the  news  distributor.  This  officer 


dozen  pages,  but  in  every  case  the  parts  are 
assembled   by   the  provincial   news   distributor 
and  put  in  regular  order  for  delivery. 
Continued 


4670 


THE  FREE-LANCE  IN  JOURNALISM 

Group  19 

JOURNALISM 

A  Career  Calling  for  Courage.     The  Temptation  of  London.     How  to 
Read  the  Papers.     Editors  and  Contributors.     Why  Articles  Come  Back 

7 

Continued  from  page 
4381 

By  ARTHUR   MEE 


T 


HE  man  who  succeeds  in  journalism  as  a  free- 
lance holds  one  of  the  most  enviable  posi- 
tions in  the  world.  He  is  tied  to  neither  time  nor 
place.  He  can  work  where  he  will,  when  he  will, 
as  he  will.  If  he  lays  his  plans  well,  and  organises 
his  life  well,  he  may  live  an  almost  ideal  life. 
He  has  the  happiest  position  in  journalism. 
Others  may  prefer  to  be  editors,  with  all  the 
anxiety  and  potentiality  for  sleepless  nights  that 
editing  brings,  but  the  free-lance  has  the  success 
of  journalism  without  its  worries,  its  influence 
without  its  penalties.  For  the  ideal  journalist 
the  freedom  of  the  free-lance  is  the  ideal  life. 

Always  at  His  Best.  We  have  made 
up  our  minds -what  the  ideal  journalist  should 
be,  and  the  free-lance  must  have  his  qualities 
in  ample  abundance.  There  are  some  qualities 
that  are  specially  his.  He  lives  a  life  of  great 
intensity,  which  will  admit  of  no  dissipation 
of  energy,  which  insists  upon  method,  regu- 
larity, punctuality,  and  application  There  is 
no  severer  test  of  a  good  journalist  than  six 
months  as  a  free-lance,  and  no  man  who  is  a 
bad  journalist  survive:1  the  test. 

The  successful  free-lance  is  invariably  a  good 
journalist,  because  his  success  is  the  result  of 
the  work  of  his  brain,  and  is  not  due  to  any  of 
the  varied  *  circumstances  that  may  keep  a 
merely  mechanical  journalist  in  regular  employ- 
ment inside  a  newspaper  office.  The  free-lance 
has  a  barometer  for  testing  the  quality  of  his 
work  which  never  fails  him.  His  income 
depends  entirely  upon  his  keeping  up  to  the  mark, 
and  the  freedom  which  he  has  given  himself  in  his 
career  is  a  discipline  which  must  be  constantly 
making  him  a  better  man  and  a  better  work- 
man. He  can  never  say  to  himself  with  impunity, 
as,  perhaps,  the  regular  journalist  can,  that 
he  will  not  take  much  trouble  with  this,  or  will 
quickly  dispose  of  that,  or  will  neglect  the  other 
altogether.  Such  things  spell  ruin  for  him.  The 
free-lance  journalist  must  be  always  at  his  best. 

A  Rare  Courage.  And,  because  of 
this,  he  must  have  a  courage  that  is  one 
of  the  rarest  things  in  the  world — the  courage 
to  cut  off  his  income  at  any  moment.  He 
will  find  that  the  strain  is  at  times  greater  than 
he  can  bear,  and  there  is  only  one  penalty, 
as  tragic  as  it  is  sure,  for  the  man  who  neglects 
the  warning  that  Nature  always  gives  in  time. 
No  man  should  rely  upon  a  free  life  as  a  journa- 
list who  is  not  prepared  to  face  the  risk  of  having 
to  stop  his  income  for  a  week  or  a  month  or  a 
longer  period  at  the  bidding  of  a  master  who 
cannot  be  disobeyed.  Let  us  go  further,  and 
say  that  no  man  should  rely  upon  a  free  life  as  a 
journalist  who  cannot  establish  himself  upon 
a  foundation  so  strong  that  he  can  lay  aside  his 
•work  for  a  time  without  running  the  risk  of  losing 


it.  The  man.  who  holds  his  work  by  the  quality 
of  it  need  not  trouble  greatly  about  resting  from  it, 
Yet  this  is  one  of  the  chief  perils  of  free-lance 
journalism.  To  take  a  holiday  means  to  be  for 
the  time  without  an  income,  and,  even  when  the 
normal  income  is  great  enough  to  allow  it,  this 
course  is  not  easy  to  contemplate.  But  it  is  one 
of  the  first  things  that  a  man  must  be  prepared 
to  do  when  he  sets  out  upon  a  career  in  which 
freedom  can  only  be  enjoyed  at  freedom's  price. 

Chief,  perhaps,  of  all  the  practical  essentials^ 
to  success  as  a  free-lance  is  method.  The  free- 
lance journalist  must  be  prepared  to  write  about 
anything  at  any  time,  and  only  method  can  make 
this  possible.  This  subject,  however,  is  con- 
sidered fully  in  the  final  article  in  this  course,  on 
the  Journalist's  System.  We  need  only  discuss 
now  some  of  the  more  obvious  ways  and  means 
by  which  the  free-lance  may  establish  himself. 

An  Intimate  Knowledge  of  Papers. 
The  first  thing  that  he  should  do  is  to  make 
himself  familiar  with  the  papers  for  which  he 
wants  to  write.  It  is  amazing  how  often  this 
essential  condition,  surely  the  simplest  and  most 
obvious  thing  in  the  world,  is  disregarded.  A 
man  who  thought  a  great  deal  more  of  himself 
than  his  capacity  justified  called  upon  an  editor 
the  other  day  for  an  introduction  to  another 
editor.  "  I  used  to  see  his  paper  fourteen  years 
ago,"  said  this  remarkable  young  man,  "  but  I 
have  not  seen  it  of  late  years,  and  I  should  like  to 
write  for  it."  "  Then  the  best  introduction  I 
can  give  you  is  to  the  nearest  bookstall,"  said  the 
editor :  and  he  was  perfectly  right.  It  is  im- 
pertinent to  expect  to  contribute  articles  to  a 
paper  with  which  one  is  not  familiar,  and  the 
free-lance  would  do  well  to  make  up  his  mind 
for  which  papers  he  would  like  to  work.  He 
will  find  the  field  wide  and  varied,  and  open  on 
every  hand  ;  and  he  will  find  that  there  is  no 
safe  guide  through  any  part  of  it  except  his  own 
ability  and  the  experience  of  those  who  have 
been  that  way. 

It  is  assumed  in  this  course  that  what  is  wanted 
is  to  know  how  to  begin  at  the  bottom  rather 
than  what  to  do  at  the  top,  and  no  attempt  is 
made  here  to  help  the  journalist  who  knows  his 
business.  And,  assuming  that  our  journalist 
is  a  beginner  in  free-lance  journalism,  all  that  is 
attempted  here  is  to  help  him  to  set  his  feet 
firmly  on  this  broad  highway.  Two  things 
should  be  said.  Unless  he  has  had  newspaper 
experience,  a  young  man  would  be  unwise 
to  depend  upon  free-lance  journalism  for  his 
bread-and-butter  ;  and  even  with  a  newspaper 
training  the  journalist  may  make  the  most 
serious  mistake  of  his  life  by  leaving  a  sure 
and  steady  post  in  a  provincial  town  for  a 
less  steady  but  more  brilliant  post  in  London. 

4671 


JOURNALISM 

Those  who  have  read  this  c-ours<-  so  far  have  not 
found  in  it  any  great  sympathy  with  the  timidity 
\\liidi  hold,  'men  back  on  the  verge  of  great 
opportunities,  but  it  is  well  to  utter  a  warning 
to  those  journalists  who,  succeeding  well  on  a 
quiet  provincial  paper,  imagine  that  all  they 
have  to  do  to  distinguish  themselves  and  win 
fortune  is  to  take  a  single  ticket  to  King's  Cross 
and  pick  up  gold  in  Fleet  Street. 

The  Provincial  Journalist's  Tempta- 
tion. It  is  the  saddest  of  delusions,  and  a  great 
book  could  be  filled  with  tragedies  that  had 
no  other  beginning  than  this.  It  cannot  be 
repeated  too  emphatically  that  the  conditions 
of  journalism  in  London  are  utterly  different 
from  the  conditions  outside  London,  and  if 
it  is  possible  to  frame  any  piece  of  counsel 
likely  to  be  applicable  to  all  journalists,  at  all 
times,  in  all  circumstances,  that  counsel  is  never 
to  give  up  a  post  in  the  provinces  to  come  to 
London  unless  a  definite  post  is  offered  ;  never, 
in  response  to  any  persuasion,  to  let  go  a  bird  in 
hand  in  the  provinces  for  two  birds,  or  even  for 
three  or  four  birds,  in  a  London  bush.  The  writer 
could  tell  of  many  journalists  who  left  provincial 
newspapers  to  come  to  London.  Three  occur  to 
mind  at  the  moment  who  came  to  London  within 
a  few  years  of  each  other  from  the  same  provincial 
town,  each  of  whom  has  an  income  to-day  greater 
than  any  he  could  have  obtained  in  any  possible 
post  in  the  provinces.  But  each  of  the  three  came 
to  a  definite  post,  with  no  kind  of  risk  except 
the  risk  common  to  any  change.  There  comes 
to  mind,  on  the  other  hand,  the  case  of  the  only 
man  the  writer  knows  who  came  to  London  with- 
out a  secure  post.  He  made  friendships  which 
brought  him  influence,  but  no  journalist  in 
this  world  has  ever  succeeded  entirely  through 
influence,  and  his  career  is  a  failure. 

This  course  is  not  for  the  man  who  can  fling 
defiance  at  probabilities,  or  for  the  born  journalist 
who  needs  neither  help  nor  warning  ;  but  the 
journalist  inclined  to  risk  coming  to  London 
with  no  other  support  than  an  empty  optimism 
and  the  example  of  somebody  else  wall  be  wise 
to  heed  this  counsel  and  let  it  give  him  pause. 

What  to  Write  and  Where  to  Send 

it.  Arrived  in  London,  the  journalist  will  order 
from  his  newsagent  an  abundant  stock  of  news- 
papers and  magazines,  £nd  will  consider  no  time 
lost  that  is  spent  in  reading  them.  His  own 
instincts  will  guide  him  to  the  right  papers.  If 
he  will  spend  a  shilling  at  a  bookstall  every 
week,  keep  a  close  eye  on  the  magazine  depart- 
ments of  the  halfpenny  newspapers,  and  study 
all  the  London  evening  papers  intimately,  he 
will  soon  come  to  understand  the  kind  of  copy 
.  editors  are  waiting  for.  It  would  fill  far  too 
much  space  to  make  an  adequate  list  of  papers 
and  the  kind  of  articles  they  like,  but  there  is  a 
much  better  reason  than  this  for  not  doing  so. 
The  journalist  who  needs  .such  a  list  had  better 
at  once  give  up  the  attempt  to  earn  his  living  as 
a  free-lance.  He  has  missed  the  great  essential. 
It  is  the  very  first  condition  of  his  success  that, 
having  written  his  article,  he  shall  know  where 
to  send  it  with  the  utmost  probability  of  success. 
4672 


He  may  find,  however,  that  his  difficulties 
begin  long  before  he  comes  to  send  in  his.  article. 
He  may  be  puzzled,  though  it  is  greatly  to  be 
hoped  that  he  will  not,  by  the  thought,  "  What 
shall  I  write  about  ?  "  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
this  problem  will  not  trouble  him,  because  there 
is  no  excuse  for  the  journalist  with  nothing  to 
write  about.  It  is  the  unpardonable  sin.  The  true 
journalist  has  always  more  subjects  than  he 
can  deal  with,  and  by  a  process  of  elimination, 
makes  up  his  mind  which  to  use.  Many  consider- 
ations will  influence  him  in  making  this  decision, 
varying  according  to  time  and  circumstance  and 
the  character  of  the  paper  for  which  he  writes. 
But  if  he  knows  how  to  read  the  papers,  and 
where  to  put  his  hand  at  once  on  material,  he  will 
find  there  is  no  famine  in  the  Land  of  Good  Copy. 
Notes  from  a  Morning  Diary.  Let 
us  take  up  the  first  morning  paper  that 
comes  to  our  hand  and  see  what  a  rich  harvest 
it  is  to  the  man  who  has  a  fountain-pen,  a  pad 
of  paper,  a  good  library,  and  an  alert  mind.  It 
has  in  it  the  potentialities  of  a  hundred  articles, 
and  only  a  few  ideas  are  set  down  here,  exactly 
as  they  come  to  mind  in  a  ten  minutes'  glance 
at  the  paper.  They  are  set  down  without  any 
attempt  to  "  dress  them  up  "  or  "  round  them 
off,"  and  they  pretend  to  be  nothing  but  what 
they  actually  are— the  rough  mental  notes  of  a 
journalist  on  going  over  a  morning  paper. 

WHEN  A  NEW  IDEA  COMES  INTO  THE  WORLD. 
How  a  new  invention  or  the  discovery  of  a  new 
system  kills  an  old  one  ;  the  remarkable  com- 
mercial effect  of  the  change — suggested  by  a 
paragraph  announcing  the  cancel  of  Government 
orders  based  on  a  superseded  system. 

THE  UNSEEN  WEALTH  OP  THE  CHURCH.  An 
article  on  the  mineral  royalties  on  ecclesiastical 
property — suggested  by  a  paragraph  on  the 
estates  of  the  Bishopric  of  Durham. 

THE  WORLD'S  UNREALISED  DEBT  TO  ENGLAND. 
"  When  England  intervenes "  ;  behind  the 
scenes  in  diplomacy — suggested  by  a  speech. 

How  A  GROOM  MADE  £100,000.  A  public 
calamity  which  a  clever  man  knew  how  to  turn 
to  his  own  good — suggested  by  a  will. 

IMMORTAL  NOBODIES.  A  shoemaker  who 
fooled  a  nation,  and  a  host  of  other  cases- 
suggested  by  the  trial  of  "Captain"  Koepenick. 
How  MANY  PEOPLE  EARN  £1,000  A  YEAR  ? 
Where  they  earn  it,  and  how— suggested  by 
the  report  of  the  Commission  on  Income  Tax. 

THE  HIDDEN  PERILS  OF  ALL  OUR  LIVES.  The 
dangers  we  run  in  everyday  life  but  rarely 
think  of — suggested  by  the  breaking  of  a  wire 
on  an  electric  tramway. 

A  VISION  OF  A  NEW  WORLD.  A  forecast 
and  a  reality  in  the  new  science  ;  a  glimpse^  of 
"a  totally  new  and  unexpected  world  "- 
suggested  by  a  speech  of  Sir  William  Huggins. 
THE  ALADDIN'S  LAMPS  OF  THE  BRITISH 
EMPIRE.  The  great  commercial  potentialities  of 
the  Empire,  and  the  way  to  realise  them— sug- 
gested by  a  picturesque  phrase  in  a  speech. 

HAVE " WE  Two  PERSONALITIES  ?  The  power 
in  us  that  sleeps  when  we  wake,  and  wakes  when 
we  sleep — suggested  by  a  law  case  and  a  story 
of  drawings  made  under  "  influence." 


Do  THE  ROTHSCHILDS  EARN  THEIR  INCOME  ? 
Or  is  it  unearned  increment  ? — suggested  by 
the  Income  Tax  Report. 

"THINKING  OUT"  A  BATTLESHIP.  The  in- 
credible marvels  of  battleships — suggested  by 
the  death  of  a  man  who  designed  battleships 
for  half  the  navies  in  the  world. 

RICH  PEOPLE  WITH  NO  USE  FOR  MONEY. 
The  extraordinary  things  they  do  with  it — sug- 
gested by  a  curious  story  of  hidden  money. 

Nothing  is  Old  Under  the  Sun.  So, 
if  we  had  space,  we  might  go  on,  fascinated 
by  the  ideas  that  leap  to  us  wherever  we  turn. 
We  have  glanced  rapidly  through  one  paper, 
and  there  are  a  dozen  papers,  all  different.  It 
is  important  to  the  journalist  not  to  make  the 
fatal  mistake  of  thinking,  as  the  public  is 
apt  to  think,  that  all  papers  are  the  same.  In 
their  appeal  to  the  mind  no  two  papers  are  the 
same.  There  may  be  a  world  of  difference  in 
the  way  in  which  two  papers  put  the  same  thing, 
and  the  same  thing  put  in  different  ways  may 
bring  quite  different  ideas  to  the  mind. 

Many  years  ago,  a  House  of  Commons  gallery 
man  called  one  night  at  his  old  office  hi  a  Midland 
town,  and  the  junior  member  of  the  staff 
manifested  a  keen  interest  in  what  he  had  to  say 
about  life  in  the  House  of  Commons.  It  was 
all  new  to  him,  and  the  conversation  opened  up 
a  new  avenue  of  interest.  "  I  will  write  an 
article  about  it,"  he  said.  The  older  men 
laughed.  "  These  young  men  don't  know  that 
all  this  has  been  done  before,"  said  a  sage  sub- 
editor, who  had  sub-edited  telegrams  at  the 
same  desk  for  forty  years.  "  I  understand  that 
quite  well,"  said  the  junior  reporter.  "  It  is  all 
very  commonplace  to  you,  but  it  is  new  to  me, 
and  everything  depends  on  the  way  it  is  put." 
The  sub-editor  sat  at  his  desk  until,  in  the  fulness 
of  time,  he  died ;  the  junior  reporter  rapidly 
rose  to  be  an  editor  in  London.  The  junior  was 
quite  right.  Nothing  is  old  under  the  sun.  One 
•man's  knowledge  is  another  man's  news,  and, 
even  to  the  man  who  knows,  the  subject  may  be 
presented  with  all  the  freshness  of  a  new  outlook 
and  a  virgin  enthusiasm. 

•"  Everything  has  been  Done."  The 
population  of  London  is  six  millions:  how 
many  articles,  one  wonders,  are  there  in  that 
fact  ?  How  many  books  have  been  written  out 
of  it  ?  It  is  a  fact  that  everybody  knows,  yet  it 
is  a  fact  that  can  be  written  about  by  a  thousand 
men  in  different  ways,  or  by  one  man  in  a 
thousand  ways,  without  ever  wearying  us  or 
driving  us  to  say  "  I  knew  that  before."  There  is 
nobody  so  hopeless  as  the  man  who  discards  a 
subject  merely  because  "  it  has  been  done  before." 
If  the  subject  had  any  inherent  interest  yesterday, 
it  has  the  same  inherent  interest  to-day.  There 
may,  of  course,  be  a  hundred  reasons  why  it  need 
not  be  written  about  to-day,  but  the  fact  that  it 
was  written  about  yesterday  is  no  reason  at  all. 

It  is  the  superficial  journalist  who,  seizing 
upon  the  obvious  and  ignoring  the  -deeper 
interest,  gives  way  to  the  feeling  that  "  every- 
thing has  been  done."  Everything  has  two 
interests  ;  every  substance  has  its  shadow  ;  and 
there  is  a  journalism  of  shadows  and  a  journalism 


JOURNALISM 

of  substances.  One  of  the  cleverest  journalists 
the  writer  knows  was  once  in  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  rooms  in  Europe.  There  is  probably 
no  room  anywhere  with  a  greater  number  of 
interests  from  a  greater  number  of  points  of  view. 
One  of  its  interests  is  a  diamond — a  dazzling 
thing  of  transcendent  beauty  which  has  figured 
in  the  history  of  Europe,  and  is  stained  with  the 
blood  of  many  wars.  It  is  an  experience  to  have 
looked  upon  a  thing  so  historic  ;  it  is  an  asset  in 
every  journalist's  career  to  come  in  touch  with 
people  and  places  and  things  that  have  made 
or  have  been  used  in  the  making  of  history. 

The  Journalist's  Interest  in  Reali= 
ties.  But  it  is  easy  to  make  a  mistake  here,  and 
our  clever  journalist  made  it.  He  sacrificed  the 
substance  for  the  shadow.  He  spent  all  his  time 
in  looking  at  the  diamond,  and  the  thousand 
other  things  made  no  impression  on  his  mind. 
Yet  they  were  of  equal  interest,  and  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  a  general  impression  of  the  room 
and  its  contents  as  a  whole  would  have  been  a 
much  more  valuable  contribution  to  the  mind 
of  the  journalist  than  a  much  stronger  impression 
of  one  thing  in  the  room.  And  the  journalist  was 
doubly  wrong,  from  our  point  of  view,  for  he  was 
interested  in  the  diamond  because  there  is  a 
story  about  it,  because  of  an  accidental  circum- 
stance, and  not  because  of  anything  inherent 
in  the  diamond  itself.  It  would  not  have  mattered, 
so  far  as  the  impression  on  him  was  concerned, 
if  the  diamond  had  been  another  diamond,  or 
even  a  piece  of  clay,  since  what  impressed  him 
was  not  the  thing  he  saw,  but  a  story  that  it 
brought  to  mind  ;  and  the  lesson  of  this  is 
that  our  gain  is  all  the  greater  if  we  are  interested 
in  things  intrinsically  rather  than  in  things  for 
their  associations'  sake.  The  journalist's  interest 
in  the  diamond  will  pass  away,  because  his  last- 
ing interest  is  not  in  the  gem,  but  in  a  story 
about  it ;  and  the  gain  to  him  of  his  visit  to  the 
Louvre  will  pass  away  to  that  extent.  Had  his 
interest  been  excited  in  the  diamond  as  a  thing 
of  wondrous  beauty,  it  would  have  remained 
with  him.  As  it  was  he  left  without  any 
adequate  impression  of  the  vast  intrinsic  beauty 
of  the  room,  its  abundance  of  treasure,  its 
wonder  of  craftsmanship,  its  amazing  collection 
of  things  all  as  compelling  as  that  little  bit  of 
it  which  he  allowed  to  steal  away  all  his  time. 

A  Sound  Foundation  of  Knowledge. 
The  example  will  not  have  been  quoted  in  vain 
if  it  helps  us  to  appreciate  the  vast  difference 
between  a  thing  itself  and  its  associations. 
That  does  not  mean,  of  course,  that  the  associa- 
tions have  no  legitimate  interest  for  the  journalist. 
On  the  contrary,  he  is  the  best  journalist  who 
knows  most  of  these  things,  who  knows  all  the 
stories  and  incidents  and  accidents  and  circum- 
stances which  make  up  the  environment  of  all 
concrete  things.  The  point  of  all  that  has  been 
said  is,  not  that  the  story  is  uninteresting  or 
even  unimportant,  but  that  the  wise  journalist 
fixes  his  interest  in  the  things  themselves  rather 
than  in  their  associations,  in  things  that  are 
permanent  rather  than  in  incidents  that  pass  ; 
that  his  knowledge  is  at  the  root  rather  than 
hanging  on  the  branch. 

4673 


JOURNALISM 

Tf  liis  foundation  is  thus  sound,  he  ran  erect 
any  superstructure  upon  it,  and  the  more  varied 
tin-  superstructure  is  the  more  certain  his  success 
journalist  will  be.  With  his  interest  thus 
fixed  in  the  substance,  he  will  miss  nothing  that 
is  interesting  in  the  shadow,  and  he  will  find  that 
the  day  never  comes  when  there  is  nothing  in 
the  papers  for  him  to  write  about. 

The  Ideal  Contributor.  His  subject 
found,  his  article  written,  and  his  paper  in 
mind,  the  next  interest  of  the  free-lance  is 
to  reach  his  editor.  Here  the  simplest  advice 
is  far.  the  best.  He  should  send  his  article 
to  the  editor  in  the  ordinary  way.  He  need  not 
bother  about  introductions.  If  he  can  get  them 
easily  so  much  the  better,  and  as  a  means  of 
reaching  an  editor  an  introduction  is  often  useful ; 
it  sometimes  sets  up  a  connection  which  might 
otherwise  take  a  long  time  to  establish.  But  that 
is  all  that  introductions  can  do.  Nine  intro- 
ductions out  of  ten  only  annoy  an  editor, 
and  introductions  have  ceased  to  have  much 
weight  because  they  are  too  often  used  by  those 
who  have  no  merit  of  their  own  to  introduce 
them.  It  may  be  taken  as  universally  true 
that  an  editor  has  much  more  esteem  for 
the  contributor  who  sends  him  a  good  article 
than  for  the  would-be  contributor  whose  first 
excuse  for  calling  or  writing  is  that  he  knows 
somebody  who  knows  the  editor. 

An  interesting  article  might  be  written  on 
how  to  manage  an  editor,  but  we  can  do  no 
more  here  than  give  one  or  two  hints.  We  have 
been  considering  all  through  this  course  ideal 
journalists  and  ideal  papers  ;  let  us  consider  for 
a  moment  the  ideal  contributor.  He  has  behind 
him  a  system  such  as  we  shall  come  to  consider 
in  due  course,  enabling  him  to  write  on  any 
subject  at  any  time.  He  is  always  available, 
always  reliable,  always  prompt.  He  does  not 
worry  the  editor  with  unnecessary  letters  or 
ask  him  to  wire  if  he  accepts  an  article.  He 
regards  an  editor  as  a  gentleman,  and  does  not 
intrude  into  an  editor's  room,  as  a  journalist 
tearing  a  well-known  name  did  the  other  day, 
violently  demanding  an  explanation  why  an 
article  sent  the  day  before  had  not  been  returned. 
He  does  not  ask  an  editor  to  verify  quotations, 
or  to  post  an  article  on  to  another  paper  if  his 
own  paper  cannot  use  it.  He  does  not  call  himself 
"  Author  and  Journalist  "  on  his  notepaper,  or 
I  ml  "  M.J.I."  on  his  card,  or  address  himself 
"Esq."  on  his  return  envelopes.  He  does  not 
write  "Will  you  look  at  an  article  if  I  knock 
one  up  ?  " 

MS.  He  knows  how  to  prepare  an  article.  He 
u>cs  thin  paper  of  a  regular  size,  easy  to  handle. 
He  types  neatly  without  many  corrections,  and 
-ub-«-dits  his  manuscript  with  care.  He  belongs 
to  the  very,  very  small  number  of  journalists 
whose  copy  an  editor  can  send  straight  to  the 
I  rinten.  He  does  not  send  out  stained  or  crumpled 
manuscripts,  or  spend  much  time  in  explain- 
ing his  talents  in  general  or  his  reasons  for 
writing  one  article  in  particular.  He  does 
not  trouble  much  about  money,  and  rarely  asks 
..n  editor  how  much  he  will  get  for  an  article. 
He  is  in  search  of  reputation  and  connection, 

4674 


and.  however  poor  he  is.  these  things  are  more 
to  him  than  cheques.  He  never  refuses  to  do 
an  article  if  he  can  help  it.  He  never  writes 
such  disgraceful  letters  as  these  : 

"  Hearing  that  you  are  the  editor  of  a  new 
publication,  I  wish  to  ask  if  you  require  a  writer 
to  do  a  few  columns  weekly.  I  did  a  page  of 
birthday  news  weekly  in  the  —  —  (a  dead  paper). 
.Many  of  my  dates  have  only  been  secured  by 
personal  application.  I  find  amusement  some- 
times by  printing  the  wrong  dates  and  noticing 
which  other  birthday  writers  crib  them  and  give 
themselves  away.  You  will  find  it  advantageous  to 
retain  nie.  I  can  do  anecdotes  about  anybody." 

"January  21st:  On  the  12th  inst.  you  received 
a  story  from  me  entitled  '  When  We  Two  Went 
Maying.'  As  I  have  not  received  it  back,  I 
presume  you  are  going  to  make  use  of  same.  Let 
me  tell  you  that  you  cannot  do  so  without  first 
sending  on  a  remuneration  for  same.  Shall  expect 
either  one  or  the  other  within  the  course  of  a  day 
or  two.  If  I  do  not,  shall  put  the  matter  before  a 
solicitor.  Yours  sincerely,  Sarah  G 

The  ideal  contributor  can  be  relied  on  for 
brightness  and  originality,  for  giving  the  editor 
as  little  trouble  as  possible,  for  knowing  the  paper 
as  well  as  the  editor  himself,  for  sending  an 
article  of  the  right  length  at  the  right  moment. 
He  is  not  discouraged  if  an  article  comes  back, 
because  he  has  learned  by  experience  that  often 
the  last  reason  in  the  world  why  an  article  is 
returned  is  that  the  article  is  bad.  He  knows  that 
a  good  article  may  be  returned  for  a  dozen 
reasons.  The  editor  may  have  arranged  for  one 
on  the  same  lines,  or  may  have  published  one 
recently  which  the  contributor  did  not  notice  ; 
the  article  may  clash  with  some  other  article 
that  has  been  or  is  to  be  published  ;  the  treat- 
ment of  the  particular  subject  may  be  uncon- 
genial to  the  editor  ;  the  editor's  desk  may  be 
so  congested  with  manuscripts  that  he  has  no  right 
to  keep  the  article  until  he  can  consider  it.  Even 
ideal  contributors  may  be  disappointed  for  rea- 
sons such  as  these,  and  the  unideal  contributor, 
of  course,  runs  a  hundred  other  risks  of  dis- 
appointment which  he  never  seems  to  realise. 

Contributors  who  Never  Contribute. 
The  writer  who  never  gets  into  the  papers 
has  generally  an  explanation  of  his  own  ;  pro- 
bably there  is  a  plot  against  him  among  the 
editors.  But  it  is  really  not  the  case  that  all  the 
editors  in  England  are  taking  great  pains,  at 
the  risk  of  ruining  their  papers,  to  deprive  the 
reading  public  of  the  intellectual  output  of  Mr. 
Richard  Tomkins  or  of  Miss  Susannah  Jones.  It 
is  conceivable  that  there  are  other  reasons. 
Their  articles  are  probably  far  too  long,  or  they 
may  be  unintelligible,  or  written  on  both  sides 
«f  the  paper,  or  underlined  and  crossed  out  in 
such  a  way  that  nobody  can  read  them,  or  about 
things  which  interest  nobody,  or  on  subjects  of 
which  everybody  is  tired,  or  summer  articles  in 
winter,  or  winter  articles  in  summer,  or  abstruse 
discussions  of  theology,  or  long  exordiums  on 
philosophy,  or  abusive  articles  on  public  men,  or 
hysterical  articles  on  private  matters,  or  articles 
full  of  glaring  errors,  or  essays  as  dry  as  dust,  or 
politics  opposed  to  the  paper's  own,  or  articles 
with  libels  in  every  line,  or  attacks  on  the  paper's 
contemporaries,  or  insidious  cultivating  of  private 


interests,  or  articles  likely  to  be  mischievous 
in  the  money  market. 

It  would  be  possible  to  go  on  at  any  length 
giving  reasons  why  papers  do  not  publish  articles. 
A  glance  at  an  editor's  "  rejected  "  box  would  be 
an  effective  lesson  to  amateur  journalists  who 
write  whenever  they  can  instead  of  only  when 
they  must,  and  allow  their  lives  to  be  soured  by 
the  disappointments  they  bring  upon  themselves. 

An    Editor's    Rejected    Box.      Let   us 

take  a  peep  into"  the  rejected  box  of  the  editor 
of  what  are  probably  the  most  coveted  columns 
in  English  journalism.  They  afford  a  journalist 
the  most  powerful  pulpit  that  he  can  find  in 
England,  and  if  the  reader  will  remember  this 
it  will  help  him  to  understand  the  editor's  point 
of  view  in  sending  back  the  dozen  articles  we 
have  picked  out  for  notice.  We  set  out  the 
authors'  headings  of  the  articles,  along  with  an 
explanation  why  they  were  not  accepted. 

OUR  DREADFUL  MUSICAL  LIKES  AND  DISLIKES. 
Not  published  for  several  reasons.  1.  The  style 
did  not  suit  the  paper.  2.  The  manuscript  re- 
sembled a  map  of  Europe  with  its  mass  of  blots 
and  corrections.  3.  The  article  was  twice  as  long 
as  it.,  should,  have  been  had  it  been  twice  as 
good  as  it  was.  4.  It  was  accompanied  by  this 
impertinent  letter:  "Dear  Sir,  If  you  are  not 
brave  enough  to  use  the  enclosed,  will  you  kindly 
fold  it  twice,  returning  it  in  the  enclosed  cover  ? 
If  it  is  to  be  used,  will  you  please  settle  terms  with 
me  before  it  is  put  in  type  ?  " 

BEHIND  THE  WALLS  OF  A  LUNATIC  ASYLUM. 
The  writer  declared  it  to  be  the  most  thrilling 
narrative  ever  seen  on  the  subject,  and  wrote  : 

"  Please  see  that  Mr. sees  it.  It  is  good  enough 

for  the  Christmas  number.  I  expect  a  cheque  for 

it.  If  not  accepted,  return.  Tell  Mr. I 

expect  £20  for  it." 

THE  PRESENT-DAY  SNOB.  In  sending  the  first 
of  a  series  of  six  articles  the  writer,  an  example 
of  the  intolerable  "  smart "  contributor,  said : 
"  I  am  desirous  of  seeking  fame  and,  incidentally, 
cash,  by  asking  you  to  read  the  enclosed  article, 
the  first  of  a  series  of  six.  If,  however,  the  article 
is  too  feeble,  and  makes  you  feel  at  all  peevish, 
be  good  enough  to  return  it  in  the  accompanying 
stamped  envelope,  and  I  will  use  it  for  pipe-lights.' ' 

OPPORTUNITIES  IN  THE  EAST.  Extract  from 
author's  letter :  "  I  admit  the  writing  is  feeble, 
but  perhaps,  with  many  additions  known  best 
to  an  editor,  you  may  find  an  odd  corner  in  the 
least  important  of  your  publications.  It  is  very 
much  in  season,  and  will  do  you  good  if  it  appears." 

THE  GATE  OF  EMPIRE.  Not  "published  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  a  friend  of  the  author  wrote  to  the 
editor  :  "  Will  you  be  good  enough  to  say  when  an 
article  entitled  *'  The  Gate  of  Empire  '  is  to  appear. 
as  I  intend  securing  several  copies  of  the  paper  ?  " 

VEGETARIANS  AND  FRUITARIANS  v.  MEAT  EATERS. 
Extract  from  axithor's  letter :  "  Would  you  be 
willing  to  take  an  essay  on  this  subject  ?  It  would 
probably  occupy  eight  or  ten  columns." 

SANTA  GLAUS.  Extract  from  author's  letter : 
"  Perhaps  the  enclosed  manuscript  may  be  of  use 
when  you  have  nothing  suitable  at  hand." 

No  TITLE.  Extract  from  author's  letter :  "  I 
enclose  an  article  for  your  Thursday  issue.  If 
you  would  like  it  re-written  plainer  I  will  do  it." 

A  SHORT  STORY.  Extract  from  author's  letter  : 
"  Mr.  • of  the  —  — .  after  reading  the 


JOURNALISM 

enclosed  story,  advised  me  to  send  it  to  you.  I 
have  for  some  time  been  trying  to  get  a  personal 
introduction  to  you,  which  I  still  hope  to  do, 
although  I  have  so  far  been  unsxiccessful." 

THE  WILD  AND  WOOLLY  WEST.  Extract  from 
author's  letter :  "  You  may  blue  pencil  it  as  you 
see  fit.  I  am  after  dollars,  not  glory.  Of  course,  the 
stuff  is  original  and  exclusive.  If  you  think  it  is 
'  fishy '  any  of  the  gang  round  the  Cecil  will  O.K.  it. 

PROBLEMS  ON  JUGGERNAUT  AND  THE  GREAT 
WORLD'S  MISERY.  Seven  columns  from  a  rector's 
wife. 

TARIFF  REFORM.  Extract  from  author's  letter  : 
"  I  beg  to  enclose  an  article.  You  will  perceive 
I  have  not  even  troubled  to  correct  or  alter  same. 
I  have  always  written  under  the  nom  de.  plume, 
'  Vincit  veritas,'  as  I  believe  truth-always  conquers, 
and  can  write  more  articles  on  the  same  subject." 

Women  in  Journalism.  The  sensible 
contributor  does  not  call,  as  a  woman  called 
at  the  office  of  the  DAILY  MAIL,  to  see  "if 
there  is  any  personal  reason  why  articles  are 
not  accepted."  He  goes  on  writing  until  his 
articles  are  accepted,  and  until  he  has  made  his 
connection  so  secure  that  all  anxiety  concerning 
his  manuscript  comes  to  an  end. 

Nothing  has  been  said  in  these  articles  as  to 
journalism  for  women'.  It  is  true  that  there  are 
certain  departments  of  work  in  which  women 
are  useful,  and,  indeed,  necessary,  as  contributors 
to  magazines,  and,  more  rarely,  to  newspapers. 
But  the  woman  journalist  is  not  usually  a  success. 
The  conditions  of  journalism  are  not  for  her,  and 
women  are  wise  in  confining  themselves,  if  they 
write  at  all,  to  work  involving  none  of  the  rush 
and  anxiety  of  ordinary  journalism.  There  are 
regular  departments — such  as  dress,  health, 
cookery,  and  domestic  interests  generally — 
which  afford  scope  for  the  woman  who  has  a 
stock  of  useful  knowledge  and  a  gifted  pen. 
But  this  is  not  journalism  proper,  and  from  a 
professional  point  of  view  the  prospect  for 
women  journalists  is  not  particularly  bright. 
Obviously,  however,  all  that  has  been  said  of 
journalism  applies  to  journalists  apart  from  sex. 

The  Journalist's  Income.  The  free- 
lance who  succeeds  in  journalism  should  be 
perfectly  happy  in  his  work.  He  may  make 
any  sort  of  income  within  reason.  It  is  not 
surprising  to  hear  of  men  who  make  £1,000 
a  year,  though  it  is  common  enough  to  meet 
men  who  make  the  barest  living.  It  is  a  highly 
creditable  thing  if  a  man  can  sit  at  home  and 
make  £500  a  year  by  his  pen,  and,  with  some 
capacity  for  organisation  and  the  instinct  of 
journalism  within  him,  this  should  not  be  very 
difficult.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  regular  piece 
of  work,  such  as  two  days  a  week  in  an  office  or  a 
daily  or  weekly  column  of  notes,  and  this  security 
of  an  income  sufficient  to  meet  the  bare  needs 
of  existence  saves  the  free-lance  from  much 
anxiety.  He  should  write  only  for  papers  that 
pay  regularly,  and  should  cultivate  connections 
upon  which  he  can  rely. 

With  half  a  dozen  papers  to  write  for,  a  well- 
equipped  library  to  work  in,  and  good  health, 
the  journalist  with  a  brain  is  the  happiest  man 
in  the  world.  He  is  monarch  of  all  he  surveys, 
and  would  not  change  places  with  a  king. 


Continued 


4673 


Group  23 

APPLIED 
BOTANY 


tinu-l   tV" 


GROWING  TREES  FOR  TIMBER 

Shade-bearers  and  Light-demanders.     Pure  and  Mixed  Woods.     Sowing  and 
Planting.      Species  of  Trees.     Sylvicultural  Systems.     Forest  Management 


By    HAROLD    C.    LONG 


systems  of  sylviculture,  like  those  of 
ordinary  farming,  depend,  to  a  larger  ex- 
tent than  is  often  allowed,  on  the  position  and 
locality  of  the  area  concerned,  and  also  on  the 
species  of  trees  which  are  selected.  It  must  be 
clearly  understood  that  the  habits  of  various 
trees  differ  very-  materially,  and  in,  selecting  a 
system  it  is  necessary  to  consider,  especially 
the  soil,  climate,  aspect,  and  species  of  trees. 
Let  us  .now  deal  with  and  define  some 
of  the  commoner  terms,  employed  in  sylvi^ 
culture. 

When  the  leaves  of  a  tree  fall  at  a  certain  time 
of  the  year,  leaving  it  bare,  as  in  common  oak, 
elm,  and  plane,  that  tree  is  said  to  be -deciduous. 
If  a  tree  retains  leaves  throughout  the  year,  such 
as  the  pine,  it  is  an  evergreen.  Not  that  the 
leaves  or  needles  of  pines  do  not  fall ;  they  do,  but 
they  are  so  continuously  renewed  that  such  trees 
always  bear  leaves. 

Certain  species  of  trees — e.g.,  the  yew,  beech, 
spruce,  and  silver  fir — nourish  under  more  or  less 
heavy  shade  in  early  youth,  not  requiring  full 
conditions  of  light  in  order  to  live  and  produce 
good  timber — that  is,  they  will  "  bear  shade," 
and  hence  they  are  termed  shade  -  bearers. 
Other  trees— e.g.,  the  oak,  larch,  and  Scots  pine 
— require  a  great  deal  of  light,  not  only  to 
enable  them  to  produce  good  timber,  but  in 
order  to  sustain  life.  Such  species  are  termed 
light-demanders.  In  America  shade-bearing  and 
Kght-denianding  species  are  respectively  termed 
tolerant  and  intolerant  of  shade. 

Pure  and  Mixed  Woods.  When  a 
wood  or  forest  consists  practically  of  one  species 
of  timber  tree  it  is  said  to  be  a  pure  wood,  Avhile 
if  several  species  compose  a  crop  a  mixed  wood 
is  the  result.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  said  that  pure 
woods  are  more  frequently  composed  of  shade- 
I  Baring  than  of  light -demanding  species,  The 
latter  generally  occur  in  mixed  woods,  as  when 
alone  they  neither  preserve  the  soil  sufficiently 
nor  produce  the  best  quality  of  timber.  Oak 
and  larch,  for  instance,  are  grown  to  greater 
jirolit  when  associated  with  beech  and  silver 
tir,  though  they  are  also  capable  of  forming 
jinn-  woods.  Trees  which  bear  cones,  and 
\\lii.li  in  general  do  not  shed  their  leaves  or 
needles,  such  as  Scots  pine  and  spruce,  are 
otu  trees;  those  like  the  oak,  lime,  and 
a<h  are  broad-leaved  species.  Those  species 
68,  \\hether  coniferous  or  otherwise,  which 
.  re  Mn>-t  suitable  for  forming  pure  woods  arc 
'••ime.l  ,/////,./  species— for  example,  silver  fir. 
l.eerh.  S.-ots  pin,-.  «,ak,  >|,ruer,  and  larch; 
those  trees.  ,,n  the  other  hand,  generally 
iouncl  in  mixed  woods,  where  they  do  not 
predominate  numerically,  are  subordinate  or 

4676 


dependent  species,  as  ash,  lime,  Norway  maple, 
and  sycamore. 

Rate  of  Growth.  The  various  species  of 
trees  differ  considerably  in  their  rate  of  height 
growth,  and  this  fact  is  of  great  importance, 
especially  during  the  youth  of  the  trees.  On 
.soil  specially  suited  to  larch  this  species 
would  grow  faster  than  spruce,  practically 
until  mature,  .whereas  on  soil  less  suited  to 
larch  the  spruce  would  overtake  it  in  height 
growth  in  about  25  years  or  less,  with  disastrous 
results  to  the  larch.  Again,  in  a  mixture 
of  oak  and  beech,  in  a  locality  suited  to 
the  former  it  would  grow  ahead  of  the  beech 
for  50  years  or  more ;  where  the  locality  proved 
less  favourable  to  the  oak,  it  might  be  caught 
up  in  20  years,  and  suppressed.  In  such  a 
mixture,  therefore,  the  oak  is  given  a  start,  the 
beech  being  introduced  when  the  oak  has 
attained  40  years  of  age  or  more.  We  see, 
then,  that  in  mixing  species  an  important  factor, 
height  growth,  must  be  considered.  Diameter 
growth  is,  generally  speaking,  fairly  proportionate 
to  height  growth,  but  depends  very  largely  on 
space  allowed  per  tree.  If  space  be  too  limited. 
or,  in  other  words,  if  the  wood  be  overcrowded, 
the  diameter  growth  is  decreased,  while  the 
height  growth  is  increased  ;  too  free  a  position 
increases  diameter  growth  at  the  cost  of  height 
growth.  A  judicious  space  allowance  permits 
a  correct  combination  of  height  and  diameter 
growth,  the  result  being  the  best  yield  in  volume 
growth.  Regular  and  slow  growth  produces  the 
best  timber.  A  close  canopy  must  always  be 
maintained  if  first-class  timber  be  required,  and 
this  means  that  trees  must  stand  close  together, 
but  not  so  close  that  injury  results. 

Sowing.  In  the  forest  nursery  the  principles 
involved  in  sowing  the  seed  are  somewhat  the 
same  as  in  farm  practice — the  larger  the  seeds 
the  deeper  they  should  be  planted  ;  the  majority 
of  seeds  are  most  suitably  sown  in  drills, 
although  the  smaller  light  seeds  (elm,  birch) 
are  sown  broadcast.  The  soil  should  be  deep 
and  friable,  and  as  free  as  possible  from 
stones.  A  cleaning  crop,  such  as  turnips,  may 
profitably  be  taken  in  the  first  year,  after 
which  the  land  may  be  used  for  raising  seed- 
lings, and  for  transplanting  these  for  three  or 
four  years.  Drills  for  sowing  may  be  prepared 
with  a  common  hoe,  or  by  a  board  with  attached 
mouldings,  which  are  impressed  on  the  seed-bed. 
After  the  seed  is  sown  the  soil  is  raked  over 
Avith  an  ordinary  rake.  Light  rolling  makes  the 
bed  moderately  firm.  The  hand  is  used  for 
broadcast  sowing,  and  for  placing  large  seeds, 
like  acorns  ;  but  a  special  seed  horn  is  useful  for 
smaller  seeds.  Broadcast  sowing  absorbs  far 


APPLIED    BOTANY 


Photo,  Miss  M.  Il'att 


1.    NURSERY    SHOWING  LARCH   SEEDLINGS  AND   TRANSPLANTED    LARCH 

more  seed  than  drill  sowing,  while  it  also  needs  a  way  affected  by  disease  be  used.    The  best  age 

more  carefully  prepared  seed  bed.     The  usual  is  perhaps  four  years,  but  seedlings,  or  plants 

time  of  sowing  conifer  seeds  is  almost  invariably  from  the  seed-bed,  are  also  occasionally  suitable 

in  spring,  but  broad-leaved  species  are  sown  from  for    planting     out,    transplants    being   used   to 

November    to   March,    when    temperature   and  replace  any  failures  as  necessary.     Small  plants 

the  condition  of  the  soil  admit.  are  best  removed  with  soil  attached.     In  correct 

In  the  forest,  partial  sowing  is  often  resorted  sylvicultural  practice  planting  is  usually  done 


to — that  is,  small  patches 
or  strips  are  prepared  and 
sown,  or  large  seeds  are 
dibbled. 

All  seeds  used  should  be 
fresh,  ripe,  of  good  size  and 
weight,  and  have  a  good 
germinating  capacity.  The 
quantity  of  seed  sown  de- 
pends largely  on  the  local 
conditions,  on  the  quality 
of  the  seed,  and  on  the  rate 
of  growth  of  the  species. 

Planting.  Seedlings  are 
pricked  out  in  the  nursery 
and  transplanted,  only  once 

ior  it  may  be  several  times 
over  [1].  The  utmost  care 
should  be  exercised  in  taking 
up  and  transplanting  either 
seedlings  or  larger  and  older 
plants.  Fairly  small  plants 
are  more  easily  manipu- 
lated, and  are  less  expensive 


2.    GOOD   PLANTING 


3.    BAD    PLANTING 


4.    TEG    PLANTING 


in  pits — that  is,  holes  dug 
expressly  and  of  such  a  size 
that  the  roots  may  be  ar- 
ranged as  naturally  as  pos- 
sible [2].  In  no  case  should 
the  roots  be  in  an  unnatural, 
cramped  position  [3].  The 
pits  are  frequently  dug 
during  the  winter  before 
planting,  the  final  insertion 
of  the  plants  taking  place 
in  spring,  after  the  soil  has 
become  melloAved.  Loose 
soil  is  sprinkled  over  the 
roots  when  these  have  been 
spread,  the  soil  gradually 
burying  the  roots.  The 
whole  is  finally  trampled 
firm.  Pit  planting  is  the 
most  expensive  method  of 
establishing  plantations.  Ball 
planting,  using  small  plants 
with  the  soil  firmly  attached 
as  removed  from  the  nur- 


than  larger   ones    for  planting    in    the   forest,     sery  bed    by  a  circular  or  semicircular   spade, 
Nursery    stock,    when     planted    out     in     the     is    especially    adapted    to    loose   soils    and    for 


plantation,    should    be   healthy,    shapely,    well     unfavourable  localities    generally.     With  small 


4677 


APPLIED     BOTAN> 

i>  only  suitable  for  small  plants,  and  is  then 
cheap!  Plants  may  be  thus  inserted  fairly  natur- 
ally, and  if  roots  are  long,  they  may  be  somewhat 
curtailed.  Notch- planting  is  largely  recommended 
on  account  of  its  cheapness  at  the  outset.  It  may 
l>e  done  in  several  ways:  (1)  By  making  a  cut 
in  the  sod  to  form  an'L  or  a  T.  The  corners  of 
ilic  sod  are  raised  and  the  plant  inserted  and 
trodden  in.  This  system  is  seldom  to  be  recom- 
mended, the  roots  being  almost  always  twisted 
or  buried  too  deeply,  with  serious  results.  (2)  By 
using  the  "  wedge "  spade,  in  which  case  a 
wedge-shaped  opening  is  made  in  the  soil,  and 
I iy  movement  to  and  fro  of  the  spade  a  vertical 
face  is  obtained  on  one  side  of  the  "  notch."  The 
plant  is  placed  at  this  side,  the  spade  again 
inserted  two  or  three  inches  back  on  the  other 
side,  and  a  fresh  cut  of  soil  pressed  against  the 
plant,  closing  the  notch. 

Time,  Density,  and  Cost  of  Planting. 
Wounding  the  plants  in  the  course  of  planting 
should  be  carefully  avoided,  as  wounds  may 
;vfford  entry  for  fungoid  diseases  and  insect 
pests,  and  are  re- 
sponsible for  much 
trouble. 

Autumn  and 
spring  are  the  best 
times  for  planting — 
just  when  growth  is 
over  before  winter, 
or  just  before 
growth  begiivs  in 
npring.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  get  a 
good  cover  in  six 
or  seven  years,  and 
planting  must  be 
dense  enough  to 
effect  this.  Den- 
«il>l  of  planting  will 
depend  on  the 
species,  size  of 
plants,  and  on  the 
class  of  timber  or 
other  wood  it  is  desired  to  raise.  Three  to  four  feet 
for  Scots  pine,  4  ft.  to  4$  "ft.  for  larch,  and 
about  4  ft.  for  oak  may  be  taken  as  average 
distances  for  average  plants.  At  3  ft.  apart 
each  way,  4,840  plants  are  required  per  acre. 
The  cost  of  planting  varies  according  to  the 
number  of  plants  per  acre  and  the  method  of 
planting.  It  may  be  from  £3  to  £6  per  acre. 

Species  of  Trees.  Of  timber  trees  of 
cliK'f  importance  may  be  mentioned,  among 
'••••nl.Uai:f.d  species,  the  oak,  beech,  ash,  birch, 
hornbeam,  alder,  elm,  lime,  poplar,  and  among 
•••ttiifr-r*,  the  Scots  pine,  larch,  silver  fir,  Douglas 
lir,  Weyrnouth  pine,  and  Corsican  pine.  Of 
thwe,  the  most  important  are  oak,  larch,  beech, 
••ilver  fir,  Scots  pine,  and  spruce,  followed  by 
th"  ash.  birch,  and  alder.  At  this  juncture  we 
Uiall  discuss  briefly  the  chief  points  of  some  of 
these  trees. 

Oah.  For  our  present  purpose  two  species 
of  oak,  Qucrcus  pedunculata  and  Q.  sessiliflora, 
may  be  considered  together.  The  oak  is  a 
Mrong  light  demander,  and  withstands  storms 

4678 


5.    WINDFALLS    IN    A    SPRUCE    WOOD 


belter  than  almost  any  other  tree.  It  may  live 
to  a  great  age,  grows  fairly  rapidly  in  youth, 
requires  a  fertile,  deep  soil  (being  decidedly 
exacting  in  this  respect),  and  occurs  both  in  pure 
and  mixed  woods.  It  is  perhaps  seen  at  its  best 
when  grown  in  mixed  woods  with  beech,  which 
may  most  advantageously  be  introduced  as  the 
oak  begins  to  thin  out.  As  it  reproduces  with  ease 
by  coppice  shoots  it  is  admirably  suited  for  the 
simple  coppice  system  and  for  coppice  with 
standards,  while  with  high  forest  systems  it  does 
exceedingly  well.  When  grgwn  for  bark  for 
tanning  purposes,  the  coppice  with  standards 
system  is  usual.  [For  qualities  and  uses  of  the 
various  timbers  see  MATERIALS  AND  STRUC- 
TURES, page  51.] 

Scots  Pine.  Scots  pine  (Pinus  sylvestri*)  is 
one  of  the  most  important  of  coniferous  trees, 
large  quantities  of  the  timber  being  imported 
into  this  country  as  red  Baltic  pine  or  Baltic 
red-wood.  It  is  hardy,  storm-firm,  withstands 
frost  and  drought  well,  and  prefers  a  deep, 
porous  soil,  but  is  very  adaptable  in  this  re- 
spect, a  moderate 
sandy  soil  suit- 
ing it  excellently. 
Like  the  oak,  it 
is  strongly  light- 
demanding,  and 
it  grows  quickly 
all  through  life 
until  mature,  at- 
taining upwards 
of  100  ft.  in 
height.  Although 
extensively  form- 
ing pure  woods, 
it  is  suited  to 
form  mixed  woods 
with  beech  and 
silver  fir,  and  is 
adapted  for 
growth  under  most 
sylvicultural  con- 
ditions. 


Beech.  Beech  (Fagus  sylvaticd)  is  one  of  the 
first  of  shade-bearing  or  tolerant  trees,  and  is 
eminently  suitable  for  growing  in  pure  high 
forest,  though  excellent  for  mixed  woods,  while 
for  underplanting  pure  high  forest  of  oak.  ash, 
etc.,  it  stands  unrivalled.  In  mixed  woods 
it  is  the  chief  species,  and  Scots  pine,  oak,  ash, 
larch  are  at  their  best  when  mixed  with  beech. 
It  needs  open,  good  soil,  grows  slowly  at  first, 
but  faster  after  about  30  years  of  age,  is  some- 
what damaged  by  late  frosts  when  young,  and 
its  volume  growth  exceeds  that  of  any  native 
broad-leaved  species. 

Ash.  Ash  (Fraxinus  excelsior)  is  a  useful 
timber  tree,  being  next  to  the  oak  in  its  light 
requirements,  but  it  is  especially  liable  to  fork 
or  divide  its  stem.  Ash  coppices  well,  and 
takes  a  firm  hold  of  the  soil,  which  requires  to 
be  moist  and  porous,  but  it  is  apt  to  suffer  from 
late  frosts  and  drought.  It  is  most  suitable  for 
admixture  with  beech,  and  occurs  in  high  forest; 
it  reaches  maturity  about  the  seventieth  year, 
and  ought  to  l>e  felled  shortly  thereafter. 


Larch.  Well-grown  larch  (Larix  Europaea) 
yields  a  very  durable  timber,  which  is  perhaps 
more  valuable  than  any  coniferous  timber  in 
Great  Britain.  It  demands  light  more  than 
any  other  British  timber  tree,  is  very  storm- 
firm,  a  quick  grower,  requires  a  moderately  deep 
porous  soil,  and  is  very  hardy  as  regards  cold. 
It  may  often  be  underplanted  with  beech  or  silver 
fir  when  about  30  years  old,  but  is  quite  unsuited 
to  pure  forest.  It  is  grown  in  high  forest,  and 
can  be  employed  as  a  shelter  wood  for  tender 
species — such  as  beech.  Especially  within  recent 
years  larch  has  suffered  severely  from  the  attacks 
of  a  fungus,  to  be  described  later. 

Spruce.  The  striking  conifer  spruce  (Picea 
excelsa),  with  its 
long  leading  shoot 
and  conical  shape, 
is  a  tree  of  the 
mountains.  Like 
the  beech  and  sil- 
ver fir,  it  is  able 
to  endure  shade. 
Spruce  is  hardy, 
but  requires  a 
moist  locality  r  it 
is  riot  found  in 
dry  soils,  but  a 
deep  soil  is  un- 
necessary. The 
spruce  is  easily 
uprooted  by  gales 
[5J.  When  grown 
in  well  -  stocked 
woods,  it  forms  a 
first-class  timber, 
which  is  soft  and 
light,  being  known 
in  the  trade  as 
Baltic  white  pine, 
•Scots  pine  being 
the  Baltic  red- 
wood. Being  one 
of  the  chief  shade- 
bearing  species,  it 
is  well  suited  for 
pure  woods  in  high 
forest,  but  is  not 
so  useful  for  under- 
planting  as  beech. 

Silver  Fir. 
Silver  fir  (Abies 
pectinata)  may  be 
termed  the  chief 
shade-bearer  among  our  coniferous  trees.  It 
is  liable  to  suffer  from  frost  in  youth  ;  grows 
but  slowly  in  early  life,  later  on,  however, 
forging  ahead  very  rapidly,  its  volume  incre- 
ment being  second  to  none  of  our  common 
forest  trees  ;  and  it  is  at  its  best  on  a  deep, 
somewhat  firm  and  moist  soil.  Like  the  spruce 
and  beech,  the  silver  fir  is  peculiarly  a  pure 
forest  type  of  tree,  maintaining  a  close  cover 
until  late  in  life,  although  frequently  occurring 
in  mixed  woods.  With  beech  silvei*fir  forms 
an  excellent  stock.  It  may  be  usefully  employed 
for  underplanting  Scots  pine  or  oak,  when  it  is 
best  introduced  as  these  are  about  to  thin  out. 


US 


MATURE    BEECH    WOOD   IN   NORMANDY   ORIGINATED   BY 
NATURAL   REGENERATION 


APPLIED     BOTANY 

Douglas  Fir.  Douglas  fir  (Pseudotsuya 
Douglasii)  is  a  recently  introduced  species 
from  the  North  American  continent,  where  it 
is  known  as  the  red  fir.  Owing  to  the  •  fact 
that  it  grows  rapidly,  attains  a  great  size  and 
forms  a  first-rate  timber,  it  is  likely  to  prove  a 
very  valuable  introduction  to  this  country.  It 
is  fairly  hardy,  but  when  exposed  to  the  pre- 
vailing wind  is  apt  to  lose  its  leading  shoot. 
It  can  be  grown  in  pure  woods. 

Sylvicultural  Systems.  Under  the 
systems  of  sylviculture  we  shall  consider  both 
natural  and  artificial  regeneration,  the  first  being 
undertaken  by  Nature,  and  the  second  by  man's 
interference  and  direction.  The  choice  of  the 
system  to  be  fol- 
lowed depends  on 
locality,  species, 
economic  grounds, 
and  a  variety  of 
conditions.  The 
systems  which 
generally  prevail  are 
(1)  Clear -cut  ting  in 
High  Forest,  ( 2) 
Regeneration  under 
a  Shelter  -  wood, 
(3)  Regeneration  by 
Coppice,  and  (4) 
High  Forest  with 
Standards. 

Under  the  system 
of  Clear-Cutting  in 
High  Forest  an 
area  is  directly 
sown,  or  planted, 
or  sown  naturally 
with  seed  from  an 
adjacent  wood,  the 
crop  completely  cut 
when  mature,  and 
the  area  resown 
or  replanted.  The 
produce  is  usually 
of  a  good  class, 
the  most  unfavour- 
able point  being 
that  an  interval 
occurs  when  the 
ground  is  bare. 
Regeneration  under 
a  shelter-wood  may 
be  carried  out  in 
one  of  several  ways, 
(a)  In  one  case,  the  existing  wood  is  thinned, 
and  a  new  crop  allowed  to  come  up  naturally 
from  seed  under  shelter  of  the  parent  trees  ;  or 
regeneration  is  effected  artificially  by  direct 
sowing  or  planting  under  the  old  trees,  which 
are  cut  over  when  the  new  crop  is  established 
[6  and  7].  (b)  In  a  modification  of  (a)  the 
wood  is  treated  in  groups,  instead  of  in  its 
entirety,  (c)  Another  modification  is  one  in 
which  trees,  or  groups  of  trees,  or  definitely 
arranged  blocks,  are  selected  for  cutting  and  re- 
generating in  turn,  so  that  there  is  always  some, 
part  under  treatment.  The  shelter-wood  is 
suitable  for  shade- bear  ing  species. 

4079 


APPLIED     BOTANY 

Regeneration  by  Coppice.  In  the  case 
of  broad-leaved  species.  Regeneration  by  Coppice  ia 
M-eqiH  inly  effected  by  shoots  which  spring 
from  the  stem,  roots,  or  stool,  ordinary  coppice 
being  that  resulting  from  stools  of  trees  which  have 
cut  over  close  to  the  ground.  Growth  is 
tapid  under  this  natural  system  of  regeneration, 
;ind  cutting  takes  place  at  from  one  to  two  years 
with  osiers,  at  20  years  or  more  for  oak  (grown 
largely  for  bark),  or  over  30  years  in  the  case  of 
the  alder.  A  combination  of  this  system  with 
high  forests  results  in  Coppice  with  Standards, 
in  which  some  of  the  best  trees  are  left  and  allow  ed 
to  reach  maturity  as  in  high  forest,  the  simple 
coppice  forming  an  underwrood. 

In  the  High  Forest  with  Standards  system 
a  few  of  the  best  trees  are  left  at  the  time  of 
flitting  over  high  forest  that  they  may  mature 
more  fully,  and  in  the  following  crop  they 
exist  as  standards.  Under  certain  conditions, 
especially  with 
light  -  demanding 
species,  woods  be- 
gin to  thin  out  at 
a  certain  age,  when 
a  second  crop  may 
be  introduced  to 
protect  the  soil. 
In  such  a  case 
there  will  be  two 
high  forest  woods  of 
different  age  classes 
growing  together. 
This  is  termed  Two- 
storeyed  High 
Forest.  This  again 
may  vary  in  such  a 
way  that  the  intro- 
duced crop  takes 
the  form  of  a  scrub 
or  coppice,  when 
the  system  is  High 
Forest  with  Soil 
Protection  Wood. 

Natural  regenera- 
tion is  cheaper  than 
tin-  artificial 
method.  When  a 
wood  or  forest  is 
1<>  be  established 
on  new  ground,  this  is  best  done  by  planting  the 
area  with  young  plants  raised  in  a  nursery. 

Forest  Management.  Coarse,  'knotty 
timber  is  largely  due  to  unrestricted  develop- 
ment of  side  branches,  due  in  its  turn  to  absence 
of  competition  between  individual  trees.  That 
is,  instead  of  close  planting  (the  correct  pro- 
<-edure,  which  yields  fine,  clean  timber,  the  ]»<>]. -s 
l>eing  long,  straight,  and  of  good  shape),  the 
have  been  planted,  or  allowed  to  grow  too 
wid.-lv  apart.  From  the  time  an  area  is  planted, 
a  'lose  canopy  should  be  kept,  but  all  dead, 
suppressed,  diseased,  and  dying  individuals 
should  be  thinned  or  weeded  out.  Sufficient 
space  must  be  allowed  for  right  development, 
1  "iHistent  with  maintaining  good  cover  for  the 
soil.  L'udcr  such  clo.-e  canopy,  self-pruning 


SHELTER   WOOD 


takes    place    owing    to    pressure    of    individual 
trees  on  ore  another,  the  lower  branches  dying 
off  as  the  crowns  press  upwards  to  the  light. 
How   Trees    Suppress   Each    Other. 

Thinning  also  takes  place  naturally  in  this  way, 
the  more  vigorous  members  suppressing  their 
weaker  neighbours.  In  thinning  it  is  usual  to 
remove  the  very  worst  trees,  such  as  dead, 
dying,  and  diseased  ones,  together  with  the 
smaller  and  weaker  individuals.  All  the  best 
arc  left  to  attain  maturity,  or  at  least  as  man}- 
as  may  safely  be  left.  Close  growth  means  slmv 
growth — that  is,  good  quality  timber. 

Dead  wood  in  a  forest  may  be  taken  as  a 
healthy  indication,  provided  the  trees  are  not 
found  dying  in  patches  throughout  the  wrood. 

A  newer  method  of  thinning  departs  from  the 
ordinary  principles  in  two  ways :  (1)  it  does  not 
countenance  the  removal  of  weak  and  partially 
suppressed  trees  ;  (2)  it  is  not  afraid  to  attack 
the  dominant  class. 
or  even  to  interrupt 
the  canopy  tem- 
porarily for  the 
removal  of  objec- 
tionable trees,  the 
idea  being  to  benefit 
the  remainder.  By 
this  method  sound 
and  vigorous  trees 
are  in  some  cases 
removed ;  the  re- 
maining trees  are 
encouraged  to  in- 
creased production, 
while  more  timber 
is  obtained  from 
the  increasingly 
severe  cuttings  than 
is  general  from  the 
usual  process  of 
thinning.  No  more 
wood  should  be  re- 
moved from  a  forest 
in  a  given  time  than 
it  is  able  to  produce 
in  that  time. 

Felling.  The 
final  felling  of  the 
mature  crop  should 
preferably  take  place  when  snow  is  on  the 
ground,  and  timber  is  best  removed  in  frosty 
weather,  when  the  ground  is  hard. 

In  the  case  of  natural  regeneration  by  seed, 
the  later  thinnings  may  take  the  form  of  fellings, 
the  object  of  the  first  felling  being  to  prepare 
the  seed-bed  where  there  is  too  much  humus, 
to  strengthen  the  trees  and  give  light  for  the 
production  of  seed  ;  a  later  felling — termed  the 
seed  felling— by  which  trees  not  required  for 
seed  or  shelter  are  removed ;  and,  lastly,  the 
felling  of  the  remaining  trees  when  they  have 
done  their  duty  in  seeding  the  area.  Final 
felling  of  timber  usually  does  not  take  place  until 
the  trees  bave  a  fresh  crop  established  under  them. 
Figs.  2—7  are  taken  from  Dr.  Schlich's  "  Manual 
of  Forestry  "  (Bradbury  Agnew  &  Co.,  Ltd.). 


BEECH    UNDER   A 


Continued 


HOW  TO  FEED  &  CLOTHE  CHILDREN 

Infant  Feeding.     The  Importance  of  Pure  Milk.     Hygienic 
Underwear.      A    Child's    Bath.      Exercise.      The    Nursery 


Group  25 

HEALTH 
15 


Continued  from 
page  45VO 


By  Dr.  A.  T.  SCHOFIELD 


IN  all  ranks  of  life  the  young  mother  approaches 
her  double  task  in  a  state  of  pitiable  ignor- 
ance, and,  unless  she  is  gifted  with  more  than  the 
average  common-sense,  the  result  is  more  or  less 
lamentable.  The  young  life  is  either  sacrificed 
outright,  or  the  child  is  stunted,  ill-developed, 
and  bears  all  through  its  life  the  painful  result 
of  the  maternal  ignorance. 

The  Making  of  a  Healthy  Child. 
Birth  is  really  the  second  stage  of  the  child's 
existence,  and  for  many  reasons  it  is  important 
to  recognise  this  fact.  The  first  stage  of  life  is, 
however,  to  a  large  extent  a  passive  one.  The 
child's  wants  are  at  this  period  so  perfectly  met 
in  every  way  by  the  mother  that  the  whole 
complicated  machinery  of  the  body  is  idle.  It 
neither  breathes,  digests,  nor  thinks.  The  most 
important  condition  which  at  this  period  deter- 
mines the  child's  health  and  growth  is  the 
health  of  its  mother.  No  woman  should  risk 
becoming  a  mother  unless  in  good  health  during 
the  time. 

The  conditions  mentioned  being  favourable, 
and  the  parents  of  average  size,  the  baby  will 
measure  from  20  to  21  in.  long,  and  will  weigh 
nearly  7  Ib.  (a  weight  now  frequently  exceeded), 
part  of  which  weight  will  soon  be  lost,  but  made 
up  again  by  the  end  of  the  first  week. 

A  baby  requires  little  food  at  first,  no  butter 
or  sugar,  and  no  laxative.  It  should  in  every 
case  be  put  to  the  mother's  breast  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  nursed,  at  any  rate  for  the  first 
three  months,  even  if  it  be  impossible  to  nurse 
it  longer. 

The  Composition  of  Milk.  The  question 
of  infante'  food  is  so  all-important  to  the  race  that 
it  will  be  well  to  go  into  the  matter  in  some  detail. 
Milk  is  a  fluid  consisting  of  two  sorts  of  cells 
(fat  cells  and  living  white  corpuscles  suspended 
in  serum)  ;  or  it  may  be  regarded  as  water  in 
which  is  dissolved  milk-sugar,  serum,  albumen, 
and  casein.  Some  of  the  cells  are  believed  to 
retain  their  vitality  in  the  milk  if  it  is  not  boiled. 
Milk  kept  for  a  time  tends  to  separate  into  serum 
and  solids,  just  as  blood  clots  when  drawn  out  of 
the  body.  The  boiling  of  milk  coagulates  the 
serum  albumen  (as  a  skin),  but  not  the  casein  or 
curd.  Milk  is  not  merely  a  secretion  from  the 
cells  of  the  mother,  but  consists  partly  of  the 
cells  themselves,  which  are  an  actual  part  of  her, 
and  has  thus  been  supposed  by  some  to  have  a 
vital  influence  on  the  child.  Mother's  milk  con- 
tains also  any  drugs,  or  alcohol,  or  other  special 
fluids  that  may  be  circulating  in  the  mother's 
blood  ;  and  Professor  Kanthanck  has  pointed  out 
that  if  the  mother  be  immune  from  any  infectious 
disease  owing  to  an  antitoxin,  her  milk  will 
render  the  baby  immune  from  the  same  disease, 
a  virtue  that  disappears  if  the  milk  be  boiled. 


The  importance  of  breast-feeding  is  unques- 
tioned ;  500  infants  in  1,000  are  known  to  die  in 
some  localities  where  the  child  is  never  nursed, 
and  impure  cows'  milk  is  given.  The  lowest 
infant  death-rate  is  in  Sweden  and  Norway 
(10  per  cent.),  where  they  are  always  breast  fed  ; 
but  in  England  it  is  42  per  cent.  In  the  Siege 
of  Paris  the  infant  mortality,  instead  of  being 
increased,  was  reduced  4  per  cent,  by  compulsory 
breast-feeding. 

How  to  Treat  Milk.  Where  the  child  is 
not  nursed,  diluted  cows'  milk  is  given,  or  the 
mother's  milk  and  cows'  milk  can  both  be  used. 

Humanised  milk  is  cows'  milk  made  to  re- 
semble mothers'  milk.  This  is  done  in  various 
ways.  The  following  are  two  good  recipes : 

Sterilised  cows'  milk,  eight  tablespoonfuls  ;  cream, 
two  teaspoonfuls  ;  sugar  of  milk,  half  a  teaspoonful  ; 
boiled  water,  two  tablespoonfuls. 

Sterilised  cows'  milk,  eight  tablespoonfuls  ;  cream, 
six  tablespoonfuls ;  water,  twenty  tablespoonfuls  ; 
sugar  of  milk,  six  teaspoonfuls  ;  lime-water,  two 
tablespoonfuls. 

Humanised  milk  can  now  be  bought  sterilised 
and  ready  for  use  in  sealed  feeding  bottles  that 
only  require  fitting  with  a  teat  to  be  taken 
directly  by  the  infant. 

When  humanised  milk  is  not  given,  pas- 
teurised (sterilised)  milk  should  be  used.  The  old 
idea  was  to  boil  the  milk.  This  was  necessitated 
by  the  facility  with  which  the  milk  receives 
and  multiplies  bacteria.  Sterilised  milk  is 
superior  to  boiled  milk  in  several  ways  : 

(1)  Because  the  process  can  be  conducted  in 
the  very  bottle  from  which  the  baby  drinks. 

(2)  Because  the  bottles  of  milk  are  heated  in 
a  water  bath,  and  only  raised  to  180°  because 
the  boiling  point  of  milk  is  so  much  higher  than 
water  ;  whereas  if  boiled  it  is  raised,  of  course, 
to  212°  or  more. 

(3)  The  curd  is  not  hardened,   but  disinte- 
grated and  flocculent  when  it  reaches  the  stomach. 

(4)  No  skin  (albumen)  forms  on  the  surface, 
and   therefore   this   valuable   ingredient   is   re- 
tained in  the  milk. 

(5)  All  germs  are  destroyed  as  at  212°. 
Mistakes  About  Milk.     The  sterilisation 

of  milk  has  now  reached  such  a  pitch,  and  is  so 
universal,  that,  curious  to  say,  it  has  almost 
become  a  danger. 

As  knowledge  spreads  among  mothers,  milk  is 
increasingly  boiled  at  home  before  use.  If  it  be 
sterilised  unknown  to  the  consumer  before  it 
arrives,  and  then  boiled  by  the  purchaser  the 
result  is  an  impoverished  food,  and  anaemia  and 
scurvy  not  infrequently  follow. 

Condensed  milk  may  be  another  and  much 
more  serious  evil.  First  the  quality  varies  so 
much.  In  the  Milkmaid  and  other  good  brands, 
the  fat  vill  average  11  5  per  cent.  ;  in  common 

4681 


HEALTH 

brands  2  per  cent.  On  the  cover  of  the  tin  of 
the  cheaper  brands,  in  small  letters,  the  word 
"  separated "  is  found,  signifying  that  what  is 
condensed  is  "  separated  "  milk  worth  £d.  or  Id. 
per  quart,  from  which  every  particle  of  fat  or 
cream  has  been  removed,  and  on  which  the  child 
can  only  starve.  This  word  is  often  overlooked. 
and  the  parent  wonders  why  the  child  pines. 

Another  evil  is  that  the  right  strength  is  not 
given.  Good  condensed  milk  should  be  added 
to  the  water  in  this  proportion :  Before  one 
month,  ^5  ;  from  one  month  to  five  months, 

'°A  third  mistake  is  that  due  distinction  is  not 
made  between  condensed  milk  with  and  without 
added  sugar.  It  is  best  without,  but  then 
it  will  only  keep  good  for  a  day  or  two  when  the 
tin  is  opened,  whereas  with  30  per  cent,  of  added 
sugar,  which  does  not  agree  with  the  child, 
and  tends  to  produce  all  sorts  of  skin  eruptions, 
it  does  not -go  bad. 

It  is  said  that  100,000  infants  die  needlessly 
every  year.  Picture  this  enormous  waste  of 
human  life,  and  then  let  us  remember  that  it  is 
principally  (four-fifths)  due  to  improper  food. 

Not  until  a  child  is  six  months  old  can  it  live 
on  vegetable  food  ;  till  then  it  is  an  animal 
feeder,  and  consumes,  in  proportion  to  its  weight, 
twice  as  much  animal  food  as  a  man,  averaging 
daily  30  grains  per  pound  weight  as  compared 
with  15  grains  per  pound  in  an  adult. 

Infant  Nursing.  In  nursing  a  child  the 
mother  should  lead  a  healthy,  regular  life,  with 
plenty  of  nourishing  food.  Stimulants  are  not 
required,  and  it  is  important  to  remember  this, 
as  the  habit  of  giving  young  mothers  stout  and 
strong  beer,  to  say  nothing  of  spirits,  lays  riot 
only  a  disastrous  foundation  for  the  subsequent 
married  life,  but  for  the  baby's  constitution  as 
well.  The  best  milk  maker  is  milk ;  the  next 
best,  perhaps,  is  cocoa.  Nothing  that  tastes  very 
strongly,  such  as  onions,  should  be  eaten,  and  all 
rich  food  should  be  avoided. 

With  regard  to  the  times  of  feeding  the  child, 
it  should,  in  the  first  place,  be  fed  regularly, 
and  not  always  when  it  cries.  This  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  both  parent  and  child. 
For  the  first  three  months  every  two  hours 
in  the  daytime,  and  every  four  at  night,  is 
quite  enough  ;  and  after  then,  if  the  child  be 
strong  and  well,  every  three  hours  hi  the  day 
and  every  six  hours  at  night. 

The  amount  of  milk  that  is  yielded  by  a  good 
nurse  is  about  four  tablespoonfuls  in  each  breast 
every  two  hours.  At  first  a  child  exhausts  one 
breast  only,  later  on,  both.  A  child  should,  as  a 
rule,  be  allowed  to  suck  until  it  shows  it  has  had 
enough.  A  child  would  then,  if  under  three 
months,  drink  about  a  pint  a  day,  and  about  a 
pint  and  a  half  over  this  age. 

When  a  child  has  sucked,  its  mouth  should 
;i  I \\iivs  l>c  washed  to  prevent  the  formation 
«»t  thrush,  a  small  white  fungus  that  grows 
about  the  tongue  and  sides  of  the  mouth.  The 
nipph-s  should  also  be  well  washed,  and  can 
!><•  hardened,  if  needed,  by  sponging  with 
brandy.  Of  course,  nursing  is  a  great  tie  to  a 
mother,  who  must  be  in  at  the  regular  hours  if 

4682 


she  would  do  justice  to  her  child  ;  for  if  the  food 
be  given  at  too  long  intervals,  the  child  takes  it 
too  quickly,  and  all  sorts  of  dangerous  stomach 
disturbances  are  caused. 

Occasionally,  through  worry  or  overwork, 
mother's  milk" is  too  poor  ;  it  may  become  scanty 
and  insufficient,  or  some  sudden  shock  or  other 
cause  may  stop  it  altogether.  In  these  cases 
it  is  better  partly  to  suckle  a  child  than  not  at 
all.  There  is  absolutely  no  foundation  for  the 
popular  idea  that  it  is  wrong  to  give  cows'  milk 
and  the  mother's  milk  together.  If  the  milk 
be  scanty,  a  better  plan  than  giving  the  breast 
in  the  day  and  the  bottle  at  night  is  to  give  them 
alternately. 

Feeding  Bottles.  Setting  aside  wet-nurses 
as  being  too  difficult  to  obtain  readily  wrhen 
wanted,  the  question  is,  if  the  natural  supply 
fails,  how  should  the  infant  be  fed  ?  In  the 
first  place,  the  bottle  itself  should  always  be 
kept  perfectly  clean.  A  boat-shaped  bottle,  with 
a  calf  s  teat,  is  easily  kept  clean,  but  until  lately 
it  has  been  completely  driven  out  of  the  field 
by  other  shapes.  The  bottle  with  the  long 
indiarubber  tube  can  be  placed  in  almost 
any  position  without  being  upset,  and  hence 
is  so  popular  because  the  mother  can  leave  the 
child  to  suck  by  itself.  This  is  not  a  good 
plan,  for  not  only  are  the  bottle  and  tube  always 
dirty,  but  too  often  it  leads  to  the  child 
gulping  down  quantities  of  air  through  sucking 
at  the  bottle  when  empty.  The  best  course 
is  to  use  the  bottle  (fitted  with  a  teat)  in  which 
the  milk  has  been  sterilised.  The  milk,  not  neces- 
sarily obtained  from  the  same  cow,  should  be 
perfectly  fresh  and  sweet.  It  should  not  be 
kept  in  the  bed-room,  and  the  jug  or  bottle 
should  be  scalded  and  made  perfectly  clean. 
The  least  dirt  or  drop  of  sour  milk  wrill  soon 
turn  a  whole  quart.  The  milk  should  be 
sterilised  by  the  bottle  being  placed  in  a  saucepan 
of  water  until  the  water  boils.  The  proportion 
of  boiled  water  added  should  be  one-half,  and 
if  the  milk  be  rich,  a  little  more  at  first ;  a 
small  quantity  of  white  (preferably  milk)  sugar 
may  be  added.  The  bottle  should  be  given  at 
blood-heat. 

How  Milk  Should  be  Warmed.  It 
is  very  dangerous  to  keep  the  milk  warm  all 
night  by  a  small  light,  as,  in  this  case,  it 
constantly  turns  sour.  It  should  be  kept  quite 
cold,  and  warmed  only  when  needed.  Nothing 
whatever  in  the  way  of  food  but  milk-and-water 
should  be  given  to  a  healthy  child.  After  the 
first  three  months  only  one-third  of  water  is 
needed  to  two -thirds  of  milk.  Should  the  milk 
disagree  with  the  child,  and  heavy  curds  be 
brought  up,  then  a  little  lime-water  may  be 
added,  which  may  be  increased,  if  necessary, 
until  nothing  but  lime-water  (which  is  quite 
harmless)  instead  of  water  is  added.  Sometimes, 
when  the  znilk  is  "on  the  turn,"  a  pinch  of  bi- 
carbonate of  soda  will  put  it  right,  but  it  is  better 
not  to  use  it,  If  it  be  still  found  to  be  too  heavy, 
as  is  shown  by  curds  being  brought  up  or  passed, 
some  change  must  be  made.  Condensed  milk  is 
lighter  than  cows'  milk,  but  generally  contains 
such  a  quantity  of  sugar  that  it  often  produces 


skin  eruptions,  and  makes  the  child  fat  rather 
than  strong,  although  with  some  it  agrees 
fairly  well.  Barley-water  (two  teaspoonfuls  of 
pearl  barley  to  a  pint  of  water,  simmered 
slowly  to  three-quarters  of  a  pint,  and  strained) 
and  cream  is  very  light.  The  humanised  milk 
prepared  by  the  great  London  dairies  is  highly 
to  be  recommended,  and  will  nearly  always 
agree  with  the  baby. 

Prepared  Foods.  If  the  child  still  appears 
starved  and  hungry,  and  needs  something  more, 
there  are  some  digested  foods,  prepared  by  Allen  & 
Hanbury,  Mellin,  and  others,  which  can  be  safely 
tried.  Ridge's  Food,  biscuits  of  any  sort,  and 
other  milk  foods,  must  not  be  given  till  after  the 
child  is  nearly  six  months  old,  since  before  that 
age  it  is  absolutely  incapable  of  digesting  any 
sort  of  flour. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  feed  the  baby  too 
frequently.  After  the  first  six  months  the 
child  will  go  at  night,  from  eleven  to  five, 
without  food. 

If  possible,  a  child  should  not  be  weaned  in 
summer,  but  about  the  sixth  month  the  amount 
of  nursing  should  be  decreased.  After  the  first 
teeth  are  well  through,  about  the  seventh  or 
eighth  month,  the  child  may  be  weaned.  It  is 
a  great  mistake  for  mothers,  for  any  reason,  to 
continue  suckling  as  long  as  fifteen  months. 

After  the  sixth  month  the  child  can  take 
Ridge's  Food  and  plain  flour  foods,  rusk,  and 
biscuit.  Rusks  and  tops-and-bottoms  are  very 
good  at  first,  but  bread  should  not  be  given 
until  the  child  is  well  accustomed  to  the  finer 
food.  At  eight  or  nine  months  the  child  can 
begin  to  take  a  little  broth  or  beef-tea.  Milk 
should  always  be  the  child's  mainstay  for  the 
first  few  years  of  its  life.  Sugar  is  good  for 
children  with  their  meals,  and  after  one  year 
a  little  meat  may  be  given  once  a  day.  Oatmeal 
is  very  fattening,  although  rather  heating. 
The  diet  should  be  light  and  nourishing.  Light- 
boiled  eggs  are  very  suitable,  and  there  is  no ' 
objection  to  a  little  ripe  fruit. 

A  Child's  Menu.  The  great  danger  a 
careful  mother  is  apt  to  fall  into  when  her  child 
is  between  six  months  and  two  years  old  is 
giving  it  too  much  farinaceous  and  too  little 
animal  food.  We  are  apt  to  think  flour  foods 
can  take  the  place  of  milk  ;  but,  though  they 
present  somewhat  the  same  appearance,  they  are 
in  reality  very  different  from  it.  Milk  is  truly 
animal  food,  and  contains  plenty  of  material 
for  building  up  the  child's  body.  Now,  a  child 
requires,  seeing  it  is  growing  rapidly,  far  more 
animal  food  in  proportion  to  its  size  than  a  man, 
and  this  is  most  conveniently  given  in  the  form 
of  milk.  Any  vegetarians  who  read  this  must 
clearly  understand  that  if  they  had  excluded 
animal  food  from  birth  they  would  not  be  alive 
to-day,  for  we  are  all  born  animal  feeders.  At 
eight  or  nine  months  a  baby  may  have  a  little 
beef-tea  and,  at  fifteen  months,  a  little  under- 
done meat  scraped  into  fine  pulp  and  moistened 
with  beef-tea  or  plain  gravy. 

A  suitable  dietary  for  a  child  of  two  years  old 
is  a  breakfast  of  bread-and-milk,  porridge-and- 
uiilk,  or  ar  egg  ;  a  dinner  of  meat, "  fish,  or 


HEALTH 

chicken,  with  a  little  mashed  potato  and  a 
light  milk  or  egg  pudding  ;  a  tea  of  bread-and- 
butter  and  milk,  with  a  little  treacle  ;  and  for 
supper,  bread-and-milk.  The  child  should  con- 
tinue to  take  at  least  H  pints  of  milk  in  the  day. 

Children's  Clothing.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  there  is  room  for  a  greater  reform  in  infant 
clothing.  As  much  as  is  possible  of  a  baby's 
clothing  should  be  of  flannel  of  a  fine  and  non- 
irritating  quality.  An  elastic  woollen  binder 
round  the  body  is  very  useful  during  the  first 
few  months.  This  binder  used  to  be  sewn  round 
the  baby's  body  very  tightly,  and  was  made  of 
rigid  and  unyielding  cotton  cloth.  One  result 
was  that  babies  continually  suffered  from  jaun- 
dice, and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  when  the 
body  is  so  soft  a  very  tight  binder  must 
seriously  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  liver. 
The  ideal  binder  should  be  made  of  some  webbing 
which  will  give  a  little.  Beyond  this,  the  child 
needs  nothing  indoors  but  the  cambric,  or  fine 
linen  shirt,  the  flannel  gown,  and,  if  needed,  a 
warm  shawl. 

Napkins  should  only  be  worn  when  the  child 
is  being  carried  about,  at  other  times  its  legs 
should  be  quite  free  ;  no  waterproof  should  be 
worn  over  them.  For  out-of-doors  an  extra  soft 
woollen  gown,  and  on  the  head  a  soft  light 
woollen  hood.  The  child's  face  should  always 
be  uncovered,  and  no  thick  veil  or  handkerchief 
ever  allowed.  All  clothes  should  be  made  to 
open  in  the  front. 

At  night  the  child  should  be  all  in  flannel.  A 
baby  should  wear  soft  woollen  socks;  no  stiff 
boots  or  shoes  should  be  allowed,  excepting 
when  absolutely  needed  out-of-doors. 

At  the  age  of  four  months  the  child's  clothes 
should  be  shorter  ;  but  even  before  they  should 
never  be  of  the  absurd  fashionable  length. 
The  change,  however,  should  not  be  made  in 
wintry  weather.  The  short  clothes  should  also 
be  of  flannel,  the  sleeves  loose  and  long,  the 
neck  high — not  tight.  The  legs  should  now  be 
protected  with  woollen  gaiters,  and  no  infant 
should  bs  allowed  to  go  about  with  bare  legs 
and  arms. 

The  Nursery.  Infants  require  an  immense 
amount  of  light  and  air.  Fresh  air  and  sun- 
shine not  only  invigorate  and  promote  the 
growth  of  their  young  bodies,  but  they  also  kill 
and  destroy  all  germs  of  disease.  Light  is  a 
great  factor  in  forming  good  blood.  Infants 
cannot  thrive,  even  with  every  care,  in  a  dull  and 
sunless  room  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  do 
grow  wonderfully  when  they  have  plenty  of 
light  and  air,  though  they  may  be  often  grossly 
neglected  in  other  ways.  The  nursery  should 
always  be  the  brightest  room  in  the  house.  It 
should  be  on  the  first  floor,  or  higher,  and  should 
be  sunny  ;  it  should  have  a  fireplace  and  plenty 
of  access  for  fresh  air  at  night.  The  room  should 
be  as  bare  as  possible,  and  scrupulously  clean. 

Young  infants  should  not  be  taken  out-of-doors 
during  the  first  month ;  and  when  it  is  for  the  first 
time,  a  fine  warm  day  should  be  chosen.  If  the 
temperature  out-of-doors  is  60°  F.,  the  baby  may 
begin  to  go  out  on  the  fifteenth  day.  Of  course, 
if  it  is  winter-time,  it  should  not  go  out  until  it  is 

4683 


HEALTH 

older.  Long  exercise  in  a  perambulator  soon 
chills  a  very  young  child  .  the  nurse's  arms  are 
far  better,  and  the  continual  exercise  for  the 
child  as  she  walks  about  is  very  good  for  it.  A 
child  should  be  carried  on  the  right  and  left  arm 
alternately. 

Older  children  should  be  kept  out-of-doors  as 
much  as  possible,  and,  well  wrapped  up,  they 
can  endure  most  weathers,  excepting  east  winds 
and  rain.  In  summer,  a  child  should  be  kept 
indoors  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  taken  out 
I  morning  and  evening.  The  temperature  of  the 
!  nursery  bed-room  should  never  fall  below  55°  F. 
1  in  winter,  or  be  above  65°  F.  in  summer.  The 
nursery  may  range  from  65°  F.  to  70°  F. 

With  regard  to  cleanliness,  the  first  step  is  at 
birth,  when  the  child's  eyes  should  be  carefully 
bathed.  If  this  be  not  systematically  done,  and 
any  poison  has  entered  during  birth,  the  eyes 
soon  swell  and  inflame,  and  a  child  often  goes 
blind  during  the  first  week  of  its  life.  For 
children  to  be  "born  blind"  is  the  rarest  of 
events,  but  for  them  to  be  blind  from  birth  is 
very  common,  and  nearly  always  is  due  to 
nothing  but  want  of  cleanliness 

Baths.  All  infants  should  be  bathed  at 
first  in  warm  water,  about  95°  F.,  gradually 
reduced  to  70°  F.  by  the  end  of  the  first  month. 
The  water  should  be  soft — rain  water  is  best — 
and  curd  soap  should  be  used ;  a  soft  flannel 
for  the  soap,  and,  when  it  can  be  procured,  a 
Turkey  sponge  for  the  water.  Very  little  soap 
should  be  used  to  a  baby's  skin,  as  it  destroys 
the  secretion  of  the  oil  glands  and  renders  the 
body  liable  to  cold.  The  baby  should  be  bathed 
before  his  breakfast,  and  it  is  most  important 
that  the  nursery  door  be  locked  during  the  first 
few  baths. 

After  the  first  fortnight  he  can  be  put  in  the 
bath  instead  of  being  washed  on  the  knee.  He 
should  not  remain  in  it  long,  and  be  quickly 
dried  with  a  warm,  soft  towel,  and  then  rubbed 
all  over  with  the  warm  hand,  and  dressed. 

Cold  baths  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  given  to 
infants  till  they  are  eighteen  months  old,  at  any 
rate.  The  best  way,  at  first,  is  to  put  the 
children  into  warm  baths,  and  finish  up  by  a 
sponging  with  cold  water.  As  they  get  used 
to  this,  they  can  stand  in  warm  water,  and  be 
sponged  more  freely  with  cold,  and  in  hot 
weather  the  bath  can  be  taken  quite  cold. 

The  child  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  cool 
before  the  morning  bath,  but  should  be  taken 
straight  to  its  bath  out  of  bed.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  thoroughly  to  dry  children  after  their 
bath,  or  sores  and  chaps  soon  appear  in  the  folds 
of  the  skin.  When  quite  dry,  the  part  liable  to 
friction  can  be  powdered.  It  is  important,  there- 
fore, that  all  the  little  folds  of  the  body— 
tetween  the  toes,  etc.— be  dried  carefully. 

Children  begin  to  walk  between  12  and  18 
months.  Heavy,  weak  children  should  be  kept 
off  their  legs  as  long  as  possible.  They  begin 
to  walk  about  the  second  year. 

Teething.  The  beginning  of  dribbling  is 
always  an  interesting  event  in  the  nursery,  being 
a  pretty  sure  forerunner  of  the  cut  ting  of  the  first 


tooth.  The  milk  teeth  are  20  in  number,  and 
the  first  that  should  arrive  are  the  two  middle 
ones  on  the  lower  jaw  ;  these  are  generally  cut 
about  the  seventh  month,  the  two  front  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw  about  the  ninth,  and  the  other 
two  front  teeth  of  the  same  jaw  just  afterwards. 
The  remaining  two  front  teeth  generally  come 
at  the  close  of  the  first  year ;  at  the  same  time 
the  first  four  double  teeth  appear,  so  this  is  a 
troublesome  period  in  child  history.  The  last 
four  double  teeth  appear  about  the  twenty- 
fourth  month. 

If  teeth  are  cut  out  of  their  proper  order,  it 
is  of  no  importance,  provided  they  are  not  too 
long  delayed  If  they  are  backward,  a  little 
phosphate  of  lime,  given  with  white  sugar,  will 
soon  bring  them  on. 

Ailments  of  Young  Children.  During 
teething,  children  are  specially  liable  to  con- 
vulsions, bronchitis,  diarrhoea,  and  general 
nervousness.  It  is  the  later  teeth  that  give 
the  most  trouble.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  give 
them  a  hard  substance  to  gnaw,  but  lancing 
the  gum  is  not  generally  required,  nor  is  it 
beneficial.  Easy  cutting  of  teeth  is  a  good 
indication  of  general  good  health. 

The  ailments  of  children  spring,  in  nine  cases 
out  of  ten,  from  the  stomach  and  from  errors  of 
diet.  Diarrhoea  is  a  common  trouble,  but  is  some- 
times also  an  epidemic  and  a  dangerous  disease  in 
itself.  It  should  never  be  allowed  to  continue,  and 
if  there  be  any  evidence  that  the  food  is  not 
being  digested,  an  appropriate  change  will  at 
once  cure  it.  Medical  advice  in  any  case  should 
be  sought  early.  Constipation  is  not  uncom- 
mon, but  should  never  be  relieved  with  strong 
drugs.  A  little  cold  water  is  an  excellent 
purgative  ;  combined  with  a  little  glycerine  it 
is  stronger.  A  little  oatmeal  water  when  young, 
or  a  little  porridge  when  older,  will  soon  cure 
constipation. 

Vaccination  is  best  carried  out  before  the 
teething  sets  in,  and  should  always  be  done 
thoroughly,  as  smallpox  is  very  fatal  in  infancy. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  lymph  is  obtained 
from  a  healthy  baby,  or  fresh  from  the  calf. 

How  a  Child  Should  Sleep.  A  child 
ought  not  to  sleep  alone  during  the  first  few 
months  of  its  life,  but  afterwards  it  should  always 
sleep  in  a  cot,  and  not  in  a  bed.  When  in  bed 
with  its  mother  its  face  should  invariably  be 
turned  away,,  for  fear  of  being  overlaid,  and  the 
face  should  never  be  covered.  During  the  first 
year  the  child  should  average  18  hours'  sleep,  and 
after  should  decrease  to  about  12  at  five  years 
of  age 

With  regard  to  indiarubber  "  comforters,"  a 
point  that  is  often  overlooked,  it  is  important 
to  know  that  it  does  far  more  than  spoil  the 
shape  of  a  baby's  lips.  It  has  been  recently 
pointed  out  that  the  prolonged  sucking  makes 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  painful  and  swollen, 
and  many  serious  alterations  in  the  mouth, 
nose,  pharynx,  and  ears,  are  the  direct  con- 
sequence of  breathing  through  the  mouth, 
brought  on  by  sucking  the  solid  rubber  teat 
known  as  the  "  comforter." 


Continued 


4684 


Group  29 

RAILWAY  SIGNALS  &  BRAKES 

TRANSIT 

Varieties  of  Signalling  Systems  and  their  Methods  of  Work- 

19 

ing.     Railway  Brakes.     Vacuum  and  Westinghouse  Systems 

continued  from 

page  4*>01 

By    H.    G.    ARCHER 


DRITISH  railways  are  worked  on  the  absolute 
block  system,  the  object  of  which  is  to  main- 
tain a  certain  interval  of  space  between  all 
trains,  instead  of  an  uncertain  interval  of  time 
as  formerly.  The  line  is  divided  into  sections, 
varying  in  length  from  a  few  chains  to  several 
miles,  according  to  the  volume  of  traffic.  A 
signal-box  is  placed  at  the  termination  of  each 
section,  and  provided  with  a  number  of  fixed 
signals  outside,  and  within  are  the  levers  that 
actuate  the  movements  of  the  latter,  together 
with  electric  bells,  block  telegraph  instruments, 
telephones,  etc.  The  principle  of  the  block 
system  is  that  two  trains  travelling  on  the  same 
set  of  rails  shall  never  be  in  the  same  section 
at  the  same  time,  though  this  rule  is  relaxed 
in  certain  circumstances  by  employing  what  is 
known  as  the  permissive  block  system,  which  is 
governed  by  stringent  conditions. 

Semaphores.      The  form  of  fixed  signal 

generally  adopted  is  the  semaphore,    , 

which  consists  of  a  timber  or  iron 
pole,  varying  in  dimensions  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  but  usually 
from  20  ft.  to  30  ft.  high,  with  an 
arm  about  5  ft.  long,  capable  of 
assuming  two  positions  when 
actuated  by  mechanical  force. 
When  this  arm  is  in  its  normal 
position — namely,  horizontal  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  post — it  sig- 
nifies "stop";  when  it  is  nearly 
vertical  it  indicates  "  go  on."  Of 
all  semaphore  signals  none  has  a 
less  equivocal  "go  on"  or  safety 
position  than  the  Great  Northern 
pattern  [16].  The  arm  being  cen- 
tre-pivoted does  not  fall,  but 
jumps  out  from  the  post,  and  turns 
a  somersault,  so  to  speak,  in  assuming  a  position 
quite  parallel  with  the  latter.  The  face  of  every 
semaphore  signal  is  painted  red,  with  a  white 
band,  spot  or  stripe  ;  while  the  back  is  painted 
white,  with  a  black  band,  spot  or  stripe. 

Selection  of  Position  of  Signals. 
All  semaphore  signals  are  placed  in  such  a  way 
that  on  approaching  them  the  arm  appears 
on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  post,  and,  except 
where  the  line  curves  sharply,  the  signal  posts 
are  kept  as  far  as  possible  on  the  left-hand  side 
of  the  track,  in  the  direction  in  which  the  trains 
travel.  When  two  or  more  posts  are  clustered 
together,  controlling  several  lines  of  way,  the 
signal  on  the  extreme  left  refers  to  the  track 
on  the  extreme  left,  and  the  second  to  the 
second  from  the  left,  etc.  In  the  signalling  of 
two  or  three  lines  of  way  branching  out  from  a 
common  line  at  a  junction  it  is,  however, 


16.   G.N.B.   CENTRE- PIVOTED 
SEMAPHORE 


usual  to  bracket  the  posts,  in  which  case  the 
posts  of  ten 'number  in  height  from  the  right, 
the  tallest  referring  to  the  fast  or  main  line, 
the  next  highest  to  the  second  line  from  the 
right,  etc.  In  the  event  of  the  main  line  being 
on  the  extreme  left,  this  procedure,  of  course, 
is  reversed.  At  junctions,  the  posts,  whether 
placed  separately  or  bracketed,  agree  with  the 
geography  of  the  route.  Some  companies 
further  distinguish  the  signal  arms  that  refer 
to  the  slow  or  loop  lines  by  giving  them  hoops. 
Three  or  four  arms  referring  to  different  lines 
should  never  be  placed  one  below  the  other  on 
one  post  ;  each  line  should  have  a  separate  post 
or  bracket. 

Different  Kinds  of  Signals.  Fixed 
signals  are  distinguished  as  follows :  home, 
distant,  starting,  advanced  starting,  siding, 
calling  on,  backing,  and  shunting.  The  home 
signal  is  placed  close  to  the  point  at  which  it 
j  is  desired  that  a  train  shall  stop, 
and  at  such  a  spot  that  a  driver 
may  run  up  to  it  without  any  fear 
of  being  foul  of  points  and  cross- 
overs which  such  signal  is  intended 
to  protect.  The  distant  signal  is 
placed  at  varying  distance  behind 
the  home  signal — that  is,  a  driver 
comes  to  it  first — according  to  the 
gradient  of  the  line  and  other  cir- 
cumstances, but  1,000  yards  is 
about  the  limit.  Its  function  is 
to  repeat  the  action  of  the  home 
signal,  so  that  if  the  latter  is  at 
"  danger  "  a  driver  has  timely  inti- 
mation of  the  fact,  and  can  at 
once  reduce  the  speed  of  his  train 
so  as  to  stop  at  the  home  signal. 

WTe  do  not  speak  of  a  distant  sig- 
nal as  being  at  "danger  "  when  the  arm  is  in  the 
horizontal  position,  but  as  at  "  caution."  This  is 
the  only  signal  which  a  driver  may  run  past  when 
it  does  not  signify  "  all  right."  "  Distant " 
signals  are  distinguished  by  a  fish-tailed  end, 
and,  together  with  "starting  "  and  "  advanced 
starting"  signals,  they  are  interlocked  so  that 
they  cannot  be  taken  "  off  "  until  the  correspond- 
ing" home  signal  has  been  lowered.  Starting 
signals  are  usually  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
platform  at  a  station,  and  they  indicate  to  the 
driver  when  he  may  start  his  train  and  enter  the 
section  in  advance,  provided  that  there  is  no 
"advanced  starting"  signal,  but  where  the 
latter  exists  the  starting  signal  gives  only  per- 
mission to  go  on  to  the  advanced  signal.  The 
advanced  starting  signal  is  placed  some  distance 
in  front  of  the  starting  signal,  and  enables  a 
train  which  has  been  allowed  to  pass  the  latter, 

4685 


TRANSIT 

for  the  purpose  of  picking  up  waggons  from 
sidings  or  to  clear  the  section  in  the  rear,  to 
be  brought  to  a  stand  without  entering  the 
section  in  advance. 

Some  Minor  Signals.  "  Calling  on  "  and 
backing  signals  have  shorter  arms  than  those'  of 
the  ordinary  type  and  also  of  somewhat  different 
pattern.  The  former  are  usually  placed  upon 
the  home  signal  post,  below  the  home  arm,  and 
connected  to  the  siding  points  to  which  they  refer. 

However,  most  shunting  and  siding  operations 
are  controlled  by  ground  disc  or  dwarf  signals, 
which  notify  to  a  driver  when  he  may  leave  and 
enter  a  siding,  or  when  he  may  cross  over  from 
one  track  to  another.  These  signals  furnish  the 
required  indications  as  to  the  state  of  the  line. 
We  have  said  that  ordinary  signal  arms  ought 
never  to  be.  placed  one  below  the  other  on 
the  same  post.  Nevertheless,  in  cases  where 
the  block  sections  are  short,  and  consequently 
signal-boxes  are  situated  near  together,  it  is 
advisable  to  have  the  "  distant "  from  the  one 
box  placed  upon  the  home,  starting,  or  advanced 
starting  post  of  the  next,  when  the  "  distant " 
must  be  the  lower  arm.  Both  signals  must  be 
mechanically ."  slotted  "  in  such  a  way  that  the 
"  distant  "  can  never  be  taken  "  off  "  when  the 
"  home  "  above  it  is  "  on,"  while  in  order  to 
avoid  the  discrepancy  of  the  "  distant  "  showing 
"  off  "  when  the  home  is  "  on,"  the  home  signal- 
man must  be  able  simultaneously  to  place  both 
to  "  danger  "  as  soon  as  a  train  passes. 

Indications  at  Night.  Signal  arms, 
discs,  etc.,  of  course,  cannot  be  seen  at  night, 
so  the  indications  have  to  be  given  by  a  lamp 
working  with  the  arm  in  a  frame  contain- 
ing coloured  glasses,  termed  spectacles.  These 
latter  cause  the  lamp  to  show  a  red  light 
to  indicate  "  danger,"  and  a  green  to  indicate 
"  safety."  No  other  light  is  allowed.  Several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  differentiate 
"  distant "  signals  at  night,  by  equipping  them 
with  purple  and  white  glasses  to  indicate 
"  caution"  and  "safety"  respectively,  but  now 
they  show  the  same  lights  as  all  other  signals. 
In  the  United  States  a  fairly  satisfactory  yellow 
light  for  distant  signals  has  been  evolved. 
Knowledge  of  the  road  alone  enables  a  driver  to 
distinguish  a  "  distant  "  signal  at  night. 

Interlocking  Signals  and  Points.  But 
the  fixed  signals  do  not  do  more  than  direct  train 
movements.  To  turn  a  train  off  one  line  of  way 
and  on  to  another  connecting  with  it,  a  pair  of 
tapered  movable  rails,  called  switches  or  points,  are 
utilised.  If  these  points  lie  towards  a  train  they 
are  termed  facing  points ;  if  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion, trailing  points.  Facing  points  are  usually  to 
be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  Thus,  a  train 
generally  enters  a  siding,  or  crosses  from  one  line 
of  way  to  another  by  means  of  trailing  points — 
that  is  to  say,  it  backs.  Both  signals  and  points 
are  actuated  from  a  signal  cabin,  and  in  order  to 
prevent  contradictory  movements  on  the  part  of 
each,  the  signal  and  point  levers  are  concentrated 
in  one  frame,  and  mechanically  interlocked. 
Consequently,  the  locking  frame  of  an  important 
signal  cabin  is  a  wonderfully  complex  piece  of 
mechanism.  Among  the  refinements  that  tend 

4680 


towards  the  perfection  of  interlocking,  mention 
must  br  made  of  the  following.  The  locking 
IHII-  is  a  long  flat  bar  lying  along  the  edge  of 
a  rail  and  close  to  a  switch.  Bach  time 
tin-  switch  is  moved  this  bar  must  be  raised 
above  rail  level ;  thus,  a  train  travelling 
through  the  points  is  master  of  the  situation; 
not  even  the  signalman  can  either  intentionally 
or  inadvertently  change  their  position.  The 
detector  lock,  if,  owing  to  a  broken  rod,  the 
points  have  not  been  moved,  prevents  the  signal- 
man from  lowering  any  signal  which  would 
be  contrary  to  the  actual  position  of  the  points 
themselves.  The  facing  point  lock  ensures 
that  the  points  are  properly  set  close  home 
to  the  stock  or  fixed  rail  ;  otherwise  the  road 
cannot  be  signalled  clear.  The  clearance  bar 
consists  of  a  series  of  locking  bars,  placed 
between  the  starting  signal  and  the  signal-box, 
and  so  long  as  a  train  is  standing  upon  this 
portion  of  the  line  the  block  instrument  and 
home  signal  are  automatically  locked  at  danger, 
and  a  signalman  is  unable  to  commit  an  error 
should  he  have  forgotten  the  presence  of  the 
train  in  question. 

Manual  Operation  of  Signals  and 
Points.  Signals  are  worked  by  wires,  and  the 
points  by  rods  connecting  with  their  respective 
levers.  Levers  are  of  sufficient  length  to  enable 
the  signalman  to  manipulate  them  with  moderate 
exertion,  but,  where  signals  are  placed  at  long 
distances  from  the  levers  controlling  them, 
counter-balance  weights  are  provided  both  on  the 
lever  and  the  signal  post  to  assist  the  operator. 
It  should  be  added  that  the  Board  of  Trade 
limits  the  distance  at  which  trailing  points  may 
be  manually  worked  from  a  cabin  to  300  yards, 
and  that  of  facing  points  to  250  yards. 

The  Signal-box.  Great  care  is  taken 
in  the  design  of  signal-boxes  so  that  they 
shall  be  light  and  airy,  and  give  those  in 
charge  a  clear  view  of  the  track  from  every 
point.  A  gallery  often  runs  along  the  front 
of  the  box.  so  that  the  signalman  can  go  out  to 
transmit  messages  to  engine-drivers,  guards, 
shunters,  etc.,  without  losing  audible  touch  of  his 
electric  bell  instruments.  Every  lever  in  the 
frame  is  numbered,  and  on  the  floor  beside  it  or 
on  a  board  in  front  of  the  frame  there  is  fixed 
a  brass  plate  engraved  with  its  name  and  use — 
namely,  "  Up  home,"  "  Down  advanced  starting," 
"  Main  line  cross  over,"  etc.,  etc.  Sets  of  levers 
are  distinguished  by  being  painted  in  different 
colours  below  the  handle  and  spring  catch.  The 
following  is  the  standard  colour  arrangement : 
red  for  home  signals,  green  for  distant  signals, 
black  for  points,  white  for  spare  levers,  and 
fancy  hoops  for  anything  out  of  the  ordinary. 
In  junction  boxes  it  will  be  further  observed  that 
many  levers  bear  an  array  of  numbers,  sometimes 
a  dozen  or  more.  These  numbers  form  the  key 
to  the  interlocking.  Before  any  numbered  lever 
can  be  moved,  each  of  the  levers  to  which  the 
numbers  on  it  refer  has  to  be  pulled  over  in  the 
order  in  which  the  numbers  run.  Above  the 
lever  frame  hangs  a  shelf  on  which  stand  the 
block  telegraph  and  bell  instruments,  repeaters, 
route  indicators,  telephones,  etc..  and  above  the 


TRANSIT 


17.   INTERIOR   OF    A    SIGNAL-BOX   WITH    "  CREWE "  ALL-ELECTRIC    SYSTEM 


shelf  is  displayed  a  large  chart  of  the  tracks, 
sidings,  switches,  cross-overs,  and  fixed  signals, 
controlled  and  operated  from  the  cabin. 

System  of  Signalling.  The  two  block 
telegraph  instruments — one  communicating  with 
the  signal-box  on  one  side  of  him  and  the 
other  with  that  on  the  other — instruct  a  signal- 
man when  he  is  to  move  his  signals.  The 
instrument  consists  of  bells,  possessing  different 
tones  for  the .  boxes  on  each  side  of  him,  one 
bell  serving  for  both  "  up "  and  "  down " 
lines  respectively,  and  of  dial  instruments.  The 
former  are  used  for  calling  attention,  and  for 
giving  the  complete  code  of  signals  descriptive  of 
the  nature  of  the  trains.  The  latter,  by  means  of 
a  needle,  miniature  semaphore,  or  revolving 
shutter,  give  visible  indications  of  "  line  blocked," 
4i  train  on  line,"  and  "  line  clear."  The  normal 
state  of  the  indicator  is  "  line  blocked."  On  the 
approach  of  a  train  to  A,  the  signalman  there- 
will  call  the  attention  of  B,  by  means  of  a  given 
number  of  strokes  on  the  bell  to  indicate  the 
nature  of  the  train.  The  signalman  at  B,  if  the 
previous  train  has  passed  his  cabin,  and  he  knows 
that  the  section  A  B  is  clear,  repeats  the  signal 
correctly,  and  pegs  the  indicator  to  "  line  clear." 
The  train  is  then  despatched  from  A,  the  signal- 
man at  A  gives  the  bell  signal  '*  train  on  line," 
and  B  acknowledges  this  by  moving  his  own 
indicator  and  the  one  at  A  to  "  train  on  line." 
B  then  calls  the  attention  of  C  with  the  "  be 
ready  "  bell  signal.  When  train  has  passed  B, 
B  puts  his  olock  instrument  to  the  normal 
position,  "line  blocked."  And  so  on  through- 
out the  block  system.  The  '"  be  ready  "  or 
"  is  line  clear  ? "  signal  must  never  be  sent 
until  "  line  clear "  has  been  received  for  the 


previous  train,  and  the  indicator  has  been  put 
to  "  line  blocked."  If  the  second  train  should 
arrive  at  the  signal-box  before  the  preceding  one 
has  been  signalled  as  "out  of  section,"  it  must 
be  halted  and  detained  at  the  starting  signal 
until  the  section  ahead  is  clear. 

An  instrument  of  the  needle  type  is  worked 
with  a  handle,  and  that  of  the  revolving  disc 
with  tapper  keys.  Instruments  for  both  the 
"  up "  and  "  down "  lines  are  now  usually 
contained  in  one  case,  thus  effecting  economy 
in  shelf  accommodation. 

"Lock  and  Block."  Obedience  to  the 
audible  and  visible  instructions  conveyed  by 
the  block  telegraph  instruments  means  that 
signalmen  would  never  lower  the  fixed  signals 
so  as  to  permit  of  two  trains  being  in  the 
same  section  at  the  same  time.  Neverthe- 
less, the  human  equation  is  liable  to  err ; 
therefore,  as  a  further  safeguard,  the  block 
and  interlocking  systems  have  been  combined, 
by  means  of  electrical  apparatus,  whereby  either 
the  train  itself  assists  in  providing  for  its  own 
safety  by  telegraphing  its  arrival  at  and  depar- 
ture from  signal-boxes,  or  the  signals,  say,  at  B. 
are  placed  under  the  physical  control  of  A  and  C 
— that  is,  the  signalman  at  each  side  of  B.  This 
is  known  as  the  "  lock  and  block  "  system,  and 
it  is  employed  only  on  sections  of  line  where  a 
large  number  of  trains  run  with  short  headway. 
Undoubtedly,  the  best  known  and  most  widely 
applied  "  lock  and  block  "  system  is  the  Sykes. 
with  which  a  signalman  is  unable  to  lower  the 
signal  that  admits  a  train  to  the  block  section 
ahead  until  the  signal  has  been  electrically 
released  by  the  signalman  at  the  box  in  advance, 
who  cannot  so  release  the  signal  until  the 

4687 


TRANSIT 

preceding  train  has  passed  over  a  rail  contact 
in  advance  of  his  OAVII  starting  signal,  and  that, 
signal,  again,  has  been  put  te  "  danger." 

There  is  a  variety  of  other  "  lock  and  block  " 
-;\  <tems  which,  without  emploj'ing  rail  contacts 
« .Y  t  readies  actuated  by  a  train  itself,  electrically 
unite  the  block  telegraph  and  interlocking 
apparatus,  so  that  they  cannot  be  manipulated 
in  a  contradictory  manner. 

Electricity  in  Signalling.  The  function 
of  electrical  signal  repeaters  and  light  indi- 
cators is  to  inform  the  signalman  whether 
the  arms  of  such  signals  as  may  be  hidden 
from  his  sight,  by  reason  of  curves  or  other 
circumstances,  have  acted  in  accordance  with 
the  movement  of  his  levers,  and  also,  during 
the  night,  whether  the  lamps  keep  alight,  The 
movements  of  a  signal  arm  are  faithfully  repeated 
by  a  miniature  semaphore  in  a  case,  and  similarly 
a' little  disc  inscribed  "light  in"  changes  to 
another  inscribed  "  light  out  "  should  the  lamp 
fail.  With  many  patterns  of  repeating  instru- 
ments one  wire  only » is  required  between 
the  signal  and  the  instrument  to  show  all 
five  indications — namely,  •? arm  "on,"  "off," 
and  "  wrong,"  "  light  in  "  and  "  light  out."  At 
big  junction  and  terminal  station  boxes  several 
other  kinds  of  electrical  .instruments  for  the 
guidance  of  signalmen  are  in  use — namely,  train- 
starting  indicators — which  announce  when  trains 
are  ready  to  start  from  certain  platforms  ;  route 
indicators,  by  means  of  which  signalmen  are 
advised  beforehand  of  the  route  an  approaching 
train  is  required  to  take  where  several  routes 
diverge  ;  and  shunting  indicators. 

Power  versus  Manual  Signalling. 
Various  new  systems  of  signalling  have  been 
prominently  to  the  fore  in  recent  years  in  con- 
sequence of  the  large  increase  of  traffic  (which 
has  necessitated  a  greater  number  of  tracks 
and  considerable  enlargements  of  stations  and 

yards),     causing     a    distinct    .  

demand  for  some  form  of  I 
operating  signals  and  points  I 
which  shall  give  greater  ease 
and  safety  in  handling  heavy 
traffic,  together  with  more 
economical  working  than  can 
be  obtained  by  ordinary 
manual  plants.  The  feature 
of  a  power  system  is  that  the 
signalman  is  provided  with 
means  for  easily  moving 
points  and  signals  by  electric, 
electro-pneumatic,  hydraulic, 
or  electro-hydraulic  power. 
As  with  the  manual  system, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  levers 
in  a  signal-box  interlocked 
with  each  other,  and  connec- 
tions between  the  box  and 
Hie  points  and  signals.  With  some  power 
installations,  like  tin-  Westinghouse  and  the 

(  ivwe,"  the  ordinary  mechanical  levers  [17] 
arc  retained  in  miniature  ;  thus,  the  signal- 
man has  nothing  new  to  learn  in  the  way 
of  movements  or  catches.  As  a  rule,  however, 
the  interlocking  machine  for  a  power  system  is 

1688 


smaller  and  more  compact,  and  it  is  possible  to 
interlock  points  and  signals  by  return  connec- 
tions to  the  levers  in  the  box.  A  signalman, 
therefore,  when  moving  a  lever  is  made  aware 
that  the  point  or  signal  has  answered  his  lever. 
Again,  with  several  power  systems,  should  a 
signalman  omit  to  put  a  signal  to  danger  it  will 
be  thrown  up  automatically  by  the  passage  of  a 
train.  The  connections  with  the  signal  and 
switch  motors  are  invariably  underground,  and 
it  is  now  agreed  on  all  hands  that  surface  rods 
and  wires  should  be  abolished  in  station  yards, 
on  account  of  the  great  risk  to  railway  official* 
from  exposed  gear.  Moreover,  with  the  con- 
nections laid  underground  mechanisms  are  not 
liable  to  accident,  neither  can  they  get  clogged 
with  snow,  ice,  or  dirt.  Train  movements  can  be 
effected  much  more  rapidly  by  means  of  a  power 
installation  than  by  any  manual  plant.  With 
the  former  the  levers  are  nearer  together,  and 
the  physical  effort  required  to  move  them  is  too 
small  for  notice.  Then,  it  is  claimed  that  the 
automatic  return  indication  relieves  the  signal- 
man of  considerable  mental  strain,  so  that 
not  only  can  one  man  do  the  work  of  three, 
but  he  does  it  with  less  mental  and  physical 
effort,  and  consequently  with  less  risk  of  being 
overcome  with  fatigue  during  long  hours. 
Other  advantages  possessed  by  power  systems 
are  the  fact  that  the  Board  of  Trade  permit 
facing  points  to  be  worked  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  signal-box  than  with  a 
manual,  that  little  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
"  leading  out  "  of  a  signal-box  a  maze  of  connec- 
tions in  many  lines  of  way,  and  that  the  cost  of 
maintenance  is  small.  On  the  other  hand,  with 
a  manual  system,  power  costs  nothing,  it  being 
provided  by  the  signalman  ;  and  in  the  initial 
cost  of  installation  a  power  plant  is  considerably 
greater,  while  specially  trained  men  are  required 


to  supervise  it. 


18.    SYDENHAM  HILL  TUNNEL  ELECTRO- 
MECHANICAL   SIGNAL 


To  sum  up,  although  power 
signalling  effects  a  consider- 
able saving  in  working  and 
maintenance  expenses,  the  in- 
creased cost  of  installation 
largely  precludes  its  adoption, 
except  at  busy  centres,  Avhere, 
however,  power  signalling  is 
undoubtedly  more  economical, 
and  here  also  the  system  offers 
the  advantage  that,  the  opera- 
tion of  the  levers  being  quite 
easy,  the  signalman  is  able  to 
devote  himself  entirely  to  out- 
side operations. 

Growth  of  Power 
Signalling.  Within  the 
limits  of  this  paper  it  would 
be  impossible  to  discuss  the 
technical  details  of  the  various 
power  systems  partially 
adopted  by  different  companies.  Suffice  it  to  say, 
therefore,  that  the  London  and  North-Western 
Railway  employs  the  "  CreAve "'  all-electric  system ; 
the  North -Eastern,  Great  Eastern,  Lancashire 
and  Yorkshire,  and  Metropolitan-District  Rail- 
ways, the  Westinghouse  electro  -  pneumatic 
(normal  pressure) ;  the  Great  Western  Railway, 


TRANSIT 


19.    AUTOMATIC   SIGNALS,    LOW-PRESSURE    PNEUMATIC    SYSTEM,    L.  &  S.W.R. 


the  Siemens  all-electric  ;  and  the  Glasgow 
and  South -Western,  and  South-Eastern  and 
Chatham  Railways,  the  Sykes  electro-mechanical. 
It  is  commonly  supposed  that  power  signalling 
came  to  us  from  America.  The  idea  originated 
however,  with  an  Englishman,  Mr.  W.  R.  Sykes, 
who  in  the  early  seventies  took  out  the 
first  patent  for  operating  signals  by  power,  and 
in  1875  installed  the  first  power  signals  in  the 
world  actuated  by  electricity  at  the  portals  of 
the  Sydenham  Hill  tunnel.  These  latter  signals 
[18]  consist  of  a  red  banner,  moved  on  a  spindle, 
to  which  is  attached  an  armature  with  an  opal 
background,  through  which  a  lamp  shines  at 
night,  and  so  the  signal  takes  by  night  the  same 
form  as  by  day. 

Automatic  Signalling.  A  further  de- 
velopment of  the  power  system  is  automatic 
signalling,  whereby  the  trains  are  made  to  signal 
themselves.  There  are  several  different  kinds  of. 
automatic  signalling  systems  [19-22]  in  vogue, 
but  one  feature  is  common  to  all — namely,  an 
electrical  wire  and  track  circuit  circulating  over 
each  block  section.  The  currents  are  furnished 
by  gravity  batteries,  and  are  of  low  tension, 
inasmuch  as  they  do  not  perform  the  signal 
movements,  but  are  required  merely  to  regulate 
the  actual  motive  power,  which  is  led  through 
valves  to  the  signal  motors.  The  motive  power 
is  usually  compressed  air,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
London  and  South- Western  and  Metropolitan- 
District  Companies'  installations  ;  but  the  North- 
Eastern  Railway  employs  cylinders  [20]  charged 
with  liquid  carbonic  acid  gas  at  a  pressure  of 
about  800  Ib.  to  the  square  inch.  The  gas  motor 
possesses  the  advantage  of  obviating  the  employ- 
ment of  an  air-compressing  plant  and  pipe-lines. 


The  Great  Western  Company  is  trying  an  all- 
electric  system. 

When  a  train  enters  a  section  its  wheels  short 
circuit  the  track  battery — that  is  to  say,  the  cur- 
rent flows  through  the  axles,  thereby  putting  the 
actual  motive  power  into  operation  to  set  the 
signals  which  it  has  just  passed  at "  danger."  The 
train  having  cleared  block  1,  and  entered  block  2, 
the  current  of  the  track  battery  is  again  flowing 
through  the  rails,  thereby  causing  the  signals  to 
resume  their  normal  position.  With  some  instal- 
lations, while  the  circulation  is  free,  the  sema- 
phores stand  at  "  safety,"  but  with  others,  the 
normal  positions  of  the  signals  conform  with  the 
Standard  Block  Regulations — namely,  "Banger," 
and  on  the  approach  of  the  next  train,  the  line 
being  clear,  a  mechanical  contrivance  attached 
to  the  section  enables  the  signal  to  drop  at 
"  clear." 

The  advantages  of  automatic  signalling  are 
as  follow7 :  augmented  track  capacity,  for  it 
enables  a  greater  number  of  trains  to  be  passed 
over  a  given  stretch  of  track  ;  uniform  running 
of  trains  ;  the  guarantee  that  the  section  is  clear 
for  a  train,  and  that  the  track  itself  is  in  good 
order.  It  cannot,  however,  be  utilised  at 
junctions,  and  as  our  railways  are  punctuated 
with  these  to  an  elsewhere  unparalleled  degree, 
there  is  not  the  same  extensive  field  for 
its  employment  in  this  country  as  in  America. 
Trips  or  train  stops  [23]  form  another  new! 
refinement.  They  automatically  prevent  trains 
from  over-running  home  signals.  The  apparatus 
consists  of  an  iron  arm  between  the  track  rails, 
acting  in  unison  with  the  adjacent  signal.  While 
the  signal  is  at  "  danger,"  this  arm  is  elevated  to 
a  position  in  which  it  engages  with  a  cock  on  the 

4689 


TRANSIT 


brake  pipe  of  a  train.  Thus 
the  continuous  brake  is  in- 
stantly and  automatically 
applied  if  by  any  chance  the 
driver  should  run  past  the 
signal. 

Signalmen.  As  a  rule, 
the  selection  of  candidates 
for  the  post  of  signalman, 
together  with  the  training 
and  allocation  of  signalmen, 
rests  entirely  with  the  traffic 
department.  The  practice 
observed  in  the  main  by  all 
companies  is  to  appoint 
youths  between  fourteen 
and  sixteen  years  of  age  as 
lad  -  porters,  and  those 
among  them  who  wish  to 
become  signalmen  are  at 
once  allowed  to  learn  single- 
needle  telegraphy.  Again, 
a  lad  between  the  ages  men- 
tioned may  join  a  com- 


20.    ELECTRO -GAS 

AUTOMATIC  SIGNALS, 

N.E.R. 


pany's  service  as  tele- 
graphic messenger, 
earning  between  6s. 
and  14s.  per  week,  and 
at  once  devote  him- 
self to  learning  the 
use  of  the  single- 
needle  instrument.  A 
sharp  lad  will  be  able 
to  receive  and  transmit 
telegraphic  train  mes- 
sages in  from  four  to 
six  months'  time,  and 
when  he  has  demon- 
strated his  ability  he 
is  placed  in  a  large 
signal-box  to  act  as 
telegraphist  or  train 

boy.  Here  his  duties  are  to  read  and  transmit' 
telegraphic  messages,  and  to  write  up  for  the 
Hgnalmen  the  train  books  that  record  the  times 
at  which  every  train  is  accepted  into  the  block 
section  and  clears  it.  While  acting  as  train  boy, 
a  youth  soon  gets  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
t  he  working  of  the  block  telegraph  instruments, 
the  diagram  of  the  line,  and  interlocking. 
Some  companies  keep  train  boys  until  they 
attain  twenty  years  of  age,  and  then  allow  them 
at  once  to  pass  the  examination  before  the  dis- 
irirt  superintendent  for  promotion  to  third-class 
signalman.  Others,  however,  relieve  the  lads  of 
i  heir  duties  at  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  compel 
them  to  revert  to  porters,  lamp-men,  shunters, 
or  clerks  for  a  period  of  three  or  four  years. 
This  latter  rule  holds  good  with  companies  which 
will  not  appoint  a  man  as  a  signalman  until  he 
attains  twenty-three  years  of  age.  When  a  man' 
who  has  not  previously  acted  as  train  boy,  or 
learnt  single-needle  telegraphy,  wishes  to  qualify 
lor  a  signalman  he  is  not  allowed  to  take  any 
4<>90 


sir]>s  to  carry  cut  his  desire  until  he  has  been  in 
the  company's  service  for  a  period  of  six  months. 
The  procedure  is  then  to  despatch  him  in  his 
original  capacity,  as  porter,  shunter,  or  clerk  to 
some  small  station,  where  his  ordinary  duties 
are  sufficiently  light  to  enable  him  to  learn  the 
practice  of  signalling  and  single-needle  tele- 
graphy. It  is  not  every  company  that  insists 
upon  the  would-be  signalman  qualifying  as  a  tele- 
graphist, but  a  man  not  so  qualified  could  never 
hope  to  rise  above  the  rank  of  third-class  signal- 
man on  a  remote  branch  line.  The  same  pro- 
cedure is  observed  by  the  companies  alluded 
to  above,  which  do  not  allow  train  boys  or  boy- 
telegraphists  to  continue  as  such  till  they  come 
to  the  limit  of  age  for  promotion  to  signalmen. 
The  Great  Western  Railway  has  a  school  of 
signalling,  the  equipment  of  the  class-room  [24] 
including  a  scale  model  of  a  double-line  junction, 
with  interlocking  frame,  signals,  points,  sidings, 
rolling-stock,  etc.,  in  full  working  order. 

The  Complete  Signalman.  Having 
acquired  a  fair  knowledge  of  signalling  in  a 
wayside  station  .signal  cabin,  an  aspirant  is 
promoted  to  a  more  im- 
portant station,  where, 
besides  fulfilling  his  ordin- 
ary duties,  he  is  put  on  to 
relieve  for  a  few  hours  at 
a  stretch  a  fully-fledged 


21.   SIGNAL  SHOWING   WESTINGHOTJSE  ELECTRO - 
PNEUMATIC  MOTOR 


signalman.  Lastly, 
when  a  vacancy  oc- 
curs, a  man  who 
thinks  he  has  mas- 
tered the  subject  may 
apply  to  be  examined 
for  third-class  signal- 
man, either  by  the 
district  traffic  super- 
intendent, or  a  sig- 
nalling inspector,  ac- 
cording to  the  com- 
pany's practice.  The 
examination  is  of  a 
searching  character. 
It  generally  com- 
prises both  oral  and 
written  examination 
in  the  working  of  the 
block  system,  any 
patent  method  of 
signalling,  such  as 


22.   NEW   PATTERN 

AUTOMATIC  HOME  SI  < .  N  A  L 

OX    DISTRICT    KV. 


TRANSIT 


the  "lock  and  blor-k."  electric  train 
staff  or  tablet  system,  etc.,  which  may 
be  adopted  by  the  company  in  question, 
and  "emergency"  signals,  or  what  to 
do  in  a  dozen  or  more  different  kinds  of 
accidents.  Signal-boxes  are  classified  as 
belonging  to  principal  main  lines,  secon- 
dary main  lines,  and  branch  lines.  In 
each  of  these  divisions  there  are  three 
different  grades  of  signalmen — namely, 
third,  second,  and  first  class,  and  with 
some  companies  there  are  two  higher 
grades  on  principal  main  lines — namely, 
"  special  "  and  "  extra-special." 

Pay  and  Promotion.  The  rates 
of  pay  vary  not  only  according  to  class, 
but  also  according  to  division.  Thus,  a  third- 


23.   TRAIN  TRIP:    METROPOLITAN -DISTRICT  RAILWAY 

during  falling  snow,  but  the  lamps  are  trimmed, 


class  signalman  on  a  principal  main  line  earns  more       placed   in   position,    lighted,    and   extinguished 


than  a  first-class  man  on  a  secondary  main  line. 
Signalmen  earn  from  18s.  to  25s.  a  week,  and 
receive  for  correct  working  a  bonus  of  from  £2  to 
£5  per  annum.     All  vacancies  are  posted  among 
the  men,  and  each  man  has  a  chance  of  applying 
for    promotion,   which    is 
decided  by    seniority  and 
merit.     When    a   man    is 
promoted  to  a  fresh  box, 
he    is  allowed  a  fortnight 
or  so  in  which  to  learn  it 
to  the  satisfaction  of  his 
superintendent  before  tak- 
ing charge.     Each  signal- 
man is  responsible  for  his 
own  block  telegraph  instru- 
ments, and  his  first  duty 
after  signing  on  in  the  train 
register  book  is  to  satisfy 
himself  that  all  the  elec- 
trical instruments,  signals, 
points,  etc.,  are   in    good 
working  order.   An  adjust- 
ing apparatus  enables  him 
to  adjust  his  signal  wires 

for  expansion  and  contraction  from  heat  or  cold 
without  leaving  his  cabin,  while  the  "  point 
rod  compensator "  automatically  compensates 
the  rods  which  actuate  the  points.  The  signal- 
man is  responsible  that  his  signal  lamps  are 
lighted  and  extinguished  at  the  regulation  hours 
and  that  they  are  lighted  in  foggy  weather  or 


24.    G.W.R.    SCHOOL  OF  SIGNALLING 
Model  of  Junction 


25.  AUTOMATIC  FOG  SYHEN 


for  him  by  porters  or  lamp  men.     A  signalman's 
hours  are  never  longer  than  twelve,  and  that 
only  on  unimportant  branch   lines,  from  eight 
to  ten  hours  being  the  rule  elsewhere.     Where 
the  work  is  heavy  more  than  one  man  is  put  in  a 
box,  and  when   the  tele- 
graph   work   is   heavy    a 
telegraphist  also  is  allowed. 
The    stationmaster   super- 
vises the  duties  of  the  sig- 
nalmen at  his  station,  and 
must  frequently  visit  the 
signal-boxes   for  the  pur- 
pose.    Every  signalman  is 
examined  from  time  to  time 
in  all  emergency  working 
by  his  stationmaster  and 
inspector. 

Department  of  the 
Signal      Engineer. 
When  men  are  promoted 
from  being  signalmen,  they 
usually  go  to  the  traffic 
department,  becoming  plat- 
form inspectors  and  rising 
to  district  traffic  inspectors.     The  maintenance 
of  the  complicated  array  of  signals,  interlocking 
apparatus,  and  electrical  instruments  is  a  work 
of  great  magnitude.     It  is  entrusted  to  a  signal 
engineering  department,  which  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  training  of  signalmen  or  manning 
of  the  boxes.    The  work  of  the  department  is 
divided  into  a  mechanical  and  electrical 
side.     To  begin  at  the  bottom,  there  are 
signal  and  telegraph  linemen,  who  are 
responsible   for  the   maintenance   of  a 
certain  number  of  boxes,  which  they  visit 
periodically  according  to  roster.      The 
signal  linemen  clean  and  oil  the  fittings 
of  each  signal  and  point,  and  execute 
any  small  repairs  or  renewals  that  ma^' 
be  required,  but  they  are  not  allowed  to 
tamper  with  the  interlocking  apparatus 
or  to  take  in  hand  any  important  repairs 
or  renewals.     Signal  fitters  come  round 
at  less  frequent  intervals  to  overhaul, 
test,  and  clean  the  interlocking  frames, 
facing    point   locks,    etc.,    while  heavy 
repairs  and  renewals  are  carried  out  by 
BY  THE  TRACK  CIRCUIT   an  extra  gang  attached  to  each  district, 

4G91 


TRANSIT 

in  charge  of  a  responsible  foreman.  The 
telegraph  linemen,  however,  are  considered 
competent  to  overhaul  the  block  telegraph  and 
all  other  electrical  instruments,  in  addition  to 
recharging  the  batteries  and  mending  broken 
circuits.  These  men  maintain  the  Post  Office 
wires  under  an  agreement  between  the  Post  Office 
and  the  railway  company.  For  the 
purposes  of  maintenance  the  whole  line 
is  divided  into  districts,  each  of  which 
is  in  charge  of  both  a  telegraph  and 
signal  inspector.  A  special  department 
often  exists  for  carrying  out  new  works, 
under  the  superintendence  of  a  new 
works  inspector,  who  acts  directly 
under  the  head  office.  The  whole  or- 
ganisation of  maintenance  is  vested  in 
a  managing  staff,  which  comprise  elec- 
tricians, draughtsmen,  assistants,  and 
clerks,  all  of  whom  are  employed  under 
the  control  of  the  chief  of  the  signall- 
ing department. 

Fog  Signals.  Some  space  must 
now  be  devoted  to  discussing  the  pro- 
blem of  signalling  during  foggy  weather 
and  falling  snow,  in  which  circum- 
stances all  the  foregoing  arrangements 
may  be  nullified  by  reason  of  the 
impossibility  of  reading  the  visual  sig- 
nals. A  primitive  procedure,  still  very 
widely  practised,  consists  of  posting 
rnen  at  the  foot  of  the  signal  posts, 
where  they  can  see  the  positions  of  the 
arms.  So  long  as  the  signal  indicates 
"  danger,"  a  fogman  must  place  and 
keep  one  or  two  detonators  according 
to  rule — if  two,  ten  yards  apart — on  one  rail 
of  the  line  for  which  the  signal  is  at  "  danger  " 
and  exhibit  a  red  hand-signal  to  the  driver 
of  an  approaching  train.  When  the  signal  is 
taken  off,  he  must  remove  the  detonators  from 
the  rail,  and  show  a  green  hand-signal.  To 
facilitate  the  work  of  the  "  foggers,"  and  reduce 
the  risks  of  an  extremely 
dangerous  occupation,  it  is 
now  usual  to  have  miniature 
signals  on  the  ground,  which 
either  mechanically  or  elec- 
trically repeat  the  indication* 
of  the  real  arms ;  and,  as  a 
further  safeguard,  one  com' 
pany  at  least  —  the  Great 
Eastern — have  constructed 
fog-pits  between  the  tracks 
in  places  where  there  are 
many  lines  of  way.  The 
repeating  signals  and  fogmeii 
are  stationed  in  these  pits. 


ELECTRIC    TRAIN 
STAFF  MAGAZINE 


towns  a  regular  staff  of  fog- 
signalmen  is  employed  at  all  the  places  where 
their  services  are  required;  elsewhere  the  ser- 
\irrs  of  platelayers  are  requisitioned.  A  list 
of  the  names  and  addresses  of  the  fog-signal- 
men, showing  the  post  to  which  each  man  is 
appointed,  is  exhibited  in  the  stationmaster's 
oMiee.  ami  signal-box. 

4692 


APPARATUS,  G.W.R. 


Mechanical       Fog       Signalling.      The 

great  defect  in  the  foregoing  system  of  fog- 
signalling  rests  on  the  fact  that  fogs  often 
come  on  suddenly,  when,  tmtil  the  "  foggers  " 
arrive,  there  is  the  risk  of  drivers  running  past 
signals  at  "  danger,"  which,  owing  to  the  ab- 
sence of  a  detonator  warning,  they  believe  to 
be  all  right.  Inventors  have  been 
busy  in  seeking  a  solution  of  this 
problem  for  many  years,  and  patents 
innumerable  have  been  filed  on  the  sub- 
ject. Some  of  them  would  substitute 
a  mechanical  for  a  human  arm  in  plac- 
ing detonators  on  the  rail,  which 
;  mechanical  arm  could  be  fed  from  a 
magazine  and  operated  from  a  signal- 
box.  Others  would  fix  a  lever  along- 
side the  rails,  so  that  while  the  signal 
is  at  "  danger  "  it  would  engage  with 
another  arm  projecting  from  the  loco- 
motive, and  then  produce  some  audible 
or  visual  indication,  which  could  not 
fail  to  be  heard  or  seen  by  the  men  on 
the  footplate.  But  the  weak  point  of 
any  such  system  is  sufficiently  obvious. 
The  force  of  the  blow  would  be  so 
great  that  with  constant  use  the  trig- 
gers would  be  liable  to  get  thrown  out 
of  gear  ;  while  again,  the  triggers  might 
become  clogged  with  snow,  ice,  or  dirt. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  in  use  on  the 
( Jreat  Northern  Railway,  at  Done  aster, 
a  rocker  and  trigger  apparatus,  which, 
thanks  to  an  arrangement  of  double- 
coiled  springs  (with  coils  in  reversed 
order)  that  distribute  the  force  of  the 
tremendous  blow,  claims  to  have  surmounted 
the  former  difficulty  at  least.  Further,  the 
Great  Western  Railway  is  experimenting  with 
an  arrangement,  partly  mechanical  and  partly 
electrical,  which  claims  to  have  overcome  all 
the  difficulties  hitherto  experienced. 

The  electrical  track  circuit,  as  employed  for 
the  purposes  of  automatic  sig- 
nalling [25],  is  another  solu- 
tion of  the  problem.  Several 
inventors  have  demonstrated 
their  ability  to  establish  elec- 
trical communication  between 
the  signals  and  engine  of  an 
approaching  train,  via  the 
track,  and  so  to  give  audible  or 
visual  indications  of  "  dan- 
ger "  in  the  "  cab "  of  the 
locomotive  itself. 

Staff  and  Tablet 
Working.  The  regulation 
of  the  traffic  on  single-line 
railways  is  accomplished 
either  by  an  electrical  train 
staff  or  tablet  apparatus.  A 


staff  or  tablet,  suitably  inscribed,  is  delivered  to 
the  engine-driver  at  station  A,  and  constitutes 
his  authority  to  occupy  the  main  track  between  A 
and  B.  On  reaching  B,  he  surrenders  the  tally,  and 
receives  another  one,  which  gives  him  the  right 
to  the  road  between  B  and  C.  The  tallies,  ^n  any 
desired  numbers,  are  kept  at  each  of  the  two 


stations,  and  are  locked  in  a  cabinet,  automati- 
cally controlled  through  electromagnets  by  an 
apparatus  in  the  cabinet  at  the  other  station. 
And  a  staff  or  tablet  being  taken  out  at  one 
station,  a  second  one  cannot  be  taken  out  at 
either  station  until  this  first  one 
has  been  returned  to  the  magazine 
at  one  station  or  the  other.  Thus, 
to  get  two  trains  in  the  same  sec- 
tion at  the  same  time  is  impos- 
sible. One  line  wire  is  sufficient 
for  all  purposes — namely,  operat- 
ing the  staff  or  tablet  instruments 
(26],  giving  code  signals  on  bell, 
and  for  telephonic  communica- 
tion. When  it  is  required  to  work 
permissively  a  single  line  equipped 
with  the  staff  apparatus  the  follow- 
ing method  can  be  adopted  with 
perfect  safety.  Each  staff  can  be 
made  up  of  three  portions  coloured 
distinctively.  The  end  portions, 
coloured  red  and  blue  respectively, 
are  denoted  as  "  tickets  ;  "  while 
the  centre  and  fundamental  por- 


28. 


tion,  coloured  yellow,  is  called  "  staff." 
it  is  desired  to  send  three  following  trains  from 
station  A  to  station  B,  an  entire  staff  is  with- 
drawn from  a  magazine  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
The  first  and  second  driver  each  take  a  ticket, 
and  see  the  staff.     The 
third  driver  will  take  the 
staff.  It  is  physically  im- 
possible  to  replace    the 
staff  in  either  instrument 
until  the  three  portions 
are  screwed  together,  and 
until  this  is   done  both 
instruments    remain 
locked. 

Exchanging  Ap= 
paratus.  On  some 
lines,  in  order  to  avoid 
stopping  at  stations  to 
discard  one  tally  and 
pick  up  another,  what  are 
called  staff  "  catchers." 
or  tablet  "  snappers," 
are  employed.  A 
"  catcher  "  [27]  usually 
denotes  an  apparatus  for 
the  full-sized 


TRANSIT 

advance.  The  driver  plucks  out  his  staff  as  he 
passes  the  post.  At  night  the  target-arm  and 
fresh  staff  are  made  prominent  by  means  of 
lamps,  carried  on  a  separate  post  in  the  case  of 
the  former,  and  bracketed  to  the  second  staff 
post.  With  this  exchanging  con- 
trivance a  train  need  slow  down 
to  only  about  20  miles  per  hour. 

It  has  long  been  customary  to 
exchange  electrical  train  tablets, 
which  are  small  discs  looking  like 
quoits,  at  higher  speeds  by  hand. 
The  tablets  are  placed  in  pouches 
furnished  with  wire  hoops,  and 
through  the  latter  the  driver  and 
signalman  respectively  thrust 
their  arms  as  the  train  speeds 
by.  But  the  practice  is  a  some- 
what risky  one,  hence  several 
automatic  tablet  exchangers  or 
"snappers"  have  been  devised. 

Whitaker's  Tablet  Ex- 
changer. A  very  ingenious 
"exchanger"  [29]  has  recently 
been  invented  by  Mr.  A.  Whitaker, 


exchanging 

staff  instruments,  which 
are  especially  equipped 
with  ring-handles.  It  is 
a  very  simple  contriv- 
ance. By  the  side  of  the 
line  is  fixed  a  post,  with 
an  arm  projecting  to  the 
driver,  and  shaped  to  re- 
ceive the  staff  for  the 
section  the  train  has 
just  passed  through.  A 

driver  hangs  the  staff  by  its  handle  on  to  this 
arm,  which  projects  from  a  leather  padd,ed  tai'get, 
in  order  to  absorb  the  force  of  the  blow.  A  few 
yards  farther  on  is  another  post  with  a  pocket 
into  which  is  placed  the  staff  for  the  section  in 


WHITAKER'S  ELECTRIC 
TABLET  RECEIVER 
Special  apparatus 

When  and  is  in  use  on  the  Somerset  and  Dorset  Railway. 
The  locomotive  tender  is  equipped  with  a 
catcher  which  slides  in  and  out  in  a  bracket,  and 
is  thrown  out  when  it  is  required  either  to  catch 
or  discard  a  tablet.  The  aluminium  tablets 
are  placed  in  leather 
pouches  furnished  with 
rings.  By  the  side  of  the 
track  are  placed  columns 
having  one  or  two  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  arms,  ac- 
cording to  whether  the 
column  in  question  is 
for  setting  down,  picking 
up,  or  exchanging  tab- 
lets. If  the  last-named, 
two  arms  are  necessary, 
the  upper  one  being  the 
setting  down  arm,  and  a 
replica  of  the  fish-tailed 
catcher  on  the  tender, 
the  jaws  of  which  have 
three  triggers.  A  tablet 
to  be  discarded  is  carried 
in  a  slot  at  the  back  of 
the  tender  catcher,  and 
is  snapped  off  by  the  ring 
passing  through  the  jaws 
of  the  catcher  by  the  side 
of  the  track,  while  a 
tablet  to  be  picked  up 
is  hung  from  its  ring  on 
another  arm,  and  snap- 
ped up  by  the  tender 
catcher.  The  arms  nor- 
mally stand  in — that  is, 
are  parallel  with  the 


WHITAKER'S  COMBINED  TABLET  OR 
MINIATURE  STAFF  RECEIVERS  AND  DELIVERERS 

ON  ENGINE  AND  ALONGSIDE  TRACK 

track,  and  when  to  be 

used  are  thrown  out  by  levers.  An  outstanding 
feature  of  the  apparatus  is,  however,  the  auto- 
matic return  of  the  arms  to  the  normal  position 
directly  the  process  has  been  effected.  Other- 
wise, the  fact  of  the  arms  being  left  to  project 

4693 


TRANSIT 

diagonally  so  close  to  a  train  would  be  attended 
with  serious  risks.  The  "  snapper ''  performs  its 
work  at  a  speed  of  sixty  miles  per  hour. 

hi  one  particular  instance,  however,  it  was  not 
found  practicable  to  place  a  receiver  by  the  side 
of  the  track  ;  it  had  to  be  located  in  the  six-feet 
way,  thus  necessitating  a  special  design.  With 
this  type  of  receiver  the  arm  is  set  vertically 
[28]  for  an  approaching  train,  and  drops  down 
vertically  —  backwards  —  instead  of  revolving 
horizontally,  directly  the  catch  off  the  tender 
is  effected. 

In  many  cases,  by  the  use  of  electrical  train 
staff  and  tablet  instruments,  together  with 
exchanging  apparatus,  the  facilities  for  working 
the  traffic  are  so  improved  that  the  doubling  of 
single  lines  and  the  consequent  capital  expen- 
diture may  be  postponed  for  years. 


gradually  evolved  from  the  hand-operated  screw 
brake  that  formed  the  earliest  method  of 
retarding  the  motion  of  trains. 

The  basis  of  a  continuous  automatic  power 
brake  is  an  apparatus  fitted  to  each  wheel  of 
every  vehicle  composing  a  train,  so  that  every 
engine,  tender,  and  vehicle  has  its  own  store  of 
brake  force  ready  for  instant  use,  while  its  action 
is  such  that  if  every  or  any  coupling  in  the  train 
separate,  the  brake  of  each  vehicle  is  auto- 
matically and  instantaneously  applied.  The 
brake  is  capable  of  application  by  the  engine- 
driver  and  by  any  of  the  guards. 

Unfortunately,  British  railways  have  been 
unable  to  agree  upon  uniformity  of  brake  system. 
At  the  present  day  59  companies  are  returned 
as  using  the  automatic  vacuum,  and  17  com- 
panies the  Westinghouse  automatic  air  brake. 


30.  ORDINARY  VACUUM  AUTOMATIC  BRAKE 


Railway  Brakes.  A  fact  little  realised 
by  ordinary  railway  passengers  is  that  the 
attainment  of  the  present  high  speed  of  our 
trains  was  made  possible  only  by  inventions 
of  suitable  means  of  controlling  them.  In 
itself,  the  ability  of  trains  to  travel  at  high 
speed  would  have  been  not  only  a  useless 
but  a  dangerous  thing  had  it  not  been  accom- 
panied by  such  improvements  in  railway  brakes 
.is  enabled  drivers  and  guards  to  control  the 
livmcndous  energy  set  up  by  heavy  trains  travel- 
ling at  high  velocities. 

The  history  of  railway  brakes  is  a  long  and 
complicated  one,  which  cannot  be  related  here. 
Sufli re  it  to  say  that  the  continuous  automatic 
pmv«.T  brake,  the  compulsory  equipment  of 
which  to  all  passenger  trains  was  brought  about 
by  the  Railway  Regulation  Act  of  1889,  was 


The  "  Ordinary  "  Vacuum  Automatic 
Brake.  This  brake  stops  the  train  by  the  appli- 
cation of  brake  blocks  to  the  tyres  [33]  in  the  same 
way  as  the  ordinary  hand  brake.  The  levers,  how- 
ever, which  apply  the  blocks  are  moved  by  a  piston 
working  in  a  cylinder,  the  piston  deriving  its 
power  from  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  It 
is  continuous,  each  vehicle  carrying  its  own  brake 
cylinder,  which  is  connected  to  a  pipe  running 
from  end  to  end  of  the  train,  and  through  this 
pipe  the  action  of  the  brake  cylinders  is  con- 
trolled on  the  engine.  A  combination  ejector, 
consisting  of  two  ejectors  known  as  the  "  large  " 
and  the  "  small" — the  latter  being  placed  inside 
the  former,  and  worked  continuously,  while  the 
"  large  ''  is  worked  by  the  admission  of  steam — 
exhausts  the  air  out  of  the  continuous  pipe  and 
the  cylinders.  The  brake  is  applied  by  the 


admission  of  air  into  the  train  pipe,  and  released 
by  the  withdrawal  of  the  same  through  the 
ejector. 

The  engine  having  been  coupled  to  the  train, 
and  the  hose  couplings  connected  between  the 
tender  and  train,  and  also  between  the  coaches, 
and  the  one  at  the  end  of  the  train  having  been 
placed  upon  the  plug, 
the  driver  admits  steam 
to  the  small  ejector, 
which  soon  exhausts. the 
train  pipe  and  cylinders 
to  a  vacuum  of  from  20 


in.  to  24  in.,  or  the  large 
ejector  may  be  used  if 
the  vacuum  is  required 
to  be  obtained  more 
rapidly.  The  small  ejec- 
tor must  be  kept  at  31.  VACUUM  BRAKE,  "  ON 
work  continuously  to 

maintain  the  vacuum.  To  apply  the  brake,  the 
driver  moves  the  handle  of  the  combination  ejec- 
tor in  the  direction  marked  "  On,"  thus  admitting 
air  to  the  train  pipe  and  to  the  bottom  of  each 
cylinder,  which  lifts  the  pistons  and  so  pulls  the 
blocks  to  the  wheels.  The  air  cannot  pass  to 
the  top  of  the  piston,  as  it  is  prevented  by  the 


TRANSIT 

vacuum,  say  from  «5  in.  to  10  in.,  which  should  be 
recreated  slowly  as  the  train  comes  to  rest  by 
placing  the  handle  in  "  Running  Position."  To 
apply  the  brake  quickly  the  handle  must  be 
moved  to  the  position  marked  "  On,"  thus  fully 
opening  the  air  valve.  The  guard  can  apply  the 
brake  by  pressing  down  the  handle  of  hir  valve, 
the  "  brake  setter- valve," 
thus  admitting  ah"  and 
applying  the  brake 
throughout  the  train, 
which  it  will  stop  even  if 
the  engine  remain  under 
full  steam.  When  a  rapid 
application  is  made  by 
the  driver,  the  guard's 
valve  opens  automat- 
ically, letting  in  air  from 
the  van,  thus  increasing 
the  rapidity  of  applica- 


32. VACUUM  BRAKE,"OFF: 


tion,  and  it  closes  again  after  the  brake  has  been 
fully  applied. 

Arrangement  of  Brake  Cylinder 
and  Vacuum  Chamber.  The  brake  cylin- 
der and  vacuum  chamber  is  shown  in  section  in 
30,  self-contained  in  the  vacuum  chamber  as  ap- 
plied to  carriages,  and  is  the  only  fitting  required. 
The  piston  fits  freely  in  the  cylinder,  and  is 
packed  with  a  rolling  rubber  ring,  which, 
when  the  piston  moves,  rolls  between  it 


33.   AUTOMATIC   VACUUM   BRAKE  AND   CONNECTIONS  ON   ENGINE   AND   TENDER 

A.  Steam  screw -stop  valve   B.  Combination  ejector   c.  Brake  cylinder    D.  Ball  valve    E.  Drip  trap    F.  Hose  pipe  and  coupling 
G.  Vacuum  gauge    11.  Train  pipe     J.  Vacuum  chamber 


ball  in  the  ball  valve.  The  power  of  the  appli- 
cation is  controlled  by  the  amount  of  air  let 
into  the  continuous  pipe. 

To  release  the  brake,  the  handle  must  be 
returned  to  "  Running  Position,"  when  the  air  let 
in  to  apply  the  brake  will  be  removed  through  the 
small  ejector ;  or  it 
may  be  released 
more  quickly 
by  pushing  the 
handle  in  the 
direction  marked 
"  Off,"  and  so  ad- 
mitting steam  to 
the:  large  ejector. 
The  brake  having 


. 

blocks  on  the 
wheels  may  be  increased  or  diminished  at  pleasure 
without  removing  them,  and  also  without  reduc- 
ing the  full  reserve  power  of  the  brake,  which  is 
always  at  command  for  an  emergency  stop. 
Ordinary  stops  should  not  be  made  by  a  violent 
application  of  the  brake,  but  by  a  destruction  of 


and  the  cylinder,  making  a  perfect  packing  with- 
out friction.  The  piston-rod  is  coated  with  brass 
and  works  through  a  brass  bush,  and  a  packing 
rubber  prevents  air  from  passing  the  rod.  This 
rod  should  be  kept  clean  by  wiping  with  a  dry 
cloth,  but  no  oil  or  grease  must  ever  be  used.  At 
the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  is  at- 
tached the  ball 
valve,  the  branch 
of  which  is  con- 
nected by  a  small 
hose  pipe  to  the 
train  pipe.  This 
valve  is  of  the 
most  simple  con- 
BAPID-AOTINO  VALVE  truction,  as  there 

AHB    BKAKB   APPLIED 


that  being  a  small  brass  ball,  having  a  rolling  ac- 
tion in  a  horizontal  position,  has  consequently  no 
friction.  The  spindle  with  release  lever  is  added 
for  the  purpose  of  withdrawing  the  ball  from  its 
seat  when  it  is  required  to  release  the  brake  by 
hand  —  for  instance,  when  coaches  are  detached 

4695 


IS 

may 


TRANSIT 

from  the  engine.  This  spindle  is  made  air-tight 
by  a  small  diaphragm,  the  pressure  on  which 
\vhen  a  vacuum  is  created  pulls  in  the  spindle 
,,m!  allows  the  ball  to  go  freely  to  its  seat. 

The  action  of  the  cylinder  is  as  follows. 
The  air  is  drawn  out  through  the  train  pipe  from 
the  bottom  of  the  piston  direct,  and  from  the 
top  by  passing  the  ball.  To  apply  the  brake, 
the  air  is  let  into  the  train  pipe,  and  it  then 
pulses  to  the  under  side  of  the  piston,  and,  being 
prevented  from  entering  to  the  top  by  the  ball, 
lifts  the  piston,  and  so  applies  the  brakes  with 
any  amount  of  force  according  to  the  quantity  of 
air  let  in.  Fig.  31  shows  "Brake  on/' and  32 
shows  "  Brake  off." 

A  drip  trap  is  placed  on  the  train  pipe  at  the 
bottom  of  the  down  pipe  from  the  ejector  so  that 
any  moisture  will  drain  into  it.  It  is  fitted  at  the 
bottom  with  a  self-acting  ball  valve,  which  opens 
when  all  the  vacuum  in  the  train  pipe 
destroyed  and  allows  the  water  which 
have  collected  to  run  out. 

Before  starting,  the  driver  must  see  that  the 
gauge  indicates  at  least  18  in.  of  vacuum,  and  that 
not  less  than  this  amount  is  maintained  during 
the  journey  and  while 
standing  at  stations.  The 
vacuum  is  created  by 
admitting  steam  to  the 
small  ejector  by  means 
of  the  steam  cock  on  the 
combination  ejector.  The 
guard  also  must  see  by 
the  gauge  in  his  van  that 
the  proper  amount  of 
vacuum  is  maintained, 
or  report  otherwise  to 
the  driver. 

Rapid  =  acting 
Vacuum  BraRe. 
The  rapid-acting  vacuum 
brake  —  which  can  be 
used  either  as  a  "  rapid - 
ac t  ing  "  or  an  "  ordinary ' ' 
vacuum  automatic  brake  —  consists  of  the 
addition  of  a  rapid-acting  valve.  This  appliance 
is  mounted  on  the  train  pipe  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  brake  cylinder,  and  is  connected  to  the 
latter  by  the  usual  flexible  hose. 

The  normal  or  "  running  "  position  is  shown 
in  34.  A  vacuum  is  maintained  on  the  under- 
lie of  the  valve,  A,  and  the  top  side  of  the 
diaphragm,  B,  the  atmospheric  pressure  being 
free  to  act  on  the  top  side  of  the  valve,  A,  and 
the  under  side  of  the  diaphragm.  B  ;  but  on 
account  of  an  excess  of  pressure  the  valve,  A, 
is  held  tight  upon  its  seating. 

When  a  rapid  action  of  the  brake  is  required, 
air  is  suddenly  admitted  to  the  train  pipe  and 
thus  to  the  under  side  of  the  valve,  A,  then  the 
pressure  acting  on  the  under  side  of  the  diaphragm, 
B,  is  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  lift  the  valve,  A,  and 
allow  air  to  pass  full  bore  both  to  the  brake 
eylinder  and  to  the  train  pipe,  as  shown  by  35. 
Immediately  the  brake  is  *'  full  on  "  the  valve 
falls  to  its  normal  position  by  gravity. 

To  obtain  a  ^r.iduaied  application  of  the 
brake,  air  in  moderate  quantities  is  admitted 

4696 


36.    WESTINGHOUSE 
PARTS    APPLIED  TO 


to  the  train  pipe,  and  the  area  of  the  passage 
around  the  peg,  C,  is  proportioned  so  that  it 
will  allow  the  necessary  amount  of  air  to  enter 
the  brake  cylinder,  and  so  obtain  a  simultaneous 
action  of  the  brake  on  every  vehicle  throughout 
the  train. 

Westinghouse  Automatic  Air  Brake. 
Air  pressure  is  the  power  employed  for  work- 
ing the  Westinghouse  brake.  Each  locomotive 
carries  its  own  air  compressor,  which  is  driven 
by  the  steam  from  the  boiler  of  the  engine,  and 
compresses  air  to  a  pressure  of  about  80  or  85  lb. 
to  the  square  inch,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  quick 
acting  brake,  to  90  or  95  lb.  When  the  locomo- 
tive is  coupled  to  the  train  this  compressed  air. 
with  which  the  main  reservoir  has  been  charged, 
is  turned  on  to  the  main  pipe  running  through 
hose  coupling  the  whole  length  of  the  train,  and 
thence  through  branch  pipes  leading  to  auxiliary 
reservoirs  carried  by  each  carriage.  Thus,  when 
the  train  is  ready  to  start,  the  whole  system  of 
reservoirs  and  pipes  is  charged  with  an  equal 
pressure  of  air,  which  is  ready  at  any  moment 
to  act  instantaneously  upon  the  brakes  by  means 
of  a  device  known  as  the  triple  valve.  The 
following  advantages 
and  principles  of  opera- 
tion are  secured  by  this 
method  of  employing 
compressed  air :  ( 1 )  The 
power  is  continuous 
throughout  the  whole 
length  of  the  train  and 
can  be  applied  to  all 
vehicles  either  by  the 
driver  from  the  engine 
or  by  the  guard  from 
any  part  of  the  train. 
(2)  The  action  is  auto- 
matic, instantaneous, 
and  simultaneous.  It 
applies  itself  with  full 
force  to  every  vehicle 
should  the  train  sepa- 
rate or  should  a  rupture  of  a  vital  part  of  the 
apparatus  occur.  (3)  The  brakes  are  applied 
by  a  reduction  of  air  pressure,  purposely  or 
accidentally  produced.  (4)  The  brakes  are 
released  by  an  increase  of  air  pressure  which  can 
be  produced  by  the  driver  only  by  means  of  the 
air  compressor  on  the  engine. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  describe  in  detail 
the  operation  of  the  Westinghouse  quick- 
acting  brake,  references  being  made  to  the 
accompanying  figures  [36 — 38J  showing  sections 
of  the  various  parts. 

Parts  Applied  to  Locomotives.  Every 
engine  is  fitted  with  the  following  parts  [  36J : 

The  steam  air  pump,  A,  B,  which  compresses 
the  air  ;   its  steam  cock,  P  ;   and  lubricator,  0. 
A  main  reservoir,  C,  for  storing  the  air  neces- 
sary for  releasing  the  brakes  and  recharging  the 
auxiliary  reservoirs. 

A  driver's  brake  valve,  D,  which  regulate^ 
the  flow  of  air  from  the  main  reservoir  into  the 
brake  pipe  for  charging  the  train  and  releasing 
the  brakes,  and  from  the  brake  pipe  to  the 
atmosphere  for  applying  the  brakes. 


QUICK-ACTING  BRAKE. 
LOCOMOTIVES   ONLY 


Parts  Applied  to  Tenders,  Carriages, 
and  Vans.  A  triple  valve,  F,  by  means  of 
which  the  instantaneous  action  is  produced,  in 
conjunction  with  a  reservoir,  G,  in  which  is  stored 
the  compressed  air  for  applying  the  brakes. 

A  brake  cylinder,  H,  with  pistons  and  rods 
connected  to  the  brake  levers  and  blocks. 

A  single  line  of  pipe,  E,  called  the  brake 
pipe,  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  train. 

Each  van  has  a  valve  or  cock,  T,  connected  to 
the  brake  pipe,  and  a  gauge,  S,  to  indicate  the 
pressure    of    air.       By 
opening    his    valve    a 
guard  can  stop  the  train, 
even  against  the  will  of 
the  driver,  if  necessary. 

Operation  of 
Brake.  The  pump 
[36]  being  started  by 
opening  the  steam  cock, 
P,  and  admitting  steam 
to  the  cylinder,  air  is 
forced  from  the  cylinder, 
B,  into  the  main  reser- 
voir, C,  which  is  con- 
nected to  the  driver's 
brake  valve,  D. 

When  a  train  is  to  be 
charged — the  hose  coup- 
lings between  the  carriages  having  been  united 
and  the  engine  connected  to  the  train — the 
compressed  air  stored  in  the  main  reservoir,  C, 
is  turned  into  the  brake  valve  over  to  the  left. 
It  then  fills  the  brake  pipe,  and  flows  through 
the  branch  pipe  on  the  engine  and  tender  and 
each  vehicle  to  the  triple  valve,  F  [37],  thence 
by  a  groove,  and  past  a  piston  into  a  reservoir,  G, 
where  it  remains  until  the  brake  has  to  be 
applied.  Uniform  air  pressure  then  exists 
throughout  the  train,  except  in  the  brake 
cylinders,  H,  the  brakes  being  off;  and.  the 
pressure  per  square  inch  is  shown  on  the  gauge, 
L,  connected  to  the  brake  pipe. 

So  long  as  this  pressure  is  maintained  the 
brakes  are  kept  off,  as  the  passage  from  each 
reservoir  to  its  cylinder  remains  closed  by  the 
slide  valve  ;  but  letting  the  air  escape  from  the 
brake  pipe  causes  the  triple  valve  pistons  and 
slide  valves  to  move  towards  the  left  and  to 
uncover  the  passages  to  the  cylinders.  The  air 
stored  in  the  small  reservoirs,  G,  then  flows  into 
the  cylinders,  H,  and  forces  out  the  brake  pistons 
and  rods,  thus  applying  the  brakes.  From  the 
foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  driver  can, 
by  turning  the  handle  of  his  brake  valve,  reduce 
the  pressure  in  the  brake  pipe,  and  thus  apply 
all  the  brakes. 

Releasing  the  Brake.  The  brakes  are 
taken  off  by  reopening  the  passage  from  the 
main  reservoir,  through  the  driver's  valve, 
and  thus  restoring  the  pressure  in  the  brake 
pipe  ;  this  moves  the  triple  valve  pistons 
towards  the  right  with  their  slide  valves, 
and  places  the  cylinders,  H,  in  communication 
with  the  atmosphere  by  means  of  the  exhaust 
cavity  in  each  of  the  valves  ;  the  air  used  in 
the  cylinders  is  thus  allowed  to  escape,  and 


37.    WESTINGHOTJSE    QUICK- ACTING    BRAKE. 
PARTS    APPLIED    TO    TENDERS    AND    CARRIAGES 


TRANSIT 

the  brake  pistons  and  rods  are  pushed  back  to 
their  places  by  springs  inside  the  cylinders. 

The  driver's  valve,  D,  shown  in  the  diagram 
[36]  is  of  the  improved  construction,with  equalis- 
ing arrangement.  A  small  reservoir,  U,  is  coupled 
to  the  nipple  on  the  left  of  this  brake  valve. 

Emergency  Stops.  The  description  so 
far  explains  the  ordinary  use  of  the  brake.  In 
an  emergency,  when  the  shortest  stop  possible 
is  required,  the  brake  valve  handle  should  be 
thrown  full  over  to  the  right,  which  movement 
lets  out  the  air  quickly 
from  the  train  pipe. 
This  sudden  reduction 
of  pressure  makes  the 
first  triple  piston  and 
slide  move  the  full 
stroke,  with  the  effect 
that  some  of  the  air 
from  the  train  pipe, 
together  with  the  air 
from  the  reservoir, 
passes  direct  to  the 
brake  cylinder,  H.  The 
reduction  thus  made 
in  the  train  pipe  helps 
the  next  triple  valve  to 
start,  and  so  on  to  the 
end  of  the  train.  This 
action  is  so  rapid  that  the  brake  is  actuated  by 
the  driver  in  2J  seconds  to  the  end  of  a  train 
of  50  vehicles,  not  less  than  1,500  ft.  long. 

The  release  of  the  brakes  is  made  as  previously 
described.  The  triple  valve  cock  plug  [37]  and 
handle,  Z,  have  three  positions.  When  the 
handle  is  down,  the  triple  will  be  in  ordinary 
or  quick  action ;  when  halfway,  it  is  cut  out ; 
and  when  right  up,  in  ordinary  action  only. 

The  ordinary  Westinghouse  brake,  which 
works  on  the  same  principle  but  carries  a  simpler 
form  of  triple  valve,  is  used  where  emergency 
short  stops  are  not  likely  to  be  required. 
The  high-speed  brake  is  an  improvement  on 
the  quick-acting  brake,  invented  in  order  to 
graduate  the  high  pressure  between  brake  blocks 
and  wheels,  so  that  this  shall  be  gradually  re- 
duced as  the  train  slowed  down,  thus  preventing 
skidding  and  undue  wearing  of  the  wheels.  It 
carries  a  reducing  valve,  which  gradually  reduces 
the  pressure  as  the  speed  decreases. 

Evils  of  the  Dual  Brake  System.  The 
dual  brake  system  is  a  fruitful  source  of  incon- 
venience and  additional  cost,  and  sometimes, 
indeed,  of  danger  to  the  safe  working  of  a  train 
as  well.  All  the  coaches  of  every  Anglo-Scottish 
train  have  to  be  equipped  with  both  the  vacuum 
and  air  brakes,  because  the  English  companies 
concerned  use  the  former  and  the  Scotch  the 
latter.  Further,  most  of  the  railways  are  com- 
pelled to  have  a  number  of  passenger  train 
vehicles,  such  as  family  saloons,  horse  boxes, 
carriage  trucks,  etc.,  fitted  with  both  systems  of 
automatic  brakes  for  the  purpose  of  working 
through  to  "  foreign  "  lines,  while,  again,  com- 
panies which  favour  the  vacuum  brakes  arc  bound 
to  keep  a  number  of  engines  fitted  with  Westing- 
house  apparatus,  and  vice  versa. 


Continued 


4C97 


Group  24 

PHYSICS 
33 

Ciiiitlmifil  from 


THE  MYSTERY   OF  SOLUTION 

Properties  of  Solutions.      Colloids  and    Crystalloids.      Gaseous  Ions. 
What    We    Have    Learned    and    How    Far  We    Have    Progressed 


By  Dr.    C.   W.    S  ALEE  BY 


"THE  facts  of  solution  and  the  facts  of  double 
decomposition,  when  fully  considered,  lead 
us  to  revise  the  idea  that  the  dissociation  of  the 
electrolyte  is  due  to  the  passage  of  electricity 
through  it.  It  can  be  shown,  indeed,  that  the 
electricity  is  not  used  up  in  dissociating  the 
molecules  of  the  electrolyte.  There  is  already 
a  good  deal  of  freedom  amongst  the  ions  of  the 
solute,  or  substance  dissolved,  even  before  the 
electric  current  passes.  What  the  electricity 
does  is  merely  to  sort  out  the  ions  and  force  them 
to  move  against  the  resistance  of  the  water. 
As  to  what  solution  really  involves  we  cannot 
say.  The  ions  of  the  solute  must  have  relations 
which  we  cannot  define  with  the  molecules  of 
the  solvent,  but  they  are,  at  any  rate,  indepen- 
dent of,  or  dissociated  from,  each  other. 

The  dissociation  theory  does  more  than  give 
us  a  complete  explanation  of  the  electrical 
and  osmotic  properties  of  solutions,  or  at  leist 
of  aqueous  solutions.  It  actually  enables  us  to 
explain,  in  great  degree,  the  chemical  properties 
of  such  solutions — that  is  to  say,  it  enables  us  to 
correlate  their  chemical  and  their  electrical 
properties.  The  very  solutions  which  exhibit 
the  highest  chemical  activity  are  solutions  of 
electrolytes — salts  and  acids — and  their  chemical 
activity  is  the  activity  of  their  ions.  There  are 
some  chemical  reactions  in  which  "the  electric 
charges  on  the  ions  seem  to  be  the  determining 
factors  of  the  whole  process." 

Colloids  and  Crystalloids.  But  even 
yet  we  have  riot  exhausted  the  chief  aspects 
of  the  subject  of  solution.  We  can  dis- 
tinguish broadly  between  two  large  groups  of 
substances.  On  the  one  hand,  there  are  those 
which  are  crystalline  in  form,  like  salts  in  general, 
and  for  purposes  of  this  comparison  such 
bodies  are  classed  as  crystalloids.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  many  bodies,  most  of  them,  of 
organic  origin,  such  as  white  of  egg,  which  are 
not  crystalline,  or  not  definitely  crystalline,  and 
which  markedly  contrast  with  the  crystalloids 
in  respect  of  certain  physical  properties.  These 
\vc  call  colloids,  from  the  Greek  kolla,  glue,  and 
eidos,  likeness.  The  most  outstanding  distinc- 
tion, perhaps,  between  these  two  groups  of 
substances  is  that  the  crystalloids  diffuse  rapidly 
through  water,  whilst  the  colloids  move  slowly 
or  not  at  all. 

While  the  majority  of  inorganic  substances 
are  crystalloids,  there  are  many  exceptions, 
and  under  certain  definite  conditions  compounds 
of  iron,  gold,  silver,  arsenic,  bismuth  ;md 
mercury  can  IDC  obtained  in  colloidal  form. 
If,  now,  we  take  a  mixture  of  crystalloids  and 
colloids  dissolved  in  water  and  place  them  within 
a  parchment  or  some  similar  membrane,  the 
crystalloids  will  diffuse  through  while  the  colloids 

4698 


are  completely  arrested.  Since  the  membranes 
of  the  body  are  colloidal  we  can  readily  guess 
that  these  facts  must  be  very  frequently  and  very 
importantly  illustrated  in  physiology.  In  the 
living  body,  also,  important  consequences  must 
result  from  the  fact  that  there  are  two  distinct 
classes  of  colloids  :  those — such  as  gelatin — 
which,  when  dissolved  in  water,  can  be  made  to 
"  set "  and  afterwards  redissolve,  and  those 
which,  once  thrown  out  of  solution,  remain 
insoluble.  The  first  class  of  colloids  are  said 
merely  to  set,  but  the  second  class  to  coagulate. 
The  first  may  be  called  reversible  and  the  second 
irreversible. 

Our  Conception  of  a  Solution.  Again, 
we  find  that  different  parts  of  our  subject 
become  interwoven  with  one  another.  In  the 
case  of  the  irreversible  or  coagulable  colloids 
we  find  that  their  precipitation  is  greatly  aided 
by  the  addition  of  the  minutest  quantities  of  the 
solution  of  a  salt  or  other  electrolyte,  and,  further- 
more, it  has  been  lately  shown  that  the  eoagula- 
tive  power  of  the  electrolyte  has  a  definite 
relation  to  the  valency  of  its  basic  or  metallic  ion. 

We  are  now  able,  perhaps,  to  form  some  kind  of 
picture  of  a  solution  in  terms  of  the  dissociation 
theory.  We  cannot  form,  any  picture  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  solute  to  the  solvent,  but  at  least  we 
begin  to  understand  the  state  of  the  solute  itself. 

Says  Mr.  Whetham :  "A  certain  number 
of  the  dissolved  molecules  are  regarded  as 
dissociated  into  charged  ions,  which  wander,  free 
from  each  other,  through  the  liquid,  perhaps  by 
successive  combinations  with  solvent  molecules 
in  their  path.  When  an  electric  force  is  applied, 
though  still  moving  sometimes  in  one  direction 
and  sometimes  in  another,  the  ions  on  the  whole 
drift  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  force,  and 
we  may  therefore  imagine  that  two  processions 
of  oppositely  charged  ions  pass  each  other,  drift- 
ing in  opposite  directions  through  the  solution. 
When  there  is  no  electric  force,  the  ions  are  sub- 
ject to  no  steady  drift,  and  must  move  sometimes 
in  one  direction,  sometimes  in  another,  as  the 
chances  of  their  life  direct.  Any  one  ion  will 
sometimes  be  passing  from  one  solvent  molecule 
to  another,  carrying  its  electric  charge  with  it  ; 
sometimes  it  will  come  across  an  ion  of  the  oppo- 
site kind  in  such  a  way  that  combination  occurs, 
and,  for  a  time,  an  electrically  neutral  molecule 
is  formed.  By  collisions  of  unusual  violence,  or 
by  other  means,  this  molecule  will  soon  be  dis- 
sociated, and  its  ions  again  set  free  from  each 
other,  to  be  handed  backwards  and  forwards 
by  the  solvent  molecules  as  already  described." 

The  Nature  of  a  Nerve  Impulse. 
Having  framed  such  a  conception,  Mr.  Whetlwm 
shows  how  it  is  possible  to  explain  the  fashion 
in  which .  chemical  valency  and  coagulative 


power  are  correlated.  A  distinguished  physi- 
ologist, Mr.  W.  B.  Hardy,  F.R.S.,  has  shown  how 
electric  conditions  affect  the  behaviour  of  solu- 
tions of  colloids  in  water.  His  results  seem  to 
show  that  colloid  particles  can  exist  in  solution 
only  when  they  are  electrically  charged.  If  the 
experiment  is  so  arranged  that  the  charge  is 
neutralised,  coagulation  immediately  occurs. 
In  the  case  of  colloids  travelling  with  the  current, 
it  is  always  the  acid  ion  that  causes  coagulation, 
or,  in  general,  it  is  the  ion  possessing  a  charge 
of  opposite  kind  to  that  of  the  colloid  particle, 
and  therefore  neutralising  it,  which  determines 
its  coagulation.  It  seems  highly  probable,  not 
merely,  as  Mr.  Whetham  says,"  that  a  wave  of  this 
electrolytic  coagulation  is  the  physical  accom- 
paniment of  a  nerve  impulse,"  but  that  it  actually 
constitutes  the  nerve  impulse.  It  need  scarcely 
be  said  that  anything  which  throws  light  upon 
the  nature  of  a  nerve  impulse  is  helping  us  to 
solve  one  of  the  most  profound  and  important 
problems  in  all  science. 

The  Nature  of  a  Colloid  Solution. 
It  has  lately  been  supposed  that  the  peculiar 
behaviour  of  colloids  as  distinguished  from 
crystalloids  in  solution  is  due  to  the  circumstance 
that  colloid  solutions  are  not  really  solutions 
at  all.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  colloid 
really  exists  not  truly  dissolved  in  the  solvent, 
but  merely  in  the  form  of  solid  particles  suspended 
in  it.  Particles  of  quite  appreciable  size  can 
be  detached  by  various  means  in  some  colloidal 
solutions.  The  question,  however,  like  most  of 
the  others  we  are  considering,  is  still  under  dis- 
cussion. At  any  rate,  it  is  evident  that  there 
is  some  very  marked  molecular  distinction  or 
inter-molecular  distinction  between  colloids  and 
crystalloids]  in  general.  Now,  the  molecules  of 
colloids  are,  as  a  rule,  very  much  larger  indeed 
than  those  of  crystalloids.  With  this  in  our 
minds  we  may  understand  the  following  distinc- 
tion, as  suggested  by  Mr.  Whetham  :  "  It  seems 
likely  that  the  forces  which  are  involved  in  cry- 
stalloid solution  are  of  the  nature  of  those  classed 
as  chemical  or  molecular,  while,  when  colloids 
dissolve,  the  actions  between  solvent  and  solute 
are  conditioned  also  by  the  phenomena  studied 
under  the  names  of  capillarity  and  surface  ten- 
sion. It  is  not  likely  that  any  sharp  line  of 
demarcation  can  be  drawn ;  though  as  the  size 
of  the  dissolved  particles  increases,  the  im- 
portance of  the  chemical  forces  probably 
diminishes,  and  that  of  the  capillary  force 
grows." 

Gaseous  Ions.  Having  discovered  the 
existence  of  ions  in  liquid  solutions,  let  us  turn 
and  see  whether  any  parallel  facts  can  be 
detected  in  gases.  Under  ordinary  conditions, 
a  gas  is  not  a  conductor  of  electricity,  and  thus 
the  leakage  of  electricity  through  the  air  sur- 
rounding a  telegraph  wire,  for  instance,  is  very 
small  indeed.  An  electroscope,  however,  will 
detect  an  appreciable  amount  of  such  leakage. 
We  find,  moreover,  that  under  quite  a  number 
of  different  conditions  gases  can  be  made 
capable  of  conducting  electricity  in  a  marked 
degree.  Some  of  these  conditions  may  be 
noted. 


PHYSICS 

The  mere  heating  of  a  gas  may  cause  it  to 
conduct  electricity.  Recent  contact  with  in- 
candescent metals,  the  neighbourhood  of  flames 
or  radium  and  other  radio-active  substances, 
and  of  glowing  carbon,  the  influence  of  ultra- 
violet light,  bubbling  through  water,  passage 
over  molten  phosphorus,  the  influence  of  the 
Rontgen  rays  or  the  cathode  rays — all  of  these 
agencies  have  the  effect  of  ionising  the  gas  so 
that  it  becomes  a  more  or  less  efficient  con- 
ductor of  electricity.  The  term  ionisation  is 
adopted  because  we  find  ourselves  justified  in 
supposing  that  the  change  in  condition  of  a  gas, 
whereby  it  becomes  a  conductor,  depends  upon 
the  production  or  presence  in  it  of  ions  com- 
parable to  those  first  described  by  Faraday  in 
the  case  of  electrolytic  solutions. 

What  is  Gaseous  Conductivity  ?  The 
first  fact  to  recognise  is  that  the  ionising 
agency  produces  a  change  in  the  gas,  which 
persists,  more  or  less,  after  the  agency  has  been 
withdrawn.  These  gases  coming  from  a  flame 
retain  their  conductivity  for  several  minutes, 
and  furthermore  display  properties  which  lead 
us  to  suppose  that  the  conductivity  of  the  gay, 
is  not  a  mere  state  of  it,  but  depends  upon  the 
presence  in  it  of  material  things. 

For  instance,  we  find  that  the  conductivity  of 
the  gas  is  a  thing  that  can  have  its  position 
altered  in  space.  It  can  be  blown  about  from 
one  place  to  another.  On  the  other  hand,  again, 
it  can  be  filtered  from  the  gas,  so  to  speak,  for 
if  we  bubble  the  gas  through  water  or  filter  it 
through  a  plug  of  glass  wool  the  conductivity 
is  found  to  have  disappeared. 

A  key  to  the  nature  of  the  something  which 
is  present  in  the  conducting  gas  is  afforded  by 
its  behaviour  under  the  influence  of  an  electric 
field,  which  destroys  its  conductivity.  We 
must  suppose,  then,  that  the  ionised  gas  contains 
charged  particles  perfectly  comparable  to  those 
which  we  have  already  studied  in  the  case  of 
solutions.  These  must  be  both  positive  and 
negative,  since  the  gas,  as  a  whole,  has  no 
electric  charge. 

Gaseous  ions  differ  in  certain  ways  from  the 
ions  of  an  electrolyte.  They  have  only  a  brief 
persistence  after  the  ionising  agency  is  removed. 
This  fact  may  be  explained  on  the  assumption 
that  positive  and  negative  ions  soon  recombine 
with  one  another,  and  that  they  also  lose  their 
charges  by  contact  with  solid  bodies  around 
them.  The  fact  that  these  ions  do  not  persist 
explains  the  reason  why,  in  this  case,  the  amount 
of  electric  current  that  can  be  conveyed  is  not 
proportional,  as  it  is  in  the  case  of  solutions,  to 
the  electric  force. 

The  Speed  of  Gaseous  Ions.  The 
speed  with  which  these  ions  move  has  been 
measured  in  various  ways,  and  is  found  to  be 
very  much  higher  than  in  the  case  of  the  ions 
in  an  electrolytic  solution.  "  At  atmospheric 
pressure,  under  a  potential  gradient  of  one  volt 
per  centimetre,  the  velocities  of  different  ions 
vary  from  about  three-quarters  of  a  centimetre 
per  second  in  the  case  of  carbon  dioxide  to  about 
seven  centimetres  per  second  in  the  case  of 
hydrogen.  The  velocity  of  the  negative  ion  is 

4699 


PHYSICS 

in  "cneral  appreciably  irreatcr  than  that  of  the  for  the  condensation  of  the  water  vapour.  Mr. 
positive  ion  the  ratio,  unity  for  carbon  dioxide  Wilson's  work  has  enabled  Professor  Thomson 
nsing  to  L'24  for  air  and  oxygen."  to  study  the  amount  of  the  electric  charge  upon 

The  velocity  of  the  positive  ions  is  inversely  a  gaseous  ion.  \\  c  can  measure  the  current 
proportional,  as  we  might  expect,  to  the  pressure  •  conveyed  through  a  gas,  and  we  know  that  its 
>f  the  gas.  That  of  the  negative  ions,  however.  amount  must  depend  upon  (1)  the  number  of 

the  ions,  (2)  their  velocity,  and  (3)  the  quantity 
of  the  charge  upon  each.  Mr.  Wilson's  method 
enables  us  to  ascertain  the  number  of  the  ions, 
and  since  the  other  factors  can  also  be  estimated 


increases  so  rapidly  as  the  pressure  is  decreased 
thai  physicists  are  now  led  to  believe  them  to 
possess  more  complexity  of  structure  at  high 
pressures  than  at  low  pressures.  This  is  one  of 
the  keys  to  the  nature  of  these  ions. 

The  Nature  of  Gaseous  Ions.  \\ V 
have  already  satisfied  ourselves  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  ions  in  a  liquid.  In  the  case  of  chloride 
of  sodium,  for  instance,  we  regarded  them  as 


the  amount  of  their  charge  is  revealed.  It  is 
probably  identical  with  the  ionic  charge  in  the 
case  of  liquid  electrolysis. 

Positive     Ions.      Having    recognised    the 
vastly  important  conclusion  that  the  negative 


consisting    of   atoms    of    sodium    and    chlorine      ions  of  a  gas  are  none  other  than  our  old  friend 

.•        i  -r»-_j_  ,  K  I V, ...,..,;  •*-]-*,-».    <-J^r>4-Y»/-vrkci      lo-f    no    r»/-\noirloT»    m  r\t»o    r»  n  ivi-f  n  1 1  \r    +Vv 


respectively.  But  gaseous  ions  are  different. 
They  may  be  molecular  or  atomic  or  sub-atomic  ; 
and  the  conclusion  to  which  we  are  forced  is 
that  the  last  is  the  true  explanation  in  the  case 
of  the  negative  ions.  The  first  difficulty  was  to 
estimate  their  dimensions,  and  the  results  of 
the  experiments  which  have  been  made  on  this 
point  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  normal 
process  of  gaseous  ionisation  consists  in  the 
detachment  from  an  atom  of  gas  of  a  minute 
particle,  called  by  Professor  J.  J.  Thomson  a 
corpuscle.  "  At  extremely  low  pressures  the 
corpuscle  constitutes  the  negative  ion,  and  the 
atom  or  molecule  from  which  it  has  been 
separated  forms  the  positive  ion.  As  the  pres- 
sure rises,  neutral  molecules  become  attached 
to  the  ions,  probably  by  virtue  of  the  electric 
forces,  and  collect  round  the  original  ion,  which 
constitutes  the  nucleus.  These  complex  systems 
form  the  ions  of  gases  at  atmospheric  pressures.' 

Thus  we  have  reached  the  admirable  result 
that  the  negative  ions  of  a  gas  at  low  pressures 
are  none  other  than  the  corpuscles  or  electrons 
of  which  we  have  heard  so  much  in  this  and  its 
companion  course.  The  conclusion  is  verified 
when  we  attempt  to  estimate  the  absolute  mass 
of  these  ions  and  discover  that  it  corresponds  to 
the  mass  of  electrons  as  ascertained  hi  other  ways. 

Large  Gaseous  Ions.  We  have  seen 
that  at  atmospheric  pressures  and  the  like 
ions  may  be  of  very  considerable  size — much 
larger  indeed  than  molecules.  Mr.  C.  T.  R. 
Wilson,  a  distinguished  worker  at  the  Cavendish 
Laboratory,  has  been  enabled  to  demonstrate 
to  the  eye  the  existence  of  these  large  ions  by 
means  of  some  very  striking  experiments.  It 
has  long  been  known  that  the  condensation  of 
drops  of  water  in  the  air  is  very  greatly  aided  by 
the  presence  of  particles  of  dust,  which  form 
nuclei  around  which  the  water  can  condense. 
What  .Mr.  Wilson  did,  then,  was  to  obtain  air 
containing  an  abundance  of  water  vapour,  but 
practically  destitute  of  all  dust.  In  such  air 
Midden  cooling  consequently  yields  scarcely  any 
drops  of  water.  Precisely  the  same  conditions, 
however,  yield  a  dense  cloud  of  drops,  which 
can  be  readily  seen,  if  the  air  IKI*  /'/.>/  been 
/oH/sW.  The  explanation  of  this  is  that  the 
imiisation  has  consisted  in  the  production  of  a 
number  of  particles  of  greater  than  molecular  size 
vrhich,  just  like  particles  of  dust,  act  as  nuclei 


the  electrons,  let  us  consider  more  carefully  the 
positive  ions.  Very  striking  indeed  are  some 
of  the  fashions  in  which  they  can  be  produced. 
The  mere  heating  of  a  platinum  wire,  for  instance, 
causes  it  to  emit  positive  ions.  These  are 
various  in  size,  some  consisting,  perhaps,  of 
molecules  of  the  gas  surrounding  the  wire,  and 
some  consisting  of  molecules  of  platinum.  When 
the  wire  is  made  hotter  and  hotter,  however, 
negative  rather  than  positive  ions  are  given  out. 
In  general,  low  temperature  and  high  pressure 
favour  the  production  of  positive  ions,  while 
the  reverse  conditions  favour  the  production 
of  negative  ions. 

But  platinum  is  not  exceptional  in  this 
respect.  Other  metals  behave  similarly,  and  so 
does  sodium  vapour.  Indeed,  solid  electrically  - 
charged  matter  is  given  out  by  all  kinds  of  sub- 
stances when  their  temperature  is  sufficiently 
high.  Carbon  is  noteworthy  in  this  respect. 
These  facts  are  of  general  physical  interest, 
evidently,  but  they  are  also  of  remarkable 
interest  in  relation  to  some  of  the  greatest  of 
cosmic  phenomena.  Glowing  carbon  abounds  in 
the  envelope  of  the  sun,  and  this  must  constantly 
emit  corpuscles,  leaving  a  positive  charge  upon 
the  sun.  If,  then,  the  temperature  of  the  sun 
be  locally  raised,  as  must  undoubtedly  often 
happen,  a  stream  of  corpuscles  must  be  rapidly 
i;hot  out  from  the  sun  in  all  directions.  Their 
impact  upon  our  atmosphere  at  these  high 
i speeds  will  suffice  to  make  certain  of  its  gases 
luminous  ;  and  this,  as  we  have  already  briefly 
noted  elsewhere,  is  thought  by  Arrhenius  to 
explain  the  phenomena  of  the  Aurora  Boreali*. 

Electricity  in  Solids.  We  have  to 
conceive,  then,  of  the  passage  of  an  electric 
current  through  liquids  and  through  gases  as  not 
a  continuous  but  a  particulate  affair,  the  elec- 
tricity being  handed  on  in  units  by  means  of  the 
material  motion  of  the  particles  composing  the 
liquid  or  the  gas.  The  same  conclusion  has  t-> 
be  reached  when  we  consider  the  passage  of 
electricity  through  solids  ;  so  much  the  worse. 
perhaps,  for  our  conventional  notion  of  the  con- 
stitution of  a  solid  !  It  is  far  less  solid  than  \\  • 
have  thought.  Indeed,  the  conduction  of  elec- 
tricity through  a  metal  must  really  be  conceived 
no  longer  as  conduction  at  all  but  as  convection. 
The  reader  will  remember  the  contrasting  use  of 
these  two  words  in  our  sttidy  of  Heat, 


Continued 


4700 


TOOLS  FOR  MEASUREMENT 

Standards.  Rules.  Surface  Plates.   Straightedges.  Squares.  Bevels.  Levels. 
Compasses.      Calipers.      Gauges.      Vernier  and   Micrometer    Instruments 


Group  12 

MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERING 

33 

TOOLS 

continued  from  page  4586 


By  JOSEPH  G.    HORNER 


AS  in  other  branches  of  engineering  practice, 
*"•  each  great  class  or  group  of  measuring  tool  has 
given  birth  to  numerous  variations  in  form.  Rules, 
calipers,  gauges,  and  the  rest,  each  number  scores 
of  kinds,  so  that  exact  definition  becomes  necessary 
in  mentioning  any  one  of  these  articles.  With 
increasing  differentiation  and  growing  complexity 
the  work  of  manufacture  has  become  highly 
specialised  in  the  hands  of  various  firms,  some  of 
whom  now  limit  their  productions  to  a  few  kinds  of 
articles  only. 

The  chief  difficulties  inseparable  from  the 
measuring  tools  are  two  in  number — that  of  accuracy 
of  manufacture,  and  that  of  its  preservation  in 
service.  These  two  matters  have  engaged  the  best 
faculties  and  labours  both  of  mathematicians  and 
mechanics,  and  the  men  who  measure  and  test  in 
the  shops  owe  more  than  they  suspect  to  others 
who  have  originated  methods  of  measurement  and 
test,  and  produced  instruments  of  precision.  Few 
men  who  handle  a  pair  of  gauges  at  the  lathe,  or 
planer,  or  bench,  or  who  cut  a  screw  thread  and 
measure  it  with  a  micrometer  or  gauge,  suspect 
how  much  of  history  lies  behind  those  simple 
instruments — history  which  we  do  not  propose  to 
consider.  At  present  we  are  concerned  more  with 
the  application  of  old  principles  to  new  tools. 

The  Main  Divisions.  The  tools  used  for 
measurement  may  be  conveniently  divided  into 
two  very  broad  groups,  in  which,  as  we  might 
suspect,  there  is  some  slight  overlapping.  One 
includes  the  tools  employed  for  marking  out  or 
settling  dimensions  directly,  with  reference  to 
absolute  dimensions.  To  this  group  belong  the 
rules,  scales,  compasses,  dividers,  and  allied  forms. 
The  other  embraces  those  which  are  employed  for 
measuring  or  checking  by  the  contact  of  rigid  parts, 
possessing  a  certain  degree  of  known  accuracy.  In 
this  great  group  are  included  all  kinds  of  gauges, 
besides  straightedges,  squares,  levels,  bevels,  etc. 
Some  of  these  are,  however,  used  also  for  marking 
out  and  checking.  And  the  gauges  are  all  derived 
originally  from  the  absolute  measurements  of  the 
rule.  Thus,  one  group  of  measuring  instruments  is 
adjustable,  while  the  other  is  not.  In  the  movable 
group,  dimensions  are  taken  by  inspection,  and  in  the 
fixed  group  by  the  sense  of  touch  or  contact.  This 
is  a  most  important  difference,  for  although  the 
latter  might  seem  to  be  the  most  accurate  possible, 
yet  it  is  not  so  in  fact.  It  is  the  most  sensitive,  but 
the  finest  measurements  ultimately  have  to  be 
referred  to  micrometric  divisions,  notwithstanding 
that  the  sense  of  touch  is  capable  of  detecting 
•differences  as  minute  as  any  measuring  machines 
will  indicate. 

There  is  therefore  a  fundamental  difference 
between  measurements  taken  by  the  divisions  on  a 
rule  and  those  taken  by  fixed  and  unalterable  gauges. 
The  first  is  the  older,  the  second  is  the  modern.  The 
first  is  lessening,  the  second  grows,  until  in  some 
departments  of  modern  machine  shops  a  common 
rule  is  rarely  used  or  seen.  If  this  rule  is  employed 
for  some  details,  it  is  only  for  comparatively  rough 


measurements,  and  not  for  really  accurate  work. 
For  no  two  persons  can  take  a  measurement 
precisely  alike  with  a  rule,  because  the  sense  of 
sight  alone  is  trusted,  and  this  is  deceptive.  He  is  a 
very  accurate  workman  who  can  read  within  a 
hundredth  part  of  an  inch  from  a  rule,  and  this  is  a 
very  coarse  dimension.  Further,  it  is  obvious  that 
there  is  very  much  of  measurement  which  cannot 
be  taken  with  a  rule  at  all.  A  rule  is  adapted  for 
taking  a  dimension  only  along  a  plane  external 
surface.  Cylindrical  and  spherical  surfaces,  the 
dimensions  of  irregular  outlines,  the  mutual  coinci- 
dence of  any  portions  of  work  which  have  to  fit 
one  another  perfectly,  without  being  tight  on  the 
one  hand  or  sloppy  on  the  other  ;  the  accuracy  of 
screw  threads,  and  much  more  of  a  kindred  character 
cannot  be  determined  with  a  rule.  In  all  modern ' 
workshops,  therefore,  the  tendency  is  more  and ' 
more  towards  the  abolition  of  the  rule  for  all  except 
the  very  roughest  work,  and  the  substitution  of 
various  gauges  in  its  place. 

Standards.  The  question  of  standards  does 
not  much  concern  the  workman,  although  it  is  of 
first  importance  to  the  manufacturer.  We  have 
travelled  far  since  the  barleycorn,  the  cubit,  the 
length  of  the  foot,  the  handbreadtb,  and  so  on 
were  standards  suited  to  the  needs  of  agricultural 
folks.  Accurate  measurement  became  possible  only 
when  a  national  standard  of  length  was  fixed, 
using  a  bar  of  metal  of  a  definite  material,  which 
had  a  definite  length  at  a  definite  temperature. 
Such  is  the  national  British  standard  preserved 
in  the  Houses  of  Parliament. 

The  present  English  standard  dates  from  1824, 
when  the  yard  bar  made  by  Bird  in  1760  was 
legalised.  But  that  bar  was  destroyed  by  the  fire  in 
the  Houses  of  Parliament  in  1834,  and  a  new  one  was 
made  from  five  existing  copies.  It  is  termed 
"  Bronze  No.  1,"  kept  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament. 
About  forty-four  copies  were  made  in  bronze  and 
distributed  among  various  public  bodies,  and  these 
are  the  standards  from  which  manufacturers  have 
made  their  own  standards  for  private  use.  The 
story  of  these  bars  is  an  interesting  chapter  in  the 
history  of  manufacture.  Their  accuracy  at  a 
definite  temperature  lies  within  a  few  millionths  of 
an  inch  of  absolute  dimensions.  They  are  never 
touched  for  the  purpose  of  making  copies  from  them, 
and  many  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  alteration 
in  the  length,  and  flexure.  The  metric  standards, 
which  are  based  upon  the  supposed  length  of.  a 
ten-millionth  part  of  an  arc  of  the  earth's  meridian, 
have  no  virtue  by  reason  of  being  based  upon  a 
natural  measurement,  even  supposing  the  length 
taken  were  correct,  which  it  is  not.  There  is  no 
need  to  seek  a  standard  in  reference  to  any  natural 
dimension.  The  important  point  is  to  have  a 
recognised  standard  which  can  be  easily  verified 
at  any  time,  and  this  the  British  standard  affords. 

But  to  have  such  a  standard  is  one  thing,  its 
application  to  the  varied  requirements  of  engineers 
and  those  engaged  in  constructive  work  is  another. 
When  the  first  standard  was  made  a  century  and  a 

4701 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

half  ago  the  methods  of  measurement  in  use  were 
utterly  crude  and  coarse  by  comparison  ^vith  tho>e 
of  the  present  day.  The  2-ft.  rule  and  the  common 
calipers  were  the  measuring  instruments  chief  y 
employed.  Those  were  the  days  when  large  screws 
were  cut  by  chipping  and  filing,  when  small  ones 
were  cut  with  solid  dies,  when  cylinders  were 
ground  out  and  not  bored,  when  no  standard  screw 
threads  were  in  existence,  when  there  %  were  no 
planing  machines  or  shapers,  no  gauges,  no  milling, 
or  machine  grinding,  and  when  ^  in.  and  ^  in. 
were  fine  dimensions. 

The  era  of  modern  accurate  measurement  began 
with  Whitworth,  but  its  development  has  far  ex- 
ceeded anything  'which  his  most  sanguine  visions 
could  have  anticipated.  Yet  in  showing  that  the 
most  refined  and  accurate  measurements  must  rely 
on  the  sense  of  touch  and  not  on  that  of  sight  for 
their  appreciation,  and  that  for  definite  measure- 
ments  to  be  read  off  they  must  be  read  in  degrees  of 
revolution  of  a  micrometer  screw,  he  pointed  the 
way  to  all  subsequent  improvements  in  measuring 
instruments.  His  plug  and  ring  gauges,  and  his 
famous  measuring  machine  embodied  these  prin- 
ciples, and  were  the  precursors  of  other  contact 
gauges  of  special  types,  and  of  special  measuring 
instruments,  and  micrometer  calipers. 

Intermediate  Standards.  The  methods 
by  which  dimensions  are  transferred  from  the 
original  standards  to  the  intermediate  ones,  or 
copies,  are  too  abstruse  for  a  brief  description  here. 
It  must  suffice  to  say  that  no  instruments  of 
measurement  are  ever  permitted  to  be  brought  into 
actual  contact  with  the  original  standards,  because 
that  would  involve  wear.  Lengths  are  therefore 
transferred  by  means  of  microscopic  readings  from 
line  divisions,  and  by  means  of  light  reflectors  from 
end  measures.  The  intermediate  standards  which 
are  made  and  kept  for  reference  in  manufactories 
generally  take  the  form  of  gauges — that  is,  instead  of 
having  a  yard  bar,  or  a  metre  bar,  subdivided  into 
lines,  a  gauge  bar  or  some  one  of  the  numerous 
types  of  gauges,  each  of  which  gives  an  end  measure- 
ment only,  estimated  by  contact  and  touch,  is  used. 
For  obvious  reasons  these  are  more  trustworthy  in  the 
hands  of  workmen  than  the  fine  divisions  on  a  stand- 
ard rule  would  be,  because  the  former  can  be  felt, 
while  in  the  reading  of  the  latter  errors  will  arise, 
and  a  vastly  larger  time  would  be  occupied  in  the 
.  latter  than  in  the  former.  When  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  exact  line  measurements  in  a  modern 
shop,  in  order  either  to  test  a  gauge,  or  to  ascertain 
or  to  work  to  an  odd  dimension  for  which  there  is  no 
gauge  made,  then  the  micrometer  caliper  is  used 
.for  small  dimensions,  or  the  measuring  machine  for 
larger  ones.  Each  of  these  types  is  the  offspring 
of  Sir  Joseph  Whitworth's  millionth  of  an  inch 
measuring  machine. 

The  Rule.  We  begin  our  description  of 
the  working  instruments  of  measurement  with 
the  rule.  This  is  made  for  reading  direct  measure- 
ments as  estimated  by  the  eye,  and  for  taking 
dimension*  from  with  compasses  and  similar 
tools.  The  forms  of  rules  vary  with  the  require- 
ments of  many  trades.  Those  of  wood  are  used 
chiefly  by  the  woodworking  crafts,  but  metal  ones 
mostly  l»y  metal-workers,  who  are  partial  to  the 
short  rules  of  4  in.,  <>  in.,  and  12  in.  in  length. 
which  can  he  carried  in  the  pocket.  Folding  rules 
are  not  used  when  very  accurate  results  are  de-in-d. 
The  graduations  on  rules  arc  marked  generally, 
though  not  invariably,  on  both  sides,  and  only  some 
of  the  main  divisions  of  in<-he>  are  (inelv  sub- 
divided. Large  numbers  of  fine  divisions  'and  <>t 

4702 


fancy  divisions  are  confusing.  Only  those  in 
frequent  use  need  be  given,  as  i  in.,  or  ,',.,  in.; 
.;'..  in..  ,.',  in.,  and  ,  ,',„  in.  are  less  often  wanted. 
A  small,  separate  rule  may  be  kept  with  these  divi- 
sions on,  and  a  separate  rule  for  decimal,  and  for 
metric  divisions.  Many  rules  are  made  specially 
narrow  to  go  into  confined  spaces ;  others  are 
made  flexible  to  bend  round  curves.  Rules  are  often 
combined  with  squares,  the  blade  being  graduated. 
In  doing  accurate  work  measurement  should  not 
be  taken  from  the  end,  because  that  is  subject  to 
wear.  It  is  better  to  start  from  one  of  the  inch 
divisions  and  read. 

Tapes,  Rods,  and  Scales.  Tapes  are 
flexible  rules,  convenient  when  lengths  of  many  feet 
have  to  be  measured.  They  are  indispensable  to 
land  surveyors  and  builders,  and  to  a  limited 
extent  are  used,  by  engineers  for  measuring  large 
circumferences  and  laying  out  long  dimensions. 
But  they  are  not  accurate  enough  for  very  precise 
work,  because  their  length  varies  with  alterations  in 
temperature,  and,  moreover,  they  can  be  stretched 
by  a  pull.  For  accurate  lining  out,  rigid  rods  of 
vellow  pine,  about  2  in.  square  in  section,  and 
properly  seasoned,  are  used  and  divided  off  into 
feet  and  the  coarser  subdivisions  on  a  length  of 
from  5  ft.  to  10  ft.,  the  ends  projecting  an  inch  or 
two  beyond  the  neat  lengths.  Then  a  brass  rule, 
finely  divided,  is  sunk  into  the  first  foot  division. 
End  measurements  are  not  taken,  but  only  those 
from  the  edge,  thus  the  rule  never  wears.  Lengths 
shorter  than  the  rule  maybe  readily  taken,  and 
those  of  greater  length,  by  moving  the  rule  endwise, 
with  practically  no  risk.  When  fine  fractional 
dimensions  are  required,  in  these,  as  in  other  rules, 
the  reading  is  taken  backwards — that  is,  from  the 
termination  of  a  12-in.  division  which  is  not  finely 
divided  back  to  the  first  foot  (or,  in  common  short 
rules,  to  the  first  finely-divided  inch). 

Scales  are  used  for  laying  out  on  or  taking 
dimensions  from  drawings  which  are  made  to  some 
proportion  less  than  exact  size.  They  have  been 
described  in  the  course  on  DRAWING  FOR  ENGINEERS. 
They  are  not  used  so  much  in  the  shops  as  they 
were,  because  now  more  detailed  drawings  give  views 
to  actual  dimensions  than  was  formerly  the  case. 
Even  when  drawings  are  made  to  some  smaller 
scale,  dimensions  are  nearly  invariably  figured  on. 

The  rule  is  often  combined  with  other  instruments 
which  contain  provision  for  contact  measurement, 
as  in  the  slide  caliper  rules,  which  will  be  better 
illustrated  when  we  consider  the  forms  and  uses 
of  calipers. 

Surface  Plates.  There  is  a  large  group  of 
tools  which  are  not  employed  for  actual  measure- 
ment, but  for  marking  and  testing  the  truth  of 
surfaces,  centre  lines,  and  edges.  This  group 
includes  all  straightedges,  surface  plates,  squares. 
bevels,  levels,  plumb  bobs,  and  allied  forms.  Though 
they  have  this  one  feature  in  common,  they  differ 
widely  in  forms. 

A  plane  surface  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  figures 
to  produce,  and  the  genius  of  Whitworth  was  re- 
quired to  show  how  alone  it  can  be  done.  He 
substituted  scraping  for  the  older  method  of  grind- 
ing, and  showed  that  in  order  to  originate  an  accurate 
surface  three  surfaces  must  be  mutually  corrected. 
For  though  it  is  obviously  easy  to  make  one  surface 
coincide  with  a  second  one,  it  does  not  follow  that 
either  is  accurate.  If  No.  1  is  concave,  No.  2 
will  be  convex,  or  vice  versa.  But  if  throe  plates 
are  prepared,  and  Nos.  2  and  3  are  fitted  to  No.  1. 
and  then  No.  2  and  3  to  each  other,  and  then  No.  1 
to  Nos.  2  and  3,  this  process  of  mutual  correction 


VARIOUS    SMALL    TOOLS 

/O.  Sin-faceplate    71.  Straightedge     72.  Winding  strips     73-75.  Squares     76.  Adjustable  square    77.  Testing  a  square 

78  and  79.  Centre  squares     80.  Combination  set     81-84.  Bevels     85.  Protractor     86  and  87.  Levels     88.  Plumb  rule 

89.  Mercury  plumb  bob      90  and  9 1 .  Scribers      92-94.  Surface  gauges       95.  Compasses       96.  Dividers      97.  Compass 

with  loose  legs    98-105.  Various  calipers     106.  Caliper  rule    107.  Beam  ealiper 

4703 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

can  be  continued  until  all  the  plates  arc  as  true  as 
the  limitations  of  the  materials  themselves  will  per- 
mit of.  The  final  corrections  arc  extremely  minute. 
and  carefully  localised,  as  indicated  by  the  contact 
of  the  merest  film  of  oil  interposed  between  the  plates. 
The  plates  themselves  [70]  are  ribbed  to  les  en 
•chance  of  flexure,  and  are  supported  on  three 
;  points  only.  As  in  the  measuring  tools,  so  in  these 
!  plates,  some  are  kept  only  for  the  correction  of  the 
actual  working  plates,  which  are  distributed  about 
the  benches,  and  all  alike  are  covered  [70]  A  when 
not  in  use.  These  plates  are  used  for  testing  the 
i ruth  of  surfaces  that  are  required  fiat,  either  for 
bolting  up  to  others,  or  for  sliding.  They  are 
often  employed  as  a  base  for  lining  out  work  on, 
though  that  is  not  a  legitimate  function,  because 
all  occasion  of  unnecessary  wear  should  be  avoided. 

Straightedges.  There  is  no  essential 
fliflference  in  the  surface  plates  and  straightedges. 
The.  latter  must  be  originated  in  the  same  way 
as  the  surface  plates.  But  either  can  be,  and  is, 
derived  from  a  standard  surface  plate  known  to  be 
true.  A  straightedge,  however  thin  its  edge,  has 
sensible  thickness,  and  therefore  its  edge  must  be 
a  true  plane,  or  free  from  winding.  The  larger  shop 
straightedges  of  several  feet  in  length  [71]  are 
often  two  or  three  inches  in  width  on  the  edge,  and 
are  really  narrow  surface  plates,  only  the  length 
vastly  exceeds  the  width.  These  are  of  cast  iron, 
deeply  ribbed,  often  with  feet  as  shown  by  dotted 
lines,  and  got  up  by  scraping,  and  are  used  for 
scraping  large  machine  slides  by  and  as  standards 
for  the  production  of  smaller  straightedges.  When 
used  for  testing  the  slides  of  heavy  machines  the 
straightedges  are  held  up  in  the  crane-sling,  face 
downwards,  and  lowered  on  to  the  work  for  trial. 

These  larger  straightedges  are  generally  cambered, 
as  shown,  to  lessen  chance  of  flexure.  But  those 
of  moderate  and  small  dimensions  are  parallel. 
They  are  made  in  metal  and  in  wood.  Two  parallel 
straightedges  of  equal  width  are  winding  strips,  or 
parcSld  strips  (72],  and  they  are  used  to  check  the 
winding  of  plain  surfaces  or  that  non-plane  con- 
dition in  which  one  or  more  portions  stand  higher 
than  others.  The  value  of  the  winding  strips  is 
that,  being  longer  than  the  width  of  surface  being 
tested,  they  magnify  the  inaccuracies,  which  are 
readily  seen  on  sighting  along  over  the  top  edges. 

In  testing  work  with  the  straightedge,  chalk  for 
timber,  and  red  lead  in  oil  for  metal  are  generally 
used,  to  show  by  transference  of  the  chalk  or  lead 
from  tin-  edue  to  the  face  of  the  work  the  parts 
where  contact  occurs.  This  contact  should  be 
light.  Hard  pressure  and  rubbing  not  only 
di.-tort,  but  wear  the  edges  unduly.  Also  a 
>-:  raiuhtedge  should  be  held  vertically,  and  not 
tilted  at  ah  angle  to  show  the  light,  which  is  not 
a  reliable  position. 

Squares.  The  numerous  squares  and  bevels 
are  combinations  of  straightedges,  the  squares 
beiuir  two  strain  hied  ncs  lixcd  at  right  angles,  the 
1  levels  with  angles  capable  of  variation.  The  re- 
quirements .if  mechanics  are  so  extensive  thai  each 
group  includes  several  designs  and  sixes. 

There  are  t\vn  kinds  of  squares — the  try,  or  injimj 
x'limrc,  formed  of  two  blades  at  right  angles,  and 
the  fii't  square,  the  web  of  which  is  continuous. 
The  first  is  used  for  testing  both  external  and 
internal  angles,  chiefly  the  first:  the  second  for 
internal  an-jlcs  only.  Some  try-squares  have  the 
,-/'«•/.-  and  lilmli  of  equal  thickness  (73],  but  usually 
the  stock,  or  shorter  arm  is  of  greater  thickness 
than  the  blade  [74]  as  being  more  convenient  in 
use,  th«-  edoc  of  the  stock  affording  a  .steady. 

4704 


maintaining  the  bl  idc  straight  and  square  across 
the  material.  This  is  sometimes  exaggerated 
by  forming  a  broad  flange  on  the  stock,  so  that  the 
square  will  stand  upright.  Being  wide,  it  will  not 
scrape  up  the  sand  in  foundry  moulds,  in  which 
work  it  is  specially  used. 

Variations  in  trying  squares  occur  chiefly  in 
dimensions,  and  methods  of  fitting  the  blade  to  the 
stock.  The  first  have  a  very  wide  range,  from 
2  in.  or  3  in',  to  as  many  feet.  The  feature  which 
controls  the  second  in  'the  modern  squares  is  the 
nature  of  the  provisions  for  securing  the  blade  and 
stock.  The  old  plan,  and  that  most  common  still, 
is  to  cut  a  saw  kerf  down  one  end  of  the  stock, 
insert  the  blade  [74]  and  rivet  it  up.  But  the  two 
cannot  be  detached  again  for  correction  due  to 
wear,  nor  is  it  certain  that  the  edge  of  the  blade  is 
pulled  up  to  a -good  bearing.  Hence  devices  exist 
.for  accomplishing  both.  Blades  are  screwed  in 
or  on  their  stocks  with  tapered  screws  er  split  screws. 
which  pull  the  blade  against  its  shoulder,  and  which 
may  or  may  not  be  supplemented  by  plain  screws. 
In  some  squares  the  blade  is  fitted  against  an  open 
face  [75].  Another  provision  sometimes  made  is 
that  for  adjusting  the  blade  transversely  to  its 
stock  [76]  which  can  be  appreciated  when  a  blade  is 
too  long  or  too  short  to  go  into  a  recessed  situation. 
A  clamping  bolt  is  fitted  in  the  stock,  and  the 
blade  is  grooved  to  receive  the  hooked  head  of 
the  bolt. 

A  square  is  tested  by  setting  its  stock  against  an 
edge  known  to  be  true,  and  by  scribing  a  line  on  ;> 
face  coincident  with  an  edge  of  the  blade.  If,  on 
reversing  the  position  of  the  stock,  the  same  edge 
coincides  with  this  line,  the  square  is  true  ;  but  if 
not,  then  the  square  is  inaccurate  by  half  the 
amount  of  difference  [77]. 

Set  Squares.  These  are  always  thin,  made  of 
wood,  or  metal,  or  vulcanite.  They  are  used  to 
test  internal  angles.  A  subsidiary  utility  is  that  of 
combining  certain  common  angles  between  the 
hypotenuse  of  the  angle  and  the  right  angled  edges. 
These  are  45  deg.,  or  else  00  deg.,  and  30  cleg. 
The  transparent  celluloid  squares  are  useful  for 
the  draughtsman,  because  they  permit  of  seeing 
lines  and  figures  on.  the  drawing  beneath  them. 

Tee  Squares.  These  differ  from  the  trying 
squares,  in  that  the  stock  is  prolonged  to  right  and 
left  of  the  blade,  since  this  type  is  used  only  flatwise 
by  draughtsmen  against  the  edge  of  a  board. 

Centre  Squares.  These  are  squares  only 
in  name.  The  working  edge  of  the  blade  rr.akes  a 
tangent  to  any  regular  arc  against  which  it  is  laid, 
and  therefore 'coincides  with  the  centre  of  the  arc, 
which  centre  is  located  by  the  intersections  of  lines ; 
obtained  from  two  or  more  settings  of  the  square. 
These  are  made  of  wood,  with  pins  to  make  contact  j 
with  the  edge  of  the  arc  [78],  and  with  metal  edges 
set  at  angle  of  45  deg  [79].  In  another  form,  seen 
to  the  right  in  80,  the  instrument  is  made  to  fit 
a  rule,  which  thus  becomes  the  blade.  The  instru- 
ment to  the  left  in  80,  also  clamped  to  the  rule  by  the 
same  device  as  tint  shown  in  76, combines  a  square. 
a  bevel  of  45  deg.,  and  a  spirit  level.  A  plain 
scriber  is  also  screwed  into  the  frame  at  A  for  use 
when  detached. 

Bevels.  Bevels  are  also  incorrectly  termed  In  n  / 
squares.  They  are  used  for  laying  off  and  cheeking 
angles,  which,  however,  are  not  marked  on  the  bevels, 
but  obtained  from  a  protractor.  They  comprise 
a  rigid  stock,  and  an  adjustable  blade,  which  is 
tightened  at  any  angle  by  means  of  a  screw. 

The  objection  to  the  common  bevel  [81]  is  that 
in  small  angles  the  inner  edge  of  the  blade  comes 


125 


GAUGES   AND    OTHER    TOOLS 

108.  Vernier  caliper  109.  Diagram  of  vernier  110.  Micrometer  caliper  11 1.  Ratchet  stop  112.  Horseshoe  cali per 
113  and  114.  Micrometer  beam  calipers  115.  Rod  gauge  116.  Depth  ganoce  117  and  118.  Plug  and  ring 
119-122.  Snap  gauges  1 23.  Limit  gauges  124.  Screw-thread  gauges  ^125.  Newall  measuring  machine 

26  G  4705 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

MI  far  down  the  stock  that  the  available  length  of 
tin-  blade  is  much  shortened.  To  remedy  this  is  the 
reason  for  the  offset  design  [82],  in  which  the  available 
1.  -iiL'th  of  the  blade  is  the  same  at  all  angles.  The 
long  open  slot  also  in  the  common  bevel  is  objec- 
tionable when  checking  the  edges  of  very  thin 
material,  and  this  is  absent  in  the  offset  type. 
In  83  the  stock  is  slotted  as  well  as  the  blade,  so 
that  by  moving  the  latter  down  the  slot,  either  side 
of  the  bevel  can  be  used,  which  is  impossible 
in  81  or  82.  The  combination  bevel  with  three 
blades  1  84]  provides  a  wider  range  of  utility  than 
the  ordinary  type.  The  ends  of  the  blades  are  also 
-n>u:id  to  definite  angles. 

Protractors.  These,  also  termed  bevel 
l>rotmctors,  have  the  angles  set  out  on  the  face. 
The  common  form  is  a  plated  half  disc  divided  round 
into  degrees,  from  which  a  bevel  is  set,  or  lines 
marked  off  directly.  But  many  instruments  include 
a  blade  adjustable  round  a  graduated  plate  [85] 
with  a  vernier  reading. 

Spirit  Levels.  These  [86]  are  used  for  test- 
ing the  general  level  of  surfaces,  not  in  the  same 
sense  as  surface  plate  tests,  but  for  setting  up  a 
surface  known  or  assumed  to  be  true  in  a  truly 
horizontal  position.  They  are  employed  by  many 
trades,  but  chiefly  in  the  departments  of  building 
and  engineering. 

Levels  are  mostly  short,  measuring  less  than  1  ft. 
in  length.  Unless  a  surface  were  perfectly  true,  the.se 
lengths  would  be  insufficient  to  afford  a  fair  test 
to  the  general  horizontal  accuracy  of  a  surface  several 
feet  in  length.  They  are  therefore  laid  upon  the 
top  edge  of  a  parallel  straightedge,  long  enough 
to  extend  over  the  surface  to  be  levelled,  so  averag- 
ing all  slight  inequalities.  Sometimes  the  level  and 
straightedge  are  permanently  united,  which  is  a 
good  plan  where  the  work  done  in  a  shop  is  of 
a  uniform  character. 

Levels  used  in  the  ordinary  manner  wear  in  time 
on  the  base,  and  so  cease  to  indicate  truthfully. 
Then,  if  the  instrument  is  turned  end  for  end,  the 
one-sided  positions  of  the  bubble  must  be  alike 
on  reversal  if  the  surface  is  true.  But  some  levels 
contain  provision  for  adjustment  [87]  to  compensate 
for  wear,  in  the  shape  of  nuts  which  clamp  lugs  in 
which  the  ends  of  the  bubble  tube  terminate.  The 
ordinary  rigid  levels  must  have  their  base  corrected 
now  and  again. 

The  woodworker  uses  chiefly  levels  with  wooden 
stocks  [86],  the  metal-worker  with  those  of  metal  [87]. 
The  wooden  ones  are  generally  protected  with  brass 
I'l.itcs  next  the  ends.  The  bubble  tube  is  sunk  into 
the  wood  and  covered  with  a  brass  plate  with  a 
•  -cniral  bridge.  In  some  metal  instruments  the 
tul>e  can  be  turned  round  in  a  casing  of  brass  for 
protection  [87].  Many  levels  have  a  sidcsiuht:  the 
ordinary  wooden  ones  can  only  be  seen  by  look- 
ing down  directly  on  the  top.  Combination 
levels  are  those  which  have  provision  for  testing 
the.  truth  of  perpendicular  faces  in  addition  to 
horizontal.  They  contain  two  bubble  tubes  at 
I'Lili'  angles  in  one  stock.  Some  levels  have  a 
v.-c'd  base,  which  allows  them  to  be  used  on 
or  tubes. 

Plumb  Bobs.  These  are  for  testing  the  vert  ical 
truth  of  faces  and  centres,  and  depend  for  their 
action  on  the  suspension  of  a  pear-shaped  weight 
M  ith  a  point  from  a  cord.  This  may  be  used  alone, 
or  in  combination  with  a  straightedge,  termed 
(88j.  In  one  type,  a  hollow  tube  with 


a  pointed  end  is  iilled  with  mercury  |89]  which 
•  •oii|cs  to  rest  quicker  than  a  bob  of  lead,  and  is 
-mailer  for  a  given  weight. 

4704 


Marking  and  Dividing  Instruments. 
Sharp-pointed  instruments  of  various  kinds  occupy 
an  important  place  in  the  work  of  measurement. 
These  include  scribers,  surface  gauges,  compasses. 
di\ideis.  trammels  in  various  designs,  which  are 
constantly  being  used  by  mechanics  working  in 
wood  and  in  metal.  Lines  must  be  scribed — that  is, 
MT.itched  or  cut,  and  centres  must  be  pricked  or 
jjopped  to  be  permanent  and  unobliterated  by  the 
usage  of  the  shops,  and  to  be  accurate  enough  to 
cut  by.  The  finer  the  lines  the  better,  so  long  as 
they  are  visible,  becausa  a  thick  line  has  sensible 
width,  which  is  objectionable. 

The  Scriber.  This  is  the  instrument  by 
which  lines  are  drawn,  guided  by  the  edges  of  squares 
and  straightedges.  One  end  is  a  point  [90],  the 
other  is  often  a  knife  edge  [91] ;  90  is  the  engineer's 
scriber,  the  hook  at  the  opposite  end  being  often  made 
to  hang  the  instrument  over  the  pocket-edge  of  the 
trousers ;  91  is  the  form  used  by  woodworkers, 
the  knife  edge  cutting  like  a  chisel  into  the  wood. 

Surface  Gauges.  Mount  a  double-ended 
pointed  instrument  in  a  support,  and  the  surface 
gauge,  or  scribing  block,  in  its  crudest  form  results. 
For" the  steady  block  affords  a  rigid  support  to  the 
scriber.  and  the  latter  can  be  adjusted  vertically, 
and  traversed  along  the  faces  of  work,  scribing 
lines  as  it  goes  ;  hence  one  of  the  utilities  of  the 
marking-out  table  with  its  true  face.  In  this  way 
any  number  of  horizontal  parallel  lines  can  be 
scribed  at  all  heights  within  the  range  of  the  surface 
gauge.  All  the  differences  in  these  tools  are 
matters  of  detail,  differences  in  plain  common- 
place tools  and  those  of  high  precision.  These 
variations  consist  chiefly  in  the  mere  adjustment 
and  pinching  of  the  scriber  holder  by  a  thumb- 
screw, and  the  employment  of  finely-pitched  or 
micrometric  screws  for  effecting  the  adjustments. 
These  take  various  forms  in  the  hands  of  different 
manufacturers,  the  result  being  that  positive 
and  exact  minute  dimensions  can  be  obtained  by 
divisions  on  the  instruments  themselves.  These  are 
a  great  advance  on  the  old  blocks,  which  had  an 
upright  piece,  against  which  was  clamped  a  flat 
slotted  scriber.  The  scribers  are  made  of  round 
rod  in  most  cases  now.  Three  forms  out  of  many 
are  illustrated  in  92,  93,  and  94.  In  92  the  scriber 
stem  is  carried  in  a  split  lug,  A,  tightened  with  a 
screw  and  wing  nut  around  the  scriber,  and  on  the 
stem  or  pillar,  B,  which  is  supported  on  a  steady  base 
hollowed  underneath  to  leave  an  annul  us  only  of 
bearing  surface.  This  block,  in  common  with  others, 
has  a  hole  in  the  base  to  permit  of  passing  the  scriber 
down  to  form  a  depth  gauge.  In  93  a  refinement 
occurs  in  the  form  of  the  milled  nut  at  A,  which  by 
means  of  a  finely -threaded  screw  inside  the  base 
affords  a  fine  adjustment  to  the  height  of  the 
pillar,  and  saves  troublesome  tapping  of  the  scrib  -r 
to  make  minute  alterations  in  the  height  of  point. 
There  are  several  other  methods  of  effecting  fine 
adjustments.  Fig.  93,  B  is  an  extension  piece  for 
increasing  the  range  of  the  instrument.  A  high-clas< 
universal  gauge  is  shown  in  94.  The  stem  is  pivoted 
in  a  lug  in  a  heavy  base,  so  that  it  can  be  set  in  any 
position  between  the  vertical  and  horizontal.  The 
base  is  vee'd  to  fit  circular  bodies  as  well  as  flat  faces. 
Friction  springs  retain  the  stem  in  position  while 
making  adjustments,  and  also  the  scriber  in  its 
clamping  boss.  Pins  at  a  are  fitted  to  be  pushed 
down  below  the  faee  of  the  base,  when  the  base  can 
l)e  slid  along  the  edge  of  a  surface  plate  to  mark 
lines  on  a  horizontal  face.  Many  scribing  blocks 
have  rules  fitted,  some  have  a  micrometer,  making 
them  very  precise  instruments  of  measurement. 


Dividers,  Compasses,  and  Trammels. 

These  instruments  are  used  both  for  dividing 
and  for  marking  arcs  of  circles.  Hence  they 
occur  in  a  large  range  of  dimensions  and  degrees  of 
precision ;  from  those  adjusted  by  the  hands  merely 
and  clamped  with  screws,  to  those  in  which  the 
adjustments  are  micrometric  in  fineness  and 
precision.  In  strictness  there  is  no  essential 
difference  between  the  dividers  and  compasses, 
because  many  of  the  latter  combine  the  finely- 
threaded  screw  of  the  former.  But  commercially 
the  dividers  are  classed  as  those  which  are  opened 
by  a  spring,  and  closed  by  a  wing  nut  and  screw ; 
and  compasses  are  either  clamped  with  a  screw 
pinched  on  a  quadrant  or  have  in  addition  a  fine 
adjustment  or  screw;  or  have  neither,  comprising 
legs  and  hinge  only,  with  or  without  a  clamping 
screw  in  the  hinge.  Thus  95  is  a  compass,  96 
dividers.  Fig.  95  is  the  best  form  of  common 
compass,  because  it  combines  the  fine  screw  ad- 
justment at  A  in  addition  to  the  clamping  wing  nut 
at  B.  The  dividers  [96]  differ  from  the  older 
kinds  in  having  a  spring  loop  separate,  and  only 
attached  to  the  legs  instead  of  being  in  one  with 
them.  There  is  a  knurled  stem,  A,  which  renders 
it  easier  to  handle  and  twirl  the  instrument  than 
by  holding  the  spring  itself.  The  nut  at  B  is  also 
an  improvement  on  the  solid  nut,  because  when  the 
legs  are  sprung  together  a  little  with  the  left  hand 
the  nut  frees  itself  from  the  thread,  and  can  be  slid 
along  instantty,  instead  of  being  turned  through  the 
whole  distance.  On  releasing  the  legs,  the  nut 
grips  the  threads  again.  The  nut,  B,  is  like  a  split 
chuck,  its  nose  being  coned  to  match  a  coned  ring,  a. 
When  a  presses  its  cone  on  the  nose  of  A,  the  latter 
is  compressed  inwards  sufficiently  to  engage  with 
the  screw  threads  ;  when  free  from  the  coercion  of 
a,  its  elasticity  causes  it  to  open  outwards. 

Most  compasses  have  rigid  legs,  but  some  have 
also  supplementary  points  [97].  The  advantage 
of  the  latter  is  that  the  points,  moving  in  pivoted 
holders,  can  be  set  perpendicularly,  however 
imich  the  legs  may  be  spread,  and  also  that  the 
points  may  be  set  in  different  planes  to  suit  centres 
or  arcs  which  are  not  in  the  same  plane.  Often 
these  combine  calipers  with  points,  being  situated 
at  opposite  ends  [97]  A,  the  legs  being  pivoted  to 
the  main  legs,  still  with  advantage  of  perpendicular 
setting.  In  other  forms  this  combination  exists  hi 
the  compass  calipers,  or  hermaphrodites. 

Trammels.  These  are  for  larger  radii  and 
centres  than  can  be  obtained  with  compasses. 
The  trammel  heads  slide  along  and  are  adjusted 
and  clamped  on  a  parallel  beam  of  wood  or  metal, 
and  designs  vary.  Some  have  a  fine  screw  adjust- 
ment on  one  head,  some  combine  provision  for 
inserting  a  pencil  in  a  tube  on  one  head ;  but 
generally  two  points  only  and  clamping  screws 
are  included. 

Calipers.  The  basis  of  all  the  contact  gauges 
is  the  common  adjustable  caliper,  comprising  two 
legs  adjustable  round  the  pivot,  and  capable  of 
taking  either  •  external  or  internal  dimensions. 
The  length  is  then  read  off  on  a  rule  or  a  gauge. 
Any  common  calipers  can  be  used  for  taking  ex- 
ternal or  internal  dimensions.  But  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  have  two  instruments,  the  former  [98] 
bow-legged  to  pass  over  large  diameters,  the  latter 
T99]  straight  to  go  into  small  bores  and  spaces. 
These  constitute  the  two  types  on  which  modified 
forms  are  fashioned,  with  or  without  capacity  for 
fine  screw  adjustment.  Sometimes  the  two  instru- 
ments are  combined  in  one  on  opposite  sides  of  a 
central  pivot  [100],  in  which  case  both  pairs  of 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

points  should  give  the  same  dimensions.  This 
type  is  also  useful  for  measuring  chambered  recesses, 
the  straight  legs  being  passed  through  and  opened 
out,  when  the  size  is  measured  from  the  curved 
legs  lying  outside  ;  it  would  otherwise  be  impossible 
to  record  the  dimensions,  because  when  the  calipers 
are  removed  from  the  chamber,  they  must  be  squeezed 
inwards,  and  the  size  is  therefore  lost.  Herma- 
phrodites, or  compass  calipers  [101]  are  not  true 
calipers,  but  they  have  one  pointed  compass  leg 
and  one  caliper  leg.  Their  value  consists  in 
scribing  lines  from  edges,  guided  by  the  caliper 
leg  moved  round  or  along  the  edges.  Centres 
can  also  be  found  when  plugs  are  inserted 
in  rough  bores  preparatory  to  marking  out  for 
boring,  etc. 

Calipers  of  the  foregoing  forms  are  adjusted 
finely  by  tapping  lightly  one  leg  against  a  rigid 
body.  But  others  include  screw  provisions  for 
such  adjustments,  by  which  much  time  is  saved. 
Thus  in  102  a  fine  screw,  A,  with  a  knurled  head, 
moves  in  a  nut,  B,  at  the  end  of  the  plate  attached  to 
the  joint.  Figs.  103  and  104  are  variants  on  the  type 
of  compasses  shown  in  96,  both  in  regard  to  the  fitting 
of  the  nut  to  the  screw,  and  in  having  a  spring  head. 
Though  in  most  cases  the  caliper  must  be  set  on  a 
rule  or  gauge  to  read  the  dimension  taken,  some 
instruments  combine  a  quadrant  rule  [105],  or 
sometimes  a  straight  rule  on  the  side  opposite 
to  the  legs,  on  which  the  dimensions  can  be  read 
off.  These  forms  are  not  popular,  but  the  same 
principle  in  other  guises — that  of  the  caliper  rule 
and  vernier,  and  micrometer  calipers — are  lorgely 
employed. 

The  Gauges.  Though  in  the  calipers  the  sense 
of  touch  indicates  when  they  are  in  actual  contact 
with  the  turned  work  on  opposite  sides  of  its 
diameter,  this  device  is  not  an  ideal  one,  because 
the  rule  still  affords  the  final  test  of  truth,  the  cali- 
pers being  laid  directly  upon  the  divisions  of  the 
rule  in  order  to  determine  the  size  required.  This, 
therefore,  is  not  in  strictness  a  mode  of  measurement 
obtained  by  the  sense  of  touch,  since  the  rule  be- 
comes the  check,  which  is  of  an  ocular  kind.  In 
order  that  the  system  of  measurement  by  touch 
shall  be  strictly  carried  out,  the  caliper  must  be 
checked  not  on  the  rule,  but  against  a  fixed  and  rigid 
standard  such  as  another  caliper,  or  a  gauge.  To 
this  the  objection  may  be  made  that  it  would  in- 
volve an  expensive  series  of  fixed  gauges,  because 
the  number  of  dimensions  required  would  be 
numerous,  and  this  would  be  true  in  a  degree. 
The  system  is  expensive  in  its  first  inception,  but 
it  conduces  to  such  great  economies  ultimately 
that  all  firms  who  run  their  shops  on  modern  lines 
adopt  it.  The  simplest  case  which  occurs  is  that  in 
which  there  are  two  gauges  for  any  one  dimension — 
namely,  external  and  internal — so  that  while  one  is 
used  for  testing  the  accuracy  of  external  parts, 
the  other  is  employed  similarly  for  internal  parts 
which  have  to  correspond.  Or  if  there  is  no  such 
correspondence,  a  definite  dimension  is  secured 
at  once,  with  a  degree  of  precision  which  cannot  be 
obtained  by  reference  to  a  rule.  Modern  systems 
of  measurement  are  thus  both  absolute  and  relative. 
That  is,  a  dimension  may  be  worked  to  fractional 
portions  of  the  inch,  or  it  may  be  made  to  corre^ 
spond  with  another  dimension.  In  each  of  these  cases 
the  methods  followed  to-day  are  essentially  those 
of  Whitworth,  and  though  the  devices  adopted 
in  each  case  are  different,  yet  the  verification  in 
each  depends  on  the  sense  of  touch.  To  the  first  or 
absolute  class  belong  the  caliper  rules,  vernier,  and 
micrometer  calipers,  to  the  second  the  fixed  gauges. 

4707 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

lint  the  division  into  rule  measurement  and 
contact  measurement  is  not  of  a  hard  and  fast 
character.  Many  instruments  combine  the  two 
functions,  as  the  micrometer  and  vernier  calipers. 

Caliper  Rules.  The  simplest  caliper  rules 
comprise  a  beam  with  a  fixed  jaw  at  one  end  [106], 
and  another  jaw  which  can  be  slid  along  the  beam, 
ami  adjusted  and  clamped  to  give  any  width  of  open- 
ing within  the  range  afforded  by  the  length  of  the 
beam.  The  latter  is  divided  out  like  a  rule  into 
English  or  metric  subdivisions,  or  both.  These  are 
sometimes  made  in  wood,  but  mostly  in  metal,  and 
fill  a  useful  place  in  the  shops,  but  they  do  not 
admit  of  measurements  of  higher  precision  than  the 
rules  do.  They  simply  save  the  trouble  of  taking 
separate  measurements,  and  comprise  a  caliper 
grafted  on  a  rule. 

A  refinement  on  the  caliper  rule  is  the  so-called 
caliper  square  or  beam  caliper  [107],  which  is  a  stage 
between  the  rule  and  the  vernier  types,  points  in 
which  will  be  noted  in  connection  with  the  latter. 

Vernier  Calipers.  For  very  fine  measure- 
ments the  vernier  is  applied  to  the  caliper  rule,  or 
beam  caliper,  or  vernier  caliper,  producing  a  most 
valuable  instrument.  Its  design  and  construction 
is  shown  applied  in  108,  and  the  vernier  is  enlarged 
in  109. 

Each  inch  along  the  bar  or  beam  is  divided 
into  ten  parts,  and  each  tenth  into  four  parts,  so  that 
each  inch  has  forty  divisions.  The  sliding  jaw 
of  the  caliper  carries  the  vernier,  A,  on  which  a 
length  equal  to  24  divisions  of  the  main  bar  is 
divided  into  25  parts  [109],  or  20  parts  in  108. 
Clearly,  therefore,  each  division  on  the  vernier  in  109 
is  shorter  than  each  division  on  the  bar  by  one 
twenty-fifth  part  of  the  fortieth  of  an  inch,  in  other 
words,  by  '001  in.  When  the  zero  mark  on  the  ver- 
nier and  the  bar  coincide,  the  caliper  is  set  to 
1  inch.  Any  other  distance,  excepting  those  at  the 
cardinal  divisions,  2  in.,  3  in.,  etc.,  is  taken  by  the 
distance  to  which  the  zero  scale  is  moved  to  right 
or  left  of  the  zero  on  the  bar,  or  the  inch  divisions 
on  the  same.  The  distance  to  right  and  left  is 
counted  as  the  number  of  divisions  the  zero  point  on 
the  vernier  has  been  moved,  say,  from  the  zero  point 
on  the  bar.  The  number  of  divisions  counted 
to  where  one  is  found  that  corresponds  with  one  on 
the  bar  will  be  the  number  of  thousandths  to  be 
added  to  the  distance  read  off  on  the  bar  itself. 
Calculation  is  facilitated  by  calling  the  tenths  ('100), 
one  hundred  thousands,  and  the  fortieths,  twenty- 
five  thousandths  ( '025). 

In  the  illustration  [109]  the  vernier  has  been 
moved  to  the  right  1-f^y  in.,  or  T20  in.  The  sixth 
line  of  the  vernier  coincides  with  a  lino  on  the  scale 
(indicated  by  the  arrow),  so  making  j^,  or  '006  in., 
to  be  added  to  the  reading  from  the  scale,  making 
the  total  reading  one,  and  two  hundred,  and  six 
thousands  inches,  or  T206  in. 

Around  this  vernier  caliper  several  designs  are 
evolved.  Generally  provision  is  made  for  fine 
adjustment  of  the  sliding  head  by  means  of  a 
tine  screw  in  a  second  sliding  head,  B  [108]; 
aNo  in  the  beam  calipers  [107],  which  is  brought 
up  and  pinched  at  a  convenient  distance  away 
from  the  head  to  which  the  loose  caliper  jaw  is 
attached.  Other  devices  are  used  in  Continental 
«l'--iiiii«.  .Many  <>t  th<-<r  calipers  are  made  with 
L8>  points  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  caiiper 
J.MVS.  Also  inside  and  outside  calipers  are  formed 
on  opposite  jaws. 

The  other  -r.'at  group  of  calipers,  the  micrometer 
type,  differs  from  the  vernier  in  the  method  of  ob- 
ta  iniiiLT  tin--  divisions,  which  involves  a  different  shape. 

4708 


Micrometer  Calipers.  In  this  design 
the  principle  is  that  of  the  Whit  worth  measuring 
machine — namely,  the  subdivision  of  the  pitch  of  a 
finely  pitched  screw  by  equal  divisions  on  a  circular 
wheel.  Obviously,  for  a  movement  of  each  arc  of 
division  on  the  wheel  the  screw  moves  a  jaw  through 
a  corresponding  division  of  the  pitch,  which  is 
therefore  a  definite  dimension,  however  line  it  may 
be.  The  principle  is  worked  out  in  a  different 
manner  in  the  micrometer  calipers  than  in  the 
larger  measuring  machines,  and  they  do  not  read 
to  so  fine  dimensions.  The  following  is  a  description 
of  the  Brown  and  Sharpe  micrometer  [110],  typical 
in  the  main  of  others. 

Fig.  110  gives  views  of  the  same  instrument 
in  external  perspective  above,  in  longitudinal 
section  below,  with  a  ratchet  stop  to  the  left  [111]. 
The  figures  on  the  horseshoe  are  decimal  equiva- 
lents, for  ready  reference.  The  spindle  A  is  movable 
to  and  from  the  anvil  B,  and  between  these  the  work 
is  measured.  A  is  actuated  by  the  fine  screw  C. 
D  is  the  barrel,  in  one  with  the  horseshoe  arm  E. 
The  screw  fits  in  a  nut,  F,  which  enters  a  recess  in 
the  barrel.  A  similar  threaded  nut,  G,  affords 
additional  support  to  the  screw,  and  is  used  to 
take  up  wear.  It  is  threaded  externally  to  fit 
a  screw  cut  in  the  end  of  the  barrel  D,  and  with  one 
cut  in  a  lock  nut,  H.  The  screw  threads  in  G  and 
H  are  finer  than  those  of  the  main  screw,  C,  for 
exact  adjustment.  A  ring,  I,  encircles  the  plain 
spindle  A.  It  has  a  split  tapered  boss  threaded 
externally  to  take  the  sleeve,  J,  with  a  knurled 
head.  This  clamps  the  split  boss  around  the 
spindle  A,  locking  it  after  setting.  A  variation  in  the 
position  of  J  is  shown  in  the  upper  and  lower  figures. 

These  calipers  measure  to  yu^in.  The  screw  has 
forty  threads  per  inch.  The  graduations  on  the 
barrel,  some  of  which  are  seen  at  a  in  the  upper 
figure,  in  a  line  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  screw, 
are  also  forty  to  the  inch,  beginning  at  0.  Each 
division,  therefore,  corresponds  with  the  longi- 
tudinal distance  traversed  during  one  revolution 
of  the  screw.  The  bevelled  edge  of  the  thimble 
adjacent  is  graduated  into  25  parts.  As  40  x  2.~> 
equals  1,000,  each  movement  of  the  thimble  round 
one  division  advances  the  screw  T^oo"1- 

Very  Fine  Measurements.  Smaller 
readings  can  be  taken  by  estimating  by  the 
eye  a  half  or  a  quarter  of  a  division  round  the 
thimble,  so  that  a  half  or  quarter  thousandth 
can  be  estimated  very  accurately.  But  for  finer 
divisions  a  circular  vernier  is  embodied.  It  has? 
10  divisions,  which  occupy  the  same  space  as  nine 
divisions  on  the  thimble.  When  a  line  on  the 
thimble  coincides  with  the  first  line  on  the  vernier, 
the  next  two  lines  differ  from  each  other  by  one- 
tenth  of  the  length  of  a  division  on  the  thimble, 
and  so  on.  Hence,  when  the  thimble  is  turned 
so  that  a  line  on  it  coincides  with  the  second  line 
of  the  vernier,  the  thimble  has  moved  one-tenth  of 
the  length  of  one  of  its  subdivisions,  or  -1  "fp  =  T  „ ,', ,-,,,- 

As  it  is  possible  to  vary  the  amount  of  pressure 
on  the  instrument,  and  thus  obtain  vary  ing  readings, 
a.  ratchet  stop  [111]  is  fitted  to  some  calipers.  It  is 
a  ratchet,  A,  with  a  spring  pawl,  B.  If  more  pressure 
is  exercised  than  that  which  suffices  to  set  the 
instrument,  the  ratchet  slips  past  the  pawl  and 
stops  the  further  turning  of  the  measuring  spindle. 
When  opening,  the  pawl  catches  the  ratchet  and 
prevents  slip. 

Variations  in  this  type  of  caliper  by  various 
makers  consist  in  different  methods  of  taking  up 
the  wear  on  the  screw  for  the  purpose  of  re-adjnst- 
ments  after  long  service,  some  making  it  on  the 


anvil,  some  on  the  thimble.  Also  in  the  com- 
parative fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  readings,  in 
the  range  of  dimensions  available,  and  in  the 
graduations  in  English  or  metrical  dimensions. 
Other  variations  are  the  combination  of  two 
calipers  in  one  head  for  different  ranges  of  dimen- 
sions, or  for  two  dimensions  nearly'  alike,  as  for 
slack  and  driving  fits.  Others  are  made  for  special 
functions  only,  as  for  measuring  screw  threads, 
wires,  tubes,  sheet  metal,  etc.  Another  distinction 
is  that  between  small  and  large  types,  which 
involves  a  difference  in  design. 

Large      Micrometer      Calipers.       The 

small  micrometers  do  not  usually  exceed  2  in. 
maximum  capacity,  but  larger  ones  are  made  of 
horseshoe  and  beam  types  for  larger  dimensions. 
In  these  the  range  of  the  micrometer  screw  move- 
ment is  still  smalJ,  not  exceeding  1  in.  usually,  but 
the  larger  dimensions  are  obtained  by  the  large 
size  of  the  horseshoe  in  the  one  case,  and  of  the 
length  of  the  beam  in  the  other,  along  which  a 
movable  head  can  be  set  in  several  positions. 

Fig.  112  is  a  large  horseshoe  caliper,  with  a 
micrometer  spindle  to  the  right.  The  anvil  to  the 
left  has  provision  for  taking  up  wear  with  two  ring 
nuts,  and  two  other  anvils  (one  of  which  is  shown 
separately  at  A)  are  supplied  for  sizes  which  the 
1  in.  range  of  the  micrometer  cannot  accommodate. 
The  longest  anvil  would,  for  instance,  measure 
from  3  in.  to  4  in.,  the  next  one  4  in.  to  5  in.,  and 
the  shortest  5  in.  to  6  in.  Beam  micrometers  are 
shown  in  113,  114.  The  main  inch  divisions  are 
obtained  by  clamping  the  main  head,  A,  with  its 
set-screw,  B,  by  the  line  on  the  bevelled  edge  at  a. 
The  adjusting  block,  C,  is  clamped  also  near  A,  in 
order  that  the  exact  setting  of  A  to  the  inch  divisions 
may  be  effected  by  the  milled  head,  D,  operating  a 
tine  screw.  The  micrometer  then  gives  parts  of 
the  inch. 

In  114  the  head  is  set  precisely  by  means  of  a 
plug,  A,  pushed  through  a  hole  in  both  head  and 
beam.  The  plug  is  hardened,  and  the  holes  are 
bushed  with  hardened  steel.  Each  separate  hole 
in  the  head  matches  its  own  in  the  beam  for  every 
inch,  thus  spreading  the  total  wear  over  the  six 
holes  and  simplifying  the  work  of  manufacture, 
since,  when  a  set  of  plug-holes  are  lapped  out 
correctly  they  are  done  with,  and  the  next  holes 
are  treated — a  much  simpler  job  than  trying  to 
make  a  single  hole  in  the  beam  answer  for  all  the 
settings. 

From  these  leading  instruments  many  others 
have  been  derived,  or  their  underlying  methods  have 
been  grafted  on  common  tools  in  order  to  render 
them  instruments  of  high  precision.  They  include 
several  kinds  of  depth  gauges  and  rod  gauges,  which 
in  their  crude  forms  every  workman  has  to  make 
use  of  in  measuring  depths  below  a  surface,  or 
diameters  of  bores,  or  distances  between  opposed 
fares  in  situations  where  the  common  rule  or 
calipers  cannot  be  introduced  or  would  not  be 
suitable.  The  vernier  and  the  micrometer  both 
appear  in  these  instruments,  varied  in  their  methods 
of  application  according  to  the  ideas  of  different 
firms. 

Rod  Gauges.  Fig  115  is  a  high-class  rod  gauge 
with  micrometer  readings  at  the  right  hand,  an 
immense  advance  on  the  gauges  made  by  workmen. 
The  principle  is  identical  with  that  of  the  micro- 
meter calipers — namely,  a  finely- threaded  screw,  A, 
and  a  divided  head,  B,  the  graduations  of  which  are 
read  as  they  pass  the  arm  C.  The  screw  D  clamps 
the  setting,  if  required,  by  means  of  a  brass  anvil 
pressing  on  the  micrometer  screw.  To  increase  the 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

range  of  the  instrument,  extension  rods,  E,  are  fitted 
in  a  socket,  and  clamped  with  a  screw,  F.  Other 
types  of  these  gauges  are  made  with  the  screw 
entirely  concealed  and  protected. 

Depth  Gauges.  Fig.  116  is  a  high-class 
micrometer  depth  gauge,  which  can  also  be  used  as 
a  rod  gauge  on  being  detached  from  the  foot,  A,  to 
which  it  is  screwed,  with  a  hardened  contact  piece 
then  inserted  in  the  screwed  end.  This  end,  B, 
contains  the  micrometer  screw  and  the  bevelled 
edge  at  a,  the  circular  divisions  corresponding  with 
the  thimble  in  110,  and  reading  to  thousandths 
of  an  inch.  The  stem  or  rod,  C,  is  graduated  in 
inches  and  quarter  inches.  The  sections  to  the 
left  show  the  splits  for  taking  up  wear. 

Fixed  Gauges.  These  all  have  one  feature 
in  common — the  embodiment  of  a  rigid  unalterable 
dimension.  They  occur  in  numerous  forms  in 
cylindrical  and  flat  types,  and  in  various  degrees  of 
accuracy,  relatively  coarse  and  fine,  and  in  standard 
and  in  limit  sizes.  Some  of  the  most  refined 
mechanical  methods  are  involved  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  these  instruments,  including  hardening  and 
extremely  fine  grinding,  so  that  degrees  of  accuracy 
range  from  the  coarse  YoVo  m-  to  tne  verv  nne 
•5  olToo  in- 

Much  work  in  engineers'  shops  has  to  be  accurate 
within  yoo^h  °f  an  inch,  a  very  great  deal  within 
from  sfajth  to  iofeotn  °f  an  mcn»  an(i  finer.  Now, 
it  is  easy  to  observe  iwth  °^  an  mcn  by  sight 
alone  ;  it  is  not  possible  to  estimate  T JOIJth,  much 
less  Touootn  %  the  eye-  And  although  j^0th  is 
visible  to  the  eye  it  is  not  practicable  to  work  to 
that  dimension  by  setting  the  rule  against  the  work. 
In  all  these  fine  measurements,  therefore,  the  sense 
of  touch  is  relied  on,  and  the  means  used  are 
afforded  by  gauges  ground  to  precise  dimensions 
required. 

Plug  and  Ring  Gauges.  In  their  simplest 
form  these  consist  of  one  plug  and  one  ring  [117, 
118]  of  the  same  dimensions.  That  is,  the  plug 
can  be  just  inserted  within  the  ring  if  a  very  fine 
film  of  oil  is  interposed  without  any  slackness  in 
fitting.  The  oil  is  necessary,  because  if  not  applied 
the  one  would  seize  or  hold  so  fast  within  the  other 
that  the  two  could  not  be  separated.  Such  gauges 
are  termed  standard,  because  of  exact  sizes,  as 
1^  in.,  2  in.,  or  3  in.,  no  more  and  no  less,  within  the 
degree  of  accuracy  mechanically  possible. 

Now,  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  with  these  ring 
and  plug  gauges  absolutely  rigid,  with  no  possibility 
of  springing  or  yielding  to  pressure,  and  made  to 
fit  each  other  absolutely,  that  a  piece  of  tissue- 
paper,  a  tangible  representation  of  ^(yooth  part 
of  an  inch,  could  not  possibly  be  inserted  between 
the  two  gauges,  and  therefore  if  work  is  turned  and 
bored  exactly  by  these  gauges,  then  it  will  fit 
within  something  less  than  the  thickness  of  the 
tissue-paper,  and  that  the  latter  therefore  is  a 
coarse  dimension. 

In  one  way,  however,  such  gauges  might  be  made 
to  pass  work  so  that  there  should  be  two  or  three 
times  that  difference  in  the  thickness  of  paper.  If 
one  gauge  were  employed  at  one  temperature,  arid 
the  other  at  a  temperature  considerably  higher  or 
lower,  then  when  the  work  should  be  brought 
together  under  normal  conditions  of  temperature, 
the  parts  so  fitted  would  not  correspond.  This  at 
once  indicates  another  element  of  which  considera- 
tion must  be  taken.  Then,  further,  something 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  surfaces  which  are 
turned,  or,  when  exceedingly  fine  fitting  is  concerned, 
which  are  ground ;  whether  they  are  done  very 
smoothly  or  rather  coarsely. 

4709  - 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

There  is  another  matter  which  shows  how  ex- 
tremely rl"*'1  «'»<•  lilting  of  the  metallic  surfaces  can 
!>e  made.  It  is  <|uito  possible  to  fit  them  so  well — a 
pluir  within  a  ring—  that  though  they  can  be  slid  in 
while  dry.  they  cannot  be  separated  again.  The 
metallic  contact  is,  in  fact,  so  close  that  molecular 
adhesion  takes  place,  and  separation  must  be  so 
forcible  that  the  metal  will  be  striated  and  torn 
out  by  the  pressure.  But  before  that  occurs  the 
precision  of  the  fitting  will  have  gone  past  the 
tifouth  part  of  an  inch,  with  which  we  started 
for  the  purpose  of  illustration;  in  fact,  as  then 
mentioned,  that,  though  extremely  fine  if  judged 
l.y  the  carpenter's  rule,  is  much  exceeded  in  the 
engineer's  shop,  gauges  being  made  to  the  yrfcu*h 
p  irt,  and  the  coarser  ones  to  ^^th  part  of  an  inch. 

Mr.  Viall  has  stated  that  gauges  can  be  made 
within  a  limit  of  '00002  in.,  but  makers  will  not 
truarantee  that  they  will  be  within  that  limit  six 
months  after  manufacture,  since  steel  changes, 
"  goes  and  comes."  But  they  can  be  made  and 
guaranteed  to  remain  for  an  indefinite  period  within 
•0001  in.  He  also  states  that  when  measuring 
standard  plugs  by  the  aid  of  the  Browne  and  Sharpe 
measuring  machine,  differences  of  '00002  in.  can  be 
readily  felt  by  those  who  are  not  experts  in  measure- 
ment, while  by  those  who  are,  differences  of  '00001 
can  be  readily  detected.  It  is  possible  to  make 
icorking  gauges  within  a  degree  of  accuracy 
measured  positively  by  rnjooijth  part  of  an 
inch,  thirty  times  less  than  the  thickness  of 
tissue  paper  !  The  finest  film  of  gold  leaf  that 
floats  in  the  air  is  about  that  thickness.  Limits 
of  foooTjth  Part/  are  a^so  guaranteed  in  the  best 
gauges,  used  for  reference. 

Limit  Gauges.  Standard  gauges  do  not 
measure  all  the  degrees  of  fitting  that  are  neces- 
sary. Thus,  for  example,  the  fit  of  a  shaft  in 
the  boss  of  a  wheel  in  which  it  has  to  be  keyed 
is  a  tight,  or  driving  fit,  or  a  force  fit ;  that  is,  the 
shaft  must  be  driven  in,  or  pressed  into  its  bore. 
But  a  shaft  journal  rotating  in  a  bearing  must  be 
an  easy  fit,  or  a  slack  or  running  fit,  otherwise  it  would 
not  revolve.  But  there  are  also  several  degrees 
in  slack  or  running  fits,  dependent  on  the  classes  of 
work,  and  ranging  from  a  free  fit  without  any  slack- 
ness to  a  fit  at  the  other  extreme  with  ^j  in.,  or 
..^  in.,  or  even  ^  in.  of  slack.  Now,  the  work- 
men using  standard  gauges  have  to  make  these 
various  allowances  over  or  under  gauge  sizes, 
which  results  in  want  of  uniformity  and  some 
waste  of  time  occupied  in  making  trial  fits.  This  is 
inconsistent  with  a  system  of  good  fitting,  and  is 
impracticable  in  an  interchangeable  system.  Out 
•  >f  this  lias  arisen  the  growth  of  the  limit  or 
difference  gauges,  in  which  the  limits,  or  limits 
o/  tolerance,  suitable  for  all  classes  of  manufacture 
are  embodied.  These  are  larger  or  smaller  than 
standards  by  the  difference  required  in  shafts  and 
their  bearings,  or  in  degrees  of  driving  fits.  The 
diiVereiirc  is  made  in  the  plug,  and  not  in  the  ring. 
Two  M/.CS  are  generally  now  made  on  the  ends  of  one 
plnn,  one  l>eino  a  "  go  in,"  the  other  the  "  not  go  in," 
ii-l  in. irked  respectively  -  and  -f. 

Snap  Gauges.  This  term  is  applied  to  the 
Hit  gaii ir'vs.  These  are  made  in  exact  fits,  and 
10  limils  like  the  plu<r  and  ring  gauges,  and  in  a 
range  of  limits.  They  also  occur  in  numerous 
d.-i-ns— single-ended  [119,  120],  of  horseshoe  type 
|121J,  and  with  external  and  internal  gauges  at 
Apposite  ends  of  the  same  bar  [122],  The  working 


faces  are  hardened  and  ground.  Flat  and  plug 
limit  gauges  are  shown  in  123. 

With  regard  to  the  difference  in  the  cylindrical 
and  the  flat  forms,  the  first  named  are  generally 
used  to  check  turned  and  bored  work,  the 
ring  being  slipped  over  the  shaft  or  spindle,  the 
plug  being  inserted  in  the  hole  of  the  pulley  or 
wheel.  The  gauges  make  contact  all  round  their 
circumferences,  and  so  check  the  circular  truth 
as  well  as  diameter,  but  they  cannot  be  used  between 
two  shoulders,  such  as  a  journal,  the  only  gauge 
applicable  being  one  with  an  open  side.  For  the 
finest  testing  the  flat  gauges  give  more  accurate 
results,  because  they  have  not  such  large  sur- 
faces in  contact.  This  is  in  harmony  with  the 
fact  that  narrow  points  are  always  used  in  rod 
gauges.  Any  width  beyond  that  required  for  actual 
contact  is  superfluous. 

The  gauge  principle,  with  or  without  limits,  is 
embodied  in  other  forms,  for  tapered  work,  and  for 
testing  screw  threads,  the  latter  being  shown  in  124. 
The  upper  gauge  gives  the  size  of  the  hole  before 
the  thread  is  cut  in  it  (equivalent  to  the  tapping 
size),  and  of  the  thread  at  the  opposite  end.  The 
lower  tests  the  screws,  and  is  adjustable  by  the  set- 
ting screws  to  fit  the  plug  accurately,  or  with  a  de- 
finite amount  of  slack.  The  two  pins  in  the  body 
of  the  gavige  prevent  lateral  twisting  of  the  parts  ; 
there  is  sufficient  elasticity  in  the  body  to  open  or 
close  the  threaded  hole  slightly. 

Measuring  Machines.  The  basis  of  all 
the  high-class  gauges  is  found  in  the  measuring 
machines,  which  firms  keep  for  testing  purposes, 
and  to  maintain  a  check  upon  gauges  in  use.  Some 
of  these  machines  are  marvellous  pieces  of  mechanism 

measuring  to  TTToWutn  Part  °f  an  mc^  or  ^ess- 
The  famous  Whit-worth  machine,  which  measured 
to  the  TZRFoTTfnith  part  of  an  inch,  was  the  pre- 
decessor of  later  types.  The  machine  had  a  screw 
of  20  threads  to  the  inch,  which  was  turned  by  a 
worm  wheel  of  200  teeth,  the  latter  being  driven 
through  a  worm  from  a  wheel  graduated  into  250 
parts.  Hence  a  movement  through  one  division 
corresponded  to  a  traverse  of  ^  X  .JQ^  x  .,',,, 
=  ToQoooft^k  in.  This  is  an  example  of  a  machine  tha  t 
does  not  find  scope  in  practice,  but  there  are  plenty 
of  machines  measuring  to  yoo'owth  °f  an  inc'h. 
Fig.  125  shows  a  recent  type,  made  by  the  Newall 
Engineering  Co.  Ltd.,  Warrington,  which  measures  to 

BJlJooT)^  m>  r^^ie  ked  carries  two  heads,  A  and 
,  the  former  having  the  measuring  screw  and  its 
disc.  As  this  screw  has  a  traverse  of  only  1  in., 
settings  must  be  ma.de  from  the  distances  between 
the  heads.  Standard  end  measuring  rods  are 
used  for  this  purpose,  or  a  microscope  is  fitted  on  the 
head  A  to  read  the  graduations  on  a  rule  attached 
to  the  side  of  the  frame.  The  screw  is  rotated 
quickly  by  the  knurled  knob  C,  or  slowly  by  D, 
the  latter  being  carried  in  a  rocking  lever  attached 
to  the  screw  spindle,  and  pushed  away  from  a  bar,  E, 
by  the  screw  D.  The  large  wheel,  F,  is  divided, 
and  rotates  under  the  indicating  bar  seen  at  the  top. 
A  compensating  device  is  provided  for  counteract- 
ing the  errors  in  the  pitch  of  the  screws,  errors 
which  cannot  well  be  eliminated.  On  the  head  B 
a  device  is  fitted  which  ensures  that  the  end  pres- 
sure on  pieces  being  measured  shall  be  uniform 
in  all  cases.  A  spirit  level  is  applied  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  magnifies  the  movement  of  the 
measuring  points  4,000  to  1,  so  that  any  con- 
traction or  expansion  of  the  piece  being  measured 
is  detected. 


Continued 


4710 


CYCLOPAEDIA  OF  SHOPKEEPING 

POULTERERS  AND  GAME  DEALERS.       The  Shop  and    its  Fitting. 
Buying  and  Keeping  Stock.     Game  in  Season.     Prices  and  Profits 

PROVISION  JVIERCH ANTS.     The  Provision  Stock.     Buying  and  Selling. 
Profits.     Warranty.     Legal  Requirements 


Group  26 

SHOPKEEPING 


Continued  from 
page  4618 


POULTERERS  AND  GAME-DEALERS 

In  provincial  towns  the  poulterer  pure  and 
simple  is  still  to  be  found  in  considerable  numbers, 
but  in  the  larger  towns  and  cities,  especially  of 
England,  he  is  usually  also  a  cheesemonger, 
or  a  fish  merchant.  In  London,  for  instance, 
there  are  probably  not  more  than  a  dozen  men, 
or  firms,  who  keep  open  shop  solely  for  the 
purveying  of  poultry  ;  but  in  country  towns 
many  good  livings  are  to  be  made  without  the 
cheese,  fish,  or  bacon  adjuncts.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  the  conditions  of  buying  and 
selling — particularly  of  buying — differ  consider- 
ably according  as  the  business  to  be  done  ia  in 
the  metropolis  or  other  large  centre,  or  in  a 
country  town,  with  no  large  central  markets 
like  Smithfield  and  Leadenhall.  However,  the 
reader  who  is  interested  in  this  branch  of  trade 
may  get  hints  to  aid  him,  whether  he  purposes 
starting  in  the  country  or  in  the  metropolis.  The 
main  idea,  however,  is  to  help  the  man  who 
desires  to  start  in  a  provincial  town  or  in  a 
suburb  to  retail  poultry  and  game. 

The  Primary  Essentials.  The  steps 
taken  to  learn  the  business  are  simple,  but  im- 
portant. There  is  no'  regular  apprenticeship  to 
the  trade.  The  youth  starts  his  career  as  errand- 
boy  in  the  establishment  of  a  poulterer  with  a 
good -going  business.  When  not  engaged  in 
delivering  goods  to  his  employer's  customers  he 
is  taught  how  to  pluck,  clean,  and  truss  fowls, 
how  to  skin  and  clean  rabbits  and  hares,  and, 
generally,  how  to  make  the  produce  ready  for 
the  counter.  Some  men  become  very  expert 
in  plucking — an  art  not  so  easy  as  it  looks — 
nine  fowls  an  hour  soon  becoming  not  much  of 
a  task  for  them.  Skinning  rabbits  is  much 
more  easily  learned,  and  100  animals  per  hour 
may  be  skinned  by  an  expert.  A  period  of  two 
years  should  suffice  to  teach  the  lad  the  ele- 
mentary principles  of  the  trade,  but  his  experi 
has  to  be  considerably  widened  before  he 
qualify  as  a  poulterer. 

Starting  Business.  Assuming  that  the 
young  man  has  acquired  an  all-round  acquaint- 
ance with  these  essentials,  and  has  a  capital  of 
about  £50  in  hand,  he  may  safely  embark  on  his 
account  in  a  country  town,  or  in  a  suburb  where 
the  necessity  for  a  poulterer  and  game-dealer  is 
indicated.  Of  course,  in  a  large  city,  or  in  the 
metropolis,  such  a  capital  would  be  inadequate, 
provided  nothing  but  poultry  and  game  were 
intended  to  be  sold.  For  the  business,  in  London 
let  us  say,  can  be  done  only  in  a  good -class  neigh- 
bourhood, where  it  would  be  imperative  to  spend 
at  least  three  times  fifty  pounds  in  fitting-up 


rience 
can 


the  shop  alone.  In  the  West  End,  or  in  any 
fashionable  quarter,  the  shop  of  a  poulterer  has 
usualfy  elaborate  tiled  walls  and  floors,  with 
marble  counters  and  marble  window  slabs.  But 
the  man  we  have  in  mind  at  the  moment  is  the 
ordinary  person  with  a  modest  capital  and  an 
overwhelming  desire  to  attain  to  the  marble 
slab  Stage  by  honest  effort  and  industry. 

Fitting=up.  Even  in  a  country  town, 
however,  the  neighbourhood  selected  must  be 
a  good  one.  A  business  thoroughfare,  with  other 
good  shops  in  the  vicinity,  is  the  place  for  a 
shop,  and  one  should  endeavour  to  get  a  shop 
which,  though  not  necessarily  large,  should  have 
plenty  of  air.  A  "  through  draught,"  although 
rather  trying  to  the  shopkeeper,  is  a  very  desirable 
thing  in  a  poultry  shop,  for  it  tends  to  the  pre- 
servation of  goods  which  are  particularly  liable 
to  go  "  higher  "  than  is  desirable  if  kept  for  even 
a  short  time  in  a  close  atmosphere.  A  lofty,  airy 
shop,  with  plenty  of  room  in  the  window  should, 
if  possible,  be  taken,  and  the  fittings  required  are 
not  a  large  item.  All  that  is  really  necessary  in 
this  way  for  a  start  is  a  few  bars,  wooden  oc  steel 
(wooden  for  preference),  from  which  the  rabbits 
and  hares  are  suspended.  These  should  be  fixed 
along  one  side  of  the  shop,  while  on  the  oppo- 
site side  are  erected  several  wooden  shelves,  on 
which  the  fowls,  etc.,  are  placed.  A  counter,  a 
wooden  block  (for  chopping  off  rabbits'  feet,  etc.), 
a  chopper,  knives,  scales,  and  a  spring  balance 
complete  the  shop  paraphernalia,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  shelves  with  hooks  screwed  into  the 
edges  for  hanging  goods  in  the  window,  which 
ought  likewise  to  have  a  tiled  bottom.  The  whole 
of  the  fittings  should  cost  not  more  than  £15  to 
£20. 

Stock.  Of  recent  years  cold  storage  has 
revolutionised  this  as  well  as  other  provision 
trades.  Not  so  many  years  ago  the  poulterer 
depended  solely  upon  home  supply  for  his  goods. 
Nowadays  the  foreign  supply  has  considerably 
exceeded  the  "  fresh  "  in  many  lines  and  the 
foreign  trade  is  growing  annually.  In  a  country 
town  even  now  the  main  supply  of  the  retailer 
comes  from  the  surrounding  country  districts. 
He  buys  his  poultry  and  game  from  the  farmers, 
trappers,  gamekeepers,  or  others  authorised  to 
sell  game  in  the  neighbourhood,  or  from  gentle- 
men's estates  somewhere  within  the  United 
Kingdom.  But  the  big  towns  and  cities  are  now 
supplied  by  the  foreign  game  that  is  shipped 
daily  to  the  London  markets.  This  foreign  pro- 
duce includes  geese,  turkeys,  and  pigeons  from 
France,  and  fowls  from  Italy.  In  the  summer 
season  the  last-named  are  sent,  chilled,  packed  in 
boxes  of  12  and  24,  but  come  loose  in  the  winter. 

4711 


8HOPKEEPING 

Ptarmigan  comes  from  Norway  and  fnmi  Russia. 
The  country  last  named  also  supplies  black  game, 
ha/el  hens,  capercailzies,  Manchurian  partridges, 
ordinary  partridges,  and  geese,  fowls,  ducks,  and 
turkeys — all  frozen.  From  Holland  wild  fowl 
are  obtained ;  and  the  Australasian  produce 
includes  rabbits,  hares,  and  poultry.  America 
•  •\ ports  to  us  frozen  poultry  and  game,  and, 
incidentally,  our  Transatlantic  cousins  have 
taught  us  something  regarding  the  method  of 
packing.  The  Americans  were  the  pioneers  of 
perfect  packing  and  grading,  and  their  example  is 
now  being  followed  by  our  own  Colonies.  Fowls 
of  different  grades  are  packed  in  wooden  boxes, 
each  compartment  being  made  to  fit  the  fowl, 
so  to  speak,  and  not  only  can  the  poultry  be 
exhibited  with  ease,  and  the  minimum  of  hand- 
ling, but  the  weights  of  each  can  be  depended 
upon  as  approximately  correct.  Canadian  tur- 
keys arc  imported,  plucked,  graded,  and  packed 
in  cases  of  18  or  24  birds,  according  to  size, 
tissue  paper  being  placed  between  the  birds  and 
a  layer  of  straw  on  top.  Canada  also  sends 
chickens,  dressed,  to  commission  merchants  in 
Great  Britain  and  live  chickens  to  importers. 
Quails  are  imported  in  great  numbers  from  Egypt 
and  Algeria,  and  pheasants  and  partridges  from 
Austria.  Fresh  goods  are  supplied  largely  to  the 
London  markets  from  Lincolnshire,  Cambridge- 
shire, Norfolk,  and  from  Ireland.  A  large 
turkey  trade  is  done  with  Norfolk. 

Laying  in  Stock.  Still  keeping  in  mind 
the  young  man  with  an  intimate  knoAvledge  of 
his  business  and  a  capital  of  £50,  the  question 
of  buying  for  an  opening  stock  should  not  be 
difficult.  Knowing  the  precarious  nature  of 
the  goods,  he  would  be  careful  to  lay  in  only 
a  very  small  stock  at  first,  launching  out  as  he 
gauged  the  wants  of  his  neighbourhood.  .  In 
a  country  town  he  would  buy  direct  from  the 
rearers,  poultry  being  bought  alive.  To  start  in 
a  small  shop  his  first  order  would  be  something 
like  the  following.  The  prices  are  merely  ap- 
proximate, and  vary  according  to  the  season  of 
the  year  and  the  district. 


— 

Average  Co*t. 

Average  Itctail  Pri.-r. 

2  doz.  chickens  and 
fowls  
]  2  pairs  rabbits    .. 
'  >lnx.  pigeons  (wild) 
'  doz.        „     (tame) 
.'.  doz.  ducks   .  . 
10  doz.  ejofB    ..     .. 

£2  to  £2  4s. 
15s. 
3s.  Gd.  to  4s. 
8&  ''..I. 

UK  lid.  to  1'Js. 

10s.  to  20s. 
(according  to 
season) 

2s.  3d.  to  38.  each 
6d.  to  Is.  each 
lOd.  to  Is.  each 
Sd.  to  Is.  2d.  each 
2s.  3d.  to  3s.  «d.  each 
Is.  to  2s.  Cd.  pei- 
dozen 

An  enormous  trade  is  now  done  in  Ostend 
rabbits.  These  are  bought  at  the  London 
raarkdt  at  from  4s.  4d.  to  4s.  8d.  per  stone  of 
s  lb.  Australian  rabbits  costing  in  London  from 
(;.Jd.  to  6|  each  have  a  large  sale  in  poorer  class 
neighbourhoods  at  any  price  from  7|d.  to  led. 
each.  Good  English  rabbits  cost  from  8d.  to 
104  wholesale,  and  retail  at  from  about  lOd.  to 
Is.  :5d.,  according  to  size  and  condition.  Bordeaux 
pigeons  are  shipped  to  this  country  in  boxes  of 
••-iv-,"  "eights,"  and  "fours."  'The  "fours" 
;>!<•  usually  large-sized  birds  and  may  cost  the 
retailer  from  Is.  to  Is.  i_M.  each;  the  "eights" 

4712 


cost  about  Is.  Id.,  and  the  "sixes"  lOd.  each. 
Eggs  are  bought  in  London  usually  by  the  100 — 
120  going  to  100.  Irish  dueks  cost  usually  from 
2s.  3d.  to  2s.  9d.,  while  good  English  ducks  are 
dearer — 2s.  9d.  to  3s.  6d.  being  average  cost. 
.These  are  naturally  finer  varieties  than  the  ducks 
in  the  table  and  bear  a  proportionately  greater 
profit.  The  fluctuations  in  price  vary  greatly, 
of  course,  .according  to  the  supply  and  the 
demand. 

Should  he  happen  to  open  about  the  Christmas 
season  (which  usually  lasts  from  November 
to  the  end  of  February),  the  retailer  would  order 
two  dozen  turkeys,  costing,  perhaps,  8d.  to  Is. 
per  lb.,  and  selling  at  lOd.  to  Is.  3d.,  and  half  a 
dozen  geese,  at  a  cost  of  5d.  to  6d.  per  lb.,  to 
retail  at  8d.  to  lOd.  This  takes  no  account 
of  game,  which  would  perhaps  be  best  left 
till  it  was  seen  how  the  business  was  going.  Of 
course,  the  poulterer  in  a  metropolitan  suburb, 
or  a  provision  merchant  who  wants  to  add  a 
poultry  department,  would  simply  go  to  the 
Leadenhall  or  Smithfield  markets  and  select 
his  stock  from  the  wholesale  merchants  there.  In 
such  a  case  he  would  find  that  foreign  produce  is 
cheaper  than  the  home-fed.  For  instance,  Italian 
turkeys  would  not  cost  more  than  6d.  to  8d. 
per  lb. ;  Russian  geese  would  be  4d.  to  5d.  per  lb. 
and  so  on ;  but  the  quantities  mentioned  would 
make  a  creditable  opening  in  either  case.  The 
beginning  of  November  is  a  good  time  to  start. 

Selling  Game.  As  the  business  seemed 
to  be  going  all  right,  the  beginner  would 
presently  apply  for  a  game- dealer's  licence, 
without  which  he  cannot  sell  game.  To  sell 
poultry  (by  which  is  meant  pullets,  chickens, 
fowls,  ducks  and  ducklings,  geese  and  goslings, 
and  turkeys),  rabbits,  woodcock,  quail,  snipe, 
or  landrail,  no  licence  is  required,  but  to  deal  in 
British  or  foreign  game  a  £2  licence  is  necessary, 
annually  renewed  not  later  than  July  1st.  The 
term  "game"  includes  hares,  pheasants,  par- 
tridges, grouse,  and  black  game.  The  dealer  has 
also  to  observe  the  "  close  times,"  and  to  take 
care  that  he  does  not  sell  or  buy  game  ten  days 
(one  day  inclusive,  and  the  other  exclusive)  from 
the  day  on  which  it  becomes  unlawful  to  kill 
such  game.  He  should  note,  therefore,  that  the 
shooting  of  game  is  as  follows  : 

Grouse  begin  August  12th,  end  December 
10th  ;  partridges  begin  September  1st,  end 
February  1st;  pheasants  begin  October  1st, 
end  February  1st  ;  wildfowl  and  landrail  begin 
August  1st,  end  March  1st  ;  black  game  begin 
August  20th,  end  December  10th.  The  sale  of 
hares  is  prohibited  from  March  to  the  end 
of  July. 

The  country  poulterer  would  contract  for 
supplies  with  some  gentleman  or  gentlemen  who 
had  estates  in  his  neighbourhood,  or  somewhere 
near.  The  town  buyer  would  get  his  stock 
from  the  recognised  markets.  The  usual  whole- 
sale prices  are  somewhat  as  follows,  with  the 
usual  variations  in  season  and  supply:  Grouse, 
4s.  to  7s.  per  brace;  pheasants,  Is.  lOd.  to 
."is.  per  brace  ;  partridges,  2s.  to  3s.  ;  hares, 
Is.  to  3s.,  according  to  size.  Foreign  hares 
cost  from  Is.  to  Is.  Od.  each;  Manchurian 


partridges,  lOd.  to  Is.  each ;  and  Russian 
partridges,  Is.  to  Is.  6d.  each.  The  retail  prices 
for  grouse  vary  from  5s.  to  8s.  6d.  ;  pheasants, 
3s.  to  6s.  6d.  ;  partridges,  from  2s.  6d.  to 
3s.  6d. ;  and  hares,  from  2s.  to  4s.  (British),  and 
Is.  6d.  to  2s.  6d.  (foreign). 

Prices  and  Profits.  The  produce  men- 
tioned is  that  in  regular  sale,  and  what 
would  preferably  be  stocked  by  the  beginner. 
But  these  by  no  means  exhaust  the  stock  which 
the  poulterer  and  game-dealer  with  a  large 
connection  requires  to  keep.  As  time  went  on, 
and  the  business  developed,  he  would  probably 
have  to  stock  some  of  the  following : 


Stock. 

Average  Cost  Price. 

Average  Ketail  Price. 

Blackcock    .  . 

2s.  3d.  each. 

3s.  to  3s.  6d.  each 

Grey  Hens   .  . 
Larks     

Is.  9d. 
Is.  per  dozen 

2s.  6d.  to  3s.  each 
Is.  9d.  per  dozen 

Plovers  (golden)   . 

lOd.  each 

Is.  3d.  each 

Plovers  (ordinal-  ) 

7d.  each 

lOd.  each 

Ptarmigan    .  . 
Snipe     

7Jd.  each 
lOd.  each 

lOd.  to  Is.  each 
Is.  2d.  each 

Teal 

lOd.  each 

Widgeon        .  . 

lOd.  to  Is.  each 

Is.  Od.  each 

These  are  mainly  for  high-class  trade,  and 
would  be  added  as  required.  The  business  is  a 
fairly  profitable  one,  as  will  be  seen,  but  allowance 
must  be  made  for  waste,  as  the  stock  is 
perishable.  The  stock,  even  in  a  country  busi- 
ness, must  be  turned  over  four  times  a  week. 
The  man  in  the  metropolis  can  keep  small  stocks, 
and  buy  in  the  markets  every  day,  if  necessary. 
The  general  and  best  rule  in  buying  is  to  pay  as 
you  go,  and  the  selling  should  be  for  cash  as  far 
as  is  possible.  Of  course,  where  credit  is  given, 
and  in  some  family  businesses  it  is  inevitable,  a 
larger  profit  must  be  secured  than  when  cash 
is  paid.  The  average  profit  must  be  about  30  to 
40  per  cent,  on  the  turnover,  and  a  safe  rule  is 
to  aim  at  having  a  clear  profit  of  not  less  than 
12£  per  cent,  after  paying  all  expenses. 

PROVISION   MERCHANTS 

Although  the  provision  merchant  frequently 
carries  on  his  separate  business,  handling  bacon, 
hams,  cheese,  butter,  eggs,  margarine,  polonies, 
potted  meats,  meat  pies,  sausages,  and  so  on, 
these  goods  are  also  very  commonly  dealt  with 
by  the  grocer  [see  page  3041],  occupying  one 
whole  side  of  his  shop — the  "  provision  side  " 
— and  a  separate  window.  The  trade  demands 
considerable  knowledge  and  experience — unless 
conducted  in  a  very  small  way — and,  indeed, 
constant  daily  supplies  from  a  wholesale  house, 
which  does  practically  all  the  work  except 
the  actual  retailing.  Thus,  bacon  may  be 
bought  ready  washed  and  dried,  and  pork 
may  be  bought  in  "  lengths,"  pork  pies  ready- 
made,  and  .so  on.  Many  a  good  shop  has 
started  in  such  a  small  way;  but  such  small 
shops  are  hardly  to  be  dignified  as  provision 
shops.  The  provision  side  of  a  grocery  business, 
or  the  provision  trade  proper,  is  one  in  which 
good  profits  are  made  by  those  who  understand 
their  business  thoroughly,  and  are  able  not  only 
to  sell,  but  to  buy  well,  taking  advantage  of  the 
frequent  and  rapid  turns  of  the  market ;  but  as 
the  market  fluctuations  cut  both  ways,  there  are 


SHOPKEEPINQ 

few  retail  businesses  in  which  so  much  risk  is 
run  by  the  inexperienced  or  where  money  is 
so  quickly  lost.  Within  the  last  three  or  four 
years  prices  of  bacon  and  cheese  have  been  ruling 
abnormally  high,  and  profits  have  been  difficult 
to  secure. 

Starting  in  Business.  As  regards 
capital,  selection  of  shop,  etc.,  the  general 
remarks  under  the  head  of  Grocery  will  apply, 
and  it  is  unlikely  perhaps  that  a  novice  will  start 
in  the  provision  trade  without  grocery,  although 
he  may  certainly  do  well  to  give  the  former  side 
of  his  business  special  attention  and  prominence 
if  there  is  a  promising  opening  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood he  has  selected  for  his  venture. 

Arrangement  of  Shop.  The  provision 
side  and  window  should  be  that  which  gets  least 
sun.  Given  this  condition,  it  is  often  found  con- 
venient to  allot  the  right  side  of  the  shop  to 
provision,  and  the  left  to  grocery.  The  "  Practical 
Grocer  "  gives  the  following  details  of  a  "  pro- 
vision fitting "  for  a  shop.  "  The  provision 
fitting  would  be,  say,  12  ft.  long,  18  in.  deep  at 
bottom,  and  11  in.  above  counter  height.  The 
fitting  would  have  a  marble  counter  shelf  18  in. 
wide,  and  under  same  would  be  fitted  uprights 
and  shelves,  with  spaces  for  eggs,  etc.  Above  the 
counter  shelf  the  wall  would  be  lined  to  a 
height  of  2  ft.  with  marble,  or  an  imitation  tile 
(on  zinc)  can  be  executed  at  much  lower  cost. 
The  centre  of  the  fitting  would  be  provided  with 
two  iron  bars  and  two  hangers  for  hanging  sides 
of  bacon  upon.  At  each  side  of  the  centre  would 
be  provided  three  shelves  for  tinned  goods,  and 
a  moulded  cornice,  and  the  whole  hung  up  to 
ceiling  above  on  iron  rods.  From  the  end  of 
the  provision  fitting  to  the  end  of  the  shop 
would  be  provided  a  fitting  for  Italian  goods, 
jams,  pickles,  sauces,  etc.  This  fitting  would 
be  12  ft.  long,  18  in.  deep  at  counter  height, 
and  11  in.  above.  The  lower  part  of  this  fitting 
could  be  used  for  other  goods.  Across  the 
back  of  the  shop  would  be  provided  a  fitting 
with  shelves  and  lockers  for  sundries." 

The  provision  window  usually  has  a  marble 
bed,  and  a  common  plan  is  to  have  a  marble 
shelf  about  8  in.  wide  placed  at  the  back  of  the 
window,  with  a  mirror  at  the  side.  The  window 
may  have  sliding  sashes,  so  that  it  can  be 
dressed  from  outside  if  desired.  A  light,  decorated 
iron  frame  with  marble  shelves  may  be  put  in 
the  middle  and  circular  stands  at  the  sides,  with 
porcelain  stands  for  "  pure  butter  "  and  "  mar- 
garine "  respectively,  and  art-coloured  majolica 
pedestals  and  pots  for  palms  or  ferns  to  give  a 
cool  and  fresh  effect. 

Storage.  A  good  cellar,  dry,  cool,  and  well 
ventilated,  is  very  necessary.  Refrigerators  or 
ice-boxes  are  also  useful.  They  are  much  used 
in  America,  for  instance,  on  account  of  the  heat. 
To  keep  butter  free  from  dust  and  fresh  there 
is  nothing  better  than  boxing  in  the  butter 
stand  completely  with  plate-glass  fixed  on  the 
counter.  Sparkling  glass,  polished  marble,  etc., 
have  much  to  do  with  making  a  shop  attractive 
to  the  customer.  The  window  should  be  dressed 
thoroughly  and  attractively  every  morning. 
Cleanliness  everywhere  is,  of  course,  essential 

4713 


8HOPKEEPING 

in  a  provision  shop.  Cheese  should  l>r  .stored 
in  a  cool  cellar,  on  shelves  specially  made  for  the 
purpose,  as  it  is  necessary  to  turn  them  over 
occasionally  to  prevent  cracking  and  "  sweating." 
Bacon  needs  unceasing  vigilance,  especially  in 
su miner.  A  place  with  plenty  of  good  ventila- 
tion is  best  for  storing  bacon.  It  should  be  bought 
once  a  week,  if  possible,  as  much  of  it  is  mild- 
cured  nowadays,  and  a  quick  sale  is  required. 
l-Yrsh  eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  place, 
free  from  any  odour  which  would  be  capable  of 
impairing  their  flavour. 

Treatment  of  Stock.  In  the  profitable 
handling  of  provisions,  unremitting  care  and 
minute  attention  to  detail  are  essential.  Be  care- 
ful always  to  avoid  overstocking,  which  means 
certain  loss  from  shrinkage  and  deterioration. 
All  goods  should  be  weighed,  checked,  or  counted 
when  received,  and  claims  promptly  made  for 
damages.  Eggs,  for  example,  are  a  very  common 
subject  for  claims  upon  railway  companies. 
Eggs  may  be  tested  for  freshness  in  various  ways. 
In  the  Paris  markets  eggs  are  tested  by  means  of 
a  glass  of  brine  made  by  dissolving  common  salt 
in  water  in  the  proportion  of  a  pint  to  each 
2  oz.  of  salt.  An  egg  to  be  tested  is  dropped  into 
the  glass.  If  perfectly  new  laid,  it  sinks  to  the 
bottom  ;  if  more  than  a  day  old,  it  does  not  rest  on 
the  bottom  ;  if  five  days  old,  it  floats.  In  this 
country  the  wholesale  method  of  testing  eggs 
is  by  what  is  called  "  candling."  A  box  is 
arranged  so  as  to  exclude  light,  excepting  a  strong 
light  thrown  through  the  eggs  under  examina- 
tion by  means  of  a  lamp.  The  light  thus  projects 
an  illuminated  image  of  the  egg  upon  a  mirror, 
wherein  a  fresh  egg  appears  unclouded,  while  a 
bad  one  shows  a  dark  spot  ;  the  larger  the  spot 
the  older  the  egg.  Eggs  that  have  been  preserved, 
as  eggs  now  frequently  are,  by  means  of  a  solution 
of  water-glass,  should  always  be  examined  thus 
before  being  sold.  If  a  proper  candling  lamp  is 
not  available,  one  may  be  constructed  by  cutting 
an  oval  hole,  the  size  of  an  egg,  in  a  piece  of 
black  cardboard  nearly  a  foot  square.  Place  the 
egg  against  the  hole,  and  look  through  it  at  a 
strong  light.  If  the  egg  be  dark  or  show  spots, 
it  should  be  rejected.  In  unpacking  eggs,  sort 
them  out  into  small,  medium,  and  large,  and 
price  accordingly. 

Butter.  In  buying  butter,  Danish  rules  the 
market,  though  Normandy  and  Brittany  take 
first  rank  for  fresh  in  London  and  the  South  of 
England.  Irish  has  greatly  improved,  and  fine 
grades  run  the  Danish  close,  and,  it  is  to  be 
hoped,  will  at  no  distant  date  excel  it,  in 
the  English  market.  But  the  Danes  have 
managed  their  trade  remarkably  well,  and  excel 
in  uniformity  and  regularity,  while  no  expense 
is  spared  in  ensuring  rapid  transportation  and 
delivery  in  the  markets  here.  Some  English  farm 
Imtter  is  excellent,  but  the  supply  is  so  badly 
regulated  that,  as  a  rule,  it  does  not  count. 
In  contracting  for  Danish,  it  is  by  no  means  un- 
common to  agree  to  pay  the  Avholesale  agent  a 
fixed  sum  per  cwt.  over  the  current  Copenhagen 
quotation,  this  quotation  being  fixed  officially 
every  Thursday,  and  regularly  published  in  the 
mm-nt  trade  papers.  The  Copenhagen  Com- 

4714 


mittee  have  now  arranged,  since  March  29th, 
I <tl>0,  that  the  quotation  shall  include  the 
"  overprice,"  so  as  to  avoid  the  confusion  which 
previously  arose.  Bacon,  eggs,  etc.,  are  sold 
wholesale  subject  to  specified  conditions  of  sale 
fixed  by  the  wholesale  associations.  Of  these 
conditions  the  retail  buyer  should  inform  him- 
self by  studying  the  trade  annuals. 

Handling  Provisions.  The  following 
miscellaneous  hints  on  handling  provisions  are 
practical.  In  cutting  up  bacon,  avoid  accu- 
mulating bits  ;  bad  cutting  by  inexperienced 
hands  will  prove  detrimental.  Weigh  closely  and 
reckon  correctly.  Best  cuts  command  ready  sale 
at  profitable  prices  ;  make  ends  or  unsaleable 
cuts  low  to  clear.  Label  hams  with  weight,  and 
price  directly  on  receipt  with  both  bacon  and 
hams,  work  out  cost  and  profit  occasionally  by 
actual  "  results  "  ;  it  is  astonishing  how  often 
these  are  different  from  what  is  looked  for. 
Cheese  and  butter  should  also  be  tested  for 
shrinkages  and  estimated  accordingly.  Do  not 
have  too  much  cheese  in  cut  at  a  time,  or  dry- 
ness  and  deterioration  will  be  the  consequences  ; 
a  fresh  appearance  is  the  best  salesman.  Take 
tastings  from  the  inside  of  a  wedge.  Butter  should 
be  kept  as  fresh  and  firm  as  possible.  A  speciality 
should  be  made  with  butters  of  finest  quality, 
and  they  should  be  sent  out  in  nicely  worked-up 
rolls  and  prints.  Keep  cut  lard  neatly  wrapped 
in  parchment  covering,  according  to  require- 
ments ;  this  prevents  loss  from  hasty  weighing. 
Avoid  sending  out  bad  or  broken  eggs.  Cooked 
hams,  pork  pies,  sausages,  etc.,  are  profitable  side- 
lines if  quick  sales  can  be  effected ;  otherwise  they 
are  best  left  alone.  Ticket  everything,  and  sell  at 
marked  prices  only.  Take  stock  often,  adver- 
tise judiciously,  endeavour  to  obtain  your  cus- 
tomers' confidence,  and  a  good  paying  provision 
trade  is  assured. 

Warranties  :  Water  in  Butter.  While 
the  law  specially  affecting  the  sale  of  provisions 
is  dealt  with  below,  it  is  necessary  to  point 
out  here  that  in  purchasing  provisions  great 
care  is  needed.  The  Board  of  Agriculture 
is  empowered  by  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs 
Acts  to  fix  authoritatively  the  quantity  of  mois- 
ture permissible  in  butter,  and  has  decreed 
(1905)  that  not  more  than  16  per  cent,  shall  be 
allowed  unless  the  excess  is  declared  to  the 
purchaser.  Consequently  it  is  necessary  that 
the  retailer  be  on  his  guard  against  buying  butter 
with  more  than  16  per  cent,  of  water.  A  simple 
method  of  estimating  the  percentage  of  water 
in  butter  is  practised  in  the  Cork  and  Limerick 
markets,  and  is  accurate  enough  for  practical 
purposes,  although,  of  course,  it  is  not  a  proper 
analysis.  It  requires  only  a  small  saucer-shaped 
vessel,  a  small  spirit  or  gas  lamp,  and  a  cheap 
set  of  scales  and  weights  such  as  apothecaries 
use.  A  piece  of  butter  is  weighed  and  then  heated 
in  the  saucer  over  the  lamp  for  a  few  minutes, 
with  constant  stirring,  until  no  more  steam  is 
observed  to  arise  from  it.  After  being  allowed 
to  cool,  the  butter  is  weighed  again,  and  the  loss 
of  weight  shown  gives  the  amount  of  water 
which  was  in  the  butter.  A  specific  warranty 
should  always  be  obtained  when  buying  butter, 


also  for  cheese,  lard,  and  margarine.  It  is  the 
law  that  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  butter  fat 
shall  be  found  in  margarine.  To  any  warranty 
the  signature  or  initials  of  the  guarantors  must 
be  appended. 

Staff.  Provision  hands  receive  about  the 
same  wages  as  first  grocery  hands,  and  should  be 
the  best  and  most  experienced  men  available 
in  a  shop.  In  engaging  a  manager  for  a  shop 
where  margarine  is  sold  it  is  not  unusual  to 
stipulate  by  signed  agreement  that  he  shall 
respect  and  observe  all  the  requirements  and 
provisions  of  the  Margarine  Act,  and  sometimes 
that  he  will  indemnify  the  employer  against 
penaliies  or  losses  occasioned  by  neglect,  or 
irregularity  in  exposing  for  sale  or  retailing 
margarine.  Some  employers  direct  in  their 
shop  rules  that  margarine  and  cheese  shall  be 
"  ironed,"  or  tested  by  the  managers  as  to  their 
quality  before  being  placed  on  the  counter 
for  sale,  and  that  the  butterman  shall  frequently 
wipe  the  provision  scale  plate  to  keep  it  free 
from  water  and  scrupulously  clean.  It  is  for- 
bidden to  re-wrap  margarine  on  the  provision 
side  after  it  has  been  sold  in  the  legally  prescribed 
wrapper  ;  if  a  customer  wants  it  wrapped  again 
so  as  to  hide  the  label,  she  is  asked  to  take  it 
across  the  shop  to  the  grocery  counter  and  have 
it  done  there. 

Profits.  A  provision  merchant  who  analyses 
results  in  his  various  business  departments 
gives  the  following  as  gross  profits  :  Bacon,  1 1  per 
cent,  profit,  and  stock  turned  over  at  least  every 
fortnight,  or  twenty-six  times  in  a  year  ;  hams, 
13  per  cent.,  but  turned  over  twelve  times  only  ; 
cheese,  12  per  cent.,  stock  turned  over  eight  or 
ten  times  (cheese  profit  is  usually  higher  than 
this)  ;  salt  butter,  10  or  12  per  cent,,  turned  over 
twelve  to  twenty  times  ;  fresh  butter,  about 
12  per  cent.,  stock  turned  over  nearly  twenty 
times  ;  tinned  meats,  15  per  cent.,  but  turned 
over  four  to  six  times,  which,  however,  is  not 
so  frequent  as  it  ought  to  be. 

Laws  as  to  the  Sale  of  Provisions. 
The  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts,  the  Margarine 
Act,  and  the  Merchandise  Marks  Act  impose  very 
special  liabilities  on  the  retailer  who  deals  in 
provisions  and  demand  therefore  his  careful 
study  and  observance.  The  prejudice  caused  in 
the  minds  of  his  customers  by  a  conviction  under 
these  Acts  is  usually  greater  loss  than  the  actual 
penalty.  To  deal  with  the  last-named  Act  first, 
it  is  under  the  Merchandise  Marks  Act  that 
traders  have  been  prosecuted  for  selling  ham 
not  from  Scottish  pigs  as  "  Scotch  hams,"  and 
bacon  not  bred  in  Wiltshire  as  "  Wiltshire 
bacon."  In  the  trade  "  Wiltshire  cut  "  appears 
to  be  thought  allowable,  but  bacon  that  is  not 
cured  in  the  Wiltshire  district  must  not  be  sold 
as  "  Wiltshire,"  or  trouble  is  sure  to  follow. 
The  offences  defined  by  the  Act  are  applying  to 
goods  "  any  false  description,"  or  having  in  one's 
possession  for  sale  any  goods  to  which  any  forged 
trade-mark  or  false  trade  description  is  applied  ; 
and  the  expression  "  false  trade  description " 
means  a  trade  description  which  is  false  in  a 
material  respect  as  regards  the  goods  to  which 
it  is  applied.  The  Food  and  Drugs  Act  and  the 


SHOPKEEPIMG 

Margarine  Act  apply  mainly  to  the  provision 
dealer  because  of  the  great  amount  of  adultera- 
tion that  has  in  the  past  prevailed  in  butter. 
The  main  forms  of  such  adulteration  are  the 
admixture  with  butter  of  margarine,  the  wilful 
addition  of  water  beyond  the  legal  or  the  natural 
quantity,  and  the  admixture  of  neutral  fatty 
substances  such  as  coconut  oil.  Cheese  also  is 
liable  to  be  adulterated,  or  rather,  imitated, 
"  filled  "  cheese  having  become  so  common  in 
the  trade  that  it  had  to  be  dealt  with  specially 
by  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  1899, 
under  which  it  must  now  be  sold  as  "  margarine 
cheese." 

What  is  "Food"?  This  enactment  ex- 
pressly declares  that  "  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale 
of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts,  the  expression  "food" 
shall  include  every  article  used  for  food  or 
drink  by  man,  other  than  drugs  or  water,  and 
any  article  which  ordinarily  enters  into  or  is 
used  in  the  composition  or  preparation  of 
human  food,  and  shall  also  include  flavouring 
matters  and  condiments."  Under  the  previous 
Act  of  1875  some  foods,  etc.,  escaped  the  law — 
egg  powder  and  baking  powder,  for  instance, 
which  are  now  covered.  The  main  sections  of 
these  important  Acts  seek  to  protect  the  food  of 
the  people  by  prohibiting  the  mixing  of  injurious 
ingredients  with  food  ;  prohibiting  the  sale  of 
articles  of  food  not  of  the  proper  nature,  sub- 
stance, and  quality  ;  prohibiting  the  abstraction 
of  any  part  of  an  article  of  food  before  sale  and 
selling  such  without  notice  to  the  purchaser  ; 
defining  butter,  margarine,  and  margarine  cheese 
and  regulating  their  sale  ;  empowering  the 
authorities  to  examine  at  the  ports  and  else- 
where and  take  samples  of  analysis,  and  so  on. 
Section  3  of  the  Act  of  1875  enacts  that  "no 
person  shall  mix,  colour,  stain,  or  powder,  or 
order  or  permit  any  other  person  to  mix,  colour, 
stain,  or  powder,  any  article  of  food  with  any 
ingredient  or  material  so  as  to  render  the  article 
injurious  to  health,"  and  no  person  shall  sell 
any  such  article,  under  a  penalty  not  exceeding 
£50,  thus  regulating  the  use  of  preservatives 
and  colouring  matters  such  as  copper  in  tinned 
peas  and  boric  acid  in  milk  and  butter. 
If  a  retailer  is  summoned  under  the  section 
mentioned  he  can  escape  by  proving  that  he 
did  not  know  that  the  article  was  injurious  to 
health,  and  could  not  with  reasonable  diligence 
have  obtained  that  knowledge.  Section  6  of 
the  same  Act,  the  principle  one  under  which 
proceedings  for  adulteration  are  taken,  directs 
that  "  no  person  shall  sell  to  the  prejudice  of 
the  purchaser  any  article  of  food  or  any  drug 
which  is  not  of  the  nature,  substance,  and 
quality  of  the  article  demanded  by  such  pur- 
chaser, under  a  penalty  not  exceeding  £20." 

What  is  Permitted.  No  offence  is  com- 
mitted (1)  where  any  ingredient  not  injurious  to 
health  has  been  added  because  required  for 
the  production  or  preparation  thereof  as  an 
article  of  commerce  in  a  state  fit  for  carriage 
or  consumption  and  not  fraudulently  to 
increase  the  bulk,  weight,  or  measure  of 
the  food  or  drug,  or  conceal  the  inferior 
quality  thereof  ;  (2)  where  the  drug  or  food 

4715 


SHOPKEEPING 

is  a  proprietary  medicine  or  the  subject  of  a 
patent  in  force,  and  is  supplied  in  the  state 
required  by  the  specification  of  the  patent  ; 
(:*)  where  the  food  or  drug  is  a  compounded 
medical  prescription  ;  and  (4)  where  the  food  or 
drug  is  "  unavoidably  mixed  with  some  extrane- 
ous matter  in  the  process  of  collection  or  pre- 
parat  ion."  Either  the  employer  or  the  assistant 
may  be  summoned  and  fined  under  this  Section  6, 
but  there  is  an  important  protecting  section 
which  declares  that  there  is  no  offence  in  selling 
an  article  of  food  mixed  with  any  matter  or 
ingredient  not  injurious  to  health,  and  not  in- 
tended fraudulently  to  increase  its  bulk,  weight, 
or  measure,  or  conceal  its  inferior  quality,  "  if 
at  the  time  of  delivering  such  article  or  drug  he 
shall  supply  to  the  person  receiving  the  same  a 
notice,  by  a  label  distinctly  and  legibly  written 
or  printed  on  or  with  the  article  or  drug,  to  the 
effect  that  the  same  is  mixed." 

Butter.  It  might  be  supposed  that  this 
would  apply  to  butter,  the  "  bulk  "  of  which 
is  increased  by  the  addition  of  water  or  milk  ; 
but  such  butter  is  (1905)  allowed  to  be  sold 
in  shops  where. the  fact  of  such  admixture  of 
milk  is  brought  to  the  purchasers'  knowledge 
by  notice,  just  as  diluted  whisky  or  milk  is, 
on  the  strength  of  a  ruling  by  the  High  Court 
that  a  sale  cannot  be  to  the  "  prejudice  of 
the  purchaser "  under  Section  G  where  the 
seller  brings  to  the  purchaser's  knowledge  the 
fact  that  the  article  sold  is  not  of  the  nature, 
substance,  or  quality  he  demands. 

"  If,"  said  the  Court,  "  the  alteration  is 
brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  purchaser, 
and  he  chooses  to  purchase  notwithstanding, 
it  can  never  have  been  intended  that  such  a 
transaction  should  be  interfered  with."  It  is 
questionable  if  the  public  generally  realises  that 
the  butter  is  not  pure,  but  the  merchant  who 
puts  up  his  ticket  with  "  milk-blended  "  butter 
will  probably  explain  as  seldom  as  possible. 
You  can  bring  the  alteration  to  the  purchaser's 
knowledge  in  any  way  you  please  so  long  as 
you  do  it  in  some  way  ;  and  this  is  why,  in  some 
hotel  bars  the  legend  may  be  read :  "  All  spirits 
sold  here  are  mixed."  The  same  protection 
applies  to  goods  such  as  butter  or  milk.  When 
margarine  is  sold,  that  fact  must  be  conveyed 
to  the  purchaser's  knowledge  by  wrapping  it 
in  a  special  wrapper,  prescribed  by  the  Mar- 
garine Act  and  the  Sale  of  Food  Act,  1899  ; 
but  if  margarine  is  supplied  when  "  butter " 
has  been  asked  for  it  is  necessary  also  to  give 
tin-  customer  a  verbal  intimation. 


The  Margarine  Act.  The  Margarine 
Act  defines  as  "  butter "  the  "  substance 
usually  known  as  butter,  made  exclusively 
from  milk  or  cream,  or  both,  with  or  without 
salt  or  other  preservative,  and  with  or  without 
the  addition  of  colouring  matter."  As  already 
mentioned,  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  which  is 
empowered  to  fix  standards,  has  added  to  this 
that  butter  shall  not  contain  more  than  1C 
per  cent,  of  water  if  it  is  to  be  presumed  genuine. 
The  Act  then  declares  that  "  the  word  '  mar- 
garine '  shall  mean  all  substances,  whethei 
compounds  or  otherwise,  prepared  in  imitation 
of  butter,  and  whether  mixed  with  butter  or  not, 
and  no  such  substance  shall  be  lawfully  sold, 
except  under  the  name  of  margarine,  and  under 
the  conditions  set  forth  in  this  Act,"  To  this 
definition  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  1899,  added 
that  margarine  containing  more  than  10  per  cent, 
of  butter  fat  shall  not  be  sold  at  all — the  object 
being  to  prevent  the  sale  of  those  "  mixtures  " 
that  are  peculiarly  liable  to  be  passed  off  as 
butter.  This  latter  Act  also  defines  as  mar- 
garine-cheese "  any  substance,  whether  com- 
pound or  otherwise,  which  is  prepared  in  imita- 
tion of  cheese,  and  which  contains  fat  not 
derived  from  milk  "  ;  and  this  article,  mar- 
garine cheese,  has  to  be  sold  under  the  same 
conditions  as  margarine. 

Selling  Margarine.  The  retail  dealer 
who  exposes  margarine  for  sale  must  attach  "  to 
each  parcel  thereof  so  exposed,  and  in  such 
manner  as  to  be  clearly  visible  to  the  purchaser, 
a  label  marked  in  printed  capital  letters,  not 
less  than  one-and-a-half  inches  square,  '  Mar- 
garine.' "  It  is  also  best  to  place  the  lump  or 
lumps  of  margarine  so  exposed  for  sale  on  a  slab 
bearing  the  word  "  Margarine."  Then,  when 
handing  margarine  to  a  customer  the  retailer 
must  be  careful  that  it  is  in  a  paper  wrapper  on 
which  is  printed  the  word  "  Margarine "  in 
capital  block  letters,  not  less  than  half  an  inch 
long,  and  distinctly  legible,  and  with  no  other 
printed  matter  appearing  on  the  wrapper.  In 
the  same  way  "  margarine  cheese  "  must  appear 
solely  on  the  wrapper  of  imitation  cheese. 
Condensed,  skimmed,  or  separated  milk  must 
be  labelled  "  machine-skimmed  milk."  Under 
the  Margarine  Act  an  invoice  is  a  warranty,  so 
that  if  the  provision  dealer  has  bought  what  he 
believed  to  be  butter,  and  it  is  called  "  butter  " 
(not  "Danish"  or  "Irish"  merely),  on  the 
invoice,  the  production  of  this  invoice  will 
exonerate  him  if  the  substances  prove  not  to  be 
genuine. 


Continued 


4716 


CONDIMENTS 

Sources  and  Manufacture  of  Salt.     The  Salt  Mines  of  England. 
Uses  of  Salt.     Vinegar.      Pepper.      Mustard.      Ginger.  '  Spices 

Group  16 

FOOD  SUPPLY 
12 

Continued  from 
page  4589 

By  CLAYTON  BEADLE  and  HENRY  P.  STEVENS 


A  LTHOUGH  eaten  with  foods,  condiments  cannot 
•**  be  regarded  as  true  foods,  as  their  food 
value  is  almost  negligible,  many  (such  as  pepper, 
mustard,  and  spices)  being  largely  composed 
of  indigestible  fibre.  They  may,  however,  be 
regarded  as  adjuncts  to  food,  and  are  taken  in  com- 
paratively small  quantities,  with  the  idea  of  stimu- 
lating the  appetite.  Most  of  them  contain  a  small 
proportion  of  a  very  active  ingredient.  Thus  pepper 
contains  a  resin,  i-  piperiu  "  ;  mustard,  a  volatile 
oil ;  and  spices  similar  oils,  which  give  to  the  condi- 
ments their  peculiar  flavours.  These  active  ingre- 
dients are  so  powerful  that  they  would  act  as 
poisons  if  taken  in  really  large 
quantities.  Acetic  acid,  too,  can 
only  be  taken  in  the  diluted  form 
as  vinegar.  In  virtue  of  the 
chemical  nature  of  the  active 
ingredients,  many  condiments  act 
as  food  preservatives,  especially  salt 
and  the  spices. 

Common  Salt.  Although 
most  condiments  can  hardly  be 
regarded  as  necessities,  common 
salt  is  certainly  an  exception.  It  is 
one  of  the  essentials  for  our  health 
I  (reservation. 

Nature  has  endowed  this  country 
with  salt  supplies  second  to  none, 
both  in  quantity  and  quality.  Salt 
is  brought  to  the  surface  either  in 
the  form  of  clear  liquid,  as  brine,  or 
as  dry  rock,  known  as  rock  salt. 
Cheshire  brine  yields  for  every 
imperial  gallon  3  lb.  2  oz.  of  dry 
salt.  Roughly,  1,000  gallons  of 
brine  produce  1  ton  of  dry  salt. 

The  brine  is  said  to  run  under 
the  earth  in  channels,  and  to  collect 
in  the  lowest  part  of  the  geological 
basin  at  a  depth  of  about  130  ft., 
whence  it  is  pumped  to  the  surface. 
It  is  supposed  to  result  from  the 
rainwater  percolating  to  the  rock 
salt  and  dissolving  it.  Where  fresh 
water  reaches  the  surface  of  rock 
salt,  either  at  the  outcrop  or  through 
fissures  in  the  outlying  marl,  brine  4.  RAKE 
is  formed 

The  brine  has  the  following  average  composition  : 


2.    PLAN  OF  FLUES  OF  SALT-PAN 


3.  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF 
SALT-PAN 


The  Salt=pans.  The  pans  are  made  of  steel, 
measuring  about  36  ft.  by  24  ft.  by  20  in.  deep,  rest 
on  brickwork,  and  are  heated  underneath  by  coal 
fires.  A  battery  usually  contains  from  five  to  ten 
pans.  For  examples  of  ordinary  pan  settings,  see 
1,  2,  and  3.  This  type  of  pan  has  one  flue,  B,  for 
each  fireplace,  A,  and  blank  places,  C,  over  which 
the  salt  in  the  pan  can  be  scraped  to  the  side  without 
fear  of  overheating.  D  is  the  salt-pan,  and  E  the  flue 
to  drying-room ;  F  F  the  hurdles,  and  G  the  floor, 
on  which  the  workman  stands.  Each  pan  in  the 
particular  works  we  are  describing  has  two  fires, 
divided  by  a  partition  wall  running  halfway  to  the 
back  of  the  pan.  In  order  to  ensure 
even  distribution  of  heat,  there 
are  five  draughts,  as  they  are  called, 
divided  by  four  parallel  walls  run- 
ning halfway  from  the  back.  Brine 
is  conveyed  continuously  to  the 
evaporating  pan,  gentle  ebullition 
takes  place,  and  enormous  volumes 
of  steam  pass  off  from  the  surface 
and  disappear  up  the  ventilators 
in  the  roof.  The  temperature  of 
the  brine  is  maintained  at  about 
220°  F. 

As  the  water  evaporates,  an  in- 
crustation of  crystalline  salt  is 
formed  on  the  surface,  which,  as  it 
gets  heavy,  settles  in  the  cooler 
end  of  the  pan.  The  crystalline 
deposit  of  pure  salt  so  formed  is 
drawn  to  the  side  of  the  pan  by 
means  of  a  rake  [4].  The  salt  is 
then  lifted  out  of  the  pan  by 
means  of  a  skimmer  [5],  a  perforated 
scoop  about  18  in.  diameter.  The 
excess  of  liquid  drains  through  the 
perf orations  and  the  contents  of 
the  skimmer  are  transferred  to  a 
wooden  mould  consisting  of  an  open 
box  [6]  tapering  from  one  end  to 
the  other  (length,  22  in.  and  8  in. 
by  8  in.  at  large  end),  standing 
on  its  smaller  end. 


Drying  and  Packing  the 


SKIMMER 


S  til  '.stances 

Northwich. 

Droitwich. 

Stoke  Prior. 

Sodium  chloride 
Calcium  sulphate     .  . 
Sodium  sulphate 
Magnesium  carbonate 

Per  cent. 
25-222 
•391 
•146 
•107 

Per  cent. 
22-452 
•387 
•390 
•034 

Per  cent. 
25-492 
•261 
•594 
•034 

Total  solids    .  . 

25-866 

23-263 

26-381 

Brine  is  pumped  by  two  plungers  from  a  depth  of 
•>4  yards  through  an  8-in.  pipe,  and  delivered  to  an 
enormous  wooden  cistern  measuring  about  36  ft.  by 
32  ft.  by  10  ft.  deep.  From  this  tank  the  brine 
passes  through  pipes  to  the  evaporating  pans. 


Salt.  When  a  number  of  mould? 
6.  MOULD  have  been  filled  and  allowed  to 
set,  they  are  inverted,  tipped 'out, 
and  conveyed  to  the  drying-room.  The  ordinary 
size  block  weighs  28  lb.  (80  to  the  ton).  Each  pan 
produces  4  tons  in  12  hours  (equal  to  about  50  tons 
a  week). 

The  drying-room  is  heated  by  the  waste  heat 
from  the  furnaces,  which  passes  through  long, 
square,  iron  flues,  4  ft.  by  4  ft.,  placed  on  the 
floor  level,  on  and  around  which  the  blocks  are 
stacked.  The  temperature  of  the  drying-room 
varies  from  120°  F.  to  150°  F.  The  blocks  take  six 
to  fourteen  days  to  dry,  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture and  weather.  The  dried  blocks  now  pass  through 
a  munching  machine,  and  then  through  a  pair  of 
rollers,  and  finally  through  sieves,  until  the  required 
grain  of  salt  is  obtained. 

4717 


BAY    SALT  (One-third  scale) 


FOOD     SUPPLY 

Tin-  dry 
salt  is  oar- 
r  i  e  d  by 
''elevators'' 
to  the  top  of 
the  building, 
whence  radi  - 
ate,  octopus- 
like,  shoots 
or  feeders, 
reaching  to 
all  parts  of 
a  large 
packing- 
rooiu  where 
girls  are 

busily  employed  filling  damp-proof  paper  packets, 
which  consist  of  two  sizes,  and  contain  1|  Ib.  and 
V  Ib.  respectively  of  table  salt.  This  is  never 
touched  by  hand  from  beginning  to  end. 

Preparing  Fishery  Salt.  The  prepara- 
tion of  salt  for  the  preservation  of  food,  such  as  fish 
salt,  is  made  somewhat  differently  from  that  of  table 
salt.  It  has  to  be  coarse  and  distinctly  granular 
for  sprinkling  between  layers  of  fish  in  boxes  or 
barrels,  as,  .if  too  fine,  it 
would  melt  too  rapidly. 

For  fishery  salt,  the  brine 
in  the  pans  is  evaporated  at 
from  90°  F.  to  120°  F., 
according  to  the  quality  to 
be  produced.  The  lower  the 
temperature  the  coarser  the 
grain,  and  the  slower  the 
operation. 

There  are  several  qualities 
of  fishery  salt,  distinguished 
according  to  coarseness.  The 
first  grade  of  salt  is  named 
Second  Fishery,  a  degree 
coarser  is  Best  Fishery ;  next 
higher  grade  is  X  Fishery,  a 
still  better  quality  is  XX, 
and  the  highest  of  all,  and 
the  coarsest,  is  Bay  Salt  [7]. 

From  22  to  25  tons  per  pan 
per  week  is  the  average 
production  of  fishery  salt. 

The  Salt  Union  supplies  90 
per  rent,  of  the  salt  used  in  Great  Britain  for  fish- 
curing.  The  pans  owned  by  them  have  a  capacity  of 
about  1,000,000  tons  per  annum.  The  attempt  to 
oust  the  pure  natural  article  by  salts  obtained  from 
sea- water  evaporated  by  the  sun's  rays  in  hot 
climates  is  likely  to  end  in  failure,  as,  in  addition 
to  the  great  inferiority  in  composition  of  the  latter, 
there  is  a  liability  to  the  formation  of  a  fungus  on 
ti-h  which  does  not  take  place  with  the  purearticle. 
Sc;i- water  also  contains  many  organic  ingredients  that 
militate  against  the  proper  preservative  action  of  salt. 
I  lie  following  analysis  will  show  the  difference 
in  composition  between  the  Cheshire  fishery  salt 
and  the  foreign  sun-evaporated  sea-water : 


8.    ROCK    SALT   FROM   ADELAIDE    MINES 
(One-third  scale) 


Ingredient* 

Mi,  shire 
Second 

1  i-ln-i  y 

Foreign 

Chloride  of  Sodium  (pur. 

Per  cent. 
97-32 

Per  cent. 
89-21 

Houture 

Sulphate  of  lime 
Sulphate  of   magnesium 

1-7-2 
•85 

4-82 

T4* 
3"15 

Chloride  <>!    magnesium 

•us 

"95 

Insoluble  matter 

•08 

•39 

100*00 

100-00 

4718 


Where  RocR  Salt  is  Found.  The  geo- 
logical position  of  rock  salt  occurs  between  the  coal 
formation  and  the  lias  in  the  new  red  sandstone  of 
the  Triassic  series.  The  great  rock  salt  formation 
of  England  occurs  within  the  red  marl,  or  red  sand- 
stone. At  Northwich,  in  the  valley  of  the  Weaver, 
rock  salt  is  found  in  two  chief  beds,  the  top  being 
about  87  ft.  thick,  and  the  bottom  90  ft.  The  top 
bed  is  126  ft.  below  the  surface. 

The  muling  is  done  from  the  bottom  of  the 
layer  of  the  thick  bottom  bed,  where  the  best  salt 
is  found.  The  natural  beds  are  about  2  miles  long 
by  1|  miles  wide. 

A  Large  Salt  Mine.  To  support  the  weight 
above,  it  is  necessary  to  leave  pillars  of  salt  equal 
to  about  one-twelfth  the  area  of  the  mine.  This  is 
done  by  leaving  enormous  pillars  (somewhat  larger 
at  the  bottom  than  the  top),  10  yd.  square  and 
25  yd.  apart. 

The  rock  salt  raised  as  blasted  from  the  Adelaide 
mines  belonging  to  the  Salt  Union,  Ltd.,  at  Marston, 
Northwich,  is  called  "  Prussian  Rock,1'  when 
brought  to  the  surface,  and  the  larger  pieces  resemble 
enormous  blocks  of  granite  and  porphyry.  In  places 
it  contains  veins  of  deep  brown  or  amber  colour 
[light  portions,  8],  grading  to 
pale  transparent  salmon  tint 
[dark  portion,  8]  and  in  some 
parts  it  is  as  transparent  as 
glass  and  very  pure,  and  cry- 
stallised in  large  cubes  [9]. 
If  taken  at  base  of  vein,  one 
occasionally  finds  attached 
pieces  of  stone  [see  right- 
hand  bottom  corner  of  10]. 
In  other  places  the  caverns  are 
bristling  with  needle-shaped 
crystals  not  unlike  the  familiar 
sal-ammoniac  [11],  and  in 
some  few  places  it  is  opaque 
and  white,  falling  to  pieces 
between  the  fingers  as  though 
Nature  had  already  prepared  it 
for  coarse  fishery  salt  [12]. 
The  mine  at  Marston  is  336  ft. 
deep.  It  is  approached  by  a 
perpendicular  shaft  about  9  ft. 
wide  by  means  of  a  bucket 
which  emerges  into  a  cavern 
30  ft.  high.  This  cavern  is  the  largest  rock  mine 
in  Great  Britain.  Its  walls  and  domes  are  bristling 
with  crystals  of  rock  salt  in  the  various  varieties 
referred  to  above.  This  chasm  has  entirely  resulted 
from  the  removal  of  enormous  quantities  of  salt 
rock,  about  and  around  which  there  still  exist 
almost  limitless 
supplies. 

The    Mining 
of  Rock    Salt. 

In  order  to  ob- 
tain the  rock  salt 
a  horizontal  in- 
cision is  made  in 
the  wall  of  the 
rock  7  in.  from  the 
l>;>se,  the  incision 
being  4  in.  deep 
and  28  in.  wide. 
This  is  performed 
by  a  machine  re- 
sembling a  very 

substantial  circular         9.  SALT    CRYSTAL    FROM 
saw   with  two-way  ADELAIDE    MINES 

teeth     a  r  r  a  n  g  e  d  (< >ne-half  scale 


round  its  circumference.  The  machine  is  driven  by 
compressed  air  laid  on  to  the  mine,  and  is  moved 
forward  by  means  of  a  grab.  The  cut  is  made  slightly 
downwards  so  that  the  floor  appears  in  ridges. 
The  progress  of  the  work  depends  largely  upon 
the  hardness  of  the  rock,  which  varies  considerably 
at  different  points.  To  prepare  the  rock  to 
receive  the  charges  for  blasting,  holes  are  produced 
by  means  of  an  iron  pole  called  a  chisel,  that  is  rod- 
shaped  and  tapering  towards  the  end,  which  is 
beaten  out  to  a  spear-shaped  head.  This  is  thrust 
into  the  rock  and  turned  until  the  required  depth  is 
reached.  In  this  hole  a  charge  is  inserted  and  fired 
by  the  aid  of  a  fuse.  Sometimes  the  charges  merely 
crack  the  rock  and  at  others  they  remove  several 
tons.  Thus,  if  large  pieces  are  wanted,  a  small 
charge  is  put  in  vertically  by  which  the  face  of  the 
rock  is  just  cracked  and  the  necessary  sizes  are 
removed  with  a  pick.  If  small  lumps  are  required, 
a  large  charge  is  put  in  in  a  slanting  direction, 
which  blows  the  face  of  the  rock  to  pieces. 

In  addition  to  their  mines  at 
Northwich  and  Winsford,  in  Cheshire, 
the  Salt  Union  have  mines  at  Carrick- 
fergus  in  Ireland,  and  they  have  also 
white  salt  works  at  Northwich, 
Winsford,  Middlewich  (Cheshire), 
Stoke  Prior  and  Droitwich  (Worces- 
tershire), Middlesbrough  (Durham). 

The  Uses  of  Rock  Salt.  The 

rock  salt  is  ground  to  a  powder  and 
supplied  in  bags  for  agricultural 
.purposes.  It  is  exported  in  lumps  for 
refining  and  conversion  into  table 
salts.  It  is  placed  unground  in  the 
stalls  of  oxen/-  who  greedily  lick 
it  as  an  adjunct  to  their  food.  Brine 
is  used  in  large  quantities  in  the 
"  Solvay "  process  for  the  manu- 
facture of  alkali ;  white  salt  and 
rock  salt  in  the  "  Leblanc  "  process 
for  the  production  of  soda  and  salt 
cake  [see  Acids  and  Alkalis],  also 
in  copper  smelting.  As  such  it  forms 
the  basis  of  several  of  our  most 
important  industries,  which  are  dealt 
with  at  full  length  under  different 
sections.  Brine  also  plays  a  very  important  part  in 
the  process  of  refrigeration  [see  Food  Preserva- 
tion], The  following  list  gives  the  various  uses  to 
which  salt  is  put: 


10.    KOCK  SALT  WITH  ATTACHED 
STONE  (One-half  scale)      - 


Salting     down     vegetables 

before  cooking 
Jlemoving>nimalcul«  from 

raw  vegetables,  such  as 

watercress 
Salting  butter 
Eread    making    (added    to 

flour) 

Plugging  tobacco  pipes 
Hating  with  fruit 
Preserving  meat 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

With  food  for  cattle 
to  improve  appe- 
tite and  digestion 
With  poultry  food 
With  all  foods   de- 
ficient in  salt 
As  medicine 
In  brine  baths 
As   an    antidote   to 
poisons,        snake 
and  dog  bites 
Improving  the 
burning      of 
paraffin 
Preserving  potatoes 
Extracting  frost  from  frozen 

vegetables 

Detecting  poisonous  mush- 
rooms 

Preserving  milk 
Preserving  eggs 
Curing  hams  and  bacon 
Fish  curing  and  preserving 
In  liquid  form,  as    a  fire 

extinguisher 
I  Laying  dust 


ii.  'ROCK   SALT   IN    NEEDLE- 
SHAPED    CRYSTALS 
(One-half  scale) 


Scouring 

Removing  discolcr&tions 

Washing  greasy  bottles 

Removing  inkstains  from 
carpets  and  tablecloths 

Removing  wine  stains 

Carpet  cleaning 

Dissolved  in  spirit  for  re- 
moving grease  spots 

Washing  silk  handkerchiefs 

Mixed  with  oil  for  furniture 
polishes 

Cleaning  straw  matting 

Cleaning  brooms 

Disinfecting 


Cleaning  slimy  sponges 
Cleaning  stained  hands 
Cleaning  copper  (with  lemon 

added) 

Making  a  fire  burn  up 
On  frozen  roads 
Consolidating  roads 
Destroying  insects  in  gardens 
Destroying  vermin  in 

manure  heaps 
Weed  killing 
Doctoring    horses,     cattle, 

and  sheep 
As  food  for  cows  to  improve 

milking 


OPAQUE   ROCK   SALT  (One-half  scale) 


Assisting  disintegration   and  weathering 

of  soil 

Absorbing  and  retaining  moisture  on  the 
ground,  and  therefore  as  a  preventitive 
of  drought 
Assisting  the  soil  to  absorb  ammonia  for 

crops 

Purifying  land 
Placing  on  land  to   cause  cattle  to  crop 

closer 

Increasing  clover  crops 
Checking  or  preventing  potato  disease 
Sweetening    and    preserving    fodder,  and 
preventing  mouldiness  in  it 
No    distinction  has    been     made 
between  stove  salt,  etc.,  and  rock  salt  in 
the  above  enumeration,    but  it  may 
be   taken    generally   that  salt   from 
brine  is   always  used    in  connection 
with  human  food  and  household  pur- 
poses, and  ground  rock  salt  for  all 
others,   except  where  colour  and   a 
high  degree  of  purity  is  of  paramount 
importance. 

Natural  Vinegars.  Genuine 
vinegar  has  been  defined  as  the  "' pro- 
duct of  the  alcoholic  and  acetous 
fermentation  of  vegetable  juice  or 
infusion."  That  is  to  say,  it  is 
obtained  from  some  vegetable  extract  which  is 
allowed  to  ferment,  first  with  the  formation  of 
alcohol,  which  is  then  converted  into  acetic  acid. 
Vinegar  so  prepared  will  consist  of  a  solution  of 
acetic  acid  with  various  vegetable  juices  and 
colouring  matters.  To  this  class  belong  the  true 
malt  vinegars,  prepared  from  malt  or  a  mixture 
of  malt  and  barley.  The  materials  are  finely  ground 
and  mashed — that  is,  extracted  repeatedly  with 
small  quantities  of  hot  water  till  all  soluble 
matters  are  removed.  The  clear  liquors  are  rim  off 
into  a  vat,  where  yeast  is  added,  so  that  fermenta- 
tion sets  in  ;  carbon  dioxide  gas  is  given  off,  and 
alcohol  formed  in  the  liquor.  This  alcohol  has  to  be 
further  oxidised  to  form  acetic  acid,  for  which  pur- 
poses some  means  is  adopted  to  expose  it  effectually 
to  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  action,  however, 
would  be  slow  were  it  not  for  growth  of  a  peculiar 
fungus,  or  "  vinegar  plant "  (Mycoderma  aceti). 
Either  the  liquor  is  allowed  to  trickle  over  twigs 
on  which  the  vinegar  plant  grows,  or  the  liquor 
passes  through  barrels  on  the  sides  of  which  the  plant 
has  developed.  So  prepared,  malt  vinegar  has  a 
peculiar  and  pleasant  odour,  due  to  the  presence  of 
small  quantities  of  organic  substances  known  as 
aldehydes,  esters,  etc.,  and  it  is  coloured  brown  owing 
to  the  presence  of  organic  colouring  matters  formed 

4719 


FOOD     SUPPLY 


an  \  colour.  This  seed,  from  which  the  outer 
coating  has  been  stripped,  forms  white  pepper.  For 
this  stripping  the  fruit  is  soaked  in  water  in  order  to 
soften  the  husk  or  outer  covering,  which  is  then 
removed  by  rubbing.  These  outer  husks  possess 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  seed,  and  are  used 
to  a  certain  extent  for  flavouring.  It  will  be  seen 
therefore,  that  the  distinction  between  black  and 
white  pepper  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  former  con- 
sists of  the  seed  contained  in  its  husk  or  outer 
covering,  while  the  latter  is  hulled  and  contains  only 
the  kernel.  The  peculiar  pungency  characteristic 
of  pepper  is  due  to  the  presence  of  an  acrid  resinous 
substance,  besides  which  it  contains  small  quantities 
of  an  oily  body  termed  piperin,  starch,  and  cellulose 
or  woody  fibre.  The  following  table  represents  the 
average  proportions  of  certain  substances  in  black 
and  white  pepper  (Clifford  Richardson) : 


13.    SCRAPED    GINGER 

in  the  process.  Small  quantities  of  vinegar  are 
also  prepared  from  inferior  wine,  but  very  little 
prepared  in  this  manner  is  met  with  in  this  country. 
Artifical  Vinegars.  In  contrast  to  these 
natural  vinegars  are  the  artificial  ivood  vinegars, 
prepared  by  doctoring  a  solution  of  acetic  acid 
obtained  by  distilling  wood  and  small  quantities 
of  caramel,  other  substances  being  added  to 
imitate  the  colour'  and  appearance  of  malt 
vinegar.  A  great  deal  of  the  vinegar  sold  is 
prepared  in  this  way  from  acetic  acid,  and 
at  times  illegally  labelled  "  malt  vinegar."  At 
one  time  the  so-called  distilled  or  white  vinegar 
was  prepared  by  distilling  the  malt  vinegar. 
It  is  difficult  to  see  what  advantages  were 
gained  by  doing  this,  as  the  vinegar  so  pre- 
pared is  indistinguishable  from  diluted  acetic 
acid.  A  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid 
used  to  be  regularly  added  to  the  vinegar  with  the 
idea  that  it  helped  to  preserve  it.  Such  an  addition 
is  now  illegal,  and  must  be  looked  for  in  analysing  a 
sample.  On  evaporating  a  small  quantity  of  vinegar 
in  a  platinum  dish  to  dryness,  the  solid  matter  will 
have  a  tendency  to  carbonise  even  at  100°  C.  if  sul- 
phuric acid  be  present.  Hehner  evaporates  50  c.c. 


Substances 

BUck 

White 

Water 
Ash  
Volatile  oil 
Piperin  and  resin  .  . 
Starch 
Fibre          
Albuminoids 

Per  cent. 
8  to  11 
2-75  to  5 
•1  to  T75 
7  to     8 
32  to  38 
8  to   11 
7  to   12 

Per  cent. 
8  to  11 
1  to     2 
•5  to  T75 
7  to     8 
40  to   44 
4-11  to     8 
8.  to   10 

The  manufacture  consists  in  grinding  the  corns 
and  separating  the  ground  particles  by  means  of 
sieves.  It  is  found  that  most  of  the  active 
constituents  are  contained  in  the  finely- 
divided  particles,  the  coarser  particles 
containing  mineral  impurities  and  forming 
an  inferior  product. 

Analysing  Pepper.     The  analysis  of 
pepper  is    made  chiefly   for   the  purpose  of 
detecting  adulterants,   and  much    ingenuity 
has  been  expended  by  unscrupulous  dealers 
.:„„     in  incorporating  with  the  pepper  substances 
which    are     not    easily  discovered   by    the 
analyst.    Besides  the  coarser  mineral  adulterants, 
stich  as  china  clay  and  starch,  substances  such  as 
ground  olive   stones  and  long  pepper  may  also  be 
added.    The  difficulty  of  the  analyst  is  considerably 
increased    by    the    fact    that     samples    of  genuine 
pepper  vary  considerably  in  chemical  composition 
unong  themselves.     The  analyst  has  to  rely  chiefly 

i    .  .  ml  r  •  -  - 1-    '11    1 


to  dryness  with  25  c.c.  of  N/10  (NaOH)  which  is       on  his  microscope.    Thus,  foreign  starch  will  have  a 

different  appearance  to  that  peculiar  to  pepper 
itself.  Any  large  addition  of  fibrous  material,  such  as 
ground  olive  stones,  may  be  detected  by  estimating 


ignited  at  a  low  temperature  ;  25  c.c.  of  decinormal 
hydrochloric  acid  is  then  added,  and  the  dish  warmed 
to  drive  off  the  carbon  dioxide.  The  solution  is 
filtered  off  from  any  residue  and  now  contains  the 
free  acid  originally  present  in  the  vinegar,  which 
may  be  titrated,  using  phenol  phthalein  as  an 
indicator  in  the  usual  manner. 

An  opinion  can  be  formed  as  to  whether  a  sain  pic 
of  vinegar  is  genuine  malt  vinegar  or  not  by  a  com- 
bination of  tests,  such  as  specific  gravity,  total  solids, 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  acetic  acid.  The 
latter  can  be  directly  estimated  by  titrating  the 
vinegar  with  decinormal  soda  and  phenol  phthalein 
as  an  indicator.  Every  cubic  centimetre  of  N/10 
(NaOll )  i-  equivalent  to  '000 grammes  of  acetic  acid. 

Pepper.  Two  varieties  of  pepper  are  commonly 
met  with — black  and  white  pepper.  Both  are 
obtained  from  a  climbing  plant,  the  i>i i»  r  nit/rum. 
often  trained  lil<c  hops  or  vines  to  grow  on  poles. 
As  soon  as  the  berries  show  signs  of  turning  red 
they  are  picked  off  and  dried.  Black  jH/ijter  con- 
>i-t<  of  this  dried  unripe  fruit,  in  the  form  of  rounded 
herries  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  'diameter. 
The  outer  covering  i<  then  blackish  brown  and 
\\rinkled  and  contain-  a  seed  of  a  yellow  brown  or 

4720 


15.     COATED     GINCKR 


FOOD    SUPPLY 


the  cellulose  or  crude  fibre  ;  thus,  unadulterated 
white  pepper  may  average,  say,  0  per  cent.,  black 
pepper  9^  per  cent.  Long  pepper  will  contain  as 
much  as  21  per  cent.,  and  ground  olive  stones  60 
to  70  per  cent.  Unfortunately,  authorities  differ  a 
good  deal  even  here,  not  only  on  account  of  the 
variation  in  composition  of  genuine  samples,  but 
in  the  methods  employed  in  estimating  fibre. 

Cayenne  Pepper.  Cayenne,  pepper  is  ob- 
tained from  the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  the  Capsicum 
fastigiatum  and  Capsicum  annum,  which  grow  in 
the  tropical  parts  of  Africa  and  America.  The 
pods  are  orange-red  in  colour,  perhaps  £  in.  or 
so  in  length,  having  a  shrivelled  appearance.  In- 
side are  small  white,  rounded  seeds.  It  owes  its 
peculiar  properties  to  a  body  known  as  capsicum, 
'  which  is  colourless,  and  has  a  very  acrid  taste. 
In  addition  to  this,  cayenne  pepper  consists  of 
fibres  and  small  quantities  of  fats  and  resin,  but  it 
is  noteworthy  that  it  contains  no  starch;  for 
analysis  the  chemist  must  rely  mostly  on  its 
microscopical  appearance. 

Mustard.     There  are  two  plants  which  furnish 
us  with  the  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of 
mustard — namely,     the    black   and   white   mustard 
plants  (Sinapis  nigra  and  alba),  yielding  respectively 
black  and  white  mustard  seeds.     Both  plants  are 
found  growing  wild  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  the 
white  mustard  rather  more  in  the  south.    The  seeds 
differ  a  great  deal  in  appearance.  The 
white  are   about    one-twelfth    of    an 
inch    in    diameter,    and  of    a    palish 
yellow   colour,  while  the  black  seeds 
are  considerably  smaller,  only  about 
one-fifth  of  the  weight  of   the  white 
ones,    and   reddish  to   dark  brown  in 
colour.     It  is  only  the  black  mustard 
seeds    which    produce    the    peculiar 
volatile    oil    with    the     penetrating, 
pungent     odour      known      as      attyl 
isothiocyanate,    so    irritating    to    the 
nose  and  eyes.      It  is  formed  when 
the  seeds  are  macerated  with  water.  It  is,  however, 
a  curious  fact  that  the  addition  of  white  mustard 
increases  the  yield  of  the  volatile  oil. 

To  prepare  mustard  powder,  a  mixture  of  the  two 
seeds  is  crushed  between  rollers  and  ground  up. 
The  product  is  then  passed  through  sieves  and  an 
impure  mustard  ilour  obtained.  This  flour  is  then 
subjected  to  a  second  sifting  operation,  and  the 
product  is  ready  for  the  market. 

The  allyl  isothiocyanatc  exists  in  mustard  in 
combination  as  glucoside  (Potassium  myronate), 
which  is  split  up  in  the  presence  of  moisture  by  a 
ferment,  myrosin,  also  found  in  the  seeds.  White 
mustard  contains  myrosin,  and  therefore  aids  the 
formation  of  allyl  isothiocyanate,  although  it  does 
not  itself  contain  any  of  the  glucoside.  If  you 
wish  to  prepare  some  of  this  volatile  oil  you  merely 
require  to  macerate  the  black  seeds  with  water,  and 


18.    CINNAMON 


16.   NUTMEGS    AND    MACE 

after  standing  for  a  time,  distil,  when  the  oil  will 
pass  over  with  the  steam. 

In  addition  to  this  volatile  oil,  mustard  seeds 
contain  some  35  per  cent,  of  a  fixed  oil  or  fat, 
which  is  practically  odourless  and  tasteless.  There 
are  also  present  albuminoids,  from.  25  per  cent,  to 
30  per  cent.,  cellulose,  and  about  1  per  cent,  of 
sulphur.  Mustard,  however,  contains  no  starch, 
so  that  this  possible  adulterant  is  easily  detected. 

The  following  are  the  figures  obtained  in  a  number 
of  analyses  of  genuine  mustards 
(Clifford  Richardson) : 

Water  . .  3  to    7  per  cent. 

Ash     . .  . .  4  „    0  ..  „ 

Volatile  oil  ..  '5  „    2  ..  „ 

Fixed  oil  ..  31  „  37  ,  ., 

Starch  . .  None 

Fibre  . .  . .  5  „  18  „  ,. 

Albuminoids  25  „  32  .,  „ 

Adulterants    of    Mustard 

17.  CARDAMOMS  ^n    addition   to  starch,    other  adul- 

terants which  have  been  detected 
from  time  to  time  are  turmeric,  cayenne  pepper, 
buckwheat,  flour,  clay,  gypsum,  and  other  mineral 
matters.  Some  mustard  is  poor  in  oil,  being  pre- 
pared from  "  mustard  cake,"  the  residue  left  after 
pressing  the  oil  from  the  ground  seeds.  The  amount 
of  oil  is  easily  estimated  by  extracting  with  ether. 
[For  further  details  and  a  description  of  other  pro- 
cesses see  ANALYTICAL  CHEMISTRY.] 

Starch  is  easily  detected  by  boiling  with  water, 
and  then  testing  with  iodine.  Other  adulterants 
may  be  detected  by  estimation  of  the  fibre,  albu- 
minoids, ash,  and  other  constituents. 

Ginger.  Ginger  is  the  dried  root,  or,  more 
correctly,  rhizome,  of  the  ginger  plant  (Zingiber), 
which  is  a  native  of  India,  but  has  been  introduced 
into  a  number  of  other  countries,  such  as  Jamaica, 
Africa,  and  Japan.  The  best  qualities  come  from 
.Jamaica.  It  is  prepared  by  scraping  off  the  outer 
skin,  washing  and  drying  in  the  sun,  and  forms 
rounded,  elongated  pieces,  branching  off  from  one 
another  [13].  The  usual  colour  is  a  pale  buff,  but 
sometimes  the  outer  skin  is  hot  removed,  "  coated 
ginger"  [15],  or  the  scraped  root  is  whitewashed  with 
chalk  or  chloride  of  lime  to  preserve  it  from  the 
attacks  of  insects.  The  peculiar  odour  of  ginger  is 
due  to  a  volatile  oil,  amounting  to  about  J  per 
cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  root.  The  pungent 
taste  is  due  to  another  constituent.  In  general, 
the  composition  of  ginger  varies  a  good  deal ;  it 
contains  resins,  starch,  fibre,  and  mineral  matters. 
The  following  figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the 

4721 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

results  obtained  in  tin-  analysis  of  several  samples 
(IVrinain) : 

Per  cent. 

Asli  (not  including  sand) 3'1  to  5'0 

Ash  soluble  in  not  water 1'8  „  27 

Ether  extract  (oil  and  resins)  . .  . .  2'5  „  5'0 
Alcoholic  extract  after  treatment  with 

ether  (resins,  etc.) 27  „  3'4 

Fraudulent  practice  in  dealing  with  ginger  is 
mostly  confined  to  the  sale  of  the  "exhausted" 
product — that  is  to  say,  ginger  which  has  been 
ground  up  and  the  essential  constituents  removed 
by  digesting  with  weak  spirit  for  making  essences, 
etc.  This  form  of  adulteration  is  the  more  difficult 
to  detect  as  the  appearance  of  the  ginger  is  not 
altered.  A  good  test  for  exhausted  ginger  consists 
in  determining  the  alcoholic  extract  after  treatment 
with  ether.  This  should  average  about  2'8  per  cent,, 
while  exhausted  gingers  may  average  1'4  per  cent. 
(Dyer.) 

Spices.  Among  the  spices,  Caraway  Seeds  are 
the  dried  fruit  of  the  Carum  carui,  and  contain 
about  5  per  cent,  of  a  volatile  oil.  Cloves  are  the 
dried  calyx  and  flower  buds  of  the  Eiigenia  cargo- 
phyllata,  a  sort  of  myrtle  which  grows  in  Zanzibar 

and  the  West  Indies.     As    

in  other  spices,  they  owe 
their  peculiar  flavouring 
properties  to  a  volatile 
oil,  of  which  they  contain 
up  to  16  per  cent.  All- 
spice or  Pimento  [14]  is 
the  small,  dried  berry  of 
another  variety  of  myrtle, 
the  Pimento,  officinalis.  It 
contains  about  4  per  cent, 
of  an  oil  similar  to  oil  of 
cloves.  Being  cheaper,  it- 
is  sometimes  used  to 
adulterate  the  latter. 
Mace  is  the  outer  coat  or 
iirilhi*  of  the  Nutmeg,  the 
fruit  of  the  nutmeg  tree, 
.)/ 'i/rifiti-ca  fragrans.  Fig. 

16    shows    a    nutmeg    in  19.  CASSIA 

shell,  with  the  coating  of 

mace,  pieces  of  the  mace  stripped  off,  and  also  the 
shell  broken  open  with  the  nutmeg  inside.  Nutmeg 
contains  6  per  cent,  of  a  pungent  volatile  oil,  and 
mace  about  4 £  per  cent,  of  a  volatile  oil.  Cardamoms 
[17]  are  the  dried  rii>e  seeds  of  several  plants,  and 
include  the  so-called  "  grains  of  Paradise."  In  the 
illustration  two  shells  have  been  cut  open,  showing  the 
black  seeds  inside.  They  contain  the  usual  volatile 
oil  and  resin.  Cinnamon  [18]  is  the  bark  of  several 
allied  trees,  the  best  of  which  comes  from  Ceylon. 
The  bark  is  stripped  off  in  spring  and  autumn.  It 
contains  up  to  1  ]>er  cent,  of  an  essential  oil  to  which 
it  owes  its  flavouring  properties.  It  is  sometimes 
adulterated  with  Cassia  [19],  the  bark  of  trees  of  the 
same  genus,  but  of  inferior  value.  Cassia  is  easily 
distinguished  from  true  cinnamon,  the  latter  consist- 
ing of  thin  curled  pieces  from  which  the  outer  and 
inner  coats  of  the  bark  have  been  removed,  while 
cassia  forms  thick  pieces,  consisting  of  the  entire 
bark. 

Adulteration  of  Spices.  Spices  are  very 
frequently  ad  ult  era  ted.  sometimes  by  the  substitution 
of  an  inferior  article,  such  as  pimento  for  cloves  or 
cassia  for  cinnamon,  and  also  1»\-  the  addition  of 


various  other  waste  materials,  such  as  sand,  gypsum, 
walnut  and  coconut  shells  ground  up,  ground  olive 
stones,  mustard  husks,  pepper  refuse,  etc.  These 
adulterants  are  readily  mixed  in  with  the  ground 
spice,  it  is  therefore  much  better  to  buy  the  whole 
spice  and  grind  it  as  required  for  use.  But  even 
then  certain  adulterations  may  be  effected.  Thus 
cloves  may  be  mixed  with  an  undue  proportion  of 
stalks,  or  the  material  maybe  exhausted  to  remove 
the  essential  oil,  as  in  the  case  of  ginger.  Under 
such  circumstances,  chemical  and  microscopical 
analysis  alone  can  supply  us  with  the  required 
information. 

Methods   of  Analysis.      In  conclusion,  we 
will  indicate  briefly  the  methods  adopted  in  analys- 
ing   the    condiments    mentioned    in    this    article. 
Moisture  is  determined  by  drying  the  finely  pow- 
dered samples  at  100°  to  105°  C.  till  no  further  loss 
in  weight  takes  place.  Ash  is  determined  by  igniting 
2  to  5  grammes  in  a  platinum  crucible,  and  weighing 
the  residue.     The  ash  should  be  white,  or  nearly 
so,  and  free  from  black  spots  due  to  incompletely 
burnt  particles.     Oil  and   fatty  matters  are  deter- 
mined by  extraction  with  ether   in  a  Soxhlet.     By 
means  of  this  apparatus  ether  vapour  rising   from 
a    flask     in  which    it    is 
made  to  boil  is  condensed, 
and  drips  on  to  the  sub- 
stance   to     be  extracted. 
It   is   necessary   that  the 
solvent    used   should     be 
volatile    like  ether.     The 
fibre,  or  crude  fibre,  as  it 
is    sometimes   termed,    is 
obtained     by    taking    the 
residue     after    extraction 
with  ether,  and  boiling  it 
(say  2  grammes)  with  200 
c.c.  of    U  per    cent,    sul- 
phuric   acid   for    half    an 
hour,    washing  free    from 
acid,  and  then  boiling  with 
200  c.c.  of   1£  per  cent,  of 
caustic  soda    for    half  an 
hour,     after     which     the 
material    is     washed  with 

water  till  free  from  alkali,  dried  at  100°  C.,  and 
weighed.  The  residue  is  then  burnt  to  ash,  and  the 
weight  of  the  ash  subtracted  from  the  weight  of  the 
dry  residue  ;  this  gives  the  weight  of  the  fibre, 
which,  multiplied  by  50,  gives  it  in  the  form  of 
percentage  on  the  original  substance  taken.  For 
albuminoids,  1  gramme  of  the  substance  is  heated  with 
10  c.c.  of  nitrogen-free,  strong  sulphuric  acid,  until 
the  black  carbonisation  products  are  completely 
destroyed  and  the  liquid  is  white.  This  operation  is 
hastened  by  adding  8  grammes  of  potassium  sulphate, 
which  raises  the  boiling  point  of  the  liquid  so  that  it 
can  be  heated  to  a  higher  temperature.  It  is  best  to 
use  special  ilasks  made  of  Jena  glass.  When  cold, 
the  residue  is  taken  up  with  water  into  a  large 
flask,  and  distilled  with  soda.  The  nitrogen  of  the 
albuminoids,  \\hieh  has  been  converted  into  am- 
monia by  the  heating  process,  HOW  passes  over, 
and  is  absorbed  in  a  definite  quantity  of  decinormal 
sulphuric  acid.  When  the  distillation  is  complete, 
the  excess  of  acid  is  titrated  back.  The  number 
of  cubic  centimetres  of  decinormal  acid  neutralised 


by   the  ammonia    multiplied  by  '875  will  give  the 
percent -i^e  of  albuminoids  in  the  original  substance. 
CONDIMENTS  cnncluilvd  :    joUoircd  %  FKTIT  PRESERVATION 


4722 


PARALLELOGRAMS 

Sides,  Angles  and  Diagonals  of  a  Parallelogram.     Rectangles      Simple 
Propositions  referring  to  Quadrilaterals.    Propositions  on  Parallels.     Loci 


Group  21 

MATHEMATICS 
33 


By   HERBERT  J.    ALLPORT,    M.A. 


Proposition  22.     Theorem 

If  one  angle  of  a  triangle  is  greater  than  another, 
then  the  side  opposite  to  the  greater  angle  is  greater 
than  the  side  opposite  to  the  less. 

Let  ABC  be  a  A  in  which  L  ABC  is  >  /_  ACB. 
It  is  required  to  prove  that  AC  is  >  AB. 
A  Proof.     If  AC  is  not  greater 

than  AB,  either 

AC=  AB 
or  AC  is  <  AB. 

Now  AC   cannot   be   equal 
3  c  to   AB,   for   then   the  <_  ABC 

would   equal    the    L  ACB   (Prop.    5),    and    the 
hypothesis  .states  that  this  is  noc  so. 

Neither  can  AC  be  <AB,  for  then  the  L  ABC 
would  be  <^_ACB  (Prop.  21),  and  again  the 
hypothesis  states  that  this  is  not  so. 

.'.  since  AC  can  neither  be  equal  to  nor  less 
than  AB,  AC  is  >  AB. 

PARALLELOGRAMS 

Definitions.  A  parallelogram  is  a  quadri- 
lateral figure  whose  opposite  sides  are  parallel. 

A  diagonal  of  a  quadrilateral  is  a  stiaight 
line  joining  opposite  angular  points. 

Proposition  23.     Theorem 

In  any  parallelogram 
(i.)  The  opi>osite  sides  are  equal. 
(ii. )  The  opposite  angles  are  equal. 
(iii.)  Each  diagonal  bisects  the  parallelogram. 
(iv. )  The  diagonals  bisect  each  other. 

A  B      Let   ABCD  be  a  O, 

"    and     AC,     BD    be    its 
^O^^      I      diagonals,       intersecting 
at  O. 

It  is  required  to  prove 

O —  — 'C  that 

(i.)  AB=CD,  andBC-  AD. 
(ii.)   ^ABC=  LADC,  and  ^DAB=  _DCB. 
(iii.)  A  ABC  =  AADC  in  area.  ' 

ADAB=  ADCB  in  area. 
(iv.)  AO=  OCand  B0=  OD. 
Proof,     (i.)  Since  AB  is  ||  to  CD  and  AC  meets 
them 

/.  _BAC  =  Z.DCA  (Prop.  12)  ; 
and,  since  AD  is  'I  to  BC  and  AC  meets  them 

.*.  ^ACB=  _DAC(Prop.  12). 
Hence,  the  two  AS  ABC,  ADC  have  two  z_s 
of  tiie  one  equal  to  two  _s  of  the  other,  and 
they  have  also  the  side  AC  common  to  both. 
/.  AABC=  AADC  in  all  respects  (Prop.  H>). 

.'.  AB  =  CD,  and  BC  =  AD. 
(ii.)  Since  AABC=  AADC  in  all  respects 

.*.  ^ABC=  .lADC. 
Again,  it  has  been  proved  that 

L  BAC  =  L  DCA  and  z_'DAC  =  L  BCA. 
.'.  the  whole  ^DAB=  the  whole  _DCB. 
(iii.)  We  have  already  proved  that  the  area 
of  AABC=  area  of  AADC. 


In  the  same  way  it  can  be  shown  that  AS 
DAB,  DCB  are  equal  in  area. 

(iv.)  In  the  As  AOB,  DOC 

L  BAD  =  alternate  _  DCO  (Prop.  12) 
^AOB  =  L  COD  (Prop.  3) 
AB=  CD  (by  i.) 

/.  AAOB  =  ADOC  in  all  respects  (Prop.  19). 
.'.  AO  -  OC,  and  BO  -  OD. 

Corollary  1.  //  one  angle  of  a  parallelogram  is 
a  right  angle,  all  its  angles  are  right  angles. 

In  the  figure,  since  AD  is  ||  BC  and  AB  meets 
them 

.'.  ^DAB+  ^ABC=  2  right  ^s(Prop.  12). 

Hence,  if  one  of  these  z_s,  say  z_DAB,  is  a 
right  L.  ,  the  other  must  also  be  a  right  L  .  But 
the  opposite  LB  of  a  /~7  are  equal. 

.'.  all  the  LB  must  be  right  LB. 

Corollary  2.  •  //  two  adjacent  sides  of  a 
parallelogram  are  equal,  all  the  sides  are  equal. 

Definitions.  1.  A  parallelogram  whose 
angles  are  right  angles  is  called  a  rectangle. 

2.  A  rec:  angle  whose  sides  are  all  equal  is 
called  a  square. 

3.  A  rhombus  is  a  parallelogram  whose  sides  are 
all  equal,  but  whose  angles  are  not  right  angles. 

4.  A  trapezium  is  a  four-sided  figure  having 
two  of  its  sides  parallel. 

Proposition  24.     Theorem 
//  one  pair  of  opposite  sides  of  a  quadrilateral 
be   equal    and    parallel,   the    quadrilateral    is    a 
parallelogram. 

Let  ABCD  be  a  quadrilateral  in  which  AB  is 
equal  to  CD,  and  also  ||  to  CD. 

It  is  required  to  prove 
,a  that  ABCD  is  a  O- 
Proof.     Join  AC. 
Then,  since  AB  is  ||  to 
CD  and  AC  meets  them 

/.    L  BAC  =   L  DCA 
(Prop.  12). 
Hence,  in  the  AS  ABC,  ADC, 
AB-DC, 

AC  is  common  to  both   ^s, 
_BAC=  L  DCA. 

.'.  As  are  equal  in  all  respects  (Prop.  4). 
.'.  _BCA=  ^DAC.  ^ 

But  these  are  alternate  L  s. 

/.  BC  is  ||  to  AD  (Prop.  11). 
Hence,  ABCD  is  a  Q. 

The  student  should  find  no  difficulty  in  prov- 
ing the  following  propositions  for  himself. 

1.  //  the  opposite  sides  of  a  quadrilateral  are 
equal,  the  quadrilateral  is  a  parallelogram. 

"2.  If  the  opposite  angles  of  a  quadrilateral  are 
equal,  the  quadrilateral  is  a  parallelogram. 

3.  //  the  diagonals  of  a  parallelogram  are  equal, 
the  parallelogram  is  a  rectangle. 

4.  //  the  diagonals  of  a  quadrilateral  bisect  «><•//, 
other,  the  quadrilateral  is  a  parallelogram. 

4723 


MATHEMATICS 

Proposition  25.     Theorem 

The  straight  line  which  joins  the  middle  points 
of  two  sides  of  a  triangle  is  parallel  to  the  third 
side  and  equal  to  half  of  it. 

Let  ABC  be  a  A,  and  let  E  and  F  be  the 
middle  points  of  AC  and  AB  respectively. 

A  It  is  required  to  prove 

that  FE  is  ||  to  BC,  and 
that  FE  =  A  BC. 
t Proof.      Through     C, 

7~~       /\      7  draw  CG  II  to  BA'  to 

/  /      X  /      meet  FE  in  the  point  G. 

L L V          Then,  since  FA  is  ||  CG, 

D  c        and  FG  meets  them, 

/_CGE(Prop.  12). 


Let  PS  be  any  other  straight  line,  cutting  the 
parallels  at  P,  Q,  R,  S. 

It  is  required  to  prove  that  PQ,  QR,  Rb  are 
equal  to  one  another. 

Proof.  Through  P 
arid  Q  draw  PM,  QN, 
||  to  AD,  and  meeting 
BQ,  CR  at  M  and  N 


Also,  L  AEF  =  L  CEG  (Prop.  3). 

'  the  As  AEF,  CEG  have  two  ^s  of  one 
equal  to  two  LB  of  the  other,  and  side  AE 
=  side  CE. 

'    they  are  equal  in  all  respects. 

•  CG=AF. 

But  AF  -  BF. 

/.  CG  =  BF. 

Hence,  the  figure  BCGF  has  one  pair  of  sides 
equal  and  parallel. 

'.  BCGF  is  a  O  (Prop.  24). 

.'.  FE  is  ||  to  BC. 
Again,  to  prove  that  FE  =  \  BC. 
Bisect  BC  at  D,  and  join  DE. 
Then,  since  DE   joins  the  middle  points  of 
two  sides  of  the  A  ABC,  .'.  DE  is  !!  to  the  third 
side  AB. 

*   BDEF  is  a  O- 
:  FE  -  BD  (Prop.  23). 
But  BD  -  \  BC 

.'.  FE  =  |  BC. 

Proposition  26.     Theorem 

//  through  the  middle  point  of  one  side  of  a 
triangle  a  straight  line  be  drawn  parallel  to  a 
second  side,  it  will  bisect  the  third  side. 

A  Let  ABC  be  a  A,  and 

let  F  be  the  middle 
point  of  AB.  Through 
F  draw  FE  l|  to  BC, 
meeting  AC  at  E. 

It  is  required  to  prove 
that    E    is    the    middle 
B  C        point  of  AC. 

Proof.  Through  C  draw  CG  1 1  to  BA.  meeting 
FE  at  G.  Then 

BCGF  is  a  O- 
'    (.'C!  =  BF(Pr«p.  2:5). 
But  BF-FA. 

/.  CG  =  FA. 
Hence,  since  CG  and  FA  are  equal  and  ||, 

.'.  figure  FCGA  is  a  O  (Prop.  24). 
.'.  the  diagonals  AC  and  FG  bisect  each  other 
(Prop.  23),  so  that  E  is  the  middle  point  of  AC. 

Proposition  27.     Theorem 

//  a  nu  mix  r  of  parallel  straight  lilies  cut  off 
Kfiinl  f)ortions  on  one  straight  line,  they  will  also 
cut  ofj  c'/nal  ixtrtion*  on  an//  other  straight  line. 

Let  AP,  BQ,  CR,  DS  be  parallel  straight  lines 
\\liich  cut  the  line  AD  so  as  to  make  AB,  BC, 
CD  equal  to  one  another. 


respectively. 

Then      ABMP 
BCNQ  are  fjs. 


and 


•    PM  =  AB,  and  QN  =  BC  (Prop.  23). 
But"  AB=BC(#</p.). 

/.  PM  =  QN. 

Again,  since  PM  and  QN  are  ||,  and  PR  meets 
them, 

.'.  L  QPM  -  L  RQN  (Prop.  12)  ; 
and  since  QM  and  RN  are  II,  and  PR  meets 
them 

•    ^PQM=  ^QRN(Prop.  12). 
/.in  the  AS  PQM, 


and  PM  -  QN. 

.'.  As  are  equal  in  all  respects  (Prop.  19). 

.'.  PQ=QR. 

In  a  similar  way  it  can  be  proved  that  <A>K 
=  RS. 

.*.  PQ,  QR,  RS  are  all  equal. 

Proposition  28.     Problem 

To  divide  a  given  straight  line  into  any  number 
of  equal  parts. 

Let  AF  be  the  given  straight  line,  which 
it  is  required  to  divide  into,  say,  five  equal 
parts. 

Construction.  Through  A  draw  a  straight 
line  AH,  in  any  direction.  Starting  from  A, 
mark  off  five  equal 
lengths,  AP,  PQ, 
QR,  RS,  ST.  Join 
TF.  Through  P, 
Q,  R,  S,  draw 
straight  lines  ||  to 
TF,  cutting  AF  at 
the  points  B,  C,  D, 
E.  (This  is  done 

with  the  aid  of  set-squares.  )    Then  AF  is  divided 
into  five  equal  parts,  AB,  BC,  CD,  DE,  EF. 

Proof.  A  number  of  ||  lines  PB,  QC,  RD, 
etc.,  cut  off  equal  portions  from  the  line  AH. 
(By  construction.) 

.'.  they  cut  off  equal  portions  from  the  line 
AF  (Prop.  27). 

/.  AB  -  BC  =  CD  =  DE  =  EF. 

Loci 

The  locus'  of  a  point  is  the  line  which  it 
traces  when  it  moves  according  to  some  given 
law.  For  example,  if  a  point  moves  so  that  it 
is  always  a  constant  distance  from  a  given  fixed 
point  it  traces  the  circumference  of  a  circle 
(Def.  11).  The  locus  of  the  point  is  therefore 
the  circumference  of  a  circle  whose  centre  is  the 
fixed  point,  and  whose  radius  is  the  constant 
distance. 


Continued 


4724 


INSURANCE  AS  A  CAREER 

Various  Branches  of  the  Profession.     Life  and  Industrial  Insurance.     How  to 
Become  an  Actuary.     The  Institute  and  Faculty  of  Actuaries.     Examinations 


Group  7 

INSURANCE 


By  W.  A.  BOWIE 


TTHE  business  of  Insurance  consists  of  the  receipt 
by  the  insuring  office  of  a  sum  of  money, 
termed  the  premium,  in  consideration  of  its 
undertaking  to  pay  a  larger  sum  upon  the 
happening  of  a  certain  contingency  to  the 
person  or  property  insured.  The  premium  is 
estimated  after  consideration  of  any  available 
statistics  relating  to  the  kind  of  risk  which  is  to 
be  insured  against.  Let  us  take  an  example. 
From  statistics  relating  to  the  ages  at  death  of 
certain  observed  persons,  a  table  showing  the 
probability  of  death  can  be  constructed,  and 
upon  this  table  life  assurance  premiums  may 
be  calculated. 

The  Scope  of  Insurance.  Or,  from  the 
record  of  past  experiences  of  fires  in  a  certain 
town  and  in  certain  classes  of  property,  we  can 
approximately  fix  premiums  which  should  cover 
the  risk  of  fire  in  the  same  town  for  the 
several  kinds  of  property.  A  moment's  thought 
will  show  over  how  wide  an  area  of  the  world's 
business  the  province  of  insurance  extends. 
Every  ship  on  the  sea  runs  risks  hourly  which 
the  insurance  expert  must  consider ;  and  every 
street  accident  reported  by  the  police  is  an 
item  in  the  statistics  which  govern  the  fixing 
of  an  adequate  premium  in  the  great  business 
of  insurance  against  personal  accident.  It  is 
practically  impossible  for  any  one  man  to  be 
an  expert  in  every  department  of  insurance 
work,  but  the  profession  is  one  which  calls  for 
the  exercise  in  its  higher  branches  of  considerable 
brain  power ;  and  many  of  its  developments  have 
proved  of  fascinating  interest  to  some  of  the 
foremost  mathematicians  of  past  generations. 

We  give  it  as  a  personal  opinion,  based  upon 
a  wide  experience  covering  many  years  of  work 
in  England  and  Scotland,  that  an  insurance 
career  is  well  worth  entering  upon  in  the  case 
of  a  young  man  with  a  good  education,  a  fair 
amount  of  brains,  and  an  earnest  desire  not  only 
to  do  the  work  assigned  to  him  but  to  qualify 
himself  by  all  available  means. 

Growing  Opportunities.  While,  during 
the  twenty  years  ending  with  1905  the  number 
of  first-class  insurance  offices  in  the  United 
Kingdom  has  decreased  by  amalgamation 
rather  than  increased  by  new  ventures,  the 
number  of  important  branches  created  in  the 
metropolis  and  the  provincial  towns  has  been 
so  great  that  fresh  chances  for  young  men 
of  ability  and  proper  training  have  been  very 
much  extended.  A  young  man  who  enters  a 
large  insurance  office  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know 
how  to  direct  his  studies,  and  our  aim  is  to 
encourage  him  not  only  to  master  the  depart- 
ment in  which  he  is  placed,  but  so  to  cultivate 
his  education  in  the  general  subject  of  insurance 


that,  as  he  rises  to  more  responsible  work,  his 
outlook  will  be  wider  and  clearer.  An  example 
will  suffice  to  show  what  we  mean. 

A  boy  is  a  clerk  in  the  head  office  of  a  large 
company  and  is  attached  for  a  year  or  two  to 
the  department  responsible  for  the  writing  out 
and  issue  of  fire  policies.  This  is  only  one  of  a 
dozen  departments  of  a  fire  company,  but  the 
boy  will  find  that  practically  all  the  books  and 
methods  of  working  may,  if  he  likes,  come  under 
his  observation.  He  will  find,  almost  invariably, 
that  by  exercising  a  little  courtesy  towards  his 
superiors  he  can  obtain  an  answer  to  any  ques- 
tion he  may  ask  concerning  their  own  depart- 
ments. By  reading  lectures  and  papers  bearing 
on  these  other  departments  he  will  form  a  fair 
idea  of  the  general  lines  of  work  which,  on  the 
day  when  he  is  promoted  to  one  of  the  smaller 
branches  of  the  company,  with  three  or  four 
departments  hi  his  charge,  will  be  of  consider- 
able use  to  him.  Here  let  us  advise  the  student 
to  read  as  many  as  he  can  of  the  papers  delivered 
by  experts  before  the  insurance  institutes  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  the  best  of  which  are  published 
as  annual  volumes  entitled  "  Journal  of  the 
Federation  of  Insurance  Institutes  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland."  There  are,  besides,  many 
papers  not  included  in  these  collections  which 
would  well  repay  perusal.  Most  of  these  publi- 
cations are  to  be  found  in  the  libraries  of  the 
various  insurance  institutes,  and  in  the  head 
offices  of  the  larger  companies. 

A  knowledge  of  shorthand  often  brings  a 
young  clerk  into  close  contact  with  one  of  the 
chiefs  in  the  office,  and,  if  he  has  the  ability  to 
rise,  the  youth  will  often  be  picked  out  for  some 
occasional  special  service.  A  good  knowledge 
of  arithmetic  is  indispensable. 

The  chief  branches  of  the  business  of  insurance 
are  life,  fire,  marine,  accident  and  contingency. 

Life  Assurance.  We  will  take  first  the  life 
branch,  which  has  been  most  highly  developed 
on  scientific  lines.  The  theory  of  life  con- 
tingencies may  almost  be  said  to  be  an  exact 
science,  and  its  study  as  applied  to  insurance 
constitutes  an  entire  branch  of  the  profession. 
A  young  man  who  enters  a  life  office  may, 
if  he  is  quick  at  figures  and  fond  of  mathe- 
matics, think  it  worth  while  to  study  in  order 
to  pass  all  the  examinations  necessary  to  become 
an  actuary.  We  shall  come  later  to  discuss  the 
lines  on  which  he  should  proceed  in  order  to 
reach  this  coveted  position.  Many  young  men, 
however,  who  promise  to  develop  good  business 
capacity  may  be  altogether  unsuited  for  the 
higher  branches  of  mathematical  work.  For 
them  a  position  as  secretary  or  manager  may 
be  the  goal. 

4725 


INSURANCE 

Life  Office  Work.  Let  us  look  first  at 
the  non-actuarial  departments  of  a  life  office.  A 
youth  must  quickly  make  himself  acquainted 
with  the  methods  of  securing  proposals  and 
dealing  with  the  policies  issued.  The  pro- 
posal  forms  have  to  be  scanned  to  see 
that  no  irregular  answers  are  given ;  and  the 
variety  of  policies  issued,  with  the  precise 
phraseology  used  in  each  case,  should  be  noted. 
Any  special  conditions  endorsed  on  the  back  of 
policies  are  of  great  importance,  often  modifying 
the  contract,  or  charging  extra  premiums  for 
special  risks.  Insured  "  lives  " — the  insurer  is 
known  in  the  insurance  office  as  a  "  Life  " — 
sometimes  transfer  their  policies  in  security  to 
a  bank  or  a  private  individual.  The  transaction 
is  called  an  assignment,  and  notice  of  it  is 
generally  given  to  the  company. 

Questions  of  title  often  arise  as  to  whom  the 
policy  really  belongs,  and  the  correspondence 
with  the  persons  interested  in  the  matter  is 
generally  well  worth  study.  It  may  be  pointed 
out  here  that  it  is  highly  essential  that  a  clerk 
should  early  learn  to  compose  a  good  letter.  The 
writing  of  a  few  essays  in  a  literary  society  is  a 
capital  aid  to  the  cultivation  of  a  good  style. 
Every  young  man  should  make  a  point  of  reading 
both  the  letters  received  and  the  copies  of 
the  answers  which  will  have  been  filed.  The 
correspondence,  which  is  generally  free  to  the 
clerks,  is  an  education  in  itself  and  will  show 
an  expert  manager's  methods  of  dealing  with 
difficult  matters  as  they  arise. 

The  methods  of  attending  to  the  collection  of 
renewal  premiums  should  be  closely  observed, 
particularly  the  precautions  taken  to  see  that 
one  premium  is  paid  before  notice  for  another 
is  despatched.  The  student  will  also  become 
thoroughly  acquainted,  not  only  with  his  own 
company's  prospectus  and  table  of  rates,  but  with 
those  of  other  companies  as  well,  noting  special 
conditions  as  to  bonus  distribution,  foreign 
residence,  surrender  values,  and  the  like. 

Office  Books  and  Accounts.  It  is  very 
important  that  a  careful  record  of  all  trans- 
actions in  connection  with  each  policy  be 
entered  on  the  registers,  and  the  sooner  a 
clerk  becomes  familiar  with  the  use  of  each 
book  in  the  office  the  better  for  his  prospects. 
He  must  know  the  principles  of  bookkeeping 
[see  CLERKSHIP]  and  how  they  are  applied  to 
the  accounts  of  the  departments  of  his  own 
office.  He  should  notice  how  premiums  on  new 
and  renewal  policies  are  debited  to  agents  and 
collected  by  them  ;  how  agents'  commissions 
are  allowed  and  paid,  and  hew  all  financial 
transactions  are  brought  by  skilful  summary,  at 
the  end  of  six  months  or  a  year,  to  a  focus  in 
a  single  statement  called  a  Revenue  Account. 

Claims.  Life  offices  are  concerned  not  only 
with  receiving  money,  but  with  th^  payment  of 
sums  on  the  death  of  the  insurer,  or,  perhaps,  on 
his  reaching  a  certain  age.  The  aim  of  the 
office  should  be  to  meet  a  claim  as  promptly  as 
possible,  and  for  this  purpose  to  grant  every 
facility  to  the  persons  interested.  Many  a  good 
fresh  insurance  has  been  secured  by  the  ready 
settlement  of  a  claim.  A  study  of  the  causes  of 

4726 


death,  and  of  the  original  medical  report  when 
the  insurance  began,  will  often  reveal  how  some 
weakness  undetected  at  the  start  has  been  the 
cause  of  ultimate  death  ;  or  the  family  history 
mav  show  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  premature 
death  from  certain  causes  which  have  affected 
the  insured  as  well  as  his  family.  It  is  always 
helpful  to  notice  with  what  skill  the  chief 
medical  officer  and  the  actuary  or  manager  have 
dealt  with  hazardous  lives,  and  how  far  their 
action  has  been  justified. 

Loans  and  Investments.  The  lending 
of  money  does  not  generally  come  much  before 
the  office  staff.  The  directors  and  the  manager 
deal  with  questions  of  immense  importance 
when,  at  the  board  table,  they  decide  how 
many  thousands  of  pounds  are  to  be  safely 
invested.  But  the  study  of  the  investment 
ledger  and  of  the  annual  balance-sheet  will 
show  a  learner  on  what  careful  lines  a  British 
board  of  directors  puts  money  by.  Care  is 
always  observed  that  no  speculative  securities  are 
bought,  even  if  they  yield  a  high  rate  of  interest. 
The  securities  purchased  must,  however,  yield  a 
good  and  safe  return.  Fortunately  a  life  office 
can  lend  money  for  long  periods,  and  therefore  it 
is  often  approached  by  those  who  do  not  wish 
their  mortgages  to  be  disturbed  so  long  as  the 
interest  is  duly  met.  A  war,  or  great  stagnation 
of  trade,  may  often  depreciate  the  value  of  first- 
class  securities,  and  an  insurance  company  must 
be  careful  not  to  put  too  high  an  estimate  upon 
stocks  in  its  balance-sheet.  In  1903,  for  instance, 
Consols  and  other  first-class  investments  had 
depreciated  to  such  an  extent  that  many  insur- 
ance offices  were  compelled  to  write  off  as  a  loss 
sums  running  into  thousands  of  pounds,  because 
their  securities  had  fallen  below  the  current 
selling  value.  Some  companies  undertake  the 
granting  of  loans  combined  with  life  assurance  on 
security  of  comparatively  small  houses,  and  a 
wide  field  is  opened  out  for  the  study  of  sur- 
veyors' reports  to  find  what  are  the  different 
precautions  taken  on  behalf  of  the  lending 
company  to  ensure  that  the  property  is  safe  and 
can  readily  be  sold  if  default  takes  place. 

The  Legal  Department.  Questions  of  law 
constantly  arise  in  many  connections.  A  policy- 
holder  has  assigned  his  policy  and  wishes  to 
know  how  he  can  get  it  re -transferred  to  him- 
self. Or  he  has  taken  out  his  policy  in  favour 
of  his  wife  and  she  has  died.  What  is  he  to  do  ? 
A  member  dies  and  it  is  found  that  he  has 
pledged  the  interest  in  his  policy  in  security  to 
one  man,  with  a  second  charge  upon  it  to 
another.  How  are  their  claims  to  be  adjusted  ? 
A  man  dies  without  leaving  a  will  How  is  the 
company  to  know  to  whom  to  pay  the  sum  due 
under  his  policy  ?  A  junior  clerk  of  an  inquiring 
turn  of  mind  will  find  pleasure  in  searching  for 
the  correct  answers  to  these  questions  in  hand- 
books on  the  law  of  life  insurance,  or  in  perusing 
a  well -formed  judgment  expressed  in  a  letter 
from  the  solicitors  of  his  company  bearing  on 
a  special  case. 

There  are  a  number  of  special  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment to  be  studied  in  connection  with  life 
assurance.  The  following  are  the  most  important. 


The  Gambling  Act,  1774. 

The  Policies  of  Assurance  Act,  1867. 

Life  Assurance  Companies  Acts,  1870  to  1872. 

Married  Women's  Property  Act,  1870  (Sec.  10). 

Married  Women's  Policies  of  Assurance 
(Scotland)  Act,  1880. 

Married  Women's  Property  Act,  1882  (Sec.  11). 

In  the  latest  edition  of  Bunyon's  book  on  the 
law  of  life  assurance  the  chief  points  are  dealt 
with,  and  the  student  should  study  this  book, 
especially  with  regard  to  any  particular  case 
which  may  arise  in  the  .office. 

Agency  Department.  A  life  office  never 
grows  very  quickly  and  is  often  in  danger  of 
dwindling  to  small  proportions  unless  it  has  an 
active  agency  department  for  securing  a  fresh 
access  of  new  life  proposals;  and  the  young 
man  who  wishes  to  succeed  in  other  than 
actuarial  departments  will  find  quick  promotion 
if  he  is  able  to  introduce  new  assurers,  either  by 
his  own  personal  influence  or  by  his  skill  in 
stimulating  agents. 

Life  proposals  are  generally  secured  by 
personal  canvassing.  An  outdoor  man  must 
have  confidence  in  himself  and  in  his  company, 
good  address,  and  plenty  of  perseverance.  He 
must  be  ready  in  securing  introductions,  and 
ingenious  in  bringing  a  tardy  client  to  the 
insuring  point.  If  a  clerk  shows  canvassing 
ability,  he  will  receive  every  encouragement  to 
act  as  an  Inspector  of  Agents,  and  will  be  on  the 
high  road  to  a  post  as  branch  secretary  when  he 
can  point  to  a  good  record  of  business.  Our 
rising  man  in  the  outdoor  department  will 
concern  himself  with  methods  of  advertising 
the  company,  and  of  encouraging  the  public, 
by  circularising  and  otherwise,  to  apply  for  a 
prospectus.  He  must  learn  how  to  secure 
business  without  paying  extravagant  com- 
missions, and  how  to  encourage  agents  to 
keep  constantly  on  the  look-out  for  fresh 
insurers. 

The  Chief  Schemes  for  Life  In= 
surance.  It  is  sometimes  bewildering  to  the 
outsider  to  find  in  how  many  different  ways  life 
insurance  can  be  applied.  New  schemes  are  con- 
stantly being  issued  by  the  companies,  but  these 
are  often  meant  for  ingenious  advertising  rather 
than  planned  for  any  great  practical  good.  The 
student  will  find  that  the  great  bulk  of  life 
insurance  is  done  under  one  or  other  of  the 
following  heads. 

1.  WHOLE  LIFE  ASSURANCE. 

2.  WHOLE  LIFE  ASSURANCE  WITH  PREMIUMS 

LIMITED  TO  TEN,  FIFTEEN,  OR  TWENTY  PAYMENTS.' 

3.  ENDOWMENT   ASSURANCE.      Sum    assured 
payable  at  death  or  at  an  agreed  age  lik<?  fifty 
or  sixty. 

4.  JOINT  LIFE.     Sum  assured  payable  at  the 
death    of    the    first  of    two   lives  ;    perhaps  a 
husband  and  wife,  or  two  partners  in  business. 

5.  SHORT  TERM  INSURANCE,  covering  perhaps 
one  year  only,   or  five,   ten,   or  twenty  years, 
protection    ceasing   at   the    expiration    of    the 
term. 

6.  CHILDREN'S    ASSURANCES.      Sum    assured 
payable  only  on  the  life  reaching  age  of  twenty- 
one,  or  risk  beginning  at  age  twenty-one,  and 


INSURANCE 

sum  assured  payable  at  death  or  at  an  age  like 
fifty  or  sixty,  or  previous  death. 

7.  ANNUITIES.  A  sum  of  money  is  paid  down 
to  secure  an  annual  allowance  until  the  death 
of  one  or  more  lives. 

Bonuses.  Policies  may  be  taken  out  with  or 
without  profits  (or  bonuses).  In  the  latter  case  a 
map  receives  the  largest  possible  cover  for  the 
smallest  possible  premium.  In  the  case  of  policies 
sharing  in  profits  the  offices  are  most  liberal  in 
granting  at  each  period  of  distribution  a  very 
large  share — generally  nine-tenths — of  all  profits 
earned  by  the  company,  including  any  profits 
made  on  non-bonus  policies,  so  that  in  a  well- 
managed  society  a  life  policy  may  not  only  be 
a  very  fine  form  of  protecting  the  family,  but 
may  also  prove  a  capital  investment,  giving  a 
rate  of  compound  interest  higher  than  could  be 
had  from  Government  securities.  First-class 
life  offices  pay  very  substantial  bonuses,  but  a 
comparison  between  the  profits  declared  by  first- 
rate  companies  and  those  granted  by  offices  not 
so  well  managed  and  financed  will  form  an 
interesting  study. 

Survival  Bonuses.  Of  special  interest 
is  the  method  of  only  granting  bonuses  should 
the  assured  survive  for,  say,  twenty  years.  This 
method  appeals  to  some,  because  it  contains  a 
speculative  element,  and,  of  course,  the  bonuses 
in  such  a  case  ought  to  be  about  double  those 
granted  by  the  companies  who  divide  profits 
every  five  years  or  thereabouts.  As  a  matter 
of  experience,  however,  it  is  found  that  the  ordi- 
nary British  offices'  bonuses  at  the  end  of  twenty 
years  often  amount  to  more  than  the  tontines 
bonuses  declared  at  the  end  of  that  period  in 
some  inferior  office,  while  valuable  additions  to 
the  sum  insured  by  way  of  profits  have  been 
made  by  the  first-class  offices  during  the  inter- 
vening  years. 

Reassurances.  Offices  have  a  limit  to  the 
amount  which  they  will  insure  on  any  one  life. 
It  happens  constantly  that  wealthy  men  apply 
for  large  insurances  in  one  office.  It  will  be 
the  duty  of  an  official  to  arrange  for  re-assuring 
the  surplus  portion  of  the  risk  with  one  or  more 
other  offices.  To  do  this  copies  of  the  proposal, 
medical,  and  all  other  reports  and  papers 
bearing  on  the  case  are  submitted  to  the  office 
approached.  The  rate  offered  to  the  re-assuring 
company  may  be  that  of  either  office. 

If  the  risk  be  accepted,  a  copy  of  the  policy 
is  generally  supplied  to  the  company  sharing 
the  risk,  and  on  this  copy  a  guarantee  is  endorsed, 
agreeing  to  accept  so  much  of  the  insurance 
within  described.  Sometimes  the  guarantee  is 
by  direct  policy,  the  company  which  accepts 
part  risk  agreeing  to  follow  the  terms  and  con- 
ditions of  the  original  assurance. 

A  separate  register  is  kept  in  which  to  enter 
all  re-insurances  and  also  a  book  showing  on  one 
side  how  much  in  sums  assured  and  premiums 
has  been  given 'off  to  each  office,  and  how  much 
in  sums  assured  and  premiums  has  been  received 
in  return.  It  is  desirable  to  see  that  other 
offices  do  not  get  too  great  a  share  of  surplus 
lives  without  giving  adequate  business  in 
return. 

4727 


INSURANCE 

Industrial  Insurance.  The  rise  and 
progress  of  industrial  insurance  might  be  fitly 
studied  by  reading  the  history  and  development 
of  the  Prudential  Assurance  Company.  The 
Prudential  is  the  oldest  and  largest  industrial 
company,  and  it  has  justified  its  existence 
in  many  admirable  ways.  By  close  attention 
to  the  needs  of  the  poor,  by  skilfully  constructed 
tables,  by  careful  selection  of  outdoor  inspectors 
and  constant  supervision  through  local  and 
district  superintendents,  the  Prudential  has 
attained  its  present  position. 

The  distinguishing  features  of  industrial 
assurance  are  these :  premiums  are  met  by 
weekly  payments,  generally  called  for  by  the 
company's  canvassers  at  the  houses  of  the  work- 
ing classes,  the  sums  assured  being  determined 
upon  the  basis  of  how  much  can  be  secured 
for  a  penny  a  week  and  upwards.  The  expense 
of  working  industrial  insurance  is  about  40  per 
cent.  This  certainly  appears  very  high,  but  it  is 
fully  justified  by  the  enormous  trouble  to  which 
the  collectors  are  put. 

In  this  class  of  insurance  there  is  generally 
no  medical  examination,  the  agent  being  relied 
upon  to  use  his  judgment  and  discretion  before 
accepting  a  risk.  There  are  now  many  attractive 
positions  occupied  in  the  industrial  insurance 
world  by  men  who  began  as  door  to  door  can- 
vassers, and  through  energy  and  success  have 
been  promoted,  first  to  the  position  of  assistant 
superintendant,  and  then  to  the  desirable  post 
of  superintendent  or  district  manager. 

Importance  of  Actuarial  Knowledge. 
It  is,  of  course,  impossible,  even  undesirable, 
that  the  whole  staff  of  a  life  office  should 
become  actuaries  ;  but  the  fact  that  his  duties 
are  non-actuarial  is  no  excuse  for  ignor- 
ance on  the  part  of  any  official  regarding 
the  elementary  principles  on  which  life 
assurance  is  based.  To  the  branch  secre- 
tary, agency  inspector,  and  to  outdoor  men 
generally,  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
life  assurance  is  of  the  greatest  assistance. 
enabling  them  to  answer  inquiries  from 
probable  assurers,  to  understand  the 
schemes  of  rival  companies,  and  in  many 
cases  preventing  waste  of  time  on  undesirable 
cases.  Such  officials  should  make  a  point  of 
solving  each  difficulty  as  it  presents  itself,  and 
they  will  then  find  in  a  comparatively  short 
time  that  their  knowledge  is  really  considerable. 
They  should  seek  for  information  principally  in 
the  "  Transactions  of  the  Federation  of  Insur- 
ance Institutes,"  the  papers  therein  being  both 
useful  and  interesting.  Other  books  which  will 
also  be  found  very  useful  are  "  Life  Assurance 
Explained"  (Schooling);  "  Practical  Information 
for  Life  Assurance  Agents  "  (Wm.  Hughes)  : 
and  "  Insurance  "  (T.  E.  Young). 

Actuarial  Symbols.  At  the  outset 
the  actuarial  symbols  met  with  appear  to  be 
very  imposing,  and  are  calculated  to  dishearten 
tlinsi!  to  whom  they  are  unfamiliar.  In  reality 
they  represent  merely  a  system  akin,  let  us 
say,  to  Pitman's  shorthand.  For  example,  the 
symbol  ax  may  be  said  to  be  the  "  actuarial  short- 
hand" for  the  value  of  an  annuity  of  1  per  annum, 

4728 


payable  at  the  end  of  each  year  during  the  life  of 
a  person  aged  x.  Similarly  Ax  is  "  the  value  of, 
or  the  single  premium  for,  an  assurance  of  1 
payable  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  death  of  a  life 
now  aged  x  ;  and  Px  is  the  annual  premium, 
payable  at  the  beginning  of  each  year  during  the 
life  of  x,  which  will  provide  a  similar  assurance 
of  1.  The  notation  employed  is  entirely  arbitrary, 
and  the  only  way  to  understand  it  is  to  commit 
it  to  memory.  The  system  will  be  found  in  the 
beginning  of  the  "Institute  of  Actuaries  Text- 
book," Part  II  ;  and  as  it  is  most  graphic,  the 
task  of  learning  it  is  really  an  easy  one. 

Many  of  the  simpler  relationships  employed 
in  actuarial  work  can  be  established  verbally, 
without  reference  to  the  algebraic  qualities 
of  the  symbols  employed.  For  example  : 
Ax  =  (P  +  Pax)  or  P  (I  +  Ax). 
It  is  evident  in  view  of  the  above  definitions 
that  Ax,  the  single  premium  for  an  assurance 
of  1,  ought  to  be  the  equivalent  of  the  annual 
premium  multiplied  by  Ax  (the  value  of  an 
annuity  of  1  per  annum  payable  at  the  end  of 
each  year)  plus,  hi  addition,  Pa:,  the  first  annual 
premium.  Of  course,  either  Pa;  or  Ax  has,  in 
practice,  to  be  increased,  or  "  loaded,"  by  an 
amount  sufficient  to  cover  expenses  and  profit. 

Again,  a  policy  value  or  a  policy  reserve  can 
be  easily  explained.  At  the  issue  of  a  policy 
the  present  value  of  the  benefit  is  equivalent  to 
the  present  value  of  the  future  premiums  (leaving 
the  '*  loading "  out  of  account),  but  afterwards 
the  value  of  the  benefit  exceeds  the  value  of  the 
future  contributions,  and  the  difference  is  the 
policy  value. 

This  can  be  well  expressed  in  the  form  of  an 
account : 


-*resent  value 
of    sum    as- 
sured after  w 
years,  x  +  n 
being     then 
the  attained 
age 

•=  Ax  +  n 

Present  value  ~j 
of    future  Y=Px(l+Ax+n) 
premiums     J 

Balance       is^j 
policy  value  j-       n  Vx 
represented  byj 

Ax  +  n 


Ax  +  n 


and  therefore  n  Vx  —-  Ax  +  n  -  Px(l  +  Ax  +  n); 
or,  as  stated  above,  the  policy  value  equals 
the  value  of  the  benefits  less  the  value  of  the 
future  contributions. 

Other  points  on  which  information  is  useful 
are  the  various  defects  in  family  and  personal 
history  on  account  of  which  extra  premiums  are 
imposed  ;  the  merits  or  demerits  of  various 
bases  of  valuation,  and  the  rationale  of  sur- 
render values.  Information  on  these  and  other 
points  will  be  found  in  the  literature  referred 
to  in  such  a  form  that  little  difficulty  will  be 
experienced  in  assimilating  it. 

All  actuarial  tables  are  given  in  decimals, 
and  it  is  well  to  learn  how  to  turn  these  readily 
into  shillings  and  pence,  and  vice  versa. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  however  clearly 
the  symbols  employed  may  be  understood,  no 
one  is  competent  to  judge  when  a  table  is  suitable 
for  use  unless  he  thoroughly  understands  the 
methods  and  data  employed  in  its  construction, 


and  this  point  cannot  be  too  strongly  empha- 
sised. 

Typical  Examination  Questions.'    The 

following  questions  on  life  assurance  and  life 
office  work  set  at  one  of  the  examinations  will 
give  some  idea  of  the  knowledge  which  a  life 
official,  though  not  an  actuary,  ought  to  possess : 

(a)  A  policy-holder,  under  a  whole  life  policy 
by  annual  payments  payable  during  life,  desires 
to  commute  the  future  premiums  to  ten  further 
payments,  and  has  paid  the  first  increased 
premium  of  £10.  The  premiums  are  due  on 
April  1st.  Draft  a  form  of  endorsement  to  be 
placed  on  the  policy. 

(6)  State  what  you  know  as  to  the  different 
systems  of  insuring  lives  without  medical 
examinations. 

(c)  An    annuitant    desires    to    surrender   his 
annuity.     Should  this  be  agreed  to,  and  if  so, 
under  what  conditions  ? 

(d)  A  policy  is  payable  to  an  assured's  execu- 
tors, administrators,  or  assignees,  and  has  not 
been  dealt  with  in  any  way.     What  is  the  title 
in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  (1)  when  the 
assured  has  left  a  will ;  (2)  when  no  will  has  been 
left? 

(e)  When   does   the  liability  of  an  insurance 
company  under  a  life  policy  commence  ? 

(/)  What  special  allowance  for  income  tax 
does  an  insurer  receive  from  the  Government  ? 

(g)  What  are  the  stamp  duties  on  (1)  a  policy  of 
life  insurance  ;  (2)  an  annuity  bond ;  (3)  a  mort- 
gage ;  (4)  an  absolute  assignment ;  (5)  a  memo- 
randum of  deposit ;  (6)  an  assignment  to 
marriage  contract  trustees  ? 

(h)  A  policy  has  become  a  claim.  It  has  been 
assigned.  What  is  the  procedure  as  regards 
delivery  and  custody  of  the  deed  of  assignment 
in  England : 

(1)  When  the  deed  also  conveys  a  policy 
on  the  deceased's  life  with  another  office  ? 

(2)  When  there  are  other  effects  conveyed  ? 
(i)  Should  a  loan  be  granted  to  a  policy-holder 

on  security  of  his  policy  if  he  has  lost  it  V 
Should  a  surrender  value  be  granted  ?  What 
is  the  procedure  in  such  a  case  when  the  policy 
becomes  a  claim  ? 

(/)  A  policy-holder  who  has  been  insured  for 
some  years  wishes  to  surrender.  He  points  out 
that  since  his  insurance  has  involved  no  loss 
to  the  office  he  considers  he  should  get  a  return 
of  at  least  all  the  premiums  paid,  since  the  office 
has  had  the  benefit  of  the  interest  on  the  pre- 
miums. Draft  a  reply. 

(k)  An  agent  has  been  so  frequently  in  arrear 
in  the  rendering  and  payment  of  his  accounts 
that  the  office  has  decided  to  collect  the  premiums 
in  his  agency  direct,  crediting  him  with  the 
commission.  Draft  a  letter  telling  him  of  the 
office's  decision,  and  one  to  the  policy-holders 
in  his  agency  informing  them  of  the  new  arrange- 
ment. 

(1)  Explain  fully  any  three  bonus  systems. 
and  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each. 

(m)  A  policy  for  £500  is  effected  in  April, 
1905,  in  an  office  which  divides  its  surplus 
quinquennial  ly,  the  next  investigation  taking 
place  in  December,  1908.  On  the  basis  of  a  com- 


INSURANCE 

pound  bonus  of  80s.  per  cent,  per  annum  for 
each  premium  paid,  with  an  intermediate  addi- 
tion of  25s.  per  cent.,  state  what  the  amount 
payable  would  be  in  the  event  of  death  in 
November,  1915. 

How  to  Become  an  Actuary.  An 
actuary  is  one  who  has  to  solve  for  insurance  com- 
panies, friendly  societies,  and  similar  institutions, 
financial  questions  that  involve  a  consideration  of 
the  separate  and  combined  effects  of  interest  and 
probability  in  connection  with  the  duration  of 
human  life,  sickness,  marriage  and  other  con- 
tingent events  ;  or,  more  generally,  an  expert 
in  the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  chance  to 
monetary  affairs,  more  particularly  in  respect 
of  the  insurance  of  life.  Hence  his  chief  duties 
are  to  make  the  computations  necessary  to 
determine  the  value  of  contingent  liabilities,  the 
compilation  of  mortality  and  other  statistical 
tables,  and  the  calculation  of  premiums. 

On  such  calculations  depends  the  practice 
of  life  assurance,  and  it  is  therefore  evident  that 
a  skilled  actuary  is  of  final  importance  to  the 
successful  conduct  of  an  office  engaged  in  life 
insurance  and  annuity  business.  The  governing 
authorities  are,  in  England,  the  Institute  of 
Actuaries,  founded  in  1848,  and  incorporated  by 
Royal  charter  in  1884,  and,  in  Scotland,  the 
Faculty  of  Actuaries,  formed  at  Edinburgh  in 
1856  and  incorporated  by  Royal  charter  in  1868. 

There  are  two  principal  ways  for  the  "  junior  " 
in  a  life  assurance  office  to  gain  promotion : 
he  may  either  become  an  actuary  or  a  good 
"  field  "  worker  and  organiser.  No  man,  how- 
ever, is  put  to  outdoor  work  until  he  has  had 
a  number  of  years'  experience  in  office  routine : 
and  these  years  may  with  advantage  be  devoted 
to  the  attainment  of  actuarial  training  and 
experience.  Both  the  outdoor  man  and  the 
actuary  are  necessary  to  the  life  assurance  office, 
and  the  man  who  is  doubly  qualified  stands  a 
better  chance  of  reaching  the  highest  position. 

Preliminary  Steps.  The  first  step  which 
the  future  actuary  must  take  is  to  get  himself 
enrolled  either  as  a  probationer  of  the  Insti- 
tute, or  as  a  student  of  the  Faculty.  These  are 
kindred  institutions,  and  a  resident  in  England, 
Ireland,  or  the  Colonies  would  probably  join  the 
Institute,  and  a  resident  in  Scotland  the  Faculty. 
Those  who  wish  to  join  the  Institute  should  write 
to  the  Assistant  Secretary,  Staple  Inn  Hall, 
Holborn,  W.C.,  asking  for  a  form  of  application 
for  admission  to  the  class  of  probationer  and  for 
a  syllabus  of  the  examinations.  This  form  must 
bemled  up  and  signed  by  two  members  of  the 
Institute,  either  Fellows  or  Associates.  Pro- 
bably there  will  be  in  the  applicant's  own  office 
at  least  one  official  of  either  status,  but,  should 
this  not  be  the  case,  he  should  get  his  principal 
to  assist  him  in  obtaining  the  necessary  intro- 
ductions. Those  who  wish  to  join  the  Faculty 
should  write  to  the  Secretary,  24,  George  Street, 
Edinburgh,  for  an  application  form  and  syllabus. 
In  this  case  the  application  has  to  be  recom- 
mended by  two  Fellows  of  the  Faculty. 

The  Institute  requires  the  candidate  to  pass 
four  examinations, known  as  PartsI.,II.,III.,and 
IV.,  held  in  April  of  each  year,  before  admitting 

4729 


INSURANCE 

him  to  the  class  of  Fellow  (F.I.A.),  although 
passing  Parts  I.  and  II.  only  will  admit  him  to 
the  class  of  Associate  (A.I. A.).  The  Institute 
examinations  are  held  at  these  centres  :  London, 
Kd  in  burgh,  Dublin,  Adelaide,  Melbourne,  Syd- 
ney, Wellington,  Montreal,  Toronto,  and  Ottawa. 

The  Faculty  requires  the  candidate  to  pass 
three  examinations,  also  held  annually  in  April, 
but  only  in  Edinburgh  for  the  first,  and  only  in 
Edinburgh  and  London  for  the  second  and  final 
examinations,  before  admitting  him  to  the  class  of 
Associate,  and  thereafter  admits  him  to  the  class 
of  Fellow  (F.F.A.)  without  further  examination. 

Graduates  in  mathematical  honours  of  any 
university  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  exempt 
from  the  first  examination  in  the  case  of  both  the 
Institute  and  the  Faculty.  Also  in  both  cases 
admission  to  the  class  either  of  Associate  or 
Fellow  cannot  be  obtained  before  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years,  although  the  examinations 
may  be  passed  earlier. 

The  Institute  examinations  involve  the  study 
of  a  larger  number  of  subjects  than  do  those  of 
the  Faculty,  and  in  this  course  attention  will 
mainly  be  devoted  to  the  former,  the  differences 
between  the  two  syllabuses,  however,  being 
indicated. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  at  this  point  that  a 
resident  in  England,  especially  if  connected  with 
an  English  company,  would  be  ill-advised  to 
join  the  Faculty.  The  absence  from  the  Faculty 
syllabus  of  certain  items  appearing  in  that  of 
the  Institute  detracts  materially  from  the  value 
in  England  of  the  Scottish  qualification.  Ob- 
viously, too,  a  student  residing  in  England  can 
derive  little  benefit  from  a  library  in  Edinburgh, 
•and  has  no  opportunity  of  meeting  with  other 
members  of  the  institution ;  and,  further,  if 
he  resides  in  London,  he  will  lose  the  great 
advantage  of  being  able  to  attend  the  classes 
provided  by  the  institute. 

The  Institute  of  Actuaries  Exami- 
nations. Assuming,  then,  that  the  candidate 
is  enrolled  as  a  probationer  of  the  Institute, 
we  give  a  concise  description  of  the  subjects 
which  he  will  have  to  study,  of  the  classes  he 
should  attend,  and  of  the  principal  books  he 
should  read.  [See  also  Schedule  herewith.] 

Examination     Part  I. 

The  Institute  provides  a  tutor  for  Part  I. 
of  the  examinations,  and  the  probationer  living 
in  London  should  certainly  join  his  class.  Pro- 
bably, for  most  students,  this  will  be  sufficient 
coaching  for  the  first  examination ;  but  the  cldfe  is 
generally  a  large  one,  and  a  student  who  feds 
that  he  requires  special  attention  will  do  well 
to  go  to  some  other  tutor  in  addition. 

Tin-  Institute  issues  this  initial  regulation : 
"  For  admission  to  the  class  in  Part  I.  the  candi- 
date must  possess  a  fair  knowledge  of  algebra 
up  to  and  including  quadratic  equations." 

This  indicates  the  minimum  amount  of  mathe- 
matics which  the  probationer  must  know,  and 
enables  any  student  to  decide  for  himself 
whether  he  requires  a  preliminary  course  of 
study.  The  official  class  not  being  available  to 
probationers  resident  in  the  provinces  or  abroad 

4730 


(unless  they  choose  to  come  to  London  for  the 
purpose),  they  must  procure  the  services  of  a 
tutor ;  but,  since  there  is  nothing  technical  about 
the  examination  in  Part  I.,  any  competent 
mathematician  will  suffice.  If  the  tutor  chosen 
has  had  no  experience  in  preparing  students 
for  this  examination,  he  should  obtain  copies  of 
previous  papers  in  order  to  ascertain  the  probable 
character  and  standard  of  the  questions.  The 
beginner,  however,  will,  in  many  cases,  be  able 
to  study  under  a  qualified  actuary,  who  will  be 
conversant  with  these  points. 

Every  candidate  will  receive  advice  as  to  the 
opening  of  the  class,  which  is  held  in  the  evening, 
and  he  has  then  merely  to  attend  the  first  meeting 
and  pay  his  fees  to  the  Assistant-Secretary.  [See 
Schedule.] 

The  books  which  should  be  read  in  prepara- 
tion for  the  first  examination  are  Hall  and 
Knight's  "  Higher  Algebra"  (Macmillan.  7s.  6d.); 
the  introduction  to  some  standard  book  of 
logarithmic  tables  ;  "  Elements  of  Finite  Differ- 
ences," by  Burn  and  Brown  (C.  &  E.  Layton. 
7s.  6d.)  ;  and  the  chapters  in  Part  II.  of  the 
"  Institute  Text  Book  "  dealing  with  the  fourth 
division  of  the  syllabus.  The  theory  of  proba- 
bilities is  dealt  with  in  Hall  and  Knight's 
"  Higher  Algebra,"  but  the  student  should  also 
read  some  other  work  on  the  subject.  Messrs. 
Ackland  and  Hardy's  "  Exercises  and  Examples  " 
(C.  &  E.  Layton.  10s.  6d.)  will  be  found  of 
great  use  in  preparing  both  for  this  examination 
and  the  examination  in  Part  II.  A  knowledge 
of  the  game  of  whist  is  very  desirable.  A  game 
of  cards  not  infrequently  forms  a  setting  for  a 
problem  on  probabilities,  and  whist  is  invariabty 
the  game  selected.  The  following  question, 
set  in  1905,  illustrates  this  point  and  is  a  good 
example  of  a  problem  on  probabilities.  "  In  a 
game  of  whist,  the  dealer  found,  on  turning  up 
the  last  card,  that  he  had  the  ace,  king,  queen, 
knave,  ten  and  three  other  trumps  in  his  hand  ; 
find  the  chance  that  this  would  occur."  Here 
the  essential  point  is  that  the  dealer,  having 
turned  up  the  last  card,  must  have  at  least 
one  trump,  which,  of  course,  materially  affects 
the  probability  or  chance  required. 

Examination     Part  II. 

Coming  now  to  Part  II.  of  the  examinations, 
the  Institute  has  published  this  reminder : 
"  Candidates  for  the  class  in  Part  II.  should 
have  read  the  'Institute  of  Actuaries'  Text 
Book,  Parti.'" 

This  book  deals  with  subjects  not  comprised 
in  the  syllabus  for  Part  I.,  and  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  study  it  in  the  interval  between 
passing  the  first  examination  in  April  and  joining 
the  Part  II.  class,  which  is  held  during  the  winter 
months.  Most  men  will  find  that  they  require 
no  special  assistance  for  this,  but  some  may  feel 
the  need  for  a  tutor,  who,  since  the  subject  is 
technical,  should  certainly  be  an  actuary. 
No  doubt  the  tutor  for  the  class  in  Part  II. 
would  not  ignore  Part  I.  of  the  "  Institute  Text 
I  look,"  but  he  is  entitled  to  assume  that  the 
mem  hers  of  his  class  have  some  knowledge  of 
its  contents. 


SCHEDULE    OF     EXAMINATIONS    FOR    ACTUARIES 

Kxamining  Body, 

Grades,  Time 
and  Place  of 

SriJ.iKi.TS  or  EXAMINATIONS 

Fees 

Examinations 

INSTITUTE  OF 

Part  I.  —  Arithmetic  and  Algebra.     The  Theory  and  use  of  Logarithms.     The  Elements 

£110 

ACTUARIES. 

of  the  Theory  of  Probabilities.    The  Elements  of  the  Calculus  of  Finite  Differences, 

Students. 

including  Interpolation  and  Summation. 

Associate. 

Part  II.  —  Compound  Interest  and  Annuities-certain.     The  Application  of  the  Theory 
of  Probabilities  to  Life  Contingencies.    The  Theory  of  Annuities  and  Assurances  on 

£110 

Lives  and  Survivorships.     The  elementary  application  of   the    Calculus  of   Finite 

Differences,  and  of  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  to   Life   Contingencies. 

Expressions  for  the  Law  of  Mortality.     The  principles  (as  distinguished  from  the 

methods)  of  the  construction  of  Mortality  Tables  (excluding  graduation)  ;    and  the 

principles   and   methods  of  the   construction   of  monetary    and  other    Tables    in- 

volving the  Contingencies  of  Life. 

Fellow. 

Part  III.—  The  methods  of    constructing  and  graduating    Mortality,    Sickness    and 

£110 

other  Tables.    The  history  and  distinctive  features  of  existing  Tables.     The  valua- 

tion of  the  Liabilities  and  Assets  of  Life  Assurance   Companies.     The  Distribution 

of  Surplus.     The  Calculation  of  Office  Rates  of  Premium  for  Assurance,  Annuity, 

Sickness  and  other  risks,  excluding  Pension    Funds    and    Widows'    and    Orphans' 

Funds.    The  practical  valuation  of  Life  Interests  and  Reversions,  and  of  Policies 

for  surrender  or  purchase. 

April.            .Part  IV.—  The    Elements    of   the  Law  of    Real    and    Personal  Property.     The  Law 

£110 

London,  etc. 

relating  to  Life  Assurance  Companies  and  Life  Assurance  Contracts.     The  Constitu- 

(see text). 

tion,  Valuation,  and    Calculation  of    Rates  of    Contribution  of  Friendly  Societies, 

Pension  Funds,  and  Widows'  and  Orphans'  Funds  ;  and  the  Laws  relating  to  such 

Institutions.      Life  Assurance   Bookkeeping  ;    preparation  of  Schedules,  Statements 

and  Reports.      The  Principles  of  Banking  and  Finance,  including  a  knowledge  of 

the  Constitution  and  Operations  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  of  the  National  and 

Local  Debts  of  the  United  Kingdom.     The  Investments  of  Life  Assurance  Companies. 

Graduates  in  Mathematical  Honours  of  any  University  in  the  British  Empire  may,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Council, 

be  exempted  from  Examination  in  Part  I.  of  the  Syllabus. 

FACULTY  OK 

First  Examination.  —  Arithmetic.     Equations.     Series.     Permutations  and  Combina- 

No fee  on 

ACTUARIES. 

tions.    Binomial  Theorem.    Theory  and  use  of  Logarithms.    Elements  of  the  Calculus 

first  send- 

Student. 

of  Finite  Differences.     Theory  of  Probabilities. 

ing  in 

Associates  and 

Second  Examination.  —  Interest  and  Annuities-certain,  with  Construction  of  Mone- 

name for 

Fellows. 

tary   Tables.      Probabilities   of   Life   and   of   Survivorship.      Theory   of   Life   Con- 

examina- 

tingencies, including  Annuities  and  Assurances,  with  construction  of  relative  Tables. 

tion,  but 

History  and  Characteristics  of  Mortality  Tables.      Application  of   the  Calculus  of 

£1  Is.  on 

Finite  Differences  to  Life  Contingencies.      Elements  of    Differential  and  Integral 

each  sub- 

Calculus. 

sequent 

April. 

Third  Examination.  —  Mortality,   Marriage    and    Sickness    Investigations,    including 

occasion. 

London  and 

Construction  of   Tables    from  actual  or  from    hypothetical  data.      Graduation  of 

Edinburgh 

Tables.      Formulas  for  Summation  and  Interpolation.      Application  of  the  Differ- 

(see text). 

ential  and  Integral  Calculus  to  Life  Contingencies.      Life   Assurance  Finance  and 

Practice,  namely  :    Calculation  of  Premiums.      Valuation  of  Assets  and  Liabilities. 

Distribution  of  Surplus.     Surrender  and  Conversion  of  Policies  and  Bonuses.     Book- 

keeping   and    Accounts.      Investments.      Miscellaneous    Questions.     Law    of    Life 

Assurance.      Reversions,  Life  Interests  and  other  Contingencies.      Widows'  Funds, 

Superannuation     Funds,     and     Friendly     Societies  —  Calculation     of     Rates,    and 

Valuations. 

QUALIFICATIONS   WHICH  SECURE   EXEMPTION   FROM  THE  ABOVE   EXAMINATIONS 

Any  student  who  has  taken  a  degree  at  one  of  the  Universities  of  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  Mathematics  being 

one  of  the  special  subjects  of  examination  for  such  degree,  being  21  years  of  age,  may,  in  the  discretion  of  the  Council, 
be  exempt  from  the  first  of  the  examinations  mentioned  above. 

The  syllabus  for  the  examination  in  Part  II. 
may  be  roughly  summed  up  by  saying  that 
it  consists  of  the  Algebra  of  Actuarial  Science 
and  of  the  Principles  of  the  Construction  of 
Tables  of  Mortality  and  other  tables.  [See 
Schedule] 

The  principal  books  to  be  read  are  the  "  Insti- 
tute Text  Book,"  Parts  I.  and  II.  (obtainable  at 
the  Institute,  10s.  6d.  ajid  31s.  6d.  respectively). 
King's  "  Theory  of  Finance  "  (C.  &  E.  Lay  ton. 
4s.)  may  also  be  read  with  advantage,  although, 
since  the  same  ground  is  covered  by  Part  I.  of 
the  "  Text  Book,"  it  is  not  essential.  It  will 
also  be  necessary  to  read  some  book  on  the 
Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  and  what- 
ever textbook  is  chosen  the  student  will 
find  a  knowledge  of  Trigonometry  useful.  [See 
MATHEMATICS.] 

The  Principles  of  the  Construction  of  Mor- 
tality Tables  is  the  only  remaining  subject 
in  the  syllabus  for  this  examination.  The 
"Institute  Text  Book"  deals  with  the  subject. 


and  many  papers  besides  have  appeared  in  the 
"  Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries."  Although 
the  construction  of  Mortality  Tables  is  explicitly 
excluded  from  the  syllabus  of  Part  II.  and 
appears  under  Part  III.,  yet  it  is  difficult 
to  study  the  Principles  of  Construction  apart 
from  the  actual  construction.  The  student 
is  recommended  to  study  the  construction  of 
certain  representative  tables,  but  to  bear  in  mind 
whilst  so  doing  that  he  will  be  examined  only 
on  the  principles  underlying  that  construction. 

The  student  should  read  the  following  papers 
in  the  "  Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries  "  : 
Volume  IX.,  on  the  "  Healthy  English  "  Table, 
and  on  the  "  Peerage  "  Table  ;  Volume  XVIII. 
on  the  "  Carlisle "  Table  ;  three  papers  in 
Volume  XXXI.,  by  Sprague,  Meikle,  and  Whittall, 
dealing  with  various  methods  and  tables  ;  and 
in  Volume  XXXIII.  the  paper  by  Ackland. 
He  should  also  read  the  Introduction  to  Fair's 
"  English  Life  Table  No.  3 "  ;  Fiulaison's 
"  Report  on  Government  Annuitants.  1883,"  and 

4731 


INSURANCE 

Sprague's  criticism  thereon  ;  the  introduction 
to  the  "  Institute  Mortality  Experience,"  and, 
most  important  of  all,  the  "  Account  of  Prin- 
ciples and  Methods  "  adopted  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  British  offices'  life  tables.  The 
student  for  Part  II.  should  ignore  all  por- 
tions of  these  books  which  are  concerned  with 
graduation. 

Examination     Part  III. 

The  Institute  does  not  at  present  provide  a 
tutor  for  either  Part  III.  or  Part  IV.  In  recent 
years,  however,  a  course  of  lectures  by  an  expert 
has  generally  been  held  upon  some  subject  which 
comes  within  the  scope  of  the  syllabus.  These 
lectures  have  been  printed  and  are  of  great 
assistance.  Lectures  are  also  delivered  at  the 
London  School  of  Economics  on  various  in- 
surance subjects,  and  those  courses  which  meet 
his  requirements  should  be  attended  by  the 
student.  Notwithstanding  this  aid  the  student 
is  more  dependent  upon  private  coaching  than 
when  preparing  for  Parts  I.  and  II.,  and  the 
test  advice  which  can  be  given  him  is  to  join 
the  class  of  a  well-known  tutor  and,  so  far  as 
possible,  make  no  change  until  both  Parts  III. 
and  IV.  have  been  passed. 

A  certain  amount  of  work  towards  the  subject 
under  the  first  heading  in  the  syllabus  for  Part 
III.  has  necessarily  been  done  in  preparing  for 
the  second  examination.  Sickness  tables, 
however,  have  not  yet  been  studied,  and  this  is 
the  student's  first  introduction  to  the  subject  of 
Graduation. 

Graduation.  When  a  mortality  table  is 
constructed  it  is  found  that  there  are  certain 
irregularities,  arising  from  various  causes,  which 
would  interfere  with  the  practical  value  of  the 
table.  These  irregularities  require  adjustment, 
and  it  is  to  this  adjustment  of  the  original  obser- 
vations that  the  term  "  graduation  "  is  applied. 

In  preparation  for  the  examination  in  Part 
III.  there  are  numerous  papers  and  letters  in  the 
"  Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries  "  which 
should  be  read,  and  also  papers  in  the  "  Trans- 
actions of  the  Actuarial  Society  of  Edinburgh," 
in  the  "Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society," 
and  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Faculty  of 
Actuaries." 

The  student  should  also  read  (in  addition 
to  the  books  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
Principles  of  the  Construction  of  Mortality 
Tables  under  Part  IT.),  the  introduction  to 
Sutton's  "  Sickness  Tables  "  ;  Watson's  "  Man- 
chester Unity  Sickness  Tables  "  ;  the  Annual 
Reports  of  the  Registrar-General,  especially 
those  issued  on  completion  of  the  decennial 
censuses  ;  Bowley's  Lectures  on  the  "  Measure- 
ment of  Groups,"  G.  F.  Hardy's  Lectures 
on  "Graduation";  and  the  "Report  on  the 
Mortality  of  London"  issued  by  the  London 
County  Council. 

Valuations  and  Distribution  of  Sur= 
plus.  In  connection  with  items  3  and  4  of 
the  syllabus,  every  student  should  make  him- 
self familiar  with  the  methods  of  valuation 
and  distribution  of  the  disclosed  surplus  in  use 
amongst  life  offices  at  the  present  time.  This 
can  best  be  dono  by  studying  the  blue-books 

4732 


issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade  each  year,  -which 
contain  the  Returns  made  by  the  Companies 
under  the  Life  Assurance  Companies  Act,  1870. 
It  should  be  particularly  noticed  how  each 
method  of  distribution  affects  the  incidence  of 
the  bonuses  declared. 

In  order  to  acquire  practice  and  facility  in  the 
valuation  of  reversions  and  life  interests  the 
student,  unless  he  makes  such  calculations 
frequently  in  the  course  of  his  office  work, 
should  value  such  interests  as  he  sees  advertised 
for  sale  by  auction  and  compare  his  results  with 
the  prices  obtained. 

Examination     Part  IV. 

This  examination  may  be  taken  the  same  year 
as  Part  III.,  but,  having  regard  to  the  amount 
of  reading  which  has  to  be  done  in  preparation 
for  Part  III.  only  a  really  brilliant  man  has 
much  chance  of  passing  both  parts  together. 
On  the  other  hand,  Part  III.  being  disposed  of, 
a  single  winter's  work  should  bring  almost 
certain  success  in  Part  IV.,  and  to  take  each 
part  separately  appears  in  most  cases  to  be 
preferable. 

The  syllabus  of  the  Examination  in  Part  IV. 
consists  largely  of  subjects  which  are  not  purely 
actuarial,  but  a  knowledge  of  which  is  very 
necessary  to  the  actuary.  [See  Schedule.] 

Books  to  Read.  The  following  books  should 
be  read:  Strahan's  "Law  of  Property"  (Stevens 
&  Sons.  12s.  6d.),  or,  if  the  student  has  time  to 
read  a  full  exposition  on  the  subject,  "  Williams 
on  Real  and  Personal  Property"  ;  Lectures  by 
Wood  Hill  on  "The  Law  of  Real  Property," 
by  Hayter  on  "  The  Law  of  Mortgage "  and 
by  Clauson  on  "  The  Companies  Acts  "  (obtain- 
able at  the  Institute,  Is.  each) ;  and  Indermaur 
and  Thwaites'  "Guide  to  Real  and  Personal 
Property"  (Stevens  &  Haynes.  10s.).  The 
last  mentioned  book  will  be  found  invaluable 
for  revising  the  student's  knowledge  of  the 
subject.  Bunyon's  "  Law  of  Life  Assurance  " 
should  be  read,  and  certain  Acts  of  Parliament, 
such  as  the  Life  Assurance  Companies  Acts, 
1870-2;  the  Friendly  and  Collecting  Societies 
Acts,  1896;  Companies  Act,  1900;  and  the 
Finance  Act,  1894,  must  receive  special  attention. 

A  small  book,  entitled  "  How  to  Read  the 
Money  Article,"  by  C.  Duguid  (Effingham  & 
Wilson),  is  an  admirable  introduction  to  the 
financial  part  of  the  work.  Clare's  "Money 
Market  Primer,"  "  A.B.C.  of  the  Exchanges," 
and  also  his  "  Lectures  on  the  London  Daily  Stock 
and  Share  List,"  and  some  works  on  bimetallism 
and  mono-metallism,  sh*ould  be  studied.  The 
student  should  read  regularly  the  financial 
articles  in  one  of  the  leading  morning  papers, 
and  should  also  make  a  point  of  seeing  regularly 
one  of  the  financial  weeklies,  "  The  Economist 
for  preference. 

No  textfcook  can  adequately  deal  with  the 
subject  of  investments,  knowledge  of  which  can 
only  come  with  experience.  What  the  student 
should  strive  to  acquire  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
principal  securities  and  investments,  and  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  and 
special  points  connected  with  the  various  classes 


into  which  the  investments  of  a  life  assurance 
company  can  be  divided.  Burdett's  "  Official 
Intelligence"  and  "The  Stock  Exchange  Year 
Book  "  are  the  great  mines  of  information  con- 
cerning Stock  Exchange  securities.  The  student 
should  attend  any  available  lectures  on  the 
subject  of  investments,  and  should  read  Gunn's 
"  Stock  Exchange  Securities,"  and  Nicoll's  paper 
entitled  "  Description  of  Certain  Stock  Exchange 
Securities,"  as  well  as  Clare's  lectures  already 
referred  to.  As  regards  investments  made  by 
way  of  loans,  the  proposal  forms  used  by  the  office 
with  which  the  student  is  connected  should  be 
carefully  studied  to  see  on  what  points  informa- 
tion is  deemed  essential.  The  correspondence 
in  such  cases  is  also  important.  There  are,  in 
addition  to  the  books  and  articles  already 
mentioned,  a  number  of  papers  in  the  "  Journal 
of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries,"  and  of  the  other 
insurance  institutes,  which  should  be  read. 

The  Student's  Library.  The  student 
will  find  it  difficult  and  expensive  to  purchase 
all  the  books  mentioned,  especially  the  earlier 
numbers  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Institute 
of  Actuaries."  He  will,  however,  be  able  to 
borrow  some  of  them  from  the  library  of 
his  office,  and  others  from  the  library  of  the 
Institute  ;  he  can  thus,  in  most  cases,  reduce  his 
purchases  to  a  minimum. 

In  endeavouring  to  indicate  the  work  which 
the  actuarial  student  has  to  do  before  he  becomes 
fully  qualified,  we  have  kept  in  view  principally 
those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  subjects 
dealt  with.  On  this  account  an  exhaustive  list 
of  reading  has  not  been  attempted,  though 
nothing  of  importance  has  been  omitted.  For 
fuller  information,  including  the  papers  in  the 
various  journals  which  should  be  read,  the 
student  is  referred  to  an  admirable  article, 
entitled  "  Hints  on  Reading  for  Actuarial 
Students,"  which  appeared  in  the  "  Post  Maga- 
zine "  in  1903  from  the  pen  of  a  well-known  coach. 

The  general  aim  of  the  Institute,  and  also  of 
the  Faculty,  examinations  appears  to  be  to 
educate  the  student  first  in  pure  mathematics, 
next  in  the  theory  of  Actuarial  Science,  then 
in  the  practical  application  of  that  science, 
and  finally  in  various  subjects  not  strictly 
actuarial,  but  a  knowledge  of  which  is  neverthe- 
less necessary  to  the  actuary.  The  foundation 
of  the  whole  scheme  is  mathematics,  and  parents 
who  wish  their  sons  to  enter  the  actuarial  pro- 
fession should  see  that  a  considerable  portion  of 
their  time  at  school  is  devoted  to  algebra, 
trigonometry,  and  kindred  subjects  ;  and,  further, 
should  not  allow  a  lengthy  period  to  elapse 
between  leaving  school  and  beginning  serious 
work.  This  is  too  often  allowed,  and  it  is  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  in  many  cases  it  is  fatal, 
for  the  habit  of  studying  is  broken,  and  much 
useful  information  forgotten  in  the  interval. 

As  already  mentioned,  a  certain  aptitude  is 
necessary.  The  examinations  are  far  from  easy, 
and  great  application  is  required  to  get  through 
such  an  enormous  amount  of  reading  when  the 
days  are  spent  in  an  office  and  only  the  spare 
hours  of  the  evening  are  available  for  study. 


INSURANCE 

The  Faculty  Examinations.  The  first 
examination  of  the  Faculty  corresponds  very 
closely  with  Part  I.  of  the  Institute  examinations. 
The  second  differs  mainly  from  Part  II.  of  the 
Institute  in  that  the  History  and  Characteristics 
of  Mortality  Tables  takes  the  place  of  the  Prin- 
ciples of  the  Construction  of  Mortality  Tables, 
and  other  tables  involving  the  contingencies  of 
life.  The  third  examination  involves  all  the 
subjects  in  Parts  III.  and  IV.,  with  the  exception 
of  "  The  Elements  of  the  Law  of  Real  and 
Personal  Property,"  and  "  The  Principles  of 
Banking  and  Finance." 

The  subscriptions  to  the  two  Institutes  are 
very  reasonable.  We  give  the  figures : 

THE  INSTITUTE  OF  ACTUARIES 

Probationer,  entrance  fee,  10s.  6d.  ;  annual 
subscription,  10s.  6d. 

Student,  further  entrance  fee,  10s.  6d.  ;  annual 
subscription,  £1  Is. 

Associate,  annual  subscription,  £2  2s. 

Fellow,  annual  subscription,  £3  3s. 

FEES  for  class  in  Part  I.  or  Part  II.,  £2  2s.  per 
session,  from  October  to  April. 

FACULTY  OF  ACTUARIES 

Students,  entrance  fee,  £1  Is.  ;  annual  sub- 
scription, 2s.  6d. 

Associates,  futher  entrance  fee,  £2  2s.  ;  annual 
subscription,  £1  Is. 

Fellows,  further  entrance  fee,  £2  2s.  ;  annual 
subscription,  £2  2s. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  an  idea  of  what  a  tutor 
would  charge  for  individual  attention,  but  where 
the  student  is  one  of  a  private  class  the  fee 
charged  for  a  winter  session  for  Part  III.  or  IV. 
will  be  found  not  to  exceed  £10  10s.,  and  for 
Part  I.  or  II.  will  be  considerably  less.  The 
fees  charged  by  the  London  School  of  Economics 
vary  according  to  the  course,  but  will  in  every 
case  be  found  very  moderate. 

Actuarial  Work  in  the  Office.  Prob- 
ably the  first  actuarial  work  which  the  student 
will  be  .required  to  do  in  his  office  will  be 
the  calculation  of  ordinary  rates  of  premium, 
surrender  values,  paid-up  policies,  etc.  The 
formulas  employed  are  all  laid  down  in  advance 
by  the  actuary  of  the  company,  and  the  work  is 
therefore  not  particularly  difficult.  At  a  later 
stage  will  come  special  calculations  in  connection 
with  risks  of  various  kinds  which  do  not  proceed 
on  definite  lines,  and  are  consequently  of  greater 
interest.  There  are  also  valuations  of  reversions 
and  life  interests,  either  for  purchase  or  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  their  suitability  as 
security  for  loans.  Statistical  work  in  connec- 
tion with  various  Government  returns,  and  for 
office  information,  also  falls  on  the  actuarial  staff. 
All  these  branches  of  work  will  be  done  under  the 
supervision  of  the  chief  actuary,  who  will  also  be 
responsible  for  the  preparation  of  new  schemes, 
acceptances  of  risks,  settlement  of  claims,  valua- 
tion of  liabilities  and  assets,  the  distribution  of 
the  surplus  disclosed  by  the  valuation,  and,  if  ho 
be  also  the  manager,  the  investment  of  the  fund* 
of  the  company. 


Continued 


47.% 


Group  2 

GLASS 


Coiitiiiin',1  fimi! 
page  J5.-U 


PLATE  GLASS  AND  BOTTLES 

Making,  Grinding:,    and    Polishing;    Plate   Glass.     Perforated   and   Wired 
Glass.     Blowing  Bottles  and  Tumblers.     Making  Glass  Tubes  and  Rods 


Plate  Glass.  Plate  glass  is  made  by  pour- 
ing molten  glass  on  to  an  iron  table,  flattening 
it  by  passing  an  iron  roller  over  it,  and,  after 
annealing  the  sheet  of  glass,  grinding  the  surfaces 
flat,  and  polishing.  The  materials  used  are  the 
purest  obtainable,  as  freedom  from  colour  is 
most  necessary.  The  melting  is  done  in  pots, 
which  serve  also  for  pouring,  the  melted  glass 
being  for  this  purpose  lifted  bodily  out  of 
the  furnace.  The  furnaces,  on  this  account,  are 
constructed  with  sliding  doors  made  of  iron 
frames,  filled  with  firebrick,  so  that  the  pots 
can  be  readily  taken  out.  The  melting-pots 
having  been  filled  with  material,  are  lifted  in 
place,  the  doors  of  the  furnace  closed,  and  the 
producer  gas  admitted.  In  about  15  hours  the 
glass  is  ready  for  pouring.  The  door  is  then 
lifted,  and  a  large  wrought-iron  balanced  pair 
of  tongs  is  swung  into  the  furnace  by  a  travelling 
crane.  The  pot  is  withdrawn  and  brought  to  the 
casting  table.  The  casting  table  is  a  carefully 


9.    ROLLING    PLATE    GLASS 

trued  surface  of  cast  iron  or  bronze.  The 
surface  is  not  in  one  piece,  but  consists  of  small 
sections,  the  object  being  to  neutralise  the 
warping  which  would  take  place  if  one  large 
sheet  of  metal  were  heated  on  one  surface  only. 

On  one  end  of  the  table  is  a  hollow  cast-iron 
roller,  extending  entirely  across  the  table.  Down 
each  edge  of  the  table  is  laid  a  strip  of  iron,  i  in. 
in  thickness,  upon  which  the  roller  travels. 
Round  each  end  of  the  roller  is  wound  a  chain, 
which  is  carried  to  the  opposite  end  of  the 
table  to  the  drum  of  a  hand  winch.  An  over- 
head electrical  crane  carries  a  pot  of  molten 
L<la>-  up  to  the  line  of  the  annealing  furnace, 
where  it  is  set  down  and  picked  up  by  a  small 
jib  locomotive  crane,  which  travels  on  a  track 
that  runs  the  full  length  of  the  annealing  fur- 
naces. By  tin-  crane  the  pot  of  metal  is  carried 
to  the  cast  in  <:  table,  where  the  contents  are 
poured  out  in  front  of  the  roller  [9  j.  The  roller  is 
then  drawn  forward,  and  as  it  is  raised  above  the 
table  by  half  an  inch,  the  molten  glass  is  rolled 

4734 


out  to  just  that  thickness.  By  the  time  it  has 
been  rolled  out  the  glass  has  cooled  sufficiently 
to  be  moved  to  the  annealing  furnace.  This 
furnace  is  raised  to  a  temperature  higher  than 
that  of  the  glass,  and  as  soon  as  the  plate  has 
been  introduced,  the  door  is  shut  and  the  plate 
left  to  cool  slowly  for  from  four  to  five  days. 
The  cooling  is  assisted  by  passing  cold  air  into 
flues  below  the  annealing  furnace. 

Grinding  the  Plate.  When  removed  from 
the  oven,  the  plate  is  rough,  and  is  submitted  to 
the  processes  of  grinding  and  polishing.  The  |  in. 
plate  in  these  operations  becomes  reduced  to  ^  in., 
an  £  in.  being  lost  from  each  side  of  the  plate. 
The  rough  grinding  is  done  between  series  of 
grinding  tables  arranged  in  groups  of  three,  each 
group  consisting  of  a  lower  and  two  upper  tables. 
The  lower  table  is  a  large  cast-iron  rotating  disc, 
which  has  been  faced  and  carefully  trued  up. 
The  plate  is  laid  upon  this  and  embedded  in 
plaster  of  Paris.  Bearing  upon  the  glass  plate 
are  two  circular  runners, 
one  of  which  is  12  ft.  and 
the  other  14  ft.  in  dia- 
meter. The  two  runners 
are  journalled  in  a  trussed 
frame  which  extends 
across  the  top  of  the 
\machine,  and  they  are 
driven  by  means  of  mitre 
gears  and  shafting.  The 
*  bottom  face  of  the  runners 
is  shod  with  a  number  of 
parallel  cast-iron  serrated 
bars,  which  are  spaced 
about  3  in.  apart.  The 
grinding  [10J  is  started  at 
slow  speed,  the  runners 

moving  at  the  rate  of  about  two  revolutions  per 
minute.  As  it  proceeds,  the  speed  is  increased 
until  it  reaches  30  revolutions  per  minute. 
Sharp  sand  and  water  are  fed  to  the  plate,  and 
as  not  merely  the  runners,  but  the  table  below, 
are  constantly  rotating,  the  grinding  is  perfectly 
even  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  glass,  and 
thus  a  true  surface  is  obtained.  When  about 
i  in.  has  been  taken  off,  the  plate  is  turned  over, 
and  the  rough  grinding  repeated  on  the  opposite 
side.  As  the  sand  and  water  flow  from  the 
grinders,  it  is  carried  to  a  series  of  grading 
boxes  and  prepared  for  use  again. 

The  Polishing  Process.  The  plate,  as 
it  comes  from  the  rough  grinders,  is  like  ground 
ula-  s,  and  it  is  necessary  to  submit  it  to  a  polish- 
ing process.  The  polishing  is  done  upon  a  large 
number  of  low  tables.  Down  the  full  length  of 
each  table  extends  a  cast-iron  girder,  to  which  is 
attached  at  intervals  of  about  20  in.  a  series 
of  transverse  wrought-iron  bars  [11].  Through 
the  end  of  each  of  these  bars  extend  the  vertical 


GLASS 


shafts  of  a  series  of  felt-covered  polish- 
ing discs.  The  pressure  upon  these 
discs  is  regulated  by  means  of  cup- 
shaped  weights,  which  are  placed  upon 
their  vertical  spindles.  The  polishers 
are  fed  with  rouge  or  oxide  of  iron, 
obtained  by  igniting  sulphate  of  iron 
at  a  white  heat  for  36  hours.  This 
rouge,  mixed  with  water,  is  squirted  on 
to  the  plate  during  the  polishing  opera- 
tion. The  longitudinal  girders  referred 
to  above  are  connected  to  the  crank- 
arms  of  a  series  of  spur  wheels  driven 
by  a  75 -horse  power  engine,  and  by 
this  means  an  oscillatory  movement 
is  given  to  the  whole  series  of  polishers. 
It  takes  twelve  hours,  six  hours  each 
side,  to  give  the  proper  finish  to  a  plate 
of  glass.  After  polishing,  the  glass  is 
sorted  over  for  faults,  and  cut  up  into 
the  desired  size  by  a  diamond. 

Rolled  Plate.  Unpolished  plate  glass  is 
used  for  roofing  purposes,  but  is  frequently 
impressed  with  a  design  of  fine  lines,  grooves,  or 
squares,  and  in  this  condition  is  very  largely 
used  where  obscured  light  is  desired.  The  metal  is 
ladled  direct  from  the  pot  on  to  the  table  and 
rolled  in  the  ordinary  manner,  but  each  ladleful 
is  poured  out  at  the  end  of  the  preceding 
quantity,  as  it  is  not  so  important  in  this  case  to 
avoid  air  bubbles.  The  rolled  plate  can  also  be 
annealed  by  piling  on  edge,  as  practised  in  anneal- 
ing sheet  glass,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  the  costly 
annealing  furnaces  required  in  the  case  of  plate 
glass,  where  only  one  to  three  plates  can  be 
treated  at  a  time.  A  method  of  making  rolled 
plate  practised  by  Messrs.  Chance,  of  Birming- 
ham, is  to  pass  molten  glass  between  a  pair  of 
rollers  down  an  inclined  plane.  The  glass  is 
thereby  rolled  into  a  sheet,  this  sheet  being  then 
carried  on  an  inclined  plane  to  the  annealing 
furnace.  Additional  rollers  with  patterns  upon 
them  are  also  employed.  Rippled  glass  is  made 
by  the  same  firm  by  making  the  roller  alter- 
nately rise  and  fall  by  means  of  a  tooth  edge 
on  the  side  of  the  table. 

Perforated  and  Wired  Glass.  A 
•perforated  glass  for  ventilating  purposes  is  made 


POLISHING    PLATK    CLASS 


10.   GRINDING     PLATE    GLASS 

on  a  casting  table  furnished  with  projections, 
so  that  on  rolling  holes  are  made  in  the  glass, 
or  the  glass  is  so  thinned  at  the  spots  that  it 
can  be  easily  drilled.  The  holes  can  be  made 
by  drilling  with  sand  and  water. 

With  the  idea  of  increasing  the  strength  of 
rolled  glass,  and  preventing  the  scattering  of  the 
glass  in  case  of  breakage,  it  has  become  customary 
to  enclose  wire  netting  for  certain  kinds  of  glass. 
A  layer  of  rolled  glass  of  half  the  usual  thickness 
is  prepared ;  on  this  is  spread  the  wire  net- 
work, and  then  another  layer  of  glass  is  rolled 
upon  the  netting.  The  wire  is  thus  entirely 
enclosed  and  cannot  rust.  Wired  glass  is  specially 
adapted  for  skylights,  as  wire  protectors  can 
be  dispensed  with.  The  glass  is  also  to  a  certain 
degree  burglar-proof,  as  it  cannot  be  cut  through 
with  a  diamond. 

Bottle=maRing.  The  manufacture  of  glass 
bottles  is  a  blowing  operation,  whether  done 
by  a  workman  or  by  a  machine  using  compressed 
air.  Moulds  are  used  for  shaping  the  bottle, 
and  are  made  of  cast  iron  or  brass.  A  work- 
man takes  up  on  the  blowpipe  from  the 
glass  tank  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  molten 
metal,  called  a  gathering,  and  hands  it  to  the 
"  blower,"  who  blows  the  mass  into  a  pear-shaped 
bottle  [12].  This  embryo  bottle  is  at  the  same 
time  manipulated  on  a  marver,  and  when  of  the 
proper  shape  is  placed  in  the  bottle  mould  and 
then  further  distended  by  blowing  till  it  fills  the 
mould.  The  mould  is  opened  and  closed  by  a 
spring  manipulated  by  pressure  of  the  foot. 
The  bottle  is  released  from  the 
mould  and  separated  from  the 
blowing  rod  by  touching  the  neck 
with  a  wet  tool.  A  workman 
then  forms  the  lip  of  the  bottle 
by  affixing  a  ring  of  molten  glass 
which  is  moulded  to  the  proper 
shape  by  a  necking-tool,  some 
varieties  of  which  are  shown  in  13. 
The-  finished  bottles  are  taken  at  once  to  the 
annealing  oven. 

Bottle  Machines.  Although  workmen 
acquire  great  dexterity  in  making  bottles,  and 
turn  out  a  large  number  of  these  useful  receptacles, 

4735 


GLASS 

it  is  not  surprising  that  efforts  have  been  made 
to  make  the  process  quicker  and  surer  by  means 
of    automatic    machinery.      Mr.   H.  M.   Ashley 
in    1886    patented   his   bottle-making  machine, 
which  has  since  been  modified  and  improved. 
Mr.  Ashley's  description  of  his  machine  is  as 
follows  :   A  quantity  of  molten  glass  is  poured 
into  a  cup-shaped   mould  termed 
a  jHtt-ison  mould,  the  lower  part  of 
which  is  made  the  counterpart  of 
the   shape   which    the   head   and 
neck  of  the  bottle  are  intended  to 
have.     While  the  glass  is  still  in 
a   plastic   state  in  the   bloom  or 
parison  mould,  a  punch  or  plunger 
is  pushed  up  into  the  body  of  the 
glass  and  withdrawn,  thus  form- 
ing a    cylindrical     cavity  in    the 
glass.     The  parison  mould  is  then 
inverted  and  withdrawn,  the  neck 
mould,   or   that   part  which  em- 
braces the  head  and  neck,  being  QLASS.BLOWING 
still  left  in  position,  so  that  the 
parison,  or  bulb  of  glass,  remains  suspended  by 
the    head    and    neck  ;    this    bulb,    being    still 
plastic  and  tending  to  elongate  itself  by  gravity, 
is  then   enclosed  within   a    mould  which    is  a 
counterpart  of    the    finished    shape  which   the 
bottle  is  intended  to  have.      Air  or  gas  under 
pressure  is  then  admitted  into  the  interior  of 
the    glass    bulb    through    a    perforation  in  the 
punch   or  plunger,   and  the 
glass  is  thus  distended  so  as 
to    take    the    shape    of   the 
mould    enclosing    it.       This 
mould  being   then   removed, 
the  bottle  remains  suspended 
by  the  head   and  neck,  and 
that  part  of  the  mould  being 
then    opened     the    finished 
bottle  is  released  and  is  con- 
veyed away  to  be  annealed. 

Several  sets  of  apparatus 
are  arranged  on  a  revolving 
frame  provided  with  means  of 
performing  successive  move- 
ments automatically. 

Since  Mr.  Ashley's  machine 
was  introduced,  many  varia- 
tions have  been  brought  out 
by  other  inventors,  most  of 
them  being  equally  adaptable 
for  narrow-necked  bottles  and 
wide-mouthed  jars. 

Blown  Glass.  By  a  com- 
bination of  blowing  and  clever 
manipulation     with      simple 
tools    [13],    the    glassblower   olveMek 
forms  variously  shaped  vessels 
out  of  molten  glass.      Table  glass,  except  the 
commonest,  is  blown  glass.     A  tumbler  is  a  simple 
form  of  the  glassblower's  art,  but  in  making  it 
a  special  rotary  motion  is  given  either  to  the 
blow-tube  or  the  mould,  which  requires  consider- 
able practice.      A  wineglass  is  a  more  elaborate 
production.  The  bowl  is  first  made,  the  stern  and 
the  foot  beiiij.'  sul)>c()iient!y  added  and  shaped. 


Pressed  Glass.  Another  form  of  hollow 
glass\\are  is  that  known  as  pressed  glass,  which  is 
made  chiefly  at  Gateshead  in  England  and  Pitts- 
burg  in  the  United  States.  The  glass  used  is 
flint  glass  (lead  glass)  on  account  of  its 
superior  brilliancy,  but  the  cheaper  baryta 
glass  is  being  increasingly  employed.  The  pro- 
cess is  manipulated  by  either  hand  or  steam, 
the  small  hand  presses  being  sufficient  for  small 
articles.  The  moulds  are  of  iron  or  gunmetal, 
and  a  quantity  of  molten  glass  having  been  intro- 
duced, a  plunger  descends  and  forces  the  glass 
into  all  parts  of  the  mould,  thus  shaping  the 
outside  and  the  inside  of  the  vessel  at  the  same 
time.  The  Appert  process  is  a  modern  develop- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  pressed  glass  which 
seeks  to  overcome  the  cooling  effect  of  the  mould, 
and  to  make  the  process  automatic.  The  mould- 
ing is  effected  by  successive  stages  so  that  the 
glass  only  touches  as  small  a  surface  of  metal  at 
one  time  as  possible. 

Fire     Polishing.       The     surfaces    of    the 
pressed  glass  article  are  not  so  smooth  as  blown 
glass,  but  this  defect  is  overcome  by  what  is 
known   as   fire   polishing.     This  consists   in  re- 
heating the  articles  hi  an  oil  furnace  with  a 
steam  blast  so  that  the  outer  surfaces  of    the 
glass  are  melted,  a  brilliant  surface  being  the 
result.     The  method  was  invented  by  Sowerby 
in    1886,  and   improved   in    1896.    The  furnace 
receives  the  heat  from  injectors  at  one  or  both 
ends,  the  glass  article  being 
held  on  a  snap,  which  has  the 
ends  lined  with  asbestos  to 
prevent  cracking. 

Glass  Tube  and  Rod. 
Tubing  or  rod  of  glass  is 
made  by  gathering  metal  on 
a  blowpipe,  rolling  it  on  the 
marver,  attaching  a  metal 
rod  to  the  opposite  side  of 
the  lump  of  glass,  and 
drawing  the  two  rods  apart. 
If  the  lump  of  glass  has  been 
formed  into  a  hollow  bulb, 
tubing  results.  The  rods  are 
held  by  different  workmen, 
who  walk  backwards  away 
from  each  other,  assistants 
watching  the  process  to  give 
warning  of  any  thinning  of 
the  tube  in  parts.  Glass 
buttons  are  pinched  off  glass 
rods  while  still  soft,  the 
pincers  having  moulds  on 
the  gripping  surfaces.  Glass 

Shears  for  trimming  ed^es  marbles  are  also  cut  off  glass 
1  rods  while  soft,  but  arc  then 
placed  into  an  iron  drum  with 
kaolin  and  rapidly  revolved,  when  the  pieces  of 
glass  assume  globular  shape.  A  recent  applica- 
tion of  glass  rod  is  seen  in  the  prismatic  globes 
used  for  covering  electric  light  bulbs.  The  glass 
rod  is  softened  by  a  blowpipe  flame,  and  coiled 
upon  a  revolving  mandrel  of  the  required  form. 
Glass  tubing  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beads, 
a  short  account  of  which  is  given  in  the  next  lesson. 


13.  GLASS  WORKERS'  TOOLS 

a.  Xorthwood's  scolloping  tool  for  shaping  edges 
of  \;i<«'s  b.  Uich-mlson's  wineglass  foot  "mould, 
"Pacella"  c,  d,  arid  e.  Three  forms  of  ton ^  for 


blown  glass  vessel 

fe  The  "  whip,"  for  forming  necks  and 


Continued 


4TM 


PROBLEMS    IN    THE   CONE 

Effects  of  Height.     The  Shapes  of  Envelopes.     Conic  Frusta.     Oblique 
Cones.     Effect  of  Varying  Planes  of  Truncation.     Plates  for  Fire-boxes 


Group  8 

DRAWING 
33 

TECHNICAL  DRAWING 

continued  from 


By  JOSEPH   G.  HORNER 


(CONICAL  figures  and  portions  of  the  same 
divide  importance  about  equally  with 
pyramidal  forms,  and  they  occur  in  right  and 
oblique  varieties.  Their  construction  is  not 
difficult,  either  by  direct  reference  to  the  apex 
or  by  the  method  of  triangulation. 

The  Elements  of  the  Cone.  In  41, 
AB  is  the  vertical  height  of  the  cone,  AC  its 
slant  height,  BC  its  radius,  and  DE  the  diameter 
of  its  base.  Hence  the  meaning  of  the  statement 
that  a  right  cone  is  formed  by  the  revolution 
of  a  right-angled  triangle  round  one  of  the  sides 
contained  in  the  right  angle,  and  that  the  hypo- 
tenuse in  its  revolution  develops  the  surface  of 
the  cone. 

In  42  and  43  the  triangle  is  dotted  on  one  side 
of  the  axis  and  the  cane  drawn  on  the  other. 
The  axis  of  revolution,  therefore,  is  the  side  a 
in  42,  and  the  side  b  of  the  triangle  in  43.  The 
hypotenuse  c  measures  the  same  length,  c,  in 
each  case,  but  the  difference  in  the  diameter  of 
the  base  and  the  difference  in  the  steepness, 
or  slant  height,  and  the  vertical  height  are  most 
marked.  Not  the  least  value  of  an  object  lesson 
like  this  is  to  introduce  a  mental  exercise  which 
the  workman  constantly  finds  himself  making. 
When  in  doubt  about  the  possible  resulting 
shape  of  a  development,  greatly  exaggerate  it 
mentally,  and  the  issue  often  becomes  obvious. 

To  obtain  one  dimension  from  others,  lay 
down  the  known  dimensions  to  scale,  or  to  full 
size,  and  measure  off  the  others.  Thus,  in  42 
and  43  the  heights  de  and  radii  ef  being  known, 
the  length  of  the  slant  edge,  df,  is  obtainable. 
Or.  if  radii  ef  and  slant  df  are  given,  the  heights 
de  can  be  obtained.  The  construction  is  too 
obvious  to  need  further  description,  and  of 
course  the  same  method  applies  to  conic  frusta. 

Cases  arise  in  which  it  is  not  practicable  to 
draw  the  entire  triangle,  and  then  the  rules  of 
geometry  may  be  used  thus :  if  the  lengths  of 
the  sides  be  known,  add  the  squares  of  these, 
and  the  square  root  of  the  sum  will  be  the  length  of 
the  hypotenuse.  The  lengths  of  the  sides  are 
the  equivalent  of  the  perpendicular  height,  and 
the  radius  of  the  base  of  a  cone  and  the  hypo- 
tenuse is  the  equivalent  of  the  slant  height. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  all  right  circular  cones 
to  draw  the  circle  of  the  base  in  plan,  as  it  was 
essential  to  draw  the  base  of  a  pyramid  in  plan 
in  our  first  article.  The  bases  of  42  and  43  are 
circles  of  radii  ef,  ef,  which  we  know  must  be 
the  case.  But  in  many  cases  it  is  necessary  to 
draw  the  circle,  not  to  obtain  the  shape,  but  to 
get  other  dimensions  and  relations  on. 

Marking  Out  the  Envelope  of  a  Right 
Cone.  In  marking  out  the  complete  envelope 
of  a  cone,  therefore,  the  length  of  the  slant 

1  A  z8 


edge  c  [42  and  43],  or  AD,  AE  [41]  is  taken 
for  a  radius,  the  length  of  the  circular  edge  of 
the  envelope  is  made  equal  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  base,  and  lines  are  drawn  from 
the  termination  to  the  centre,  corresponding  with 
the  apex,  thus : 

Taking  the  cone  in  42 :  To  obtain  the  length 
round  the  circumference,  calculation  based  on 
diam.  x  3-14159  is  not  so  convenient  as  stepping 
round  with  a  large  number  of  very  short  chords, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  bending  a  rule  round. 
These  steps  of  division  may  be  as  numerous  as 
desired.  The  distance  round  /  is  more  con- 
veniently obtained  by  drawing  a  quadrant  of 
the  circle,  as  in  44,  or  a  semi-diameter,  as  shown 
below  42,  and  dividing  either  into  any  con- 
venient number  of  equal  parts.  Four  times  the 
number  of  divisions  in  the  first  [44],  or  twice  the 
number  in  the  second  [42],  will  give  the  total 
length  round  the  circumference  of  the  base  of 
the  cone.  The  larger  the  number  of  divisions 
the  more  nearly  will  the  chord  measurements 
be  the  equivalent  of  arc  measurements.  Now, 
these  divisions  have  to  be  stepped  round  an  arc, 
not  of  radius  ef  [42],  but  of  radius  df,  as  in  45. 
Then,  starting  from  /  [45],  step  round  16  parts 
and  connect  the  sixteenth  with  d,  and  the 
envelope  is  obtained  which  Avill  cover  the  cone 
in  42. 

Just  to  fix  this  in  the  mind,  see  what  the 
development  of  43  would  give  us.  Divide  a 
quadrant  of  43  into,  say,  10  equal  parts  as  shown. 
With  the  slant  height  df  for  radius,  strike  an 
arc  [46],  and  divide  it  round  four  times  10,  and 
connect  the  fortieth  division  with  d.  The  re 
semblance  to  the  development  in  45  is  hardly 
obvious.  We  learn,  therefore,  that  the  flat  cone 
cuts  into  more  material  than  a  steep  one,  {or 
the  sheet  is  almost  a  complete  disc.  The  rela- 
tions between  slant  height  and  vertical  height 
are  also  much  more  apparent  than  in  steep 
cones. 

The  Conic  Frustum.  The  envelope  of 
the  frustum  of  a  cone  is  obtained  by  the  same 
kind  of  construction  as  that  of  the  complete 
cone.  In  47  the  elements  of  a  conic  frustum 
are  shown,  with  the  cone  of  which  it  forms  a 
section  completed  by  dotted  outlines,  in  order  to 
determine  the  shape  and  proportions  of  the 
frustum. 

In  47,  AB  is  the  perpendicular  height  of  the 
cone,  and  B6  that  of  the  frustum.  BC  is  the 
radius  of  revolution  of  the  base,  sweeping  round 
the  diameter  DE  ;  be  is  the  corresponding  radius 
in  the  plane  of  truncation,  sweeping  the  diameter 
de.  The  slant  height  of  the  complete  cone 
being  AE,  that  of  the  frustum  is  eE.  We  have 
therefore  tAvo  planes.  DE  and  de,  separated  by 

4737 


DRAWING 

a  slant  dimension  eE,  for  which  the  circum- 
ferences of  the  sheet  to  form  the  envelope  have 
to  be  obtained,  as  in  48  and  49,  thus  : 

Draw  the  required  frustum,  DdeE  [48],  and 
complete  the  cone  to  the  apex  A.  TaKe  the 
slant  height  AE  as  a  radius,  and  strike  a  circular 
arc  [49],  with  radius  AE.  Take  the  radius  BE  of 
the  base  of  48,  and  strike  a  quadrant  E/,  and 
divide  it  into  any  convenient  number  of  parts, 
say  six.  Transfer  these  four  times  in  succession 
to  the  curve  E  in  49,  which  will  then  be  practically 
equivalent  in  length  to  the  circumference  of  the 
base  DE  in  48.  Connect  EA24  [49],  which 
will  complete  the  boundaries  of  the  entire 
conical  figure  in  48.  As  the  article  required  is 
for  the  envelope  of  the  frustum,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  take  the  curve  corresponding 
with  the  plane  of  truncation  from  the  slant  edge, 
and  carry  it  as  far  as  the  radial  lines,  so  com- 
pleting the  envelope  without  any  dividing  round. 
Thus  the  slant  height  Ae  [48]  is  taken,  and  a  curve 
ed  struck  from  A  in  49.  The  sheet  Eed24  in 
49  will  be  the  correct  envelope  for  the  body  of 
the  frustum  in  48.  The  bottom  and  top  are 
obviously  circles  of  diameters  BE  and  de 
respectively. 

The  developments  represent  the  exact  en- 
velopes only,  to  which  extras  for  joints,  soldered, 
riveted,  or  otherwise,  as  the  case  may  be,  have 
to  be  added  on  the  completion  of  the  exact 
developments. 

A  Frustum  with  a  Distant  Apex. 
Taking  next  an  article  [50]  in  which*  a  conical 
frustum  occurs,  where  the  apex  would  be  situated 
at  too  long  a  distance  away  to  admit  of  the  use 
of  compasses,  the  triangulation  method  illus- 
trated in  our  first  lesson  again  comes  in.  Such 
problems  occur  very  frequently,  both  in  com- 
plete figures  and  in  the  curved  corners  of  flaring 
objects,  or  those  having  sloping  sides  or 
"  flue." 

Figs.  51,  52  show  the  marking  out  of  the  pattern 
for  the  frustum  in  50.  First  take  the  radii  A,  B 
from  50,  and  strike  them  both  in  plan  [51]  from 
centre,  o.  Divide  a  quadrant  on  A  into  any  con- 
venient number  of  equal  parts,  and  prolong  lines 
thence  to  the  centre,  o,  cutting  the  curve  B  so  that 
both  arcs  A  and  B  are  divided  proportionately. 
These  divisions  correspond  with  those  of  quad- 
rants of  the  circles  of  the  base  and  the  plane  of 
truncation  hi  50  ;  but  we  now  have  to  obtain  the 
width  corresponding  with  the  slant  face  C  in  50 
and  the  curves  of  the  developed  plate,  obtained 
thus : 

Raise  a  line  [51]  aD,  perpendicular  to  the  line 
Aa  joining  the  points  Aa,  and  measure  off  on 
it  the  length  aD,  equal  to  the  perpendicular 
height  D  in  50.  Join  AD,  which  will  be  the 
actual  length  of  the  line  Aa,  measured  up  the 
slant  face  C  in  50. 

From  these  the  plate  is  developed  as  in  52. 
Draw  a  line  AB  equal  in  length  to  the  slant 
height  C  [50].  Take  the  divisions  Al.  Ba, 
in  51,  and  set  them  off  by  small  arcs  Al,  Ba,  in 
52.  Take  the  length  AD  in  51  for  a  radius,  and 
from  the  points  A  and  B  in  52  as  centres  strike 
arcs  intersecting  those,  1  and  a,  just  marked. 
Next,  taking  1  and  a  as  centres,  proceed  as 

4738 


just  described  from  A  and  B,  striking  arcs  with 
nidius  AD  1 51],  repeating  the  process  from  each 
new  set  of  centres  obtained,  as  2  and  6,  3  and  t, 
4  and  d,  5  and  e,  to  6  and  /.  Curves  drawn  through 
the  successive  centres  as  shown  will  give  the 
outline  ot  the  sheet  required.  Fig.  52  is,  of 
course,  only  a  quadrant,  which  has  to  be 
repeated  four  times  to  produce  the  entire 
envelope  for  50. 

It  may  often  happen  that  the  vertical  height 
only,  D  [50],  of  the  conic  frustum  is  known, 
and  not  that  of  the  slant  C.  Then  the  latter 
can  be  obtained  as  in  53.  The  distances  cor- 
responding with  the  difference  in  radii  on  top 
and  bottom  being  given,  AB,  a  line  BE  is  raised 
perpendicularly  to  a  line  connecting  the  radii. 
The  length  BE  is  measured  off  equal  to  the 
perpendicular  height  D,  in  50,  and  a  diagonal 
AE  will  give  the  slant  height  C. 

Oblique  Cones.  Oblique  cones  are  those 
in  which  the  apex  is  not  situated  over  the  centre 
of  the  base.  As,  therefore,  the  right  cone  is 
developed  by  the  revolution  of  a  hypotenuse 
of  constant  'length  and  angle  round  one  side 
of  the  right  angle,  so  the  oblique  cone  is  the 
result  of  the  revolution  of  a  hypotenuse  of 
varying  length  round  angles  that  vary  constantly. 
Two  views  of  an  oblique  cone  are  shown  by 
54  and  55  taken  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
Only  on  opposite  sides  of  the  plane  aa  do  the 
angles  and  lengths  correspond.  On  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  plane  bb  there  is  an  infinite  grada- 
tion from  the  maximum  slant  A  to  the  minimum 
ditto  B. 

Oblique  cones  are  drawn  by  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  oblique  pyramids  in  the  pre- 
vious lesson.  In  fact,  if  we  regard  a  cone  as 
a  pyramid  with  all  the  angles  obliterated,  the 
construction  is  identical.  In  drawing  cones, 
divisions  and  lines  are  taken  at  intervals  just  as 
in  pyramids. 

To  develop  the  envelope  of  a  complete  cone 
[56]  let  AB  represent  the  base  of  the  cone,  C 
its  apex,  and  O  the  centre  of  the  base.  From  O 
as  a  centre  describe  a  semicircle  of  diameter  AB. 
Divide  this  into  any  convenient  number  of  parts, 
as  shown.  Drop  a  perpendicular  from  C  to 
meet  the  line  AB,  prolonged  at  D.  Draw 
lines  from  6,  c,  d,  e,  f  to  D.  These  will  represent 
the  cone  divided  in  plan.  Using  D  as  a  centre, 
draw  radii  from  b,  c,  d,  e,  f  to  cut  the  line  AB  at 
g,  h,  i,  j,  k  respectively^  and  join  g,  h,  i,  j,  k  to 
the  apex  C.  The  lines  C</,  Ch,  Ci,  Cj,  Gk  are 
the  actual  lengths  of  the  lines  &D,  cD,  dD, 
eD,  /D  respectively  drawn  in  plan,  and  are 
therefore  the  working  lines. 

Fig.  57  shows  the  development  of  the  envelope, 
supposing  the  seam  to  occur  along  the  line  CB 
in  56.  From  a  centre  C  [57]  strike  radii  CA,  Cg, 
Ch,  Ci,  Cj,  Ck,  CB  equal  respectively  to  the 
radii  similarly  lettered  in  56.  Take  in  56  the  dis- 
tance Aft.  or  be,  cd,  etc.,  these  divisions  being 
equal,  and  set  off  the  same  distances  from  A  to  g, 
gtoh,h  to  i,  etc.,  to  B  and  B  in  57.  Join  B  and  B 
to  C  to  obtain  the  sides  for  the  seam,  and  draw 
a  curve  through  the  various  points  of  intersection, 
as  shown,  to  produce  the  envelope  corresponding 
with  the  base. 


6i     •>'•:  -;- 


THE    CONE   AND   ITS    DEVELOPMENT 

41.  Elements  of  the  cone  42,  43.  Effect  of  difference  in  height  of  cones  and  envelopes  of  same  44,  45,  46.  Stepping 
round  chord  divisions  for  lengths  of  arcs  47.  Elements  for  conic  frustum  48,  49.  Envelope  of  conic  frustum 
50.  Conic  frustum  with  little  slant  51  52.  Envelope  obtained  by  triangulatiou  53.  Problem  when  the  slant  is  not 
known  54,  55.  Oblique  cone  56,  57.  Envelopes  of  oblique  cones  58.  Truncated  oblique  cone  59.  Development  of 
truncated  oblique  cone  60.  Cone  with  apex  inaccessible  61,  62,63.  Envelopes  of  cone  with  apex  inaccessible 

4739 


DRAWING 

Truncated  Oblique  Cones.  Truncated 
cones  also  may  be  cut  both  at  base  and  top, 
parallel  with  the  true  base  of  the  cone,  or,  as 
is  frequently  done,  at  an  angle  therewith. 
They  may  also  be  developed  with  compasses, 
or  by  triangulation.  The  cone  may  also  vary 
much  in  its  degree  of  obliquity,  until  one  side 
may  stand  vertically. 

If  the  frustum  be  truncated  in  a  plane  parallel 
with  the  base,  the  projection  of  the  lines  from  the 
base  to  the  plane  of  the  truncation  gives  the 
radii  at  once  for  a  second  sat  of  arcs,  drawn  in  58. 
Also  a  semicircle  equal  in  radius  to  that  at  the 
plane  of  truncation,  divided  round  into  the 
same  number  of  equal  parts  as  the  base  gives 
the  points  of  division  on  the  corresponding  arcs, 
through  which  the  curve  of  development  is  drawn 
for  the  small  end  of  the  frusta  thus  : 

In  58  let  AA'B'B  be  the  elevation  of  the 
frustum.  The  construction  of  the  development 
of  the  base  is  the  same  as  that  shown  in  56  and 
57,  and  the  same  reference  letters  being  employed 
in  the  two  figures,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat 
the  instructions  there  given.  The  additional 
lines  required  for  the  construction  of  the  top 
of  the  frustum  are  obtained  thus :  The  lines 
which  pass  from  the  points  of  division  in  the 
base  to  the  apex  cut  the  plane  of  the  frustum 
at  the  points  gf,  h',  i',  j',  k'  [58],  and  the  lines 
thence  to  the  apex  C  give  the  true  lengths  of 
the  several  generating  lines  in  the  frustum.  To 
obtain  the  developed  form,  mark  the  curve  for 
the  base  as  shown  in  59  similarly  to  that  shown 
in  57.  Then  for  the  curve  for  the  top  of  the 
frustum  ;  with  the  radius  CA'  [58],  strike  the 
curve  CA'  [59]  ;  with  the  radius  CB'  [58],  strike 
the  curve  CB'  [59]  ;  and  so  on  with  the  radii 
Cg',  Ch',  etc.,  in  58  transferred  to  59.  Through 
the  points  of  intersection  of  these  arcs  with 
the  radial  lines  previously  obtained  draw  the 
curve  B'A'B',  then  the  outline  BAB  B'A'B'  will 
be  that  of  the  development  of  the  frustum. 

The  so-called  oblique  truncated  cone  occurs 
frequently.  Its  chief  value  lies  in  connecting 
cylindrical  bodies,  the  axes  of  which  are  not  per- 
pendicular, hence  the  base  and  plane  of  trunca- 
tion are  generally  circles.  If  a  right  cone  were 
tilted,  and  its  base  and  top  cut  at  an  angle, 
the  section  would  be  an  ellipse,  as  we  shall  see 
later,  and  then  the  plans  would  have  to  be  deve- 
loped as  ellipses.  But  in  speaking  of  oblique 
cones,  the  base  and  truncation,  when  parallel  with 
the  base,  are  taken  as  circles.  These  relations 
are  shown  in  60,  where  the  plan  of  base  and  top 
are  drawn  perpendicularly  to  their  elevations. 
We  see  also  that  the  degree  of  slant  may  often 
be  such  that  the  apex  might  be  inaccessible,  so 
thai  the  method  of  58  could  not  be  applied. 
We  now  take,  therefore,  such  a  case  and  show 
its  development  without  radii  from  the  apex. 

Conic  Frustum  with  Distant  Apejc. 
To  obtain  the  pattern  for  such  a  frustum,  first 
proceed  as  in  61.  On  abase  line  draw  semicircles 
A 1 5.  CD,  equal  in  radius  respectively  to  that  of 
the  base  AB  and  truncated  top  of  the  cone  ah.  tin- 
latter  l>cing  perpendicular  from  the  top  as  shown. 
If  angles  of  plant  only  are  given,  draw  lines  Art, 
B6,  and  draw  the  semi -diameters  thence.  Divide 
4740 


these  semi -diameters  into  any  convenient  num- 
ber of  equal  parts,  1, 2, 3, 4, 5,  B,  1',  2',  3',  4',  5',  D, 
taking  care  that  the  number  of  divisions  shall 
give  a  central  division,  as  3'3'.  Connect  these 
pomts  of  division  by  lines  1  1',  2  2',  3  3',  4  4', 
5,  5'.  These  will  represent  the  lengths  of  lines 
of  development  in  plan,  but  they  are  obviously 
not  the  actual  lengths  required  for  setting  out 
the  pattern.  The  lengths  of  the  sloping  edges 
Aa  and  B6  are  those  taken  directly  on  the 
elevation.  But  as  the  actual  lengths  of  the 
lines  1  1',  2  2',  3  3',  4  4',  5  5'  are  not  the  same  as 
those  drawn  in  plan,  they  must  be  obtained  by 
projection  to  the  elevation,  thus  : 

As  the  point  D  is  dropped  perpendicularly 
from  b,  the  length  DB  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  slant  length  B&  that  the  lengths  of  the  lines 
1  1',  2  2',  etc.,  do  to  thsir  real  lengths.  Thus, 
starting  from  D  as  a  point  to  mark  from  [62], 
take  the  length  1  1'  from  the  plan  [61]  and  set  it 
off  from  D  to  c  [62].  Then  cb  will  be  the  real  length 
of  1  1'.  Next  take  2  2'  from  the  plan  and  set  it 
off  from  D  to  d,  and  db  will  be  the  real  length 
of  2  2',  and  so  on,  to  get  the  positions  e,  f,  y. 

To  obtain  the  true  diagonal  lengths  required 
for  triangulation  [61].  From  1'  draw  IT' 
perpendicular  to  Al',  and  measure  off  I'l" 
equal  in  length  to  the  height  S  of  the  frustum. 
Then  the  length  Al"  will  be  the  true  length  of 
the  line  Al'.  Also,  having  connected  2,  3,  4,  5 
to  2',  3',  4',  5',  from  2',  3',  4',  5',  D,  draw  lines 
2'2",  3'3",  4'4",  5'5",  DD"  perpendicular  to 
1  2',  2  3',  3  4',  4  5',  and  5  D,  respectively,  and  all 
equal  in  length  to  the  height  S.  Joining 
1  2",  2  3",  3  4",  4  5",  5  D"  will  give  the  true 
diagonal  lengths  required  for  triangulation. 

Envelope  of  Frustum.  We  have  now, 
therefore,  the  true  lengths  [62]  of  the  lines  of 
division  taken  on  the  planes  of  the  semicircles 
for  base  and  crown.  Also  the  real  lengths  of 
the  diagonals  in  61  required  for  setting  out  the 
development  by  triangulation. 

To  describe  the  envelope  [63],  draw  the  line 
Aa,  equal  in  length  to  the  line  Aa  in  61,  and  use 
A  and  a  as  centres,  as  follows.  (But  as  it  is  very 
confusing  to  bear  all  these  letterings  in  mind, 
capital  letters  are  introduced  in  addition,  to 
represent  the  lines  themselves,  so  that  by  com- 
paring those  in  61  and  62  with  63  the  correspond- 
ing relations  are  seen  at  a  glance.) 

From  A  as  a  centre  [63]  with  the  radius  Al" 
[61]  (length  E),  strike  an  arc.  From  a  as  centre 
and  with  radius  Cl'  [61]  (length  Q)  strike  an 
arc  cutting  this  at  1'  [63].  Then  from  A  as  centre 
and  radius  Al  [61]  (length  P)  strike  an  arc; 
and  from  1'  as  centre,  and  radius  cb  [62]  (length 
K)  strike  an  arc  cutting  this  at  1  [63]  ;  1  and  1' 
[63]  are  now  new  loci  or  points  of  intersection 
whence  2  and  2'  are  obtained  from  the  next  pair 
of  elements  in  61  thus:  From  1'  [63]  as  a  centre, 
and  radius  1 '  2'  (length  Q )  [61]  strike  an  arc.  From 

1  [  63],  with  radius  1  2"  (length  F)  [61],  strike  an 
arc  intersecting  this  at  2'  [63].     Then  from  2'  [63] 
with  radius  d&  [82]  (length  L)  strike  an  arc  [63], 
and  from  1  with  radius  1  2"  (length  F)  [61], 
strike  an  arc  intersecting  this  at  2  [63].     Then 

2  and  2'  are  points  of  intersection  from  which 
with  respective  radii   2  3"  and  2'   3'  [61]   the 


next  points  of  intersection,  3  3'  [63],  are  found. 
From  3'  and  3  as  centres,  and  respective  radii 
eb  [62]  (length  M),  and  3  4"  4'  [61]  (length  H) 
describe  arcs  intersecting  at  4  4,  and  so  on  until 
the  figure  required  is  completed,  the  pattern 
being  symmetrical  about  the  centre  Aa. 

Oblique  Cone  with  One 
Side  Vertical.  A  variation  in 
the  oblique  cone  occurs  when  one 
side  is  perpendicular,  BD  in  64. 
Draw  a  semicircle  on  the  base 
AB,  and  divide  it  round  equally 
as  convenient,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  A.  From 
B  as  centre  strike  radii  from  these 
points  of  division  to  cut  AB  at  1', 
2',  3',  4',  5'.  Prolong  these  lines  to 
the  apex  o  of  the  completed  cone, 
cutting  the  plane  of  truncation  CD 
at  a,  b,  c,  d,  e.  The  developed 
pattern  is  shown  to  the  left  in  64, 
obtained  as  follows : 

From  o  as  a  centre,  draw  arcs 
starting  from  A,  5',  4',  3',  2',  1',  B, 
and  another  series  of  arcs  from  C, 
e,  d,  c,  b,  a,  D.  Set  the  compass  to 
one  of  the  equal  divisions  1,  2,  3,  on  First  set  out  the  lengths  D,  D', 

the  semicircle,  and  from  A'  as   a   64'    OBLIQui    CONE  WITH  j  to  th    circumference  of  the 

....  »  rWTT?      OTTnTt      t7"CTT»rivm  4  T 

centre  step  off  these  divisions  from 
one  arc  to  that  adjacent  in 
the  manner  shown,  5,  4,  3 
etc.,  and  the  edge  of  the 
envelope  corresponding  with 
the  base  is  then  drawn  through 
these  points  of  intersection. 
Prolong  lines  from  all  these 
points  of  intersection  to  the 
centre  o.  For  the  edge  of  the 
truncated  face,  the  points  of 
intersection  of  the  radial  lines 
just  drawn,  with  the  successive 
circles  e,  d,  c,  b,  a,  will  give 
the  required  development,  the 
edges  BA'BDC'D  completing 
the  outlines 

Different  Planes  ot 
Truncation.  Conic  frusta 
are  often  cut  both  along  the 


DRAWING 

Now,  from  the  apex  o  as  a  centre,  draw  arcs 
from  these  lines  of  intersection  on  both  planes, 
starting  from  all  the  points  of  intersection,  and 
the  bounding  lines,  as  B,  1',  2',  3',  etc.,  C,  a,  b,  c, 
etc.     Draw  a  centre  line  oA,  anywhere  [left  hand 
of  65],  and  to  right  and  left  of  this  step  off 
distances  A,  5,  4,  3,  etc.,  equal  to 
the  divisions  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  on  the 
semicircle  EF.      Draw  radial  lines 
thence  to  o.   Through  the  successive 
points  of  intersection  of  the  radial 
lines    and  curved   lines    draw   the 
curves  of  the  envelope  at  the  large 
and  small  ends,  as  shown  on  left. 

Conical  Fire=boxes.  Some 
problems  in  constant  use  differ  from 
the  foregoing  in  the  fact  that  the 
amount  of  slant  or  taper  is  very- 
slight,  amounting  to  3  in.  or  4  in. 
difference  in  diameter  at  top  and 
bottom.  Neither  trammels  nor 
triangulation  are  adaptable  in  these 
cases.  Two  rules  in  regular  use  are 
here  given  for  the  plates  of  conical 
fire-boxes.  One  is  shown  in  66. 


ONE   SIDE  VERTICAL 


65.  ENVELOPE  FOR  VARYING  PLANES 
OF  TRUNCATION 

!» D' 


base  and  along  the  plane  of        I 
truncation  in  planes  that  are 
neither  horizontal  nor  paral-      a\ 
lei.     To  draw  the  envelope  of 
an    oblique    conic     frustum       56 
ABCD  [65],  to  join  two  ver- 
tical   cylinders,    proceed    as 
shown,  the  cylindrical  portions  being 
indicated  by  dotted  outlines. 

In  the  lower  portion  draw  a 
semicircle,  EF,  to  represent  half  the 
lower  cylinder  in  plan,  and  divide 
it  round  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts,  1,  2,  3, 4, 5  andF.  Project  lines 
up  from  these  to  cut  the  base  of  the 


DEVELOPMENT    FOR    A    CONICAL 
FIRE-BOX 


67.    ANOTHER   METHOD 
OF    66 


cone  at  the  line  of  its  joint  with  the  cylinder 
1'2'3'4'5'.  Prolong  lines  from  these  points  to 
the  apex,  o,  of  the  cone  completed,  intersecting 
the  plane  of  truncation  CD,  or  that  where  the 
upper  cylinder  is  to  be  united,  at  a,  b,  c,  d,  e. 


plate  required  to  complete  the 
fire-box,  on  the  lines  ab,  dc, 
the  distance  H,  by  which 
these  lines  are  separated, 
being  equal  to  the  height  of 
the  fire-box.  To  obtain  the 
top  and  bottom  curves,  first 
draw  two  lines  starting  from 
the  edges  a,  6,  and  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  edges  ad,  be,  meeting 
on  the  centre  line  at  e.  A 
point  /,  taken  nearly  midway 
between  e  and  g  will  be  a 
point  in  the  curvature  re- 
quired for  the  bottom  edge. 
It  is  often  taken  midway,  but 
is  more  accurate  if  /  be 
brought  nearer  to  g  than  e, 
in  the  proportion  of  4  to  5. 
The  curve  is  drawn  by  bend- 
ing a  strip  through  the  points 
a,  /,  b,  and  the  top  curve  is 
afterwards  drawn  parallel 
with  the  first.  Width  of 
seam  for  riveting  is  added 
to  ad  and  be. 

Fig.  67  shows  another 
method.  From  a  centre  A,  with  a 
radius  less  than  one-fourth  the 
length  of  the  shorter  edge  of  the 
plate,  strike  a  quadrant  BC.  From 
B,  with  the  same  radius  cut  BC 
in  D.  Draw  a  line  BE  through 
BD.  From  D,  and  still  with  the 
same  radius,  cut  BE  in  F.  A 
line  drawn  from  A,  through  F,  cutting  the 
centre  line  at  a,  will  give  the  middle  point  in  the 
curve  required.  The  other  edge  will  be  cut 
parallel  with  the  first  as  in  the  alternative 
method  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 


Continued 


4741 


Group  11 

CIVIL 
ENGINEERING 

33 


page  4o.-,<> 


BACTERIAL  TREATMENT  OF  SEWAGE 

Various  Bacterial  Systems  and  What  They  Have 
Taught.     The  Contact  System  and  Contact  Beds 


By  Professor  HENRY  ROBINSON 


._  bacteria  which  effect  the  purification  of 
sewage  are  divided  into  two  classes,  (1)  the 
aerobe,  which  requires  air  ;  (2)  the  anaerobe, 
which  acts  without  air  or  light.  The  latter 
liquefies  the  organic  solid  matter  in  sewage 
as  is  seen  in  the  ordinary  cesspool,  where  only 
inorganic  solid  deposits  will  be  found  when  it 
is  cleaned  out.  The  writer  had  an  experience 
of  this  when  he  had  to  dispose  of  the  sewage 
of  a  town  on  too  small  an  area  of  land  for 
irrigation  to  be  possible.  He  wished  to  avoid 
the  expense  of  chemical  precipitation,  and 
adopted  an  upward  filtration  system,  by  which 
the  solids  were  arrested  before  the 
sewage  passed  on  to  the  land.  The 
diagram  [38]  shows  the  filter  as 
actually  carried  out. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  tanks 
had  false  bottoms,  covered  with 
a  bed  of  coarse  stones.  The 
sewage  from  the  outfall  passed 
slowly  upwards  through  the 
filter,  leaving  the  larger  sus- 
pended solids  in  the  false  bottom, 
where  they  became  liquefied  by 
what  is  called  septic  action,  as  in 
a  cesspool.  The  liquid  sludge  was 
pumped  at  intervals  out  of  the 
bottom  of  the  tanks,  carted  away, 
and  disposed  of  on  adjoining  land  with  excellent 
agricultural  results. 

In  designing  a  sedimentation  tank,  through 
which  the  crude  sewage  is  to  pass  to  deposit 
inorganic  (and  some  organic)  solids  before  the 
liquid  is  applied  to  bacteria  beds,  the  capacity 
of  the  tank  must  be  such  as  to  insure  no  exces- 
sive velocity  whereby  the  solids  would  be  carried 
through  it. 

Bacterial  Systems.  The  organic  solid 
matters  in  suspension,  or  pseudo-solution,  which 
flow  from  the  sedimentation  tank  (after  passing 
a  screen  to  arrest  large  solid  matters)  to  the 
bacterial  beds  are  those  which  have  to  be  acted 
upon  by  either  aerobic  or  anaerobic  germs,  and 
the  systems  which  have  been  adopted  to  perfect 
tli  ir  action  and  to  convert  foul  fluid  into  a 
good  effluent  will  be  described. 

In  1895,  Mr.  Cameron,  of  Exeter,  brought  into 
prominence  the  results  which  he  had  obtained 
there  by  passing  crude  sewage  through  a  septic 
tank,  by  which  the  solid  organic  matters  were 
liquefied  as  already  described.  This  form  of 
tank  was  closed,  but  experience  has  shown 
that  an  open  tank  will  enable  the  liquefying 
organisms  to  act.  The  point  of  admission  of 
the  sewage  into  the  tank  should  be  below  the 
top  of  the  fluid  in  the  chamber,  and  the 
474-2 


resultant  septicised  liquid  should  be  drawn  off 
at  a  point  below  the  top  level.  A  scum  forms 
on  the  surface,  which  it  is  useful  to  preserve, 
and  the  writer,  in  employing  tanks  of  this 
kind,  has  adopted  a  simple  covering  to 
protect  the  scum  from  the  action  of  the  wind 
and  rain. 

Birmingham  Experience,  An  in- 
teresting paper  was  read  in  1906  by  Mr.  Watson, 
of  Birmingham,  before  the  Incorporated  Asso- 
ciation of  Municipal  and  County  Engineers, 
in  which  he  gives  the  liquefying  action  of 
septic  tanks  on  the  solids  of  the  sewage  of 


SEWAGE   SCREENING    TANKS 


.     UPWARD    FILTRATION     SYSTEM 


Birmingham.    The  composition  of  the  sewage  was 
as  follows  : 


Dis- 
solved 
Solids. 

Suspended 
Solids. 

Saline 
Am- 
monia. 

Albu- 
minoid 
Ain- 
mouia. 

Chlo- 
rine. 

Nitrates  and 
Nitrites  as 

Kitrotren. 

Oxygen  Ab- 
sorbed. 

Total.  Organic. 

UD-        Fil- 
filtered.    tered. 

119-3 

74'3      44-9 

4-05 

1-57 

20-2 

0-92 

27-56  1;V79 

He  found  that  the  sludge  from  the  septic 
tanks  was  practically  inodorous,  but  on  being 
pumped  on  to  the  land  it  had  to  be  mixed  with 
earth  in  a  ratio  of  one-fourth  of  the  residuum  to 
black  earth  before  a  satisfactory  crop  could  be 
grown.  It  was  also  found  that  if  the  roughing 
tanks,  which  are  provided  to  get  rid  of  the 
detritus,  were  of  such  capacity  as  to  sediment 
too  much  of  the  solids,  the  septic  action  in  the 
tanks  following  them  suffered,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  pump  a  volume  equal  to  30  per  cent, 
of  the  liquid  sludge  from  the  roughing  tanks 
into  the  septic  tanks  c'aily  to  restore  their 
fermentative  quality.  With  the  Birmingham 
sewage  it  was  found  that  only  about  10  per  cent, 
of  the  sludge — which  is  considerably  below  the 
results  at  Manchester  and  other  places — was 
liquefied  in  the  septic  tanks.  It  must,  however, 


be  borne  in  mind  that  these  places  have  a 
considerable  quantity  of  trade  waste  to  deal  with, 
and  it  has  been  proved  that  with  purely 
domestic  sewage  this  percentage  would  be  con- 
vsiderably  augmented.  The  chief  point,  however, 
that  rsquires  attention  appears  to  be  the 
condition  of  effluent  coming  away  from  the 
septic  tanks.  In  order  to  get  the  maximum 
liquefaction  of  the  solids  it  becomes  necessary 
to  have  a  very  foul  effluent  coming  away  from 
the  tanks,  owing  to  the  flow  through  the  tanks 
being  slow,  thus  tending  to  make  the  treatment 
of  the  same  a  danger  as  far  as  nuisance  is  con- 
cerned. The  resultant  sludge,  however,  as  has 
been  shown,  is  not  offensive.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  highly  septicised  sewage  be  not  obtained, 
the  sludge  is  more  offensive,  and  greater  care  must 
be  taken  in  dealing  with  it. 

Contact  System.  In  a  paper  before  the 
same  association,  Mr.  Dibdin  dealt  with  the  puri- 
fication of  sewage  on  biological  lines  by  means  of 
"contact  "  beds  (referred  to  hereafter)  filled  with 
slate  debris,  supported  on  suitable  slate  blocks,  the 
distance  between  the  slates  being  about  2  in.  He 
claims  that  a  bed  filled  on  this  principle  doubled 
its  holding  capacity,  while  the  accumulations  of 
mineral  matter,  which  clog  bacteria  beds  of 
clinker,  stones,  etc.,  can  be  flushed  from  the 
surfaces  of  the  slates,  and  the  bed  restored  to 
its  original  capacity.  At  Devizes,  where  some 
experiments  were  carried  out,  the  capacity  was 
found  to  be  87  per  cent,  of  the  total  holding 
capacity  of  the  beds.  After  14  months  this  was 
reduced  to  50  per  cent.,  which,  after  being  hose- 
flushed,  was  again  increased  to  82  per  cent.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  beds  filled  on  this  principle 
have  a  very  much  greater  holding  capacity  than 
with  contact  beds  filled  with  ordinary  clinker. 
It  does  not,  however,  appear  practicable  on  a 
large  scale,  as  the  flushing  of  the  beds  would  be 
almost  impossible. 

In  covering  a  septic  tank  care  must  be  taken 
to  ensure  ventilation,  as  the  bacterial  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  sewage  from  anaerobic 
action  liberate  marsh  gas,  which  is  liable  to 
explode,  as  has  been  the  case  in  several  instances. 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

Australian  Experiment.  The  Aus- 
tralian Government  had  some  valuable  experi- 
ments carried  out  with  the  sewage  of  Perth, 
Fremantle,  and.  the  various  suburbs  under 
their  chief  engineer,  Mr.  Palmer.  The  results 
were  communicated  by  him  to  the  Public 
Health  Engineer  in  1905.  The  sewage  was  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Mann,  the  Government  analyst, 
as  being  of  a  far  higher  strength  than  would 
usually  be  found  in  a  town  sewage,  while  the 
percentage  of  purification  was  higher  than  he 
had  seen  recorded.  The  preceding  table  shows 
the  construction  of  the  seven  filter  beds  that 
were  used  for  the  experiments. 

On  the  day  when  the  samples  were  taken  for 
analysis  the  volume  of  sewage  that  was  being 
delivered  to  the  beds  was  noted  as  follows  : 


I. 

v. 

II. 

in. 

VI. 
IV. 
VII. 


Gallons  passed  through  the 
niter  on  May  USth,  1'JOi 


110 
120 
120 
120 

90 
120 

50 


Bed  No.  1  was  used  from  7  a.m.  to  8.30  a.m.,  and 
again  from  3  p.m.  to  4  p.m.  Two  samples  of  bed  No.  1 
were  therefore  taken. 

Beds  Nos.  5  and  6  are  kept  as  reserve  beds  and  are 
used  when  one  of  the  regular  beds  fills  before  its  proper 
time. 

Bed  No.  5  was  used  between  8.30  a.m.  and  9  a.m.  and, 
not  being  full,  was  again  used  between  10  a.m.  and  ll.:J() 
a.m.  before  being  let  off  and  the  first  sample  of  filtrate 
taken. 

Bed  No.  5  was  used  again  from  4.10  p.m.  to  5  p.m.  and, 
after  standing  full,  a  second  sample  was  taken  from  this 
bed. 

Bed  No.  6  was  used  between  12.30  p.m.  and  1  p.m.  and, 
not  being  full,  was  used  again  between  2.30  p.m.  and  3  p.m. 
before  being  let  off  and  a  sample  of  filtrate  taken. 


GOVERNMENT    HOUSE    EXPERIMENTAL    BACTERIAL    INSTALLATION. 
Areas  and   depths  of  filter  material   in  filter  beds,  and  amounts 
of    tank    effluent    passed    through  beds  in  connection  with  samples 
taken  for  the  purpose  of  analysis  on  May  28th,  1902. 

No.  of  Filter 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

Area  in  sq.  ft. 

18* 

18| 

18) 

18* 

18} 

184 

42J 

Depth  and^j 
class  of  filter  | 
material    be-  > 
ginning       at 
bottom           ) 

ft.  in. 
0  3a 
0  3b 

2  6c 

ft.  in. 
0  3d 
0  3e 
2  6f 

ft.  in. 
0  3a 
0  3b 
2  6c 

ft.  in. 
0  3d 
0  3e 
2  6f 

ft.  in. 
0  3a 
0  3b 
2  6c 

ft.  in. 
0     3d 
0     3e 
0     6f 
1  lOc 
0     2f 

ft.  in. 
0  3d 
0  3e 
1  Oc 
1  6g 

3  0 

Total  depths 

3  0 

3  0 

3  0 

3  0 

3  0 

3     0 

Material  a  is  clinker  passed  by  £  in.  mesh  and  held  by  -A.  in.  mesh. 

,,        c  ,,         ..         ,,        ,, 
,,        d  ,,  bluestono  ., 
»         e 

i»n.      „        „        „     ,,fVn 
1  in.     .,        „        „     ,.  ^in 
5   jn                                        *  in 

" 

f.. 
g  ,,  fine  yellow  sane 

1  C>                                                       '8 

1  in.      „        M        -      ..  TV  >n 
free  from  all  foreign  matter. 

There  are,  therefore,  two  samples  of  bed 
No.  1,  and  also  of  bed  No.  5,  and  one  sample 
each  of  beds  Nos.  2,  3,  4,  6,  and  7.  [See  table 
on  next  page.] 

The  result  of  much  observation  at  different 
outfalls  where  tanks  have  been  employed  to 
work  on  the  septic  principle  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  their  capacity 
should  be  sufficient  to  hold  from  one  to 
one  and  a  half  days'  dry  weather  flow. 
Hydrolitic  Tank.  At  Hamp- 
ton -  on  -  Thames  what  is  called  a 
hydrolitic  tank  forms  a  useful  part  of 
the  system  that  has  been  adopted  for 
the  bacterial  treatment  of  sewage, 
the  Shrne  Ejector  being  used  to 
collect  and  deliver  the  sewage  at  the 
outfall. 

The  sewage,  after  leaving  detritus 
tanks,  enters  the  centre  of  a  trans- 
verse channel,  which  conveys  it  into 
the  sedimentary  chambers  of  tho 
hydrolitic  tank,  which  consists  of  two 
parts.  The  first  portion  is  divided 
into  three  compartments  by  means 
of  light  division  walls  formed  of 
flagstones.  Of  these  compartments 
the  two  outer  are  the  sedimentary 

4743 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 


SI  MMARY   OF   AVEilAGES. 

Intimate  results  fin-  *hon<n  in  henry  figures. 

. 

KflUirnK 

Filtrates. 

i-iiVi.-t.i'.i. 

Effluent 
on 
sewage. 

Filtrate 
cfHiii'iit. 

Filtrate 

iewBg«. 

Oxygen  consumed 
3  Minutes  
4  Hours 

12-02 
23-71 

I'M 

4-48 

•19 
•39 

88-8 
81-1 

85-8 
91-3 

98-4 
98-3 

Solid  matter  in  : 
Suspension 
Solution     .. 
Total      

264-88 
62-30 
327-18 

9-26 

4.",  '95 
53-21 

1-87 
40-76 
42-63 

96-5 
29-4 

83-7 

79-8 
7-2 
19-8 

99-3 

34-5 
87-0 

Ammonia  : 
Free       
Albuminoid 

12-25 
10-50 

3-81 

•989 

1-18 
•158 

68-9 
90-5 

69-0 
83-8 

90-3 
98-4 

chambers  and  the  central  the  liquefying  chamber. 
Along  the  bottom  of  the  sedimentary  chambers 
are  narrow  openings  which  lead  into  the  lique- 
fying chamber,  and  form  the  only  means  of  liquid 
communication  between 
these  chambers. 

False  Floor  for 
Ba  cteria  Beds. 
Messrs.  Stiff  make  a  false 
floor  for  bacteria  beds 
with  channels  to  carry  off 
quickly  the  fluid  that  has 
passed  through  the  bed 
to  the  bottom  of  it. 
Fig.  39  shows  one  of 
these  in  course  of  con- 
struction. It  will  be  seen 
that  the  material  com- 
posing the  bed  rests  on 
the  top  of  a  perforated 
surface  which  lets  the 
fluid  pass  rapidly  through 
the  false  floor  and  away, 
carrying  any  suspended 
matters  with  it,  and 
leaving  the  empty  spaces 
to  assist  aeration.  Before 
sewage  is  delivered  on  to  any  kind  of  bacteria  bed 
it  is  essential  that  as  much  solid  matter  as  possible 
should  be  arrested  by  sedimentation  to  prevent 
the  beds  clogging  and  the  interstices  being 
choked  with  matter  which  cannot  possibly  be 
acted  upon  by  bacteria.  Much  of  the  data  as  to 
the  purification  or  disposal  of  sewage  by  filtra- 
tion shows  that  the  failure,  or  inefficiency,  of  the 
beds  to  continue  their  successful  working  for  long 
periods  has  been  due  entirely  to  non-compliance 
with  this  essential  condition. 

Contact  Beds.  Another  system  which 
depends  on  the  action  of  bacteria  for  the  treat- 
ment of  sewage  is  that  called  the  contact  bed,  with 
which  the  name  of  Mr.  Dibdin  will  always  be 
associated.  The  principle  on  which  they  are 
worked  is  to  pass  sewage  into  a  chamber  con- 
taining suitable  filtering  material  until  it  is 
filled,  then  leaving  the  sewage  at  rest  for  a  time 
in  the  filled  chamber,  after  which  the  filtrate  is 
run  off,  and  the  empty  tank  is  left  at  rest  for  a 
time,  during  which  the  aeration  of  the  interstices 

is  elfeeted. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Manchester  Corpora- 
tion   Rivers   Department    for   the   year   ending 
17  U 


March  29th,  1905,  contains  a 
great  deal  of  information  re- 
garding the  results  of  both  the 
experimental  and  permanent 
works  which  have  been  carried 
out  to  deal  with  the  sewage  of 
Manchester  and  adjacent  places. 
The  following  useful  informa- 
tion is  given  vuth  reference  to 
the  treatment  of  the  sewage  in 
open  septic  tanks  and  bacteria 
beds. 

The    total    flow  _  through   the 
septic    tanks     during   the    year 
amounted        to       6,189,995,000 
gallons,      or      an     average     of 
about  17,000,000  gallons  per  day. 

The  total  amount  of  sludge  removed  from 
the  septic  tanks — namely,  72,310  tons — is 
equal  to  11  tons  14  cwt.  per  million  gallons. 
The  corresponding  figure 
for  the  previous  year  was 
6  tons,  the  average  for 
the  two  years  thus  being 
8  tons  27  cwt.  of  sludge 
per  million  gallons,  as 
compared  .with  18  tons 
2  cwt,  the  average 
amount  of  sludge  per 
million  gallons  obtained 
by  chemical  treatment 
from  1899  to  1901.  Or, 
taking  the  total  pro- 
duction of  sludge,  in- 
cluding that  deposited  in 
the  settlement  tanks,  the 
average  for  the  last  two 
years  is  2,860  tons  per 
week,  as  against  3,902 
for  the  years  1899  to 
1901. 

At  the  date  of  the 
report  42|  acres  of  beds 
were  in  operation,  so  that  with  the  completion 
of  the  remaining  seven  beds  the  whole  area  of 
primary  beds  will  be  available.  The  quantities 
dealt  with  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  following 
sliding  scale  of  capacities. 


FOR    BACTERIA    BED 


Number  of  fillings. 

Capacity  of  bed. 

0  to      200 

180,000 

200  to     ."><>(  ) 

160,000 

500  to     750 

150,000 

7:>l)  to  1,000 
1,000  to  1:200 

140,000 
130,000 

1,200  to  1,500 

110,000 

1,500  + 

100,000 

Aeration  of  Contact  Beds.  After 
careful  observation  at  the  Manchester  sewage 
outfall  Dr.  Fowler,  who  had  charge  of  the 
works,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  period 
of  resting  the  contact  bed  when  empty  is 
more  important  than  the  time  when  the  lied 
is  left  at  rest  full,  and  that  generally  it  is  not 
desirable  for  the  latter  time  to  exceed  one  hour. 
'.I'll is  is  a  useful  experience  to  record.  The 
aeration  of  the  contact  beds,  when  empty,  is 


due  to  the  organisms  contained  in  them  absorb- 
ing oxygen  and  producing  car'oon  dioxide.  The 
natural  interchange  of  gases  which  takes  place 
causes  the  aeration  of  the  beds.  It  is  generally 
found  that  the  interstices  between  the  material 
composing  the  beds  is  about  one-third  of  the 
total  capacity  of  the  bed,  so  that  if  the  basis 
of  three  fillings  a  day  is  adopted  the  volume  that 
the  beds  are  capable  of  dealing  with  would  be 
represented  by  the  actual 
capacity  of  the  beds. 

The  depth  of  the  beds  is 
governed  to  a  great  extent 
by  the  levels  at  which  the 
sewage  is  delivered  and  dis- 
charged, dependent  on  local 
conditions.  Shallow  beds 
drain  more  rapidly  and  are, 
therefore,  to  be  preferred. 
If  the  available  area  of  the 
outfall  plot  is  limited,  deep 
beds  would  have  to  be 
used,  whereas  shallow  ones  could  be  employed 
on  larger  areas. 

A  Second  Contact  Bed.  By  using  a 
second  contact  bed  a  higher  degree  of  purity 
can  be  attained  than  with  only  -one.  The 
second  one  can  be  worked  at  twice  the  rate 
of  the  first,  thus  involving  only  one  secondary 
bed  for  two  primary  ones.  The  filtering 
mediums  used  in  every  kind  of  sewage  filter 
must  be  free  from  any  fine  matter  which  can 
tend  to  fill  up  the  interstices.  It  should  also 
be  incapable  of  disintegration  by  exposure  to 
the  passage  of  the  sewage  through  the  filter. 
The  material  to  be  employed  depends,  to  a 
large  extent,  on  the  locality,  and  may  be  hard 
coke  breeze,  coal,  broken  hard  bricks,  sifted 
and  selected  debris  from  stone  or  slate  quarries, 
slag  and  clinker.  As  has  been  explained,  it  is 
necessary  when  adopting  this  system  of  sewage 
purification  'that  the  liquid  must  remain  in 
contact  with  the  filtering  medium  before  being 
run  off.  In  order  that 
this  may  be  accomplished 
automatically,  various  de- 
vices have  been  designed, 
among  which  may  be 
mentioned  that  of  Adams- 
Hydraulics,  Limited  [40 
and  41]. 

The  illustrations  show 
the  air-lock  feed  and 
automatic  methods  of  dis- 
charging a  bed  after  it  has 
been  standing  full  for  a 
time.  Fig.  40  shows  the  method  of  filling  ;  the 
sewage  enters  the  bed,  through  a  syphonic  feed, 
A,  and  is  conveyed  by  means  of  a  distributing 


40.    FILLING   A    CONTACT    BED 


41.     EMPTYING     A    CONTACT    BED 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING 

trough.  C,  to  the  bed.  The  liquid  is  admitted 
to  M  through  a  small  syphon  (not  shown).  As  it 
rises,  it  compresses  the  air  in  the  domes  K  and  N  ; 
the  compressed  air  in  K  forms  an  air  lock  in 
A,  which  automatically  shuts  off  the  supply, 
while  the  compressed  air  in  N  is  connected  to 
the  feed  of  another  bed,  in  order  to  break  the 
air  lock  in  that  feed  and  allow  filling  to  begin. 
The  method  of  emptying  a  bed  is  shown  in  41. 
The  liquid  in  the  bed  has 
access  through  perforations 
to  a  chamber  in  which  is  a 
syphon,  Z,  and  a  bent  pipe 
fitted  with  a  cock,  Y.  This 
cock  is  adjusted  to  admit 
into  the  chamber  X  enough 
liquid  to  fill  it  in  any  re- 
quired time  ;  the  syphon 
then  comes  into  operation 
and  empties  the  bed. 

Percolation  Beds.  As 
the  function  of  anaerobic 
bacteria  are  known  to  be  best  discharged 
without  air,  and  those  of  aerobic  bacteria  depend 
on  plenty  of  air,  it  is  difficult  to  appreciate 
how  a  contact  bed  can  be  right,  as  the 
emptying,  filling,  and  resting  process  appears 
incompatible  with  either  requirement.  The 
aim  should  be  to  let  the  sewage  percolate, 
or  trickle,  over  the  largest  surface  in  the 
presence  of  the  maximum  amount  of  air,  by 
which  the  best  oxidisation  must  be  effected. 
The  material  used  for  filling  these  beds  must 
comply  with  the  conditions  laid  down  as  regards 
absence  of  substances  that  may  choke  or 
clog  the  bed. 

As  already  stated  the  sewage,  before  passing 
to  a  percolating  bed  must  have  passed  through 
some  form  of  sedimentation  chamber  in  which 
the  solid  inorganic  matters  will  have  been 
deposited,  and  a  certain  amount  of  liquefaction 
of  organic  solids  will  have  taken  place,  depend- 
ing upon  the  size  of  the  chamber  and  the  rate 
of  flow  through  it. 

The  satisfactory  results 
that  have  been  obtained 
at  a  great  many  places  by 
passing  sewage  over  the 
surfaces  of  the  material 
composing  a  percolating 
bed  have  established  this 
system  as  one  that  affords 
a  solution,  although  not 
necessarily  the  only  one,  of 
the  problem  of  the  dis- 
posal of  sewage  at  out- 
falls, where  irrigation  is  not  possible,  and 
where  the  cost  of  chemical  precipitation  is  to 
be  avoided. 


Continued 


4745 


Group  14 

METALS 


tiini«-<l  fr.,m 
page  4»>:tS 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL 

Constitution  of  Steel.     Tempering  and  Temper.     Alloys  of 
Steel.     Various  Methods  of  Producing  Steel.     Armour  Plate 


By  A.    H.    HIORNS 


CTEEL  is  an  alloy  of  iron  and  carbon,  and  its 
peculiar  characteristics  have  been  known 
from  very  early  times.  Yet  the  phenomena  of 
hardening,  tempering,  and  annealing  have  been 
clearly  indicated  only  in  the  last  decade,  owing 
chiefly  to  the  revelations  of  the  microscope  and 
the  pyrometer,  combined  with  chemical  analysis. 

In  the  solid  state  the  maximum  amount  of 
carbon  that  pure  iron  can  retain  is  4-23  per  cent. 
The  presence  of  foreign  bodies  raises  or  lowers 
this  quantity  according  to  their  nature  and 
amount.  Three  chief  forms  of  carbon  in  iron  are 
generally  recognised — namely,  graphite  carbon, 
cement  carbon,  and  hardening  carbon.  Graphite 
is  comparatively  rare  in  steels.  Cement  carbon 
is  really  carbide  of  iron.  It  exists  in  unhardened 
or  annealed  steels,  and  has  the  chemical  formula 
Fe/X  Hardening  carbon  is  found  in  hardened 
steels,  and  the  hardness,  brittleness,  and  tenacity 
of  the  steels  increase  with  the  increase  of  harden- 
ing carbon  up  to  the  limit  of  about  T3  per  cent, 
of  carbon  as  regards  tenacity,  and  probably  to 
4*3  as  regards  hardness.  In  tempered  steel  some 
of  the  hardening  carbon  has  been  released,  form- 
ing cement  carbon,  hence  the  diminution  of 
hardness  and  brittlensss. 

Hardening  of  Steel.  When  steels  con- 
taining over  0-25  per  cent,  of  carbon  are  sud- 
denly quenched  from  a  red  heat  they  become 
hardened.  The  degree  of  hardness  increases 
with  the  percentage  of  carbon,  with 
the  rise  of  temperature,  and  with 
the  rapidity  of  cooling.  The  real 
cause  of  hardening  is  unknown,  but 
according  to  the  theory  of  Osmond, 
which  is  largely  accepted,  it  is  due 
to  a  hard  allotropic  modification  of 
iron  which  exists  at  certain  ranges 
of  temperature,  depending  on  the 
amount  of  carbon  present.  Whether 
the  hardness  be  due  to  this  cause 
or  not  is  a  matter  of  pure  theory, 
but  it  is  a  fact  that  in  mild  steel 
and  malleable  iron  there  are  three 
well-marked  critical  points.  They  are  distin- 
guished as  described  in  this  table : 


in  steels  corresponding  to  the  change  from 
hardening  to  cement  carbon  in  cooling  the  steel. 
Ar.  2  is  identical  with  the  disappearance  of  mag- 
netism. Osmond  recognises  the  existence  of 
three  allotropic  forms  of  iron.  Above  Ar.  3  the 
iron  is  in  the  gamma  form.  Between  Ar.  2  and 
Ar.  3  the  iron  is  in  the  beta  form,  and  below  Ar.  2 
the  iron  is  in  the  alpha  form.  According  to  this 
theory,  beta  and  gamma  iron  are  hard  and  alpha 
iron  is  soft.  Hence,  by  suddenly  quenching 
steel  from  above  the  point  Ar.  2,  the  change  is 
prevented  and  the  steel  remains  hard. 

By  the  carbon  theory,  hardening  is  due  to  the 
condition  of  the  carbon  above  certain  critical 
temperatures  termed  hardening  carbon,  which 
is  retained  in  that  state  by  sudden  cooling  and 
decomposed  on  slow  cooling.  It  is  probable 
that  the  phenomenon  of  hardening  is  due  to  both 
the  allotropic  form  of  iron  and  the  hardening 
carbon. 

Tempering.  On  cautiously  reheating 
hardened  steel  to  a  certain  point,  the  tension 
is  released,  some  carbide  is  set  free,  the  steel 
loses  its  brittleness  and  becomes  softer  and 
more  elastic.  This  operation  is  termed  tempering. 
The  temperature  for  tempering  varies  with 
different  articles,  and  is  judged  by  the  colour 
of  the  film  of  oxide  on  the  brightened  surface. 
The  following  table,  from  the  writer's  "  Steel  and 
Iron,"  shows  the  tempers  for  various  articles: 


Per- 

centage 

Tempera- 
ture. 

Colour. 

Article. 

carbon. 

• 

1'5 

220°  C. 
f230°  C. 

Faint  yellow   .  . 
Straw  yellow  .  . 

Surgical  knives, 
llazors,  knives,  hammers,  taps,  and 

dies. 

J  255°  C. 

Brownish  yellow 

Scissors,  hard  chisels,  shears. 

1'3 

0'9 
0-8 

|  265°  C. 
277°  C. 
1,280°  C. 
j  288°  C. 
1  293°  C. 
316°  C. 

Purplish  brown 
Purple      .  . 
Violet      .  . 
Light  blue 
Dark  blue 
Blackish  blue  .  . 

Axes,  planes. 
Table  knives. 
Cold  chisels  for  brass,  punches,  etc. 
Swords,  coiled  springs. 
Fine  saws,  augers. 
Hand  saws,  cold  chisels  for  copper 

0-6 

400°  C. 

Black       .  . 

and  wrought  iron. 
Spiral  springs. 

Bt-tti  lining. 

Maximum  betWWD 

C'nlK-lllsiolI. 

Ar.  3  .  . 
Ar.  2  .. 

Ar.  1  .. 

845°  C. 

7:.:.  c. 
680°  C. 

825°  to  819°  C. 
736°  „  725°  C. 
662J  „  655°  C. 

800°  C. 
710°  C. 
645°  C. 

In  medium  steel  the  points  Ar.  2  and  Ar.  3  are 
combined  into  a  single  point,  reaching  a  maxi- 
mum at  about  720°  C.,  and  the  point  Ar.  1  has 
a  maxium  at  about  660°. C.  In  high  carbon 
steel  there  is  only  one  break  in  the  cooling  of 
long  duration,  at  674°  C.  Ar.  1  is  absent  in 
pure  iron,  therefore  it  is  a  function  of  the  carbon 

4740 


Steels  expand  on  hardening,  varying  with 
the  amount  of  carbon  present,  and  the  higher 
the  carbon  the  lower  should  be  the  tem- 
perature to  which  the  steel  is  raised.  Small 
tools  are  plunged  into  water  or  oil.  Bulky 
articles  are  placed  in  water  arid  deluged  with 
a  stream  of  water.  Files  must  have  their 
teeth  protected  with  a  fusible  paste  before 
heating.  Saws  are  heated  in  an  air  or  gas 
furnace  and  quenched  in  whale  oil.  They  are 
tempered  by  burning  off  the  oil.  Hammer- 
heads and  steel -faced  articles  have  the  other 
parts  kept  cool  with  a  wet  rag  while  the  faces 
are  heated. 


Effect  of  Work.  Ingot  metal  is  im- 
proved by  fagoting  and  welding.  Up  to  a 
certain  limit,  and  avoiding  working  at  a  blue 
heat,  the  tensile  strength  and  elongation  are 
increased  by  cold  rolling  and  hammering. 
The  elastic  limit  is  raised  and  the  area  is  reduced. 
If  the  sectional  area  of  a  piece  of  steel  be  reduced 
to  30  per  cent,  or  40  per  cent,  by  hot  working, 
each  per  cent,  of  diminution  of  area  increases 
the  tensile  strength  and  elastic  limit  by  about 
0-2  per  cent,,  and  the  elongation  and  contraction 
of  area  by  about  1-5  per  cent.  Hot  working 
expels  slag,  welds  detached  particles,  closes 
pipes  and  blowholes,  and  prevents  undue 
crystallisation.  Hammering  is  generally  superior 
to  rolling  in  yielding  the  results  mentioned. 


COMPOSITION     OF     VARIOUS     STEELS 

- 

Carbon. 

Silicon. 

Manganese. 

Phosphorus. 

Sulphur. 

Shafts  and  boiler  plate 

0-16         1    0-03 

0-30 

0-04 

0'03 

Wire       

/  0-05  to) 

\o-io    / 

0'04 

0'50 

0-04 

0-05 

Gun  barrels 

0'22 

0-20 

0-03 

0-02 



Structural  steel 

0-25 

0'06 

0'50 

0-03 

o-oi 

Guns 

0-30 

0-04 

O'oO 

0'04 

o-io 

Axles  and  rails  .  . 

0-40 

o-oi 

i-oo 

o-io 

0-04 

Rolls  and  springs 

0'50 

0-20 

0'40 

0-04 

0-05 

Cutlery    and    American 
rails 

(  0'50  to* 
1  0-60      J 

o-io 

/  0'60  to\ 

\  i-oo    j 

0-05 

O'OG 

Projectiles 

0'60 

0-25 

0-60 

— 

— 

Chipping  chisels  and  tools 

/  0'75  to) 
1  0-85      ) 

0-02 

0'05 

0'05 

0-06 

Dies 

0-80 

0-02 



0-02 

o-oi 

Saws       

0'90 

0'30 

0'30 

0'03 

Drills  and  turning  tools 

TOO 



0'30 





Saws,  tiles,  and  14-in.  files 

1-30 

o-io 

0-20 

0-05 

0-03 

Razors  and  lancets 

I'oO 

11-1(1 

0'20 

0-05 

0-03 

SILICON.  The  amount  of  silicon  in  mild  steel  is 
generally  very  small,  but  amounts  up  to  0-05  per 
cent,  do  not  impair  strength  and  welding  proper- 
ties. In  high  carbon  steel  silicon  is  more  hurtful. 

SULPHUR.  The  influence  of  sulphur  with  less 
than  0-05  per  cent,  on  the  tenacity  and  ductility 
of  steel  is  very  slight,  but  beyond  this  amount 
it  causes  red-shortness.  But  manganese,  which 
is  usually  present,  neutralises  the  influence  of 
sulphur  to  a  great  extent.  Sulphur  has  a  ten- 
dency to  cause  development  of  fine  cracks. 

PHOSPHOROUS.  Small  quantities  under  0*1  per 
cent,  do  not  effect  the  hot-rolling  properties  or 
the  tensile  sliength,  but  phosphorus  is  very 
dangerous  when  the  steel  is  subjected  to  vibra- 
tion or  sudden  shock.  In  structural  steel  the 
phosphorus  should  not  exceed  0'06  per  cent., 
and  in  high  carbon  steel  it  should  not  be  more 
than  I'Ol  per  cent. 

MANGANESE.  This  is  an  essential  constituent 
of  structural  steel,  but  the  less  it  contains  above 
that  required  to  produce  soundness  and  freedom 
from  red-shortness,  due  to  sulphur,  the  better, 
and  for  these  purposes  0*50  should  be  sufficient. 
Manganese  tends  to  increase  tenacity  and  reduce 
ductility.  In  high  carbon  steels  the  effect  of 
manganese  is  more  marked,  and  tends  to  pro- 
duce fractures  on  quenching  for  hardening. 

ARSENIC.  In  quantities  of  less  than  O'lo  per 
cent.,  arsenic  has  no  effect  on  the  mechanical 
properties  of  steel.  Above  this  amount  cold-short- 
ness is  noticeable,  and  prevents  good  welding. 

COPPER.  In  small  quantities,  copper  has  no 
influence  on  the  physical  properties  of  steel. 


ACS 

Segregation.  In  considering  the  effect 
of  impurities  on  steel,  the  temperatures  of 
casting,  reheating,  and  work  put  upon  the  metal 
must  be  considered.  Moreover,  the  effect  of  an 
element  on  steel  is  modified  by  the  simultaneous 
presence  of  other  constituents.  While  it  is  easy 
to  determine  the  influence  of  a  single  element 
on  steel,  it  is  very  difficult  when  four  or  five 
elements  are  present.  Another  point  of  diffi- 
culty is  the  tendency  of  certain  constituents  to 
segregate,  especially  when  the  steel  is  slowly 
cooled.  Howe  divides  bodies  which  tend  to 
segregate  into  three  groups :  (a)  compounds 
which  differ  from  the  rest  in  fusibility ;  (b) 
compounds  which  have  a  strong  affinity  for  each 
other ;  (c)  compounds  which  differ  greatly 
in  density  from  the  rest  of  the  mass. 
Carbon  and  phosphorus  have  a  great 
affinity  for  manganese.  Carbides, 
phosphides,  and  sulphides  of  iron  are 
more  fusible  and  have  lower  densities 
than  alloys  of  iron  and  manganese. 
It  is  generally  found  that  segregation 
of  one  impurity  induces  segregation 
of  the  rest.  Sulphur,  phosphorus, 
and  their  compounds  are  generally 
most  unequally  distributed.  Carbon 
also  very  readily  segregates.  Chrome 
and  tungsten  steels  are  very  liable  to 
segregation,  while  nickel  steels  are 
remarkable  for  their  uniformity. 

Steel  Alloys  or  Special 
Steels.  The  varieties  of  steel 
already  considered  are  termed  carbon 
steels,  but  special  steels  contain  other  matals 
alloyed  with  iron,  with  or  without  much  carbon. 
The  metals  which  chiefly  influence  the  properties 
of  steel  and  are  used  for  industrial  purposes  are : 
manganese,  nickel,  chromium,  tungsten,  aluminium, 
vanadium,  and  molybdenum. 

Manganese  is  generally  present  in  commercial 
steels  from  0'3  to  1  per  cent.  Manganese  steel 
contains  12  to  14  per  cent,  of  manganese  and 
about  1  per  cent,  of  carbon.  It  has  a  high  ten- 
sile strength  and  elongation,  is  self  hardening, 
and  is  used  for  various  tools.  It  is  non-magnetic, 
and  offers  great  resistance  to  electricity. 

Nickel  forms  with  iron  and  carbon  most  valu- 
able alloys,  termed  nickel  steels.  Steel  with  3  per 
cent,  of  nickel  and  0'2  per  cent,  of  carbon  has 
a  tensile  strength  10  per  cent,  greater  than  any 
ordinary  carbon  steel  of  the  same  quality,  with 
an  increase  of  25  per  cent,  of  elastic  limit.  The 
ratio  of  elastic  limit  to  tensile  strength  increases 
up  to  20  per  cent,  of  nickel  and  then  falls  away 
rapidly.  The  hardening  effect  ceases  with  10 
per  cent,  of  nickel.  Above  1  per  cent,  the  diffi- 
culty of  welding  increases.  Steel  with  25  per 
cent,  of  nickel  is  scarcely  magnetic,  but  becomes 
so  when  cooled  to  -40°  C.,  and  does  not  regain 
its  non-magnetic  properties  until  heated  to 
600°  C. 

Steel  containing  2  per  cent,  of  nickel,  1  per 
cent,  of  chromium,  and  0'4  per  cent,  of  carbon 
is  used  for  armour-piercing  shells.  The  nickel 
toughens,  while  the  chromium  and  carbon  harden 
the  steel.  Nickel  steel  offers  greater  resistance 
to  corrosion  than  wrought  iron  or  mild  steel. 

4747 


METALS 

Chromium  does  not  impart  hardness  to  steel, 
but  in  small  quantities  it  raises  the  tensile 
Mrmgth  and  in  large  quantities  the  brittleness. 
Chromium  does  not  of  itself  harden  iron.  Steel 
with  1  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  2  to  3  per  cent,  of 
chromium  is  used  for  projectiles,  and  with  1  to 

2  per  cent,  of  chromium  for  special  files.    Chrome 
steel  is  used  for  railway  tyres  and  springs. 

Tungsten  is  added  to  steel  for  self -hardening 
cutting  tools  and  for  magnets.  Excellent  tools 
can  be  made  from  steel  with  1  per  cent,  of 
carbon  and  7  per  cent,  of  tungsten.  A  small 
percentage  of  tungsten  in  ordinary  tool  steel 
improves  the  wearing  properties.  Mushet  steel 
contains  1  '5  per  cent,  to  2  per  cent,  of  carbon  and 
5  per  cent,  to  8  per  cent,  of  tungsten.  Tungsten  is 
one  of  the  constituents  of  high-speed  tool  steels. 

Aluminium  is  not  used  as  a  definite  alloy  of  iron 
in  steel,  but  plays  an  important  role  in  increasing 
the  fluidity  of  cast  steel,  in  stopping  the  evolution 
of  gas,  and  in  assisting  to  prevent  blowholes. 
It  also  has  a  great  affinity  for  oxygen,  and  re- 
duces the  iron  oxide  present.  Aluminium,  like 
silicon,  causes  the  carbon  to  separate  as  graphite. . 
It  therefore  combines  the  advantages  of  silicon 
to  some  extent  with  that  of  manganese. 

Vanadium  exerts  a  more  powerful  influence  on 
eteel  than  any  metal  yet  discovered.  Its  general 
effect  is  to  increase  the  tensile  strength  and  elastic 
limit,  and  to  reduce  the  elongation  somewhat. 
One  per  cent,  to  2  per  cent,  raises  the  strength  of 
mild  steel  50  per  cent.  It  probably  forms  a 
double  carbide  of  iron  and  vanadium,  which 
seems  to  be  uniformly  distributed,  preventing 
segregation,  and  thus  removing  a  cause  of  brittle - 
ness  due  to  vibration.  As  vanadium  acts  in 
the  same  way  as  carbon,  the  amount  of  the  latter 
must  be  carefully  controlled. 

Molybdenum  readily  unites  with  iron,  and  acts 
like  tungsten.  Molybdenum  iron  alloys  are 
fairly  fusible,  and  molybdenum  steel  must  not 
be  heated  to  a  high  temperature.  Rapid  quench- 
ing in  water  hardens  it  like  ordinary  steel. 

High-speed  Tool  Steels.  Alloys  of 
chromium-tungsten  or  chromium-molybdenum, 
or  both,  have  been  recently  introduced  into  steel 
with  marvellous  results.  The  resistance  of 
these  special  steels  increases  with  a  rise  in  tem- 
perature. The  percentage  composition  varies 
with  the  work  to  be  done  from  about  0*75  per 
cent,  of  chromium  and  4  per  cent,  of  tungsten  to 

3  per  cent,  of  chromium,  8  per  cent,  of  tungsten, 
and  4  per  cent,  of  molybdenum,  the  last-named 
being  used  for  working  hard  steel  or  chilled  iron. 
The  percentage  of  carbon  is  under  1  per  cent. 
The  steel  is  first  heated  to  1,000°  C.,  then  cooled 
to  below  840°  in  a  lead  bath,  and  kept  stationary 
at  400°  to  500°  C.  for  a  few  minutes.     A  fusible 
slag  is  used  to  protect  the  metal  from  oxidation 
while   heating.     This   method   of  treating  self- 
hardening  steel  was  discovered  by  Messrs.  Taylor 
and  White.     They  found  that  heating  the  alloy 
far   above  the  usual   temperature   and    cooling 
regularly    gave    gieat    increase     in     hardness. 
Different  makes  of  these  special  steels  are  on 
the  market,  and  they  are  hardened  by  heating 
to   about    1,200°   C.    and   cooling   with   an   air 
blast. 

4748 


Direct   Method  of  Steel   Production. 

This  is  the  same  as  for  iron  in  the  Catalan  and 
similar  forges.  The  direct  method  yields  iron 
nearly  free  from  carbon,  or  some  carbon  may  be 
left  in  the  iron  forming  steel.  The  slag,  being 
highly  basic,  takes  up  much  of  the  phosphorus, 
but  there  is  a  greater  tendency  of  the  iron  to 
absorb  sulphur.  With  good  ores  and  charcoal 
as  fuel,  phosphorus  and  sulphur  are  practically 
absent  from  the  steel.  If  the  direct  process  is 
conducted  in  a  retort  furnace,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  get  a  sufficiently  high  temperature 
to  raise  the  metal  to  a  balling  heat,  hence  only 
a  sponge  is  produced.  In  furnaces  capable  of 
a  welding  temperature,  the  balls  are  not  homo- 
geneous, the  carbon  varying  throughout.  Balling 
is  advantageous  where  the  balls  can  be  taken  to 
an  open  hearth  furnace  for  completion. 

Crucible  Process.  This  consists  of  melt- 
ing iron  in  crucibles  with  or  without  carburising 
additions,  allowing  the  molten  steel  to  stand  for 
killing,  and  then  pouring  into  moulds. 

Huntsman's  'process  is  a  method  of  melting 
blister  steel  in  crucibles  with  a  flux,  such  as 
potassium,  ferrocyanide,  nitre,  fluorspar,  sand, 
or  oxide  of  manganese. 

Heath' 's  process  consists  of  adding  manganese 
to  blister  steel,  but  is  now  modified  by  using 
oxide  of  manganese  and  carbon. 

Uchatius'  method,  or  pig  iron  and  ore  method,  as 
practised  in  Sweden,  consists  in  melting  granu- 
lated cast  iron  with  iron  ore,  whereby  the  carbon 
is  largely  oxidised  by  the  oxygen  of  the  ore. 

Carburising  fusion  method.  In  this  case 
malleable  iron  is  melted  with  the  necessary 
amount  of  carbon  to  form  steel. 

Pig  and  scrap  metJiod.  If  wrought  iron 
nearly  free  from  carbon  be  melted  with  a  certain 
proportion  of  pig  iron,  a  crude  steel  is  produced. 

The  crucible  process  is  more  costly  than  the 
Bessemer  process. in  cost  of  materials,  labour, 
fuel,  and  refractory  materials,  but  the  steel  is 
generally  of  better  quality.  Its  costliness  limits 
its  use  to  cutting  tools,  springs,  fire-arms,  etc. 

The  crucible  process  differs  from  the  open 
hearth  in  treating  small  charges,  in  using  purer 
materials,  in  excluding  the  fire  gases,  and  in  being 
less  under  control  "as  to  temperature,  time,  etc. 
There  is  less  liability  to  the  absorption  of 
sulphur,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and  other  gases. 

Crucibl  es.  Two  kinds  of  crucible  are  used — 
graphite  and  clay.  Graphite  crucibles  last  longer, 
endure  harder  usage,  hold  heavier  charges,  and 
cause  less  loss  of  iron  than  the  clay  variety ;  but 
they  give  up  more  carbon  and  silicon. 

Clay  crucibles  are  made  of  a  mixture  of  different 
fireclays,  burnt  clay,  and  a  little  coke-dust.  The 
raw  clay  forms  about  two-thirds  of  the  mixture. 
Hand-made  crucibles  have  a  hole  left  in  the 
bottom,  and  a  little  sand  is  added,  which  fuses 
the  stand  to  the  crucible  when  strongly  heated. 
The  charge  for  a  clay  pot  is  56  lb.,  and  for  a 
graphite  pot  60  to  90  lb. 

Crucible  Steel.  When  the  charge  has 
been  introduced,  the  pot  is  covered  with  a  lid, 
for  if  a  bit  of  coke  should  enter  the  steel  becomes 
hot-short.  When  the  metal  is  melted  the  pot 
is  kept  in  the  fire  sufficiently  long  to  remove 


gases  and  prevent  blow-holes.  This  is  termed 
killing.  The  effect  is  probably  due  to  the 
reduction  of  silicon  from  the  clay  and  its  absorb- 
tion  by  the  steel. 

If  the  killing  be  too  long,  too  much  silicon 
enters  the  steel,  and  the  metal  becomes  hard 
and  brittle.  The  hotter  the  furnace  the  shorter 
the  time  required  for  killing.  The  same  result 
is  obtained  by  adding  aluminium.  If  the  steel  be 
insufficiently  killed  it  will  teem  fiery,  and  the 
ingot  of  steel  will  be  unsound.  A  little  ferro- 
manganese,  or  spiegeleisen,  is  generally  added 
to  promote  soundness.  In  the  ingot  of  steel,  after 
cooling,  the  top  or  piped  part  is  broken  off,  and 
the  metal  graded,  according  to  the  appearance 
of  the  fracture — that  is,  according  to  its  carbon 
content.  As  an  example  of  the  best  crucible 
steels,  the  following  analyses  may  be  taken  : 


Carbon. 

T31 
1-44 
0-96 

Silicon. 

Manganese. 

Phosphorus. 

Sulphur. 

0'05 

o-io 

O'lO 

0-14 
0-14 
0-13 

o-oio 

0-015 
0-012 

0-003 

It  is  difficult  to  make  crucible  steel  of  the  above 
composition  free  from  blow-holes  and  oxides,  so 
that  manganese  is  generally  added  to  the  charge, 
if  that  element  be  not  present  in  the  iron,  with 
the  result  that  the  steel  is  sounder,  but  higher  in 
manganese  and  silicon.  Cast  steel  contains  1*6 
to  0'78  per  cent,  of  carbon,  0'5  to  0'23  per  cent, 
of  manganese,  O25  to  O04  per  cent  of  silicon, 
and  about  0'02  per  cent,  of  phosphorus. 

The  proportion  of  carbon  in  steel  is  termed  its 
temper,  which  has  nothing  to  do  with  tempering. 
Also  high  carbon  steels  are  termed  hard  steels, 
which  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  process  of 
hardening. 

Tempers      for      Various      Purposes. 

Seebohn  gives  the  following  list  of  useful  tempers 
for  steels : 

Razor  temper  (1'5  per  cent  of  carbon),  easily 
burnt  by  overheating. 

Saw- file  temper  (1'35  per  cent,  carbon),  should 
not  be  heated  above  a  cherry-red  heat. 

Tool  temper  (1*25  per  cent,  carbon),  useful  for 
turning  tools,  drills,  and  planing-machine  tools, 
cutters,  etc.  Can  be  welded. 

Spindle  temper  (T12  per  cent,  carbon),  useful 
for  mill-picks,  cutters,  large  taps,  dies,  etc. 

Chisel  temper  (1  per  cent,  carbon),  combines 
great  toughness  with  the  power  of  being  hardened 
at  a  low  red  heat,  and  can  be  welded  and  adapted 
for  tools  where  the  unhardened  part  is  required 
to  bear  a  blow,  as  in  cold  chisels,  etc. 

Set  temper  (0*9  per  cent,  carbon).  For  cold  sets 
to  withstand  heavy  blows. 

Die  temper  (O75  per  cent,  carbon).  The  tools 
must  be  hard,  and  yet  withstand  hammering, 
concussion,  and  great  pressure. 

The  Furnace.  The  ordinary  furnace,  or 
teeming  hole,  is  a  rectangular  cavity,  18  in.  to 
24  in.  square,  and  3  ft.  to  4  ft.  deep.  It  is  lined 
with  refractory  material.  A  number  of  these 
furnaces  are  arranged  along  one  side,  or  two 
rows  may  be  built  back  to  back.  The  teeming- 
holes  are  on  a  level  with  the  shop  floor,  and 
covered  with  iron  plates  while  the  metal  is  being 


METALS 

melted.  The  melting  chambers  are  separated 
from  each  other  only  by  .a  brick  wall,  except  for 
the  refractory  lining,  which  in  Sheffield  isganister. 
This  is  rammed  round  an  elliptical  wooden  core, 
or  template,  26  in.  long  by  1.9  in.  wide. 

When  this  is  withdrawn  the  space  thus  lined 
is  an  elliptical  cavity,  capable  of  holding  two 
pots.  The  ends  of  the  firebars  rest  on  bearers, 
built  into  the  brick  wall  below  the  level  of  the 
roof  of  the  vault  beneath.  This  enables  the  bars 
to  be  accessible  for  withdrawal  in  case  of  a 
pot  breaking.  Each  fire  has  its  own  ash-pit, 
as  well  as  its  own  flue.  These  flues  are  carried 
up  in  groups  of  five  or  six  into  a  stack  about 
40  ft.  high,  and  each  ono  is  continued  down  to 
the  ash-pit  below.  By  inserting  a  brick  through 
an  'opening  into  the  flue,  the  draught  of  each 
fire  can  be  regulated.  Around  the  sides  of  an 
old-fashioned  melting-house  are  shelves  for 
drying  the  crucibles  previous  to  annealing.  They 
are  now  generally  dried  in  special  chambers. 

Special  Types  of  Furnaces.  A  gas- 
fired  crucible  furnace  was  introduced  by  Siemens. 
It  is  of  the  ordinary  regenerative  type,  with  two 
pairs  of  regenerators  for  heating  the  gas  and  air 
respectively.  The  saving  of  fuel,  as  compared 
with  the  old  furnace,  is  as  4  to  5 — that  is,  the  gas 
furnace  will  burn  four  tons  of  coal,  as  compared 
with  five  tons  of  coke  in  the  air  furnace  ;  but  it 
must  also  be  remembered  that  the  gas  furnace 
burns  common  slack,  so  that  the  difference  in 
cost  of  fuel  is  considerable.  The  regenerative 
furnace  may  be  constructed  to  hold  any  number 
of  pots,  a  24-pot  furnace  being  a  convenient 
size.  The  upper  portions  are  built  of  silica  bricks, 
and  much  expense  may  be  saved  by  patching  up 
the  blocks  between  the  ports,  when  defective, 
with  ganister  instead  of  waiting  to  put  new 
bricks  in.  A  24-pot  furnace  requires  a  space 
of  about  20  square  feet,  and  is  placed  entirely 
below  the  ground  level.  For  ordinary  qualities 
of  steel  13  heats  per  week  may  be  obtained. 

The  Nobel  liquid  fuel  furnace  is  an  arrangement 
for  heating  a  number  of  crucibles  with  refined 
petroleum.  It  is  cheaper  to  build  than  a  gas- 
fired  furnace,  and  uses  less  fuel  than  the  solid- 
fired  furnace,  but  the  cost  of  fuel  is  greater 
when  burning  petroleum  than  when  burning  gas. 
Each  furnace  contains  three  holes,  two  of  which 
contain  two  crucibles  each,  and  the  third  space 
is  left  empty.  These  three  holes  are  arranged 
in  a  row,  so  that  the  flame  passes  through  them 
in  succession  before  going  into  the  chimney. 

Cementation  Furnace.  Cementation  is 
a  process  of  carburising  wrought  iron  by  heating 
it  in  stone  or  brick  chests  in  contact  with  char- 
coal for  a  prolonged  period.  The  furnace  is 
an  oblong  chamber  with  a  semi-cylindrical 
roof  containing  two  converting  chests,  heated 
by  a  fireplace  below  and  between  them.  The 
flame  is  distributed  by  a  number  of  flues  around 
the  chests,  and  finally  passes  into  a  chimney. 
The  chests  vary  in  size,  from  8  to  15  ft.  long, 
and  are  about  3  ft.  wide  and  high.  The  intro- 
duction and  withdrawal  of  the  charge  is  through 
manholes  in  the  side  walls.  In  each  che&t  is  a 
square  hole  through  which  a  trial  bar  projects. 

4749 


METALS 

The  Cementation  Process.  To  charge 
the  chest  a  layer  of  coarse  charcoal  is  placed 
on  the  bottom,  then  a  layer  of  iron  bars 
placed  side  by  side.  These  alternate  layers 
of  iron  and  charcoal  are  continued  till  the  chest 
is  nearly  full.  A  thick  layer  of  charcoal  is 
placed  on  the  top,  and  on  this  is  put  a  layer  of 
siliceous  material,  termed  wheel-swarf,  which 
frits  with  the  heat  and  forms  an  impervious 
coating.  The  bars  of  iron  used  are  about 
3  in.  wide  and  J  in.  thick. 

In  about  24  hours  the  chests  are  raised 
to  a  red  heat,  and  in  about  three  or  four  days 
attain  the  requisite  temperature.  This  is  then 
maintained  for  7  to  11  days,  according  to  the 
grade  of  steel  required,  the  hardest  requiring  the 
longest,  and  spring  steel  the  shortest  time. 
Conversion  begins  at  900°  C.,  and  goes  on  more 
actively  at  higher  temperatures.  By  cemen- 
tation the  physical  properties  of  the  iron  are 
changed,  the  colour  being  reddish-white,  and  the 
structure  highly  crystalline.  The  surface  is 
studded  with  blisters,  due  to  the  attempt  of  the 
gases  to  escape,  hence  the  name  blister  steel. 

The  manner  in  which  the  carbon  passes  through 
the  iron  is  probably  in  the  form  of  gaseous 
compounds,  which  are  decomposed,  giving  up 
their  carbon  to  the  iron,  or  it  may  be  that  the 
gaseous  compounds  are  decomposed  at  the 
surface,  and  the  combined  carbon  transmitted 
layer  by  layer. 

Cemented  Bars.  Cemented  bars  are 
classified  in  six  grades.  The  lower  numbers 
contain  a  central  core  of  unaltered  iron,  and  the 
highest  are  converted  all  through.  A  special 
kind  called  glazed  bar  has  been  doubly  converted 
and  contains  the  highest  percentage  of  carbon. 

Blister  steel  is  treated  in  two  different  ways — 
jagoting  and  welding,  or  melting  in  crucibles  for 
cast  steel.  The  mild  variety  is  used  for  springs, 
and  the  higher  carbon  steels  after  fagoting  and 
welding  are  termed  shear  steel.  By  cutting  up, 
fagoting  and  welding  a  second  time,  double  shear 
steel  is  produced.  The  texture  of  blister  steel 
is  modified  according  as  it  has  been  rolled  or 
hammered.  Hammered  steel  has  the  finer 
grain  and  greater  power  of  resistance. 

Case  Hardening.  This  is  the  formation 
of  a  surface  layer  of  steel  on  iron  or  mild  steel 
by  a  rapid  process  of  cementation.  The  articles 
are  embedded  in  carbonised  bones,  leath  r,  or 
horn,  and  packed  in  an  iron  box.  The  box  is  then 
heated  at  the  ordinary  cementing  temperature 
until  a  sufficient  depth  of  steel  is  obtained.  This 
may  be  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  four  to  five 
hours.  If  the  temperature  be  raised  too  high,  the 
iron  itself  becomes  hard  and  brittle.  The  work 
when  removed  from  the  fire  is  hardened  by 
plunging  into  water.  If  only  certain  parts  are 
required  hard,  the  cemented  iron  is  allowed  to 
cool  slowly,  the  surface  of  the  parts  to  be  soft  are 
turned  off  in  a  lathe,  and  the  article  is  hardened. 

Small  articles  are  rapidly  case-hardened 
by  cleaning,  making  red  hot,  and  rubbing  in 
yellow  prussiatc  of  potash,  K4FeCy(i.  As  soon 
as  the  powder  has  volatilised,  the  article  is 
plunged  into  water. 


Armour  Plate.  There  are  two  chief 
varieties  of  armour  plate  now  manufactured, 
each  being  made  by  a  different  process.  The 
object  sought  is  to  produce  a  plate  which  shall 
not  crack  when  struck  with  a  shell,  and  be 
sufficiently  hard  to  resist  penetration.  The 
older  method  was  to  have  a  plate  of  iron  united 
to  a  face  of  hard  steel,  thus  combining  toughness 
with  resistance.  When  the  properties  of  nickel 
steel  were  discovered,  it  was  found  very  suitable 
for  armour  plates.  This  introduced  plates  made 
entirely  of  steel.  Another  great  improvement 
was  introduced  by  Harvey,  who  took  mild  steel 
as  a  base,  and  carburised  the  surface  by  a  cemen- 
tation process,  the  carburised  face  being  after- 
wards hardened  by  sudden  chilling  from  red 
heat. 

Open-hearth  mild  steel,  alloyed  with  varying 
percentages  of  nickel,  vanadium,  or  chromium  is 
cast  into  large  ingot  moulds,  then  hammered 
and  rolled  into  the  required  thickness,  and 
passed  to  the  car bu rising  shop  to  undergo 
the  Harveyising  process.  Such  a  plate  of  steel 
containing  I'l  per  cent,  to  0'3  per  cent,  of  carbon 
is  placed  on  a  bed  of  finely  powdered  clay  or 
sand,  deposited  on  the  bottom  of  a  firebrick 
compartment  erected  within  the  heating  cham- 
ber of  a  suitable  furnace.  The  compartment 
is  then  filled  with  granular  carbonaceous  material- 
and  well  rammed  down  on  the  plate.  This  is 
covered  with  sand,  and  finally  with  a  layer  of 
heavy  firebricks,  as  a  heavy  pressure  on  the 
carbon  facilitates  its  union  with  the  iron.  The 
furnace  is  raised  to  a  high  temperature  for  about 
a  fortnight,  when  the  steel,  to  a  depth  of 
an  inch  or  more,  has  taken  up  an  additional 
1  per  cent,  of  carbon.  The  plate,  when  suffi- 
ciently carburised,  is  freed  from  its  covering, 
and  all  bending  and  machining  done,  holes 
drilled,  etc. 

Hardening  Armour  Plate.  The  hard- 
ening process  consists  of  heating  the  plate, 
placed  on  an  iron  grid,  to  a  cherry  red  heat, 
and  by  spraying  jets  of  water  on  the  top 
and  bottom  surfaces  at  a  pressure  of  10  Ib. 
per  square  inch.  Any  final  adjustment  after 
hardening  can  be  done  only  by  grinding. 

Krupp,  of  Essen,  carburises  by  means  of 
gaseous  hydrocarbons  and  then  hardens.  Two 
plates  are  placed  on  the  hearth,  one  above  the 
other,  with  a  space  between,  and  with  their  faces 
inwards  so  that  the  carburising  gases  may  pass 
between  them. 

Beardsmore's  process  of  making  compound 
armour  plate  is  to  produce  ingots  composed 
of  layers  of  hard  and  soft  steel  perfectly 
united.  A  layer  of  steel  is  run  into  a  hori- 
zontal mould,  the  bottom  of  which  is  kept 
cool,  which  causes  the  bottom  layer  of  steel 
to  set  quickly,  and  while  the  upper  layer  is  still 
liquid  a  charge  of  milder  steel  is  poured  in,  and 
unites  with  it,  and  so  on  with  a  third  layer 
of  still  softer  metal.  The  ingots  are  pressed  and 
rolled  into  plates.  By  this  means  a  much 
greater  depth  of  hard  steel  can  be  produced 
than  is  possible  by  a  cementation  process  such 
as  Harvey's  or  Krupp's. 


Continued 


4750 


FIRE-RESISTING   CONSTRUCTION 

Regulations  of  Building  Acts  and  By-laws.      Special  Materials.      The  Con- 
struction of  Walls,  Floors,  Partitions,  and  Roofs.    The  Protection  of  Openings 


Group  4 

BUILDING 
33 


Continued  fn 
paje  46-W 


By  Professor  R.  ELSEY  SMITH 


MO  building  material  will  permanently  resist 
the  action  of  fire ;  but  it  is  practicable  in 
many  cases  to  construct  buildings  of  such  a 
character  that  in  the  event  of  a  fire  breaking 
out  in  one  compartment  it  may  be  confined  to 
that  compartment. 

Much  of  the  legislation  devoted  to  building  is 
designed  to  minimise  the  danger  of  fire  spreading 
from  one  building  to  another,  or  at  least  to  pro- 
long the  period  during  which  it  may  be  possible 
to  prevent  such  spreading.  It  is,  however,  a 
very  difficult  matter  to  render  buildings  abso- 
lutely fire-resisting.  The  necessity  for  openings 
for  light  and  access,  even  if  the  fittings  and 
finishings  of  such  openings  are  themselves  in- 
combustible, provide  ready  means  of  admitting 
currents  of  air  to  fan  the  flames  if  once  an 
outbreak  should  occur  within  the  building.  In 
buildings  of  ordinary  type  it  is  the  work  of 
the  carpenter  and  joiner  that  provides  most 
fuel  for  the  flames  if  a  fire  should  occur.  Even 
in  a  building  of  the  most  complete  fire-resisting 
construction,  if  the  contents  are  inflammable, 
and  fire  gets  a  good  hold  of  them,  they  may 
burn  so  fiercely  as  to  endanger  the  structure,  or 
portions  of  it  at  least. 

The  Element  of  Cost.  An  important- 
factor  in  determining  to  what  extent  fire-resisting 
materials  and  construction  shall  be  used  in  any 
building  is  that  of  cost.  A  building  that  is  carried 
out  so  as  to  be  as  far  as  possible  fire-resisting, 
will  be  more  costly  to  construct  than  one  of  the 
same  size  in  which  such  precautions  are  not 
taken  ;  but  where  the  contents  are  of  great 
value,  the  difference  in  the  rates  of  insurance 
usually  made  by  the  insurance  companies  between 
the  two  classes  of  buildings  may  be  sufficient  to 
render  the  more  costly  form  of  construction 
really  economical  in  the  long  run. 

The  Law's  Protection  Mainly  Given 
to  Life.  The  law,  so  far  as  it  enforces  fireproof 
construction  does  so  with  a  view  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  life  rather  than  of  property ;  even 
the  builder  of  a  detached  house  in  a  town 
or  urban  district,  and  hi  many  rural  districts, 
is  restricted  to  the  use  of  non-combustible 
materials  for  the  main  walls  and  roof-covermgs. 

As  soon  as  a  building  ceases  to  be  a  purely 
domestic  building,  but  is  used  partially  for  trade 
or  manufacture,  attention  is  directed  also 
to  the  internal  structure,  and  regulations  are 
frequently  made  as  to  the  nature  of  the  materials 
to  be  used  in  the  construction  and  support  of 
corridors,  passages,  and  staircases,  with  a  view 
to  safeguarding  the  escape  of  those  occupying 
the  upper  part  of  such  premises  in  the  event  of 
fire  breaking  out  below. 


Factories    and    Public  Buildings.     In 

factories  where  considerable  numbers  are  em- 
ployed, and  in  buildings  divided  up  into  sepa- 
rate tenements,  and  in  all  buildings  intended  for 
the  use  of  the  general  public,  more  stringent  rules 
are  framed  to  ensure  as  far  as  possible  the  safety 
of  those  making  use  of  them,  and  in  particular 
to  ensure  some  safe  means  of  escape  from  the 
building  in  case  of  fire. 

Standards  of  Protection.  The  British 
Fire  Prevention  Committee  have  proposed 
three  standards  implying  different  degrees 
of  protection,  and  these  have  been  confirmed 
by  the  International  Fire  Prevention  Congress, 
London,  1903: 

1.  Temporary  protection,  which  implies  resist- 
ance to  the  action  of  fire  for  at  least  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour. 

2.  Partial  protection,  which  implies  resistance 
to  a  fierce  fire  for  at  least  one  hour  and  a  half. 

3.  Full   protection,    which   implies   resistance 
to  a  fierce  fire  for  at  least  two  hours  and  a  half. 

Each  of  these  classes  is  subdivided  into  two 
others,  A  and  B  respectively,  and  definite 
standards  are  published  of  the  tests  that  any 
material  must  fulfil  for  classification  in  each 
division  and  class,  depending  on  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  to  be  employed. 

Structural  Iron  and  Steel  in  Fire= 
resisting  Buildings.  It  is  the  introduction 
of  iron  and  steel  which  has  rendered  possible  the 
construction  of  modern  fire-resisting  buildings. 
These  materials  enable  very  heavy  loads  to  be 
carried  on  supports  of  but  small  area,  which 
supports  may  be  adequately  protected  from 
the  action  of  fire  without  greatly  adding  to 
the  area  occupied  by  them. 

The  protection  of  the  iron  and  steel  used 
structurally,  however,  is  an  essential  element 
in  successful  fire-resisting  construction  ;  iron, 
it  is  true,  is  not  combustible,  but  it  is  not  fire 
resisting,  for  when  it  becomes  heated  by  ex- 
posure to  the  direct  action  of  fire  its  strength 
and  stiffness  become  most  materially  reduced  ; 
at  the  same  time  expansion  takes  place  to  a 
very  appreciable  extent,  and  unless  provision 
has  been  made  for  this,  beams  and  columns  may 
become  seriously  distorted,  and  contribute  to 
the  collapse  and  destruction  of  the  building  in 
which  they  are  used.  Iron  and  steel,  therefore, 
while  essential  in  modern  fire-resisting  construc- 
tion, are  materials  that  cannot  be  safely  exposed 
to  the  direct  action  of  the  fire. 

The  London  Building  Act  and  Fire= 
resisting  Materials.  The  materials  recog- 
nised in  the  London  Building  Acts  (Amendment 
Act),  1905  [5  Edw.  7],  as  fire-resisting  for  general 

4751 


BUILDING 

purposes  are  given  below.  This  Act  is  not  in 
force  beyond  the  limits  of  the  metropolis,  but 
as  it  represents  the  recent  views  of  the  authority 
controlling  building  operations  throughout  the 
greatest  city  in  the  world,  "it  serves  as  a  useful 
guide: 

J%)  Brickwork  constructed  of  good  bricks, 
1  burnt,  sound  and  hard,  properly  bonded 
and  solidly  put  together  (a)  with  good  mortar 
compounded  of  good  lime  and  sharp,  clean 
sand,  hard,  clean  broken  brick,  broken  flint, 
grit  or  slag  ;  or  (6)  with  good  cement ;  or  (c) 
with  cement  mixed  with  sharp,  clean  sand,  hard, 
clean  broken  brick,  broken  flint,  grit,  or  slag. 

(b)  Granite    and    other    stone   suitable    for 
building  purposes  by  reason  of  its  solidity  and 
durability. 

(c)  Iron,  steel,  and,  copper. 

(d)  Slate  tiles,  brick  and  terra-cot ta,  when  used 
for  coverings  or  corbels. 

(e)  Flagstones  when  used  for  floors  over  arches, 
but  such  flagstones  not  to  be  exposed  on  the 
under  side  and  not  supported  at  the  ends  only, 

(/)  Concrete  composed  of  broken  brick,  tile, 
stone  clippings,  ballast,  pumice  or  coke  breeze, 
and  lime,  cement  or  calcined  gypsum. 

(g)  Any  combination  of  concrete  and  steel 
or  iron. 

Material  for  Special  Purposes.  For 
special  purposes  other  materials  are  sanctioned  ; 
the  provisions  affecting  them,  detailed  in  the 
schedule,  may  be  summarised  as  follows  : 

Timber.  Oak,  teak,  jarrah,  karri,  or  other 
hard  timber,  not  less  than  1J  in.  finished  thick- 
ness, may  be  used  for  doors  [2]  and  shutters  and 
their  frames,  the  latter  being  bedded  solid  to  the 
walls  or  partitions ;  also  for  treads,  risers,  strings, 
and  bearers  of  staircases  [1]  and  landings — the 
ceilings  or  soffits  (if  any)  being  of  plaster  or 
cement — and  for  verandahs,  balustrades,  outside 
landings,  the  tread?,  strings,  and  risers  of  outside 
stairs,  outside  steps,  porticos,  and  porches. 

The  same  materials  may  be  used  for  beams 
or  posts,  or  in  combination  with  iron,  the 
timber  and  iron  (if  any)  being  protected  by 
plastering  or  other  incombustible  or  non- 
conducting external  coating  not  less  than 
'2  in.  in  thickness  ;  or,  in  the  case  of  timber,  not 
less  than  1  in.  in  thickness  on  iron  lathing. 

For  floors  and  roofs,  brick,  tile,  terra-cotta,  or 
cement  composed  as  described  above  (/),  not 
less  than  5  in.  thick,  in  combination  with  iron 
or  steel,  is  permitted.  For  the  floors  and 
roofs  of  projecting  shops,  pugging  of  concrete, 
as  described  above  (/),  not  less  than  5  in.  thick 
I M -tween  wood  joists,  is  allowed;  this  may  be 
carried  by  fillets  1  in.  square  spiked  to  the 
joists  and  placed  so  as  to  be  in  the  centre  of 
t  he  thickness  of  the  concrete ;  or  concrete  blocks, 
not  less  than  5  in.  thick,  may  be  used,  carried 
on  fire-resisting  bearers  secured  to  the  sides  of 
the  joists  [5]. 

Internal  Partitions.  For  internal  parti- 
tions inclosing  staircases  and  passages,  terra- 
cotta, brickwork,  concrete,  or  other  incombustible 
material,  not  less  than  .'{  in.  thick,  is  permitted. 
For  glazing  windows,  doors,  and  borrowed  lights, 
lantern  or  skyliyhu.  L'|.r--  must  »•<•  not  less  than 

47R2 


J  in.  in  thickness,  in  direct  combination  with 
metal  the  melting  point  of  which  is  not  lower 
than  1,800°  F.  in  squares  not  exceeding  16  sq.  in., 
or  in  panels  not  exceeding  2  ft.  across  either  way. 
The  panels  must  be  secured  with  fire-resisting 
materials  in  fire-resisting  frames  of  hard  wood 
not  less  than  If  in.  finished  thickness,  or  of  iron. 
The  Council  reserve  the  right  to  approve  from 
time  to  time  other  materials. 

Many  of  the  materials  referred  to  have  been 
already  described,  or  will  be  dealt  with  at  greater 
length  in  the  subsequent  parts ;  but  some  special 
reference  to  some,  at  least,  of  them  is  desirable 
before  a  description  of  the  methods  of  fireproof 
construction  is  entered  upon. 

Of  the  material  referred  to  as  approved  for 
special  purposes,  timbers  of  the  quality  known 
as  "hard"  are  allowed  in  scantlings  as  thin 
as  2  in.  (If  in.  finished)  for  the  purposes 
scheduled,  and  this  is  a  matter  of  great  con- 
venience, especially  in  alterations  to  existing 
buildings. 

Precautions  in  Fixing  Woodwork. 
In  all  cases  where  timber  is  employed  in  large 
or  small  scantlings  it  is  desirable,  as  a  protection 
against  the  spread  of  fire,  to  avoid  all  cavities 
behind  such  timbers  or  pieces  of  framing  ;  they 
should  be  bedded  as  solidly  as  possible.  Where 
bearers  or  battens  are  required  for  fixing  joinery, 
linings,  etc.,  to  walls,  the  surfaces  between  them 
should  be  plastered  flush  with  the  surface  [3J, 
which  greatly  checks  the  tendency  for  fire  to  spread 
along  such  material.  The  outer  face  will,  of  course, 
burn  and  char,  but  this  action  will  not  penetrate 
far  if  the  wood  is  attacked  only  from  the  face. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  fire  once  gets  behind, 
and  can  attack  both  faces,  wood,  if  in  thin  scant- 
lings, is  readily  destroyed.  Fire  may  easily  and 
quickly  work  round  behind  a  skirting  or  framing 
if  any  small  air  current  is  set  up,  and  thus 
promote  the  spread  of  the  conflagration. 

Projecting  Shops.  In  the  case  of  the 
floors  and  roofs  of  projecting  shops,  and  when, 
as  the  result  of  alteration  of  user,  the  ground- 
floor  of  a  building  has  to  be  separated  from  the 
upper  floors  by  fire-resisting  materials,  the  system 
of  construction  described,  in  which  concrete  not 
less  than  5  in.  thick  is  filled  in  between  the 
existing  wood  joists,  is  recognised  as  fire-re- 
sisting. 

In  any  case  hi  which  this  system  is  used  in 
practice  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  that  the 
joists  are  adequate  to  carry  the  increased  load 
with  safety,  and  if  this  is  not  the  case,  they 
must  be  strengthened  by  flitches  or  iron  plates 
bolted  to  the  side  of  the  joist,  by  a  girder 
reducing  their  clear  span,  or  by  some  other 
means  of  strengthening  the  construction. 

Glass.  Glass  is  recognised  as  fire-resist- 
ing only  within  somewhat  narrow  limits  ;  it  is, 
of  course,  incombustible,  and  melts  only  at  a 
high  temperature.  The  danger  connected  with 
its  use  is  due  mainly  to  its  liability  to  crack 
if  subjected  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature 
or  to  lateral  pressure,  especially  when  used  in 
large  sheets.  In  work  of  a  fire-resisting  nature, 
therefore,  the  minimum  thickness  and  the 
maximum  dimensions  are  rigidly  fixed,  and 


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FIRE-RESISTING    CONSTRUCTION 
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4753 


BUILDING 

importance  is  attached  to  the  nature  of  the  frame 
ulncli  carries  the  <;lass.  Where  the  latter  is  of 
wood,  the  breadth  of  any  glazing  bars  should  not 
be  less  than  the  minimum  thickness  required — 
that  is,  If  in. — a  bar  that  is  thin  laterally  being  as 
dangerous  as  one  thin  in  the  other  direction  [4] ; 
but  where  hard  wood  beads  are  used  for  gla/ing, 
it  will,  in  most  cases,  suffice  to  include  them  in 
the  general  breadth  if  they  are  properly  fixed. 

For  glazing,  ordinary  plate  or  rolled  plate 
glass  may  be  employed ;  but  wired  glass  is  also 
manufactured,  in  which  wire  netting  is  em- 
bedded in  the  thickness  of  the  glass  ;  this  glass 
is  supplied  in  different,  qualities,  but  of  a 
uniform  thickness  of  J  in.,  and  includes  a  clear 
glass  ;  such  glass  is  liable  to  crack,  but  will  not 
fly  to  pieces  or  fall  out. 

The  Luxfer  Syndicate  supply  fire-resisting 
panels  of  glass  made  up  of  small  squares  or 
other  forms  of  |-in.  glass  united  by  small  strands 
of  copper  deposited  by  an  electro-chemical 
process,  and  the  whole  surrounded  by  a  stout 
copper  frame. 

Construction  with  Fire-resisting 
Materials.  We  have  dealt  with  certain 
general  considerations  affecting  fire-resisting 
structures,  and  materials  specially  adapted  for 
use  in  such  work,  and  we  may  now  pass  to  the 
consideration  of  the  various  methods  of  con- 
struction adopted  for  different  parts  of  such 
structures. 

Main  and  Cross  Walls.  The  main 
party  and  cross  walls  differ  but  little  from  those 
of  ordinary  buildings  which,  as  already  pointed 
out,  are  usually  required  to  be  constructed  of 
fire-resisting  materials  and  of  adequate  thick- 
ness. In  this,  as  in  all  other  matters,  the 
provisions  of  the  Building  Acts  or  By-laws 
which  are  in  force  in  the  district  where  the 
building  is  to  be  erected  must  be  consulted, 
and  any  requirements  laid  down  in  them  must 
be  complied  with.  Special  care  must  be  taken 
to  see  that  the  construction  is  solid,  and  all 
timber  should,  if  possible,  be  excluded  from  the 
Avails. 

Internal  Walls.  The  thickness  of  internal 
division  walls  is  not  usually  regulated  by  Acts 
or  By-laws,  but  depends  on  the  work  to  be 
performed.  In  fire-resisting  buildings  it  is 
desirable  that  there  should  be  some  division 
walls  at  least,  thick  enough  to  subdivide  the 
interior  into  distinct  compartments  ;  this  tends 
to  delay,  ancl  may  prevent  the  spread  of  fire.  In 
buildings  of  great  size  the  use  of  such  division 
walls  is  enforced  ;  the  limit  of  size  of  any  building 
being  restricted  in  London,  with  certain  excep- 
tions, to  250,000  cubic  ft.,  unless  subdivided  by 
party  walls  into  two  or  more  sections  no  one  of 
which  exceeds  this  amount  in  extent. 

Protection  of  Iron  and  Steel  Sup* 
ports.  These  supports  usually  take  the  form 
of  columns  or  stanchions  of  cast  iron,  or  of 
huilt-up  stanchions  of  wrought  iron  or  steel. 
These  may  l>e  encased  solidly  so  as  to  be  entirely 
MI IT« >unded  with  concrete,  or  with  concrete 
filled  in  behind  some  other  facing  of  superior 
quality,  such  as  brick  or  terra-cotta  [6],  Where 
columns  and  hollow  stanchions  are  used,  these 

47f>4 


may  be  filled  with  cement  concrete  with  a  view 
to  preserving  the  iron  from  rusting.  The  main 
advantages  of  this  solid  treatment  are  that  in 
the  event  of  any  damage  to  the  outer  face  or 
casing  there  is  less  chance  of  the  fire  coming  into 
contact  with  the  iron  than  where  a  cavity  is 
left ;  but  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  undue 
heating  of  the  iron,  to  make  the  covering  thick, 
and  this  increases  the  weight  and  balk  of  the 
pier.  Every  part  of  the  ironwork  should  be 
covered  with  at  least  4  in.  of  protecting  material, 
and  this  must  on  no  account  be  reduced  for 
chases,  pipes,  wires,  or  any  other  purpose. 
The  angles  of  solid  concrete  piers  should  be 
rounded,  forming  a  bullnose  of  at  least  2|  in. 
radius  ;  this  protects  the  angle  from  damage 
and  resists  the  action  of  spalling  when  heated 
better  than  a  square  angle.  A  solid  brick  casing 
may  be  used  round  stanchions,  the  bricks  being 
cut  where  necessary  round  the  flanges.  Such  a 
brick  casing  is  usually  9  in.  thick,  with  splayed 
or  bullnose  angles.  The  outer  face  may  be  ren- 
dered more  or  less  attractive  in  appearance,  as 
occasion  demands,  by  rendering  the  surface  in 
plaster,  or  by  using  tiles  or  faience,  or  some  other 
form  of  decorative  facing. 

Terra=cotta  and  Plaster  Protection. 
Terra-cotta,  formed  with  chambers,  is  often  built 
up  so  as  to  enclose  a  stanchion  or  column,  and 
may  be  formed  of  the  hard-burnt,  or  of  porous 
blocks  [page  2781]  ;  the  latter  are  more  fragile, 
but  conduct  heat  less  readily.  If  such  a  casing 
is  built  clear  of  the  stanchion  the  air  space  in 
the  chambers  and  between  the  terra-cotta  and 
stanchion  are  serviceable  in  reducing  the  con- 
duction of  heat  so  long  as  the  blocks  remain 
undamaged,  but  if  broken,  so  that  the  fire  can 
enter,  the  advantages  are  lost,  and  the  chamber 
round  the  stanchion  may  form  a  kind  of  flue, 
along  which  the  fire  may  pass.  Solid  blocks  of 
porous  terra-cotta  of  considerable  thickness  are 
used  in  some  cases,  but  in  all  these  various 
methods  of  encasing  iron  supports  the  filling  in 
of  any  cavity  between  the  casing  and  the  support 
itself  is  desirable.  Plaster  on  metal  lathing  is 
sometimes  employed,  but  alone  is  not  a  very 
efficient  protection,  as  plaster  is  apt  to  spall — 
that  is,  to  disintegrate  and  fall  off  in  small  pieces 
under  the  action  of  fire  and  water  ;  if  employed, 
two  thicknesses  of  plaster  should  be  made 
use  of,  with  a  clear  space  between  them  [6J. 
The  innermost  layer  must  be  clear  of  the 
stanchion,  and  may  be  kept  from  it  by  small  steel 
channel  irons,  or  by  solid  metal  laths,  to  which  the 
lathing  to  receive,  the  plaster  is  attached  with  wire. 
After  this  is  plastered,  similar  small  channels 
may  be  used  to  form  the  interval,  and  they  also 
receive  and  support  metal  lathing,  which  is 
secured  to  them,  and  afterwards  plastered,  and, 
if  necessary,  finished  in  some  ornamental  manner. 

The  girders  supported  by  these  piers,  which  are 
to  carry  walls,  must  be  sufficiently  cased  before 
the  walls  are  erected  on  them.  This  may  be  done 
by  surrounding  them  with  concrete,  or  specially 
prepared  blocks  of  terra-cotta  may  be  used  to 
protect  the  flanges,  and  on  the  outside  the  stone 
or  brick  facing  may  be  finished  close  against  the 
wel»  :  but  it  is  essential  that  these  main  girders 


should  be  as  efficiently  protected  from  the  action 
of  fire  as  the  supports  themselves.  The  protec- 
tion of  girders  carrying  floors  will  be  dealt  with 
in  connection  with  the  construction  of  floors. 

Formation  of  Floors.  The  method  of 
forming  the  horizontal  divisions  in  a  building 
that  is  to  be  tire-resisting  is  one  of  great  import- 
ance, as  it  is  even  more  difficult  to  prevent  a  fire 
from  spreading  vertically  than  laterally.  The 
special  treatment  of  certain  floors  by  filling  in  con- 
crete between  wood  joists,  which  can  be  looked 
upon  as  securing  only  temporary  protection, 
has  been  dealt  with.  Another  system  that  has 
been  used,  and  found  to  resist  successfully  the 
action  of  fire,  is  to  use  fir  joists,  not  spaced  at 
intervals,  but  placed  side  by  side,  and  bolted  up, 
so  as  to  form  a  solid  layer  of  wood  5  in.  or  more 
in  thickness,  according  to  the  span.  An  ordinary 
boarded  floor  may  be  laid  on  this,  and  the  soffits 
may  be  plastered  if  the  edges  of  the  joists  are 
rebated  with  dovetail  rebates,  to  give  a  key  for 
the  plaster.  Staircases  with  treads  thus  built  up 
have  also  been  used  successfully.  Concrete, 
formed  with  suitable  ingredients,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  materials  used  in  fire -resisting 
construction,  but,  except  for  very  moderate 
spans,  cannot  be  relied  upon  without  steel  or 
iron  to  assist  in  carrying  it,  owing  to  its  inability 
to  withstand  much  tensile  strain.  There  are 
various  forms  of  construction,  apart  from  the 
varieties  known  as  ferro -concrete  [page  1454],  in 
which  floors  formed  of  concrete  are  carried  by 
iron  joists,  which  are  hi  turn  protected  by  concrete 
or  by  some  other  material. 

Floors  of  Concrete  and  Iron  or  Steel. 
The  simplest  form  of  such  a  floor  is  formed  with 
a  series  of  small  rolled  joists  of  iron  or  steel 
resting  on  supporting  walls  or  carried  between 
main  girders ;  the  joists  are  usually  spaced 
not  more  than  3  ft.  apart.  A  platform,  formed 
with  bearers  and  joists  carrying  boards  laid  flat 
and  close  together,  is  required,  on  which  the 
concrete  may  be  deposited,  and  which  is  left  till 
the  concrete  is  well  set.  Such  a  platform  may  be 
strutted  up  from  below,  like  an  ordinary  centre, 
but  may  also,  where  iron  joists  are  employed,  be 
veiy  easily  suspended  by  bolts  from  cross-pieces 
packed  up  from  the  joists  [7].  This  form  of 
centering  is  a  great  convenience,  because  the 
floor  below  is  not  encumbered  with  struts,  and, 
as  soon  as  moisture  has  ceased  to  drip  from  the 
cement,  work  may,  if  necessary,  be  carried  on 
there.  The  striking  is  also  easily  carried  out  by 
slacking  the  bolts.  The  centre  must  cover  the 
entire  area  to  be  concreted,  and  may,  if  necessary, 
be  constructed  so  as  to  show  some  panels  in  the 
ceiling  ;  but  it  should  be  fixed  so  that  nowhere 
is  there  less  than  2  in.  between  the  soffits  of 
the  joists  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  boarding. 
When  the  centre  is  ready,  the  concrete  is 
spread  evenly  over  the  boards  ;  care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  it  is  well  packed  under  the 
bottoms  of  the  joists  and  in  between  the  flanges, 
so  as  to  ensure  complete  protection.  It  is  desir- 
able that  the  upper  flanges  of  the  joists  should  be 
covered  by  the  concrete,  or  that  at  least  the 
concrete  be  brought  up  to  the  level  of  the  top  of 
the  upper  flange.  The  concrete  should  be  allowed 


BUILDING 

ample  time  to  set  before  the  centre  is  either  eased 
or  struck.  The  actual  time  will  depend  on  the 
nature  of  the  concrete,  but  seven  to  ten  days, 
at  least,  should  be  allowed.  After  the  centering 
is  removed,  the  concrete  is  left  with  a  fairly 
smooth  surface,  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  hack  it  over,  if  it  is  to  be  rendered  in  cement  or 
plaster,  in  order  to  secure  a  proper  key.  This 
floor  is  of  simple  construction  ;  it  is  extensively 
used,  and  is  satisfactory  where  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for  using  joists  of  any  great  depth. 

Protection  of  Main  Girders.  When 
the  small  joists  are  carried  in  turn  by  deeper 
girders,  these  latter  also  require  protection,  and 
this  is  done  in  a  variety  of  ways  ;  but  there  are 
two  principal  methods  of  dealing  with  them  in 
most  methods  of  construction.  The  first  is  to 
encase  the  portion  of  the  deeper  girder  that 
projects  below  the  general  ceiling  level,  so  that 
the  ceiling  is  formed  into  a  series  of  sunk  panels, 
separated  by  these  encased  beams  [7].  Where  the 
beams  can  be  symmetrically  arranged,  such  a 
treatment  is  satisfactory  from  both  a  practical 
and  an  artistic  point  of  view.  The  second  method 
is  to  conceal  these  beams  by  means  of  a  ceiling 
suspended  below  them,  or  supported  by  the 
lower  flange  [8]. 

Various  modifications  of  this  simple  form  of 
floor  have  been  introduced,  of  which  some 
examples  are  given. 

The  Columbian  floor  substitutes  for  the  ordinary 
H-section  for  joists  a  special  section  [9]. 
This  bar  is  rolled  in  different  sizes  for  different 
classes  of  work,  and  is  suspended  from  the  upper 
flange  of  the  main  girders  by  means  of  specially- 
made  stirrup  pieces.  These  bars  are  entirely 
encased  by  the  concrete.  Where  panelled  ceilings 
are  to  be  formed,  the  lower  flanges  of  the  deep 
joists  are  protected  by  concrete  slabs  suspended 
from  them  by  strips  of  metal  inserted  in  the 
slabs  when  cast  and  bent  down  to  grip  the 
flange,  and  the  sides  are  afterwards  encased 
in  concrete.  Where  a  flat  soffit  is  required,  the 
ceiling  is  first  formed  with  concrete  2£  in.  thick, 
in  which  1-in.  bars  are  embedded,  the  ends  bent 
up  somewhat  to  allow  of  the  bar  itself  being 
below  the  level  of  the  flange.  When  finished,  the 
upper  floor  is  formed  on  centering  resting  on  the 
ceiling  below,  and  openings  are  left  through 
which  this  centering  may  be  withdrawn,  and 
which  are  afterwards  closed  with  slabs. 

Roman's  Floors.  Two  varieties  of  these 
floors  may  here  be  referred  to.  In  the  first  of 
these,  ordinary  H-iron  joists  are  used,*  but  the 
webs  are  perforated  at  intervals  just  above  the 
lower  flange,  and  steel  tension  rods  passed 
through  them  [10].  These  are  surrounded  by  the 
concrete,  and  assist  in  taking  up  the  tensional 
strain,  which  the  concrete  is  not  well  adapted  to 
resist.  In  the  second  form  of  floor,  T-irons  are 
used,  the  flange  being  placed  downwards,  and 
the  web  not  being  straight  in  vertical  section,  but 
bent  or  corrugated  [11] ;  but  both  of  these  are  of 
the  nature  of  ferro-concrete,  and  tend  to  reinforce, 
not  merely  to  carry,  the  concrete. 

Floors  Formed  without  Tempo= 
rary  Centres.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
floors  designed  to  do  away  with  the  use  of 

47.V) 


BUILDING 

ti-  noorary  centering  find  at  the  same  time  to 
•.•(  onomise  the  amount  of  concrete  employed. 
In  all  of  these  iron  and  concrete  are  the  essential 
materials  for  the  floor,  but  in  many  of  them  terra- 
cotta is  introduced  in  the  form  of  lintels.  Several 
of  these  lintels  were  described  and  illustrated  in 
the  article  on  Terra-cotta  [page  2781].  The 
use  of  these  lintels  may  be  described  in  more 
detail,  and  the  difference  between  several  forms 
of  such  floors  is  mainly  in  the  character  and 
form  of  the  lintel  employed. 

Fawcett's  Floor.  This  is  formed  with  ordi- 
nary iron  or  steel  joists  placed  at  intervals  of  2  ft., 
and  these  may  be  fixed  before  the  lintels  are  placed 
in  position.  The  lintels  are  tubular  in  section,  and 
in  plan  are  in  the  form  of  a  rhomboid  designed  so 
that  the  shorter  diagonal  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  direction  of  the  girders,  and  this  allows  of  the 
lintels  being  raised  from  below  and  swung  into 
position.  The  lintels  [127,  page  2781]  have  flanges 
which,  when  in  position,  touch  each  other  laterally 
and  are  also  in  contact  with  the  ends  of  other 
lintels  in  the  bay  on  each  side.  They  form  a 
continuous  platform,  on  which  the  concrete  can 
be  deposited,  and  cover  the  lower  flange  of  the 
girder. 

The  tubular  form  given  to  the  lintel,  which  is 
provided  with  longitudinal  projecting  ribs,  is  a 
source  of  strength  to  it,  and  it  is  necessary  that 
the  lintel  be  strong  enough  to  support  the  con- 
crete, which  is  filled  in  between  and  around  the 
lintels,  until  it  has  set.  It  performs  also 
another  useful  function  in  reducing  the  mass 
of  concrete,  but  at  the  same  time  permits  of  a 
considerable  depth  of  concrete  in  the  spaces 
between  the  tubes.  At  these  points  also  the 
concrete  gets  a  direct  bearing  on  the  flange  of  the 
girder  at  each  end,  and  when  once  it  is  set,  the 
lintel  is  no  longer  any  appreciable  source  of 
strength  to  the  floor  ;  but  the  flat  soffit  is  useful 
for  forming  a  ceiling,  and  is  provided  with  dove- 
tailed grooves  to  give  a  key  for  plastering,  and 
the  girder  protection  which,  with  the  rather  thin, 
porous  terra-cotta  flanges,  is  none  too  complete, 
is  thus  increased. 

Homan's  Fireclay  Hollow  Brick 
Floor.  This  has  somewhat  similar  lintels,  but 
they  are  rectangular  in  plan,  and  in  cross - 
section  take  the  form  of  a  triangle  or  a  truncated 
triangle  [127,  page  2781];  they  also  form,  by 
means  of  the  lower  flange,  a  continuous  platform, 
which  passes  below  the  lower  flange  of  the  girder, 
and  protects  it.  The  material,  which  is  fireclay, 
tends  to  make  this  protection  efficient,  and  a 
very  considerable  proportion  of  concrete  is  saved 
by  this  form  of  floor.  The  soffit  may  be  plastered. 

Dawnay's  Solid  Tile  Floor.  This  also 
makes  use  of  lintels,  but  they  are  not  tubular,  but 
of  a  form  that  resembles  somewhat  the  section 
kiuuvn  as  bulbiron — a  broad  lower  flange,  a  web, 
and  a  somewhat  bulbous  upper  flange  [127,  page 
2781].  The  concrete  is  filled  in  between  the  webs, 
and  obtains  a  bearing  at  each  end  on  the  joist,  the 
llanyr  <'t  which  is  protected  by  the  lintel,  the  soffit 
of  which  may  also  l>r  plastered.  In  all  these  forms 
«>f  floors  their  '-fficiency  for  fire-resisting  depends 
on  the  lintels  remaining  unbroken,  so  that  the 
lower  llanos  of  the  _'inlers  remain  protected. 

4766 


Some  forms  of  floor,  instead  of  employing 
long  lintels  reaching  from  joist  to  joist,  use 
terra-cotta  blocks  arranged  as  a  flat  arch  with 
springers,  formed  so  as  to  fit  in  the  flanges  of  the 
girders  [see  illustration  on  page  2781],  and  con- 
crete is  filled  in  on  the  back.  Terra-cotta  springers 
to  protect  the  flanges  may  also  be  used  with 
brick  arches  between  the  joists ;  but  both  of 
these  forms  necessitate  a  somewhat  thick  floor, 
and  the  use  of  iron  ties  between  the  girders  to 
prevent  lateral  spreading  from  the  thrust  of  the 
arches  [12]. 

Floors  with  Iron  as  Centering. 
There  are  several  forms  of  floors  in  which  iron 
in  some  form  is  made  use  of  as  a  centering.  This 
may  consist  of  corrugated  iron,  as  in  Potter's  "  A  " 
floor,  in  which  the  sheets  are  bent  so  as  to  have 
a  .slightly  arched  form  [13].  In  this  floor  the  lower 
flange  of  the  joist  is  protected  by  two  blocks  of 
fireclay,  which  rest  on  the  flanges  on  each  side 
of  the  web,  and  meet  below  the  flange  and  pro- 
tect it ;  they  also  form  springers  to  receive  the 
iron  centres.  Special  iron  hangers  are  also 
provided,  the  upper  ends  made  to  fit  over  the 
top  of  the  springer,  the  lower  ends  turned  at  right 
angles,  and  with  a  perforation  on  each  just  above 
the  bend,  through  which  a  steel  lath  is  passed. 
From  these  laths  metal  lathing  is  suspended 
and  a  plaster  ceiling  is  formed,  giving  a  double 
protection  to  the  ironwork. 

Dovetailed  Metal  Lathing.  Another 
form  of  iron  centering  is  dovetailed  metal  lathing. 
This  consists  of  a  thin,  continuous  sheet  of  metal, 
bent  by  special  machinery  into  a  series  of  dove- 
tailed grooves,  which  form  a  continuous  series  of 
keys  for  plaster  or  concrete  on  either  side  of  the 
sheet  [14].  This  material  has  many  other  uses  in 
fire-resisting  work,  but  when  used  for  flooring,  the 
sheets,  which  are  usually  3  ft.  wide,  have  the  two 
edges  bent  up,  so  that  when  laid  between  tho 
flanges  of  two  girders,  the  general  surface  of  the 
sheeting  drops  below  the  level  of  the  girder 
flange,  and  to  give  a  key  under  the  flange  a 
special  metal  lath  with  serrated  edges  is  fixed. 

Concrete  is  filled  in  on  the  top  of  the  sheeting, 
and  fills  the  dovetailed  grooves  on  the  upj>er  side, 
while  those  on  the  under  side  give  a  key  for  the 
plaster  or  rendering  of  the  ceiling,  which  forms 
in  this  case  the  only  protection  to  the  flange  of 
the  joist.  Large  girders  may  be  efficiently  pro- 
tected with  the  help  of  this  material,  which  may 
be  fixed  round  the  girder  in  the  form  of  a  boxing, 
the  space  between  the  girder  and  the  boxing 
being  filled  with  concrete,  and  the  outside  rendered 
or  plastered.  The  dovetailed  lathing  materially 
adds  to  the  strength  of  the  concrete,  and  allows 
of  the  joists  being  spaced  further  apart  than  is 
the  case  with  many  floors. 

Lindsay's  Trough  Floor.  This  differs 
from  those  previously  mentioned,  as  it  depends  for 
its  strength  almost  exclusively  on  the  ironwork, 
the  concrete  being  used  to  protect  the  latter  [15]. 
The  ironwork  consists  of  a  series  of  troughs 
the  sides  of  which  are  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
120°,  and  the  sides  are  rolled  lighter  in  section 
than  the  bottom.  In  constructing  a  floor  the 
alternate  troughs  are  inverted  and  the  sides 
bolted  or  riveted  to  the  sides  of  the  adjoining 


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FIRE -RESISTING    CONSTRUCTION 


4757 


BUILDING 

troughs,  producing  a  series  of  ridges  and  furrows, 
and  forming  an  enormously  strong  floor  ;  this 
is  used  in  engineering  work  mainly,  but  is  useful 
to  the  architect  and  builder  where  a  floor  of 
no  great  depth  is  required  for  a  wide  span. 
Concrete  is  filled  into  the  upper  furrows,  and 
pipes  of  earthenware  or  terra-cotta  may  be 
introduced  to  reduce  the  bulk  of  the  concrete 
and  to  afford  passage-way,  if  necessary,  for 
pipes,  wires,  etc.  Where  it  is  required  to 
protect  the  under  side  of  the  floor,  concrete 
blocks  of  special  form  are  made  with  bolts 
embedded  in  them,  by  which  they  are  suspended 
from  the  flooring. 

Finishing  the  Soffits.  Except  in  work 
where  the  question  of  appearance  is  only  of 
the  slightest  importance,  the  under  side  of  the 
ceiling  requires  some  treatment  which  will  give 
it  a  smooth  and  even  appearance,  or  possibly  an 
ornamental  character.  It  may  be  finished  in 
plaster  with  mouldings  and  enrichments,  or  in 
fibrous  plaster,  or  sheeting  of  stamped  steel ; 
but  it  is  undesirable  that  the  plaster  should  be 
the  only  protection  to  the  steel  work  as,  under 
the  influence  of  heat,  it  is  apt  to  spall ;  this 
tendency  is  increased  by  the  application  of  a 
jet  of  water.  But  when  proper  protection  has 
been  secured  by  the  use  of  terra-cotta  blocks, 
concrete,  etc.,  plastering  very  usually  forms  the 
most  ready  means  of  treating  the  soffits  effec- 
tively. 

Finishing  the  Floor  Surface.  It 
has  been  pointed  out  that  it  is  desirable  for 
fire  protection  that  the  upper  flanges  of  the 
girders  should  not  be  higher  than  the  level  of 
the  top  of  the  concrete,  and  this  matter  has  an 
important  bearing  also  on  the  method  of  floor- 
ing. From  the  point  of  view  of  fire  protection, 
a  floor  laid  solidly  on  the  concrete  is  the  most 
satisfactory,  as  it  affords  no  air  space  in  which 
the  fire  can  spread  ;  but  to  make  this  possible 
it  is  essential  that  the  flanges  of  the  main  girders 
as  well  as  the  cross  joists  shall  not  project 
upwards  above  the  concrete.  Where  such  a 
flat  surface  is  secured  it  may  be  floated  over 
in  cement  and  covered  with  a  granolithic 
cement,  tiles,  mosaic,  or  blocks  of  wood,  with 
asphalt  or  even  stout  linoleum  for  internal  use, 
and  with  asphalt  or  vulcanite  for  external  use. 
Where  wood  is  employed  for  floors,  hard  wood 
is  most  suitable,  though  deal  and  pine,  if  laid  in 
blocks  2  in.  in  thickness  and  quite  solidly, 
will  form  a  satisfactory  floor.  The  methods  of 
laying  these  various  floors  have  been,  or  will 
be,  described  in  other  parts  of  this  course. 

Wood  Joist  Floors.  In  cases  where 
the  joists  stand  above  the  level  of  the  concrete 
it  is  impossible  to  lay  a  solid  floor,  and  the  usual 
method  is  to  lay  wood  sleepers  parallel  to  the 
line  of  the  joists,  and  deep  enough  to  stand 
above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  flange  ;  on 
these,  which  may  be  at  any  convenient  interval 
apart,  but  usually  about  6  ft.,  wood  joists  are 
laid,  and  a  grooved  and  tongued  boarded  floor. 
It  is  essential  that  the  space  between  the  floor 
and  the  concrete  be  efficiently  ventilated, 
otherwise  dry  rot  will  almost  certainly  arise  ; 
but  if  ventilation  is  provided,  and  the  fire  attacks 

4758 


the  floor  from  above,  its  spread  will  be  greatly 
facilitated,  and  this  form  of  floor  should  be 
avoided  in  buildings  where  full  protection  i* 
desired. 

Roofs.  The  efficient  construction  of  roofs 
with  a  view  to  fire-resistance  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  and  has  sometimes  been  neglected 
where  other  parts  of  the  structure  have  been 
efficiently  dealt  with.  It  is  not  sufficient  that 
a  roof  should  be  formed  with  non-combustible 
materials,  though  this  is  an  advance  upon  the 
common  form  of  roof,  the  construction  of  which 
is  carried  out  wholly  in  timber,  much  of  it  in 
small  scantlings,  covered  probably  with  boards 
carrying  some  non-combustible  roofing  material. 
But  the  cost  of  dealing  with  roofs  so  as  to  render 
them  fire-resisting  bears  a  higher  proportion  to 
the  cost  of  an  ordinary  roof  than  does  the  cost 
of  a  fire-resisting  floor  to  an  ordinary  one. 
It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  protect  ade- 
quately the  members  of  an  iron  or  steel  roof, 
framed  with  tie  rods  and  struts,  and  this 
can  hardly  be  done  unless  the  truss  falls  in  the 
line  of  a  partition.  Partly  to  render  protection  ' 
easier  and  to  provide  for  carrying  the  heavy 
load  due  to  the  use  of  concrete,  very  strongly 
framed  roofs  having  the  general  form  of  a 
mansard  roof  [see  CARPENTRY,  page  4253],  but 
usually  with  a  flat  top,  are  adopted.  These  are 
framed  with  iron  of  H-section,  with  plates  at 
the  angles  and  a  tie  beam  at  the  floor  level, 
and  are  often  arranged  to  embrace  two  stories 
with  an  upper  tie  beam  at  the  level  of  the  upper 
floor.  Such  principals  are  arranged  at  con- 
venient intervals  not  many  feet  apart,  and 
between  them  joists  of  small  section,  corre- 
sponding with  the  joists  in  a  floor,  are  fixed; 
the  concrete  is  filled  into  the  panels  thus 
formed,  covering  the  small  joists  and  carried 
round  the  principals  to  protect  them.  This  may 
be  filled  in  on  a  temporary  boarded  centre  or 
on  a  permanent  metal  centre,  such  as  the 
dovetailed  metal  lathing. 

Coverings  for  Concrete  Roofs.  In 
this  construction,  which  may  also  be  applied 
to  domes  and  other  forms  of  roof,  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  outer  surface  of  the  concrete 
in  the  slopes  and  the  upper  surface  of  flats  be 
in  a  uniform  plane,  as  in  the  case  of  floors,  so 
as  to  receive  the  roof  covering.  This  covering 
may  be  of  asphalt,  which  is  best  laid  in  two 
thin  coats,  and  may  be  used  for  flats  and  sloping 
surfaces ;  or  of  vulcanite,  which  is  used  for  flats 
only,  or  even  of  cement  rendering,  but  the  last 
is  not  so  permanent  or  reliable  as  the  others, 
but  is  cheaper.  All  these  are  laid  directly  on  the 
concrete.  For  sloping  roofs,  tiles  or  slates  may 
be  employed,  laid  on  the  concrete  or  on  battens 
or  on  fillets  of  breeze  concrete.  Where  a  flat 
is  adopted  the  surface  must  have  a  slight  fall 
to  throw  off  any  water  ;  if  the  flat  is  not  ex- 
tensive this  may  be  formed  by  thickening  the 
concrete  over  part  of  the  area  to  give  a  slope 
to  the  upper  surface  ;  but  with  a  wide  flat  this 
would  involve  too  great  a  waste  and  weight  of 
concrete,  and  the  fall  is  provided  in  the  framing 
of  the  truss,  and  a  suspended  ceiling  must  be 
provided  to  give  a  horizontal  internal  surface. 


Vertical  Partitions.  External  party  arid 
cross  walls  have  already  been  dealt  with,  but 
with  many  buildings  it  is  convenient  and  neces- 
sary to  subdivide  large  floor  areas  into  separate 
rooms  by  means  of  slighter  partitions,  which 
shall  nevertheless  be  fire-resisting,  the  aim  being 
to  endeavour  to  confine  any  outbreak  of  fire  to 
the  compartment  in  which  it  arises,  where  it  may 
be  more  easily  dealt  with,  or  may  possibly  burn 
itself  out. 

In  some  classes  of  buildings,  such  as  office 
blocks,  these  internal  partitions  are  not  planned 
with  the  main  walls,  but  large  floor  areas  are 
provided  that  may  be  afterwards  divided  up. 
In  these,  and  in  other  cases  where  numerous 
partitions  are  employed,  it  is  important  that 
they  should  be  light,  and  no  thicker  than  is 
essential  for  efficiency,  as  considerable  economy 
of  space  and  weight  is  thus  secured.  But  to  be 
thoroughly  fire-resisting,  a  thickness  of  3  in.  is 
generally  desirable. 

Partitions  of  Built  =  up  Blocks. 
Various  forms  of  partitions  are  made,  formed  with 
terra-cotta  blocks,  which  are  in  some  cases  hollow. 
These  are  made  of  light  porous  terra-cotta,  and 
are  built  up  to  form  a  thin  wall ;  they  are  usually 
provided  with  some  form  of  flange  to  interlock, 
and  some  of  them  are  provided  with  iron  rods, 
as  stiffeners,  which  pass  vertically  through  the 
blocks.  These  allow  of  rapid  construction,  and, 
if  the  faces  are  plastered,  form  partitions  capable 
of  resisting  the  spread  of  fire  for  a  considerable 
time.  Partitions  are  also  formed  with  slabs  of 
solid  material,  used  in  the  same  way  as  brick, 
such  as  terra-cotta,  of  the  porous  sort  already 
described,  or  of  various  patent  compositions  or 
forms,  such  as  Terrawode  or  the  Mack  partition. 

Terra wode  is  a  light  porous  terra-cotta,  made  by 
a  patent  process.  The  material  is  produced  in 
the  form  of  bricks,  which  are  of  standard  size,  but 
about  half  the  usual  weight,  and  which  may  be 
laid  in  mortar  like  ordinary  bricks,  and  plastered. 
It  is  claimed  for  this  material  that  it  is  not  only 
highly  fire-resisting,  but  it  is  also  sound  proof, 
and  that  nails  may  be  driven  into  it  for  fixing. 
It  is  also  supplied  in  the  form  of  slabs  for  par- 
titions [16]  and  stanchion  casing,  the  beds  of 
which  are  grooved  and  tongued  ;  these  are  set  in 
lime  putty,  and  may  be  plastered.  Lintels  for 
fireproof  floors  for  use  either  with  or  without 
concrete,  are  also  made  of  this  material. 

The  Mack  Partition  This  is  built  of  slabs  of 
gypsum,  and  in  them  reeds  are  embedded,  running 
from  end  to  end  of  the  slab,  which  is  made  6  ft.  or 
7  ft.  long,  and  1  ft.  high,  and  2  in.,  2|  in.,  or  2f  in. 
thick  [17].  The  lower  edge  is  provided  with  a  half 
round  tongue,  which  is  knocked  off  in  the  case  of 
the  lowest  slab  before  bedding  it,  and  the  upper 
edge  has  a  hollow  groove,  which  occurs  also  in 
both  ends.  The  slabs  are  bedded  in  plaster,  and 
the  heading  joints  grouted  in  plaster,  and  they 
may  readily  be  cut  to  any  required  length.  The 
reeds  give  cohesion  to  the  mass  of  plaster,  and 
make  it  light.  When  stopped  against  door 
frames,  a  fillet  may  be  spiked  to  the  frame,  to 
fit  into  the  groove,  which  may  be  grouted.  The 
surface  of  the  block  is  keyed  for  plaster,  or  may 
be  formed  with  a  finished  face  both  sides. 


BUILDING 

Thin  slabs  are  made  for  ceilings  from  f  in.  to 
1£  in.  thick,  also  4-in.  and  5-in.  slabs,  with  large 
circular  perforations  running  the  length  of  the 
slabs,  to  lighten  it  in  addition  to  the  reeds. 
The  5-in.  slabs  are  specialty  manufactured  for 
rendering  timber  joist  floors  fire -resisting,  as 
already  described  [5]. 

Metal  Lathing.  Various  forms  of  metal 
lathing  may  be  used,  strained  between  non- 
combustible  supports,  usually  of  iron,  which  are 
protected  by  the  plaster  or  cement  rendering  with 
which  the  lathing  is  covered. 

The  dovetailed  metal  lathing,  manufactured 
by  the  Fireproof  Company,  already  mentioned, 
makes  a  very  solid  partition  [18] ;  standards  are 
provided  of  H-iron  section  and  plates,  heads,  and 
wall  pieces  of  channel  iron  ;  these  are  arranged 
to  form  a  series  of  panels,  and  sheets  of  this 
lathing  are  fitted  in  between  them,  the  grooves 
running  horizontally.  In  fixing,  these  require 
to  be  carefully  secured  in  their  proper  posi- 
tion, relatively  to  the  standards,  by  vertical 
screeds  of  cement  at  each  standard,  which  must 
be  allowed  to  set  before  the  general  surface 
is  plastered  or  rendered.  The  rendering  is 
thick  enough  to  cover  not  only  the  lathing,  but 
the  standard  and  rails. 

Where  openings  occur  for  doors  and  borrowed 
lights,  solid  frames  are  used,  which  may  be  fixed 
to  the  standards  with  screws  before  the  lathing 
is  plastered  [21].  Skirtings  of  wood  will  be  avoided 
where  the  most  complete  protection  is  sought, 
but  in  many  buildings  they  are  employed,  and 
may  be  fixed  by  means  of  screws  driven  through 
the  partitions  into  the  back  of  the  skirting  on  the 
other  side  [19],  or  to  hard  wood  dovetailed  strips, 
cut  so  as  to  fit  one  of  the  grooves  in  the  sheeting, 
and  inserted  before  it  is  put  into  position  [20]. 
Where  required,  picture  rails,  dado  rails,  etc., 
may  be  fixed  in  the  same  way,  the  strips  taking 
the  place  of  ordinary  grounds.  The  plaster  or 
rendering  may  be  taken  over  them,  so  that  they 
are  not,  under  any  circumstances,  exposed  to 
the  action  of  fire. 

Uralite.  This  is  a  material  of  comparatively 
recent  introduction  that  is  used  for  covering  par- 
titions, and  may  be  used  for  external  and  internal 
work.  It  is  composed  of  asbestos  fibre  cemented 
by  mineral  glue,  and  has  been  extensively  used  for 
all  sorts  of  fire-resisting  purposes.  It  is  prepared  in 
sheets  6  ft.  by  3  ft.  and  in  thickness  from  /j  in. 
to  f  in.,  and  also  in  strips  3  in.  wide.  It  is  made 
in  a  hard  and  a  soft  quality,  and  finished  in 
different  colours,  and  may  be  obtained  combined 
with  a  veneer  of  wood.  When  used  for  external 
walls,  the  sheets  have  the  vertical  joints  carefully 
butted  and  nailed,  the  nails  being  from  2^  in.  to 
3  in.  apart,  and  the  joints  may  be  rubbed  down 
and  stopped  with  ordinary  stopping.  The 
horizontal  joints  are  lapped  1|-  in.  to  3  in.  For 
internal  partitions,  horizontal  and  vertical  joints 
may  be  butted,  rubbed  down,  and  stopped. 
Increased  protection  is  given  by  covering  the 
timbers  of  the  framing  with  strips  of  soft  uralite 
3  in.  wide.  When  used  on  roofs,  greater  care  is 
required  in  protecting  the  joints.  The  horizontal 
joints  are  lapped  4  in.  to  6  in.,  and  the  butt 
joints  are  covered  with  hard,  waterproofed  strips 

4759 


BUILDING 

bedded  in  white  or  red  lead.  Tilting  pieces  and 
cover  pieces  are  supplied  in  uralite,  but  ridges, 
etc.,  are  formed  with  zinc,  tile,  slate  or  iron. 

A  somewhat  cheaper  material,  in  which 
asbestos  is  mixed  with  Portland  cement,  is  made 
by  the  same  firm,  and  is  known  as  Kent  slab ; 
it  is  slightly  thicker,  and  becomes  very  hard.  It 
is  applied  in  the  same  way. 

Openings  in  Fire=resisting  Walls. 
The  openings  in  fire-resisting  walls  and  partitions. 
however  carefully  dealt  with,  seriously  diminish 
the  fire-resisting  qualities  of  the  structure.  Fire 
is  readily  spread  by  means  of  such  openings, 
and  where  the  efficient  protection  of  valuable  pro- 
}>erty  requires  the  greatest  possible  precautions, 
care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  fire  spreading 
through  them,  not  only  within  a  building  through 
its  doors,  but,  in  the  case  of  narrow  streets  and 
areas,  from  building  to  building  through  the 
windows. 

External  openings  are  the  most  difficult  to  deal 
with,  because  they  are  of  necessity  large,  to  give 
adequate  light  when  used  by 
day.  Any  screens  or  shutters 
closing  such  openings  must 
be  capable  of  being  opened 
to  their  full  extent,  so  as 
not  to  obstruct  the  access  of 
light. 

Sheet  iron  was  at  one 
time  used  for  such  pur- 
poses, but  unless  the  edges 
are  very  firmly  held,  such 
doors  are  liable  to  twist, 
and  may  even  force  out  the 
fixings  from  the  walls.  Any 
door  which  twists  and  ceases 
to  lie  flat  against  the  frame 
or  jamb  of  the  opening  will 
allow  air  to  pass,  and  with 
the  air  flames  or  inflammable 
gas.  A  shutter  or  door,  2  in.  thick,  of  hard  wood, 
will  resist  the  attack  of  fire  for  a  considerable 
time  if  it  fits  close  in  a  frame  with  a  deep  rebate ; 
but  the  metal  hinges  and  fittings  used  with  such 
doors  are  apt  to  become  red-hot  and  destroy 
the  wood  around  them  in  time,  and  become 
loose,  and  they  should,  therefore,  be  firmly  bolted 
through,  not  merely  screwed. 

Forms  of  Fire  =  resisting  Doors. 
Shutters  formed  with  a  frame  of  channel  ironr 
in  which  two  sheets  of  corrugated  iron,  made  with 
very  small  corrugations,  are  fixed,  and  the 
space  between  them  tightly  packed  with  slag 
wool,  have  been  employed.  Both  shutters  and 
doors  are  now  frequently  built  up  of  wood,  and 
covered  with  sheets  of  tinned  steel  The  illus- 
tration [23]  shows  such  a  door  made  by  Messrs. 
Mather  &  Plate  The  doors  are  formed  of  two 
or  three  thicknesses  of  deal  tongued  and  grooved 
.-uul  nailed  together.  They  are  covered  with  the 
tinned  steel  sheets,  which  have  welted  joints 
[22],  and  are  fixed  with  screws  which  are 
roven-d  by  the  joints  and  do  not  show; 


23.    AUTOMATIC  CLOSING  DOOR 
'Mather  &  Platt) 


this  allows  the  sheets  to  expand,  but  not 
to  become  loose.  Such  doors  may  be  arranged 
to  swing  or  slide;  the  swing  doors  are  fixed 
with  strong  strap  hinges,  and  are  provided 
with  double  latches,  so  that  the  door  is  held 
near  both  top  and  bottom.  Sliding  doors  have 
strong  hangers,  by  which  they  are  suspended 
from  a  metal  runner,  and  by  giving  an  inclina- 
tion to  the  runner  they  may  be  made  self-closing. 
When  intended  to  act  automatically,  these  doors 
are  fitted  with  a  counterpoise,  attached  by  an 
inflammable  cord.  On  the  burning  of  this  cord  the 
door  will  close  by  its  own  weight ;  but  this  may 
occur  too  late  to  prevent  the  passage  of  fire,  and 
to  ensure  complete  protection  care  must  be 
taken  to  provide  for  closing  regularly  all  such 
doors  and  shutters  nightly.  A  guide  must  be 
provided  both  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  door 
to  ensure  its  keeping  close  to  the  wall,  and  when 
closed  its  edge  should  fit  into  guides  near  the  top 
and  bottom,  and  overlap  the  opening  by  at  least 
3  in.  all  round.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  a 
sill  provided  against  the 
bottom  of  the  door  or  wall 
as  for  the  head  and  jamb. 

Doors  are  also  made  in 
this  form  with  a  layer  of 
uralite  placed  between  the 
woodwork  and  the  steel 
sheathing.  A  door  of  this 
kind  can  hardly  be  made  an 
attractive  object,  and  when 
appearance  is  of  importance 
wooden  doors  may  have  to 
be  resorted  to,  and  though 
they  do  not  give  so  thorough 
a  protection  as  an  armoured 
door,  may,  if  carefully  con- 
structed, offer  a  continued 
resistance  to  fire  for  a  con- 
siderable time. 
Built  =  up  Wood  Doors.  The  flush- 
framed,  2  in.  hardwood  door  has  already  been 
described.  Another  form  is  one  built  up  of  three 
thicknesses  of  wood  securely  fastened  to  each 
other  with  wood  pegs  to  avoid  the  use  of  nails  on 
unprotected  surfaces. 

The  Gilmour  doors  are  framed  with  a  core  of 
pine,  not  used  in  boards,  but  in  thin  strips  glued 
together  side  by  side.  The  core  is  surrounded 
with  asbestos  sheeting  nailed  to  it,  and  upon 
this  a  veneer  of  oak  is  glued  and  pressed  under 
hydraulic  pressure.  Both  flush-framed  and 
panelled  doors  may  be  formed  in  this  way. 
A  panelled  door  with  panels  formed  in  the  same 
way  and  only  \  in.  thick  resisted  the  action  of 
a  fire  which  attained  a  temperature  of  from 
1,500°  to  1,600°  F.  for  50  minutes  when  tested  by 
the  British  Fireproof  Committee 

Greatly  increased  protection  is  afforded  by 
using  doors  in  pairs,  one  on  each  face  of  the 
opening  to  be  protected,  forming  a  small  lobby 
between  the  two  which  is  entirely  lined  with 
incombustible  materials. 


Fn:r.-iiK-i<nv:  CONSTRUCTION  concluded;  followed  by  SLATE  AND  TILE  WORK 


CROMWELL  &  HIS  SUCCESSOR 

The  Republic  and  the  Restoration.     A  Tremendous  Personality  and  the 
Force  Behind  It.     Some  Famous  Events  in  the  Reign  of  Charles  II. 


Group  15 

HISTORY 
33 


Continued  from 
page  4553 


By  JUSTIN  MCCARTHY 


CROMWELL  at  last  brought  the  civil  war  to 
an  end,  his  closing  work  being  accomplished 
in  Ireland,  where  the  severity  and  cruelty  of 
his  repressive  measures  make  his  memory  there 
odious  to  this  day.  The  contest  with  his  Parlia- 
ment he  brought  to  a  sudden  end  by  forcible 
expulsion  in  1653. 

The  Commonwealth.  Being  anxious  to 
give  some  aspect  of  constitutionalism  to  his  rule, 
he  summoned  a  Puritan  Convention,  or  Assembly, 
which  promptly  received  the  nickname  of 
"  Barebones  Parliament  "  ;  but  even  this  con- 
vention could  not  work  in  harmony  with  Crom- 
well, and  the  "  Barebones  Parliament  "  was  also 
dismissed,  and  Cromwell  wras  declared  Protector 
of  England  on  December  16th,  1653.  A  sort  of 
constitution  was  drawn  up  which  provided  that 
the  government  of  the  country  should  consist  of  a 
single  ruler,  with  one  House  of  Parliament  and  a 
Council  of  State,  the  members  of  which  were  to 
be  named  by  the  Protector,  but  elected  by  the 
Parliament.  The  Protector  was  to  be  allowed 
the  right  of  passing  legislative  measures  while 
Parliament  was  not  sitting,  and  this  right  was 
much  used  by  Cromwell  for  the  rapid  carrying 
through  of  measures  which  seemed  to  him 
necessary.  When  the  Parliament,  such  as  it 
was,  met  again,  several  members  raised  questions 
as  to  Cromwell's  exercise  of  authority,  a  diffi- 
culty which  Cromwell  met  by  excluding  all 
members  who  refused  to  accept  its  conditions. 

The  next  Parliament  which  was  summoned 
proved  their  devotion  to  him  by  actually  offer- 
ing him  the  title  of  King.  Cromwell  seemed  at 
first  inclined  to  give  the  proposal  some  con- 
sideration, but  the  great  majority  of  the  soldiers 
on  whom  he  mainly  relied  were  Republican,  and 
he  ultimately  declined  the  title. 

Cromwell's  Difficulties.  He  next 
restored  the  Upper  House  of  the  Legislature, 
and  the  grateful  Parliament  voted  him  a 
fixed  revenue,  and  installed  him  as  Protector. 
But  when  Parliament  met  again  there  began 
a  struggle  between  the  two  Houses,  whereupon 
Cromwell  resorted  to  his  familiar  policy  and  dis- 
solved it  on  January  20th,  1658.  From  that  time 
he  rested  his  authority  on  the  support  of  the  army. 

Cromwell's  political  troubles  were  as  great  as 
before.  He  had  constant  evidence  that  there 
were  schemes  going  on  for  the  organisation  of 
armed  movements  on  behalf  of  the  Royalist  cause. 
Under  different  conditions  Cromwell  might 
have  made  a  successful  and  beneficent  arbitrary 
ruler,  but  the  endeavour  to  obtain  anything  like 
a  compromise  between  religious  hostilities, 
between  the  advocates  of  monarchy  and  the 
advocates  of  republicanism,  was  too  much  for 
him.  He  was  able,  however,  to  declare  Scot- 
land and  Ireland  to  be  part  of  the  British 


kingdom,  giving  to  both  a  nominal  right  of 
representation  in  Parliament. 

His  foreign  policy  had  made  England  more 
powerful  in  Europe  than  ever  she  had  been 
before.  He  concluded  many  treaties  advan- 
tageous for  England,  and  made  the  Common- 
wealth the  leader  and  the  guardian  of  Pro- 
testant Europe.  He  endeavoured  to  form  a 
league  of  the  Protestant  States  of  Europe 
against  all  opponents,  made  peace  with  Holland, 
and  protected  the  Waldenses  and  other  small 
Protestant  populations  against  the  oppression 
of  Catholic  sovereigns.  The  victories  of  Admiral 
Blake,  in  1656,  over  the  Spaniards,  against  whom 
Cromwell  had  allied  himself  with  France,  brought 
fame  and  money  to  the  Commonwealth. 

The  Rule  of  One  Strong  Man.  His 
was  the  rule  of  the  one  strong  man,  and  so  long 
as  he  lived  it  seemed  to  be  firm  and  secure  in 
England.  But  the  time  had  gone  when  such  a 
rule  could  be  long  maintained  over  the  English 
people,  and  the  man  himself  was  soon  to  pass 
away.  Cromwell  had  worn  out  his  vigour  by 
incessant  over-exertion,  while  he  had  long  been 
suffering  from  heavy  maladies.  On  September 
3rd,  1658,  his  life  came  to  an  end  in  the  sixteenth 
year  of  his  reign.  After  the  Restoration  his  body 
was  disentombed,  was  actually  exposed  on  a 
gibbet  at  Tyburn,  the  public  place  of  execution 
for  malefactors,  and  was  then  buried  there.  The 
Commonwealth  which  Cromwell  had  created,  and 
which  he  alone  could  have  maintained,  passed  out 
of  existence  almost  immediately  after  his  death. 

The  great  Protector  had  three  sons — Robert, 
Oliver,  and  Richard — but  the  second  and  the 
eldest  son  had  died  before  their  father,  and  he 
nominated  Richard  as  his  successor.  But  the 
work  of  maintaining  the  Commonwealth  would 
have  been  too  severe  even  for  a  man  of  the 
highest  statesmanship,  and  Richard  Cromwell 
was  not  such  a  man.  He  had  no  capacity  or 
inclination  for  rulership,  and  he  had  only  just 
entered  on  the  Protectorship  when  army  and 
Parliament  alike  showed  impatience  at  his 
attempt  to  rule.  Seeing  that  the  crisis  was 
beyond  his  control,  he  abdicated  in  May,  1659. 

Reaction.  After  the  death  of  Richard 
Cromwell  the  country  was  broken  up  into 
factions.  Military  government  fell  asunder  when 
the  one  man  who  could  have  sustained  it 
was  removed  from  the  living  scene.  The  sup- 
porters of  the  Stuarts  were  stiU  powerful,  and 
the  legitimate  successor  to  the  throne  of  England, 
Charles  II.,  was  ready  for  the  restoration  of 
Royalty.  Under  the  conditions  of  such  a  time 
it  was  but  natural  that  the  reaction  from  the 
Commonwealth  should  look  to  the  restoration 
of  the  Stuart  dynasty  as  the  only  hope  for 
the  re -establishment  of  peace  and  order.  The 

4761 


HISTORY 

hour  was  propitious  for  a  change,  and  the  man 
soon  came  forward.  This  man  was  General 
George  Monk,  afterwards  Duke  of  Albemarle. 
Monk  was  a  soldier  of  much  and  various  experi- 
< -ix •('.  He  had  seen  service  for  some  years  in  the 
Dutch  army,  and,  returning  to  England,  com- 
m.-'.ndod  a  regiment  to  suppress  rebellion  in 
Ireland.  He  was  employed  to  complete  the 
subjugation  of  Scotland,  and  soon  after  he  won 
two  great  battles  at  sea  over  the  famous  Dutch 
Admiral,  Van  Tromp,  England  being  then  en- 
gaged in  one  of  her  wars  against  Holland. 

The  Restoration.  After  Cromwell's  death, 
Monk,  who  was  then  Governor  of  Scotland  under 
the  Commonwealth,  crossed  the  border  on  New 
Year's  Day,  1660,  with  an  army  of  6,000  men, 
and  straightway  marched  upon  London,  which 
he  entered  without  opposition.  His  intention 
was  to  restore  the  Stuart  dynasty,  and  he 
Lily  realised  that  if  he  made  a  determined 


effort  he  would  have  the  majority  of  the  nation 
with  him.  He  played  a  dexterous  part  in  endea- 
vouring to  make  a  compromise  with  the  supporters 
of  the  Commonwealth  ;  but  he  soon  proclaimed 
himself  the  champion  of  the  Stuart  restoration, 
and  invited  Charles  II.  to  return  to  England  and 
claim  his  throne.  On  May  26th,  1660,  Charles 
landed  at  Dover,  and  the  national  revolt  against 
military  despotism  secured  him  the  throne. 

Charles  was  born  at  St.  James's  Palace,  on 
May  21st,  1630.  After  the  death  of  his  father 
he  spent  a  wandering  life  abroad,  although  he 
made  several  attempts  to  regain  the  throne. 
He  escaped  to  France,  where  he  spent  some 
years,  and  afterwards  to  Germany  and  the 
Low  Countries.  Then,  at  length,  came  the 
death  of  Cromwell,  the  hopeless  attempt  at 
rule  of  Richard  Cromwell,  the  movement  of 
General  Monk,  and  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
to  the  throne.  But  Charles  was  not  the  man  to 
turn  to  good  account  the  great  chance  which 
fortune  had  thus  forced  upon  him.  His  main 
desire  was  for  a  life  of  luxury  and  amusement, 
and  he  was  unfitted  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  state. 
He  was  for  many  years  greatly  under  the 
influence  of  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon, 
the  lawyer,  statesman,  and  historian,  whose 
influence  injured  the  popularity  of  Charles  with 
his  own  people  and  brought  him  into  small  and 
meaningless  wars.  In  one  of  these,  the  war 
with  the  Dutch,  Commander  De  Ruyter 
actually  sailed  up  the  Thames  and  destroyed 
some  warships  then  lying  at  Chatham.  Under 
the  influqpce  of  Clarendon  a  peace  was  made 
with  Holland  which  left  both  England  and 
Holland  in  financial  straits,  and  raised  France 
once  again  to  a  high  and  commanding  position. 

The  Cabal  Ministry.  After  the  down- 
fall of  Clarendon,  Charles,  under  the  influence 
of  the  "  Cabal  "  Ministry — composed  of  Clifford, 
Arlington,  Buckingham,  Ashley  Cooper  and 
Lauderdale — entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with 
France,  and  became  a  pensioner  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  feeling  against  France  was  all  the  time 
becoming  stronger  and  stronger  in  England,  and 
he  was  compelled  to  consent  to  the  marriage  of 
his  niece  Mary  with  William  Prince  of  Orange. 

Coniinu 

4702 


The  greatest  man  of  the  reign  was,  perhaps, 
John  Milton,  the  influence  of  whose  poems  and 
prose  works  alike  told  heavily  against  the  develop- 
ment of  that  spirit  of  selfish  and  sensuous 
indulgence  by  which  it  was  distinguished. 

Plague  and  Fire.  Among  the  distress- 
ing events  of  the  time  were  the  Plague  of 
1665,  which  caused  the  death  of  some  70,000 
persons  in  London  alone,  and  the  Great  Fire  of 
the  following  year,  which  destroyed  nearly 
14,000  houses  in  London.  Another  event  of  the 
reign  was  the  famous  "  Popish  Plot  "  of  Titus 
Oates,  who,  in  1678,  professed  to  have  discovered 
a  scheme  among  the  Catholics  for  the  wholesale 
massacre  of  Protestants,  the  burning  of  London, 
the  assassination  of  the  King,  and  the  occupation 
of  Ireland  by  a  French  army.  Titus  Oates 
became,  with  the  popular  party,  the  hero  of 
the  hour,  and  on  his  evidence,  and  that  of 
other  informers,  many  leading  Catholics  were 
tried,  convicted,  and  imprisoned  or  executed. 
On  November  30th  a  Bill  was  passed  for  "  Dis- 
abling Papists  from  sitting  in  either  Houses  of 
Parliament."  In  March,  1679,  the  Bill  to 
exclude  the  Duke  of  York  from  the  throne  was 
brought  in.  It  was  deferred  by  the  King,  but 
was  passed  through  the  Commons  in  the  Novem- 
ber of  the  following  year  and  rejected  by  the 
Lords.  In  December,  Lord  Stafford,  the  most 
notable  victim  of  the  Popish  Plot,  was  executed. 
But  the  tide  soon  turned  against  Oates ;  he  was 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  and  only 
released  after  the  Revolution  of  1688. 

Habeas  Corpus  Act.  The  one  really  great 
measure  with  which  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  is 
associated  is  the  passing  of  the  Habeas  Corpus 
Act,  founded  on  Section  29  of  Magna  Charta — • 
"  For  the  better  security  of  the  liberty  of  the 
subject."  This  Act,  which  was  passed  in  1679, 
provided  that  any  person  imprisoned  by  the 
order  of  any  court,  or  even  of  the  sovereign, 
may  have  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  to  bring  him 
before  one  of  the  regular  courts  of  law,  which 
should  consider  the  case  and  decide  whether 
the  committal  was  just  or  unjust.  It  was  also 
provided  that  the  Act  could  be  suspended  by 
Parliament  for  a  specified  time  in  any  national 
crisis  or  emergency. 

There  were  some  victims  to  panic  and  passion 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  whose  names  must 
for  ever  be  treasured  with  honour  in  England. 
One  of  these  was  Lord  William  Russell,  third 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  who  at  the  Restora- 
tion was  elected  a  member  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. This  was  during  the  famous  conspiracy 
known  as  the  Rye  House  Plot,  a  plot  to  murder 
the  King  and  the  Duke  of  York  at  the  Rye 
House,  in  Hertfordshire.  It  "was  formed  by 
some  of  the  extreme  Whigs  in  1683,  after  the 
failure  of  the  Exclusion  Bill.  The  plot  failed,  but 
although  the  charge  against  Russell,  Sidney,  and 
Essex  was  entirely  unfounded,  they  and  others 
were  convicted  and  sentenced  to  death. 

Charles  died  on  Friday,  February  6th,  1685, 
leaving  no  children  by  his  marriage  with 
Catherine  of  Braganza,  daughter  of  John  of 
Portugal,  in  1662. 


THE  HOSIERY   FACTORY 

Warp  Frames.    Circular  Hosiery  Frames.    A  Series  of  Circular  Knitting; 
Frames.      Improvements    and    New   Inventions   in    Hosiery   Machines 

Group  28 

TEXTILES 
33 

Continued  from 
ptige  46i£i 

By  W.    S.    MURPHY 


limitation  is  natural  to  the  hosiery 
machine ;  every  knitting  frame  is  con- 
structed to  produce  a  particular  class  of  work. 
When  a  weaver  wishes  to  change  the  kind  or 
character  of  the  fabric  he  has  been  weaving  into 
something  different,  he  requires,  as  a  rule,  only 
to  change  the  mountings  of  his  loom,  and 
sometimes  not  even  so  much.  The  knitter,  on 
the  contrary,  constructs  his  frame  for  a  given 
kind  of  fabric,  and  cannot  change  it  except  at 
very  serious  cost.  This  fact  partly  explains 
why  there  are  so  many  hosiery  machines. 

Warp  Frames.  Most  knitting  frames  are 
constructed  to  manipulate  a  single  thread ; 
but  when  Crane,  of  Edmonton,  invented  his  warp 
frame  in  1775,  he  brought  a  new  and  highly 
important  principle  into  the  hosiery  trade. 
Henson  thus  describes  the  machine :  "  The 
star  boxes  and  falling  bar  were  taken  away  from 
the  common  stocking  frame,  and  the  lockers 
were  fastened  up  to  prevent  the  jacks  from 
falling.  A  series  of  guides,  of  the  same  number 
and  gauge  as  the  needles  of  the  frame,  with 
holes  in  their  ends,  were  fixed  on  a  bar  near  the 
heads  of  the  needles.  At  the  top  was  a  warp  beam 
furnished  with  as  many  threads  as  there  were 
needles,  and  a  machine  to  guide  these  warp 
threads  to  the  needles,  each  passing  through 
its  own  guide.  A  part  of  the  machine  was 
adapted  to  make  each  thread  to  form  a  loop 
like  that  which  schoolboys  make  on  a  string. 
This  alone  would  have  produced  only  a  series 
of  looped  strings.  But  by  other  movements  a 
spring  was  applied,  and  the  guides  were  re- 
moved one  needle  to  the  right  or  left  at  pleasure  ; 
and  the  same  movement  being  repeated  in  loop- 
ing, the  two  next  and  every  next  loop  was  con- 
joined to  itc  fellow  loop.  By  removing  the  guides 
two  or  more  needles  to  the  right,  and  then 
working  the  same  number  of  courses  to  the  left, 
a  knitted  web  was  produced  of  zigzag  angular 
texture,  and  varied  coloured  stripes  could  be 
made." 

The  Value  of  the  Warp  Frames.  No 
one  who  considers  attentively  the  structure  of 
this  machine  can  fail  to  be  struck  with  its 
singular  adaptability  to  all  cloth-making  pur- 
poses. When  James  Tarrat,  a  famous  mechanic, 
added  treadles  to  the  frame,  in  1785,  and  other- 
wise increased  its  productive  power,  it  was 
generally  perceived  that  a  great  step  had  been 
taken  in  the  production  of  knitted  fabrics. 
Not  only  so,  but  the  basis  of  the  machine  lace 
industry  was  laid  when  this  machine  was  con- 
structed. Rotary  power  was  applied  to  the  warp 
frame  chiefly  through  the  invention  of  William 
Dawson,  a  Leicester  framework  knitter,  to  whom 
the  hosiery  trade  owes  an  immense  debt. 


Cotton's  Warp  Frames.  Among  the 
other  numerous  inventors  who  progressively 
assisted  to  develop  the  usefulness  of  the  warp 
frame  Luke  Barton  stands  out  as,  perhaps, 
the  most  conspicuous  till  William  Cotton, 
of  Loughborough,  gave  the  results  of  his 
genius  and  labours  to  the  world.  Cotton's 
warp  frame,  with  improvements  and  addi- 
tions, is  one  of  the  principal  frames  at  present 
in  use.  Of  the  modifications,  which  scarcely 
affect  the  body  of  the  frame,  we  shall  not  treat. 
The  details  of  the  frame  itself  are  worth  the 
closest  attention,  embodying  as  they  do  most 
of  the  ideas  which  are  to  be  found  in  all  our 
newest  machines.  The  needles,  instead  of  being 
horizontal,  are  set  perpendicularly  in  front  of  the 
presser  bar,  which  is  stationary,  and  press  them- 
selves against  it.  .  On  the  old  frames  the  sinkers 
are  hanging  on  the  jacks,  but  in  this  machine 
sinkers  and  jacks  are  separated.  Placed  be- 
hind the  needles,  the  jacks  are  fixed  on  a  wire, 
the  ends  over  the  slur  bar,  along  which  runs 
the  slur  cock,  and  forces  them  up.  Furnished 
with  round  heads,  the  jacks,  as  they  come  for- 
ward, strike  on  the  sinkers,  bringing  them  down 
to  form  the  loops.  By  the  operation  of  a  locking 
bar,  the  lead  sinkers  divide  the  loops  with  the 
jack  sinkers ;  the  needles  are  brought  down  to  a 
lower  level  than  the  divided  loops,  the  beards 
being  pressed  in  the  act ;  then  the  loops  are 
borne  over  the  needle  heads  by  means  of  the 
fixed  appliances.  A  new  course  is  thus  formed, 
and  a  range  of  stitches  added  to  the  web.  The 
widening  and  narrowing  apparatus  consists  of 
ticklers,  finely  adjusted  as  to  obey  a  side  move- 
ment, either  way,  the  distance  of  one  needle,  in 
any  gauge,  and  to  remove  or  put  on  any  number 
of  stitches  which  may  be  required. 

Rotary  Rib=top  Frame.  This  is  one  of 
the  finest  examples  of  the  rotary  machine  [216]. 
As  may  be  generally  known,  the  ribbed  heads  of 
stockings,  the  gussets,  wristbands,  and  other 
fittings  of  underclothing,  are  made  separately, 
and  joined  on  to  the  main  pieces  afterwards. 
On  the  rib-top  machine,  Strutt's  ribbing  appliance 
is  made  automatically  perfect.  The  upright 
ribbing  needles  play  in  upon  the  horizontal 
needles  of  the  frame  with  incredible  rapidity, 
and  fine  accuracy.  The  action  of  the  slur 
is  reversed ;  it  runs  over,  not  under,  the  jacks, 
which  are  steadied  by  springs  from  behind. 
Sinker  and  jack  are  joined  firmly  together,  or 
made  in  one  piece,  thus  imparting  to  the  former 
an  accuracy  of  movement  not  attainable  with 
the  jointed  sinker.  All  the  operations  in  thin 
frame  follow  each  other  automatically,  whether 
forming  the  welt,  putting  in  the  splicing  course, 
or  striping. 

4763 


TEXTILES 

Circular  Hosiery  Frames.  The  most 
popular  knitting  machine  is  the  circular  frame. 
Invented  by  Sir  Marc  Isambard  Brunei,  the 
great  engineer,  in  1816,  as  a  mere  pastime, 
probably  to  see  if  he  could  re-invent  the  knitting 
frame  or  not,  it  lay  unheeded  for  nearly  thirty 
years.  Brunei  is  universally  credited  with  the 
invention,  but  there  is  a  serious  dispute  as  to  the 
merits  and  precedents  of  the  improvers  and 
introducers  of  the  machine  into  the  trade.  A 
tradition  exists  in  Leicester  that  a  native  of  that 
town,  named  Griswold,  made  the  machine  really 
industrial ;  but  Felkin,  the  supreme  authority 
on  the  subject,  traces  a  direct  line  of  successive 
improvers,  from  Arthur  Paget,  of  Lough- 
borough,  through  Peter  Claussen,  of  Brussels, 
Thomas  Thompson,  of  Nottingham,  Moses 
Mellor,  W.  C.  Gist,  and  Edward  Attenborough, 
down  to  thirty  years  ago.  Later  authors  make 
the  Bickford  the  standard  circular  machine. 
From  America  improved  frames  are  brought  over 
and  patented  year  by  year.  Our  business  is  not 
to  adjudicate  the  claims  of  rival  inventors,  but 
to  study  the  machines  they  have  produced. 

Brunei's  Round  Hosiery  Machine. 
We  elect  to  examine  this  invention  out  of  no  his- 
torical curiosity,  but  because  the  principle  of  this 
important  class  of  knitting  frames  is  most  clearly 
exhibited  in  the  original  machine.  The  needles 
are  of  a  common  bearded  shape,  and  firmly  set 
on  the  outer  rim  of  a  wheel  suspended  from, 
and  fixed  to,  a  rotating  spindle.  The  wheel 
may  be  of  any  diameter,  and  the  needles,  placed 
in  a  concentric  manner,  are  set  at  distances  varied 
according  to  the  quality  of  work  to  be  produced. 
Another  wheel  moves  upon  the  spindle,  carrying 
arms  and  knitting  appliances,  as  well  as  the  yarn 
which  feeds  the  machine.  As  the  thread  is  de- 
livered it  is  pressed  down  between  the  needles 
by  pallets  and  carried  under  the  hooks.  By  an 
oblique  movement  the  thread  is  pushed  to  the 
extremity  of  the  needles  by  the  first  arm  of  the 


wheel  described.  The  second  arm  carries  a 
small  wheel  with  long  teeth  like  radii.  The 
solid  part  of  this  wheel  presses  the  needle  beards 
into  their  grooves,  and,  taking  the  web,  slides 
each  stitch  up  to  the  heads  of  the  needles.  A 
third  arm,  carrying  a  wheel,  throws  the  stitches 
over  the  hooks.  Several  sets  of  these  wheels 
may  be  fixed  round  the  spindle  wheel. 

Process  of  Improvement.  Paget  in- 
troduced an  upright  cylinder,  with  needles  placed 
round  and  moved  upwards  in  succession,  the 
beards  being  subjected  to  a  pressing  motion 
as  the  needles  returned  to  the  lower  position. 
Peter  Claussen,  besides  making  a  new  form  of 
feed  wheel,  varied  sizes  of  pressure  wheels,  and 
comb  pieces,  attached  an  apparatus  for  winding 
up  the  web.  Thompson  devised  a  ribbing 
appliance  for  the  circular  machine,  and  used  the 
tumbler  needle.  Mellor  placed  the  needles 
perpendicularly,  and  operated  upon  them 
from  the  outside  by  an  indented  loop-wheel 
roller.  Attenborough  produced  a  series  of  cir- 
cular frames  containing  many  improvements, 
which  are  in  use  at  the  present  day.  Similarly, 
a  Griswold  series  has  been  developed,  and  is 
still  operated. 

A  Series  of  Circular  Knitting 
Frames.  Nowhere  does  the  innate  conssrva- 
tism  of  the  British  character  manifest  itself 
so  strongly  as  in  the  factory.  Not  that  this  im- 
plies lack  of  progressive  power.  Rather  the 
contrary  is  the  case.  Side  by  side  we  can  see 
the  oldest  and  the  newest  models  working  to- 
gether in  the  same  factory.  Here  is  a  series 
of  machines,  looking  outwardly  very  much 
alike.  Spools  of  yarn  are  held  aloft  on  slender 
rods,  the  threads  coming  down  over  guides 
to  the  rings  of  delicate  needles.  The  first  of  the 
series  is  an  old  Griswold,  with  its  ring  of  80  needles 
sending  out  a  coarse  tubular  web  on  to  the 
winding  apparatus  below.  Next  we  find  another 


machine   with 


216.    ROTARY    RIB-TOP    FRAME 


4764 


movable  needles.  At  a  given 
point,  the  worker  stops  the 
machine  and  adjusts  the  needles 
to  produce  the  curve  of  the  leg 
on  the  stocking.  Further  along, 
a  stocking-leg  is  almost  com- 
plete ;  the  worker  switches  off 
the  drive,  and  moving  the 
machine  by  hand,  knits  the  heel 
of  the  stocking  with  a  half-circle 
motion.  At  the  last  we  come  upon 
a  machine,  which,  at  the  proper 
moment,  begins  of  its  own  accord 
to  form  the  heel,  executing  the 
to-and-fro  reciprocating  action 
necessary  for  the  formation  of 
the  heel. 

An  American  Machine. 
The  following  is  the  specification 
of  one  of  the  many  American 
circular  frames  which  have  been 
patented  in  Great  Britain  during 
recent  years.  "  The  method  of 
forming  full-fashioned  stockings, 
which  consists  in  taking  up  the 
full  number  of  stitches  required 
to  form  the  top  of  the  leg,  knit- 


TEXTILES 


ting  a  few  circular  courses,  dropping 

a  portion  of  the  stitches,  knitting  a 

few  courses  on  the  remaining  needles 

by  feeding  each  yarn  to   the  same 

row    of  needles  in  both  directions 

throughout  the  said  courses,  thereby 

forming  two  short  sections  of  flat 

webs;  then  throwing  out  of  action 

one-half  of  the  remaining  needles, 

knitting  a  toe-bulge  by  knitting  a 

given  number  of  courses   back  and 

forth  and  narrowing,    and    then  a 

corresponding  number  of  like  courses 

and  widening,  at    the    same    time 

uniting  the  widened  portion  of  the 

narrowed   portion;    then  throwing 

into  action  the  needles  last  thrown 

out    of    action ;    then    knitting     a 

sufficient  number  of  circular  courses 

to  form  the    greater  portion  of  the 

foot ;     then    widening    for   several 

courses  to  form  a  gusset  or  gore  in 

the  bottom  of  the  foot ;  then  knitting 

the  heel -bulge  in  the  same  manner 

as  the  toe-bulge,  and  upon  the  same 

side  of   the  tube  as  the  gusset  or 

gore ;    then    knitting    a    series    of 

circular  courses  to  form  the  ankle ; 

then  widening  upon  the  same  side  of  the  tube 

as  the  heel-bulge  till  all  the  needles  first  thrown 
out  of  action  are  again  in  operation ;  then 
knitting  a  series  of  circular  courses,  using  the 
whole  number  of  needles  to  complete  the  whole 
desired  length  of  the  leg ;  then  throwing  out  of 
action  and  dropping  the  stitches  from  the  same 
needles  that  were  first  thrown  out,  repeating  the 
foregoing  operations  as  many  times  as  said 
stops  from  the  path  of  one  rack  bar  to  the  path 
of  the  other  rack  bar,  and  vice  versa." 

Mechanism  of  the  Circular  Knitter. 
The  top  of  the  frame  [217]  is  a  flat  table,  into 
which  the  bed-plate  is  fixed.  Secured  to  the 
plate  is  the  grooved  needle-guide  cylinder,  and 
over  it  a  loose  ring,  provided  with  thread- 
guides  for  conducting  the  thread  to  the  needles. 
A  revolving  cylinder,  with  annular  grooves 
interrupted  by  cam  openings,  clasps  the  needle 
cylinder.  Adjustable  cams  raise  and  lower  the 
needles,  and  other  cams  are  set  so  as  to  reverse 
the  knitting  machine  for  forming  the  heel.  A 
bevel-gear  transmits  the  power  from  the  driving 
crank  to  the  cam-cylinder,  and  causes  the 
machine  to  make  a  circular  web.  To  fashion  the 
leg  certain  needles  are  removed,  and  their  loops 
placed  on  adjacent  needles.  In  forming  the  heel 
the  machine  automatically  draws  up  the  needles 
on  one  part,  leaving  the  needles  required  for 
the  breadth  of  the  heel,  and  the  cam-cylinder 
moves  to  and  fro  with  reciprocating  motion 
instead  of  going  directly  round. 

Calendering.  The  hosiery  calendering 
machine  is  a  simple  roller  press,  designed  to 
flatten  down  and  give  permanent  form  to  the 
fabrics.  "  Leg-bags,"  especially,  which  require 
to  be  cut  and  footed,  are  put  under  pressure. 

Cutting.  Common  hosiery  of  the  cheaper 
qualities  is  woven  in  lengths  equal  to  a  pair  of 


ffm^mmmm 


217.    CIRCULAR  HOSIERY  FRAME 

hose.  In  order  to  form  the  foot,  these  need  to 
be  cut  in  a  very  careful  manner.  On  the  cutting 
machine  the  tube  is  cut  half  way  across,  then  a 
long  cut  is  made  down  the  length  of  the  web 
for  about  18  in.,  and  the  knife  brought  through 
again  in  a  transverse  direction.  This  at  once 
separates  the  pairs  and  shapes  the  foot. 

Seamers  and  Finishers.  Many  knitted 
fabrics  and  garments  are  made  in  parts,  which 
must  be  joined  together.  This  is  the  work  of  the 
seamers  or  menders.  Being  purely  practical, 
and  involving  merely  dexterity  of  hand  and 
practical  knowledge  of  each  kind  of  article,  this 
operation  does  not.  lend  itself  to  teaching  in 
the  abstract.  The  same  might  also  be  said  of 
hosiery  finishing  in  general.  To  give  anything 
like  an  adequate  summary  of  all  the  dainty 
and  delicate  fabrics  and  garments  which  are 
made  in  the  finishing  department  from  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  machines  would  involve  much  study 
of  little  practical  value.  Every  factory  has  its 
own  specialities,  and  the  forms  of  these  alter 
year  by  year,  season  by  season.  In  this  depart- 
ment the  hosier  uses  all  kinds  and  classes  of  silk 
ribbons,  cords,  and  various  fancy  smallwares. 
In  many  cases,  too,  the  embroidery  machines 
are  called  into  requisition,  especially  in  those 
factories  whose  enterprise  touches  nearly  on  the 
province  of  the  gauze  weaver  at  the  one  side 
and  that  of  the  lace  manufacturer  at  the  other. 

Pressing.  Many  of  the  finer  fancy  goods 
and  articles  of  underwear  are  passed  through  the 
steam-heated  press.  Like  most  of  the  hosiery 
finishing  appliances,  this  press  is  very  simple  in 
structure.  Both  table  and  presser  are  shallow 
boxes  of  cast  iron,  compartmented,  and  filled 
with  steam,  which  circulates  through  them. 
Subjected  to  the  pressure  and  heat,  the  goods 
come  out  smooth,  firm,  and  glossy. 


Continual 


4705 


Group  9 

DRESS 
33 

itjittinund  from 


PATTERNS  &  SHAPE-MAKING 

How  to  Take  Patterns  from  Models.    Copying  Shapes  from  Measure- 
ment.    Shape-making.     Shaping  the  Tip.     The  Process  of  Mulling 


By  ANTOINETTE  MEELBOOM 


""THE  advantage  of  being  able  to  take  patterns 
correctly  is  very  evident,  as  the  newest  shapes 
are  never  "  blocked  "  or  sold  retail. 

A  milliner  buys  the  trimmed  models,  and 
takes  the  pattern  of  them  to  copy  either  in  a 
wire  shape  or  to  cut  out  in  espatra  or  buckram 
for  firm  shapes  to  be  covered  with  cloth,  velvet 
or  silk.  The  experienced  milliner  is  very  quick 
at  seeing  what  will  be  the  best  way  to  set  about 
it,  as  in  a  much  curved  and  trimmed  hat  or 
toque  it  is  not  so  easy  at  first  to  get  at  the 
actual  shape.  It  may  sometimes  be  necessary 
partly  to  take  off  the  trimming. 

Taking  the  Pattern.  A  paper  pattern  is 
taken  in  three  parts :  the  brim,  the  sideband,  and 
the  tip,  each  part  being  taken  off  before  the  next 
is  begun  to  avoid  tearing  the  paper.  Unless  it 
is  a  toreador,  turban,  pork  pie,  or  pillbox  shape 
hat — all  of  which  have  an  edge  to  the  brim — 
the  brim  pattern  can  be  taken  in  one  piece. 

BRIM.  The  pattern  is  taken  either  from  the 
inside  or  outside  of  the  hat — whichever  is  more 
easy  to  get  at.  Take  a  piece  of  good  tissue  paper, 
place  it  with  the  corner  to  centre-front  of  brim,  pin 
it  with  a  steel  pin,  and  smooth  it  away  on  either 
side  until  the  brim  is  entirely  covered  without  a 
wrinkle.  Avoid  placing  the  pins  in  a  row,  as 
that  is  likely  to  give  fulness  between  [22].  Pin 
round  the  headline  ;  cut  away  the  paper  round 
the  edge,  holding  the  hat  in  the  left  hand  and 
the  scissors  in  the  right.  See  that  the  paper  is 
cut  exactly  to  the  headline.  Mark  centre-front 
with  small  "  snick  "  A- 

Take  out  the  pins,  fold  the  paper  in  half,  and 
see  that  the  two  sides  are  exactly  alike  ;  the 
edges  may  require  cutting.  (This  applies  to  a 
plain  hat  with  both  sides  alike.)  In  cheaper 
bought  shapes  of  buckram  and  straw,  which  are 
often  one-sided,  select  the  side  which  appears  the 
better  shape,  and  mould  the  other  half  to  that. 
If  the  paper  is  not  large  enough,  or  the  brim  is 
too  much  fluted  to  be  taken  in  one  piece,  join  on 
pieces  wherever  necessary. 

SIDEBAND.  For  the  sideband,  start  again 
from  the  centre-front,  smooth  and  cut  the  paper 
wherever  necessary  on  either  side  till  it  reaches 
the  back  [23].  Cut  away  along  the  top  edge,  and 
continue  snipping  the  paper  round  the  bottom 
till  it  can  easily  be  cut  away  round  the  head- 
line. 

Snick  for  centre-front,  and,  in  the  case  of  the 
join  coming  at  the  sid<%  snick  also  the  centre- 
l>;ick.  Tin;  join  comes  on  the  sideband  wherever 
it  is  most  likely  to  be  covered  with  the  trimming. 

THE  TIP.  The  "  tip  "  of  a  hat  is  generally 
round,  oval,  or  diamond,  and  it  is  therefore 
unnecessary  to  take  the  pattern,  for  when  the 
sideband  is  joined  to  the  brim  the  shape  of 
tip  can  readily  be  found. 


In  toques  and  bonnets  the  pattern  must 
always  be  taken,  as  there  are  so  many  kinds 
of  fancy  shapes.  If  the  pattern  is  likely  to  be 
much  used,  run  it  on  stiff  net  with  fine  cotton, 
cut  the  net  to  shape,  and  keep  for  future  use, 
keeping  all  the  parts  of  a  pattern  pinned  together. 

In  "  turban  "  [40]  hat  brims,  the  second  edge 
is  often  merely  a  straight  piece,  in  which  case 
it  can  be  measured  and  cut  out  in  paper  ;  if, 
however,  it  is  ever  so  slightly  shaped,  a  paper 
pattern  should  be  taken. 

ROUND  DOME  CROWNS  [24].  No  pattern  is  taken 
of  these,  as  they  can  be  made  from  a  blocked  shape. 

OVAL  CROWNS  [25].  This  shape  may  be  taken 
in  two  pieces — the  sides  and  tip. 

TOQUES  AND  BONNETS.  Patterns  of  toques 
and  bonnets  are  taken  in  the  same  way  as  hats. 
Bonnets  of  the  Dutch  [26]  or  Marie  Stuart 
[27]  type  may  be  taken  in  one  piece.  The 
Coronet  is  a  fancy-shaped  brim  in  the  front 
side  or  back  of  a  bonnet.  Such  shapes  as  the 
Granny  and  Veronique  bonnets  must  be  taken 
in  separate  parts,  as  described  for  hats. 

ROUGH  STRAWS.  If  it  is  impossible  to  take 
the  pattern  of  rough  or  fancy  straws  in  paper, 
use  pieces  of  stiff  net  or  leno  of  about  2  in. 
square.  Lay  the  pieces  on  the  upper  side  of 
brim,  each  overlapping  a  little,  and  pin  down. 

Cut  the  outer  edge  and  headline  of  pattern  to 
shape  of  hat,  and  make  a  snick  for  centre -front. 
Take  pattern  carefully  from  the  hat.  Pin  this 
net  shape  on  to  a  piece  of  paper  or  a  large  piece 
of  net,  and  cut  out  the  pattern  again. 

To  correct  the  pattern,  fold  it  in  half  and  check 
it,  modelling  from  the  side  which  looks  the  better. 
If  there  is  any  difference  in  size  at  headline, 
keep  the  shape  of  that  which  has  been  less 
cut  away. 

If  straight,  take  the  pattern  of  sideband  by 
measurement,  having  the  join  at  back,  and 
allowing  no  turnings. 

Copying  Shapes  by  Measurement. 
To  copy  a  shape  by  measurement,  which  would 
be  done  if  a  wire  shape  is  required,  proceed  in 
this  order : 

1.  Headline.     Pin  the  inch  tape  at  the  starting 
point,  and  work  from  right  to  left. 

2.  Outside  edge. 

3.  Width  of  brim,  centre-front,  sides  and  back. 

4.  Diagonal  of  brim — (a)  side-front  right,  (b) 
side-front  left ;  (c)  side-back  right,  (d)  side-back 
left. 

5.  Diameter   of   brim — (a)  front  to  back,  (b) 
side  to  side. 

6.  Depth  of  sideband. 

7.  Size  round  tip. 

8.  Diameter   of   tip — (a)    front   to    back,   (6) 
side  to  side. 

9.  Width  between  wires  round  edge. 


55 


SHAPE-MAKING    FOR   HATS   AND    BONNETS.       FIGURES    22-55 


4767 


DRESS 

Take  the  measurements  from  the  inside  of 
model  where  possible,  and  make  a  note  of  any 
peculiarity  of  shape.  If  the  pattern  of  a  trimmed 
model  is  taken,  measure  all  the  trimmings,  noting 
position  of  feathers,  etc.  Write  them  down  in  a 
notebook. 

If  an  espatra  shape  is  required,  obtain  the 
measurements  and  then  take  a  large  square  of 
paper,  fold  it  in  half,  draw  the  headline  and  cut 
it  out.  To  obtain  the  radius,  divide  the  size  of 
head  by  3,  and  this  will  be  the  diameter  of  the 
circle  ;  halve  this,  which  will  be  the  radius. 
Open  out  the  paper,  mark  all  the  different 
measurements  from  the  headline.  Proceed  in 
the  same  way  for  the  sideband  and  tip. 

After  some  experience,  it  will  be  easy  to  make 
up  one's  own  patterns,  beginning  in  this  way  : 

Cut  a  square  of  paper  the  diameter  of  the  hat 
to  be  made  [28]. 

Fold  it  in  half,  then  in  half  again,  thus  making 
a  square  [29]. 

Fold  it  diagonally  [30],  and  diagonally  again, 
always  keeping  the  folded  edges  of  the  paper 
together,  and  placing  the  new  fold  on  the 
separate  folds  [31]. 

Cut  off  the  triangle  beyond  the  double  part, 
slightly  sloping  it.  If  sloped  too  much,  flutes 
will  be  formed  round  the  edge  [81]. 

Open  it  out,  and  it  will  be  found  to  be  a 
circle. 

Refold,  and  from  the  centre  point  measure 
one-sixth  of  the  headline,  which  should  be  cut 
off  [32].  This  gives  a  round  brim  with  round 
headline,  only  suitable  for  children  and  young 
girls.  For  adults,  the  headline  is  mostly  oval, 
which  is  obtained  by  sloping  off  £  in.  along 
each  side  [33]. 

To  make  a  brim  wider  in  front  than  at  the 
back  and  sides,  instead  of  folding  the  circle  in 
half  fold  it  1  in.  or  2  in.  from  the  front  [34]  ; 
refold,  and  cut  headline  as  before  [35]. 

For  shapes  like  the  Gainsborough  [36],  larger 
on  one  side  than  the  other,  cut  the  larger  side 
first,  and  shapj  the  smaller  side  after  the  head- 
line is  cut. 

After  getting  the  circle  of  paper  with  the  head- 
line cut  out,  any  shape  may  be  made,  according 
to  fancy.  An  oval-shaped  brim  may  be  cut  by 
sloping  £  in.  to  1£  in.  away  from  each  side. 

Half  an  inch  taken  from  centre  of  back,  sloping 
to  a  point  in  headline,  will  cause  the  brim  to 
turn  up  or  down  [37].  A  gusset,  inserted  either 
at  the  left  side  or  the  side-back,  will  cause  the 
brim  to  be  very  much  curved  [38]. 

Small  cuts  sewn  together,  slightly  overlapping, 
will  turn  the  brim  up  round  edge,  as  for  French 
sailor  hats  and  similar  shapes.  Thus,  with  a 
little  originality  and  ingenuity,  any  kind  of 
shape  can  be  evolved. 

Sidebands.  In  making  shaped  sidebands 
more  curve  is  required  for  those  which  are 
narrower  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and 
vice  versa  [39  and  40].  The  straighter  the  side- 
band, the  less  the  curve  should  be.  For  a  side- 
li.iml  that  is  nearly  straight  very  little  curve  is 
i  <•,, uired.  Straight  sidebands,  not  wider  than 
.'5  in.,  may  be  cut  on  the  cross  of  the  spatrie, 
and  slightly  stretched  top  or  bottom  [41]. 

47fi« 


Take  a  square  of  paper  of  about  20  in.  Pro- 
ceed to  fold  it  in  the  same  way  as  for  brim  until 
a  circle  is  obtained.  Measure  the  depth  of  the 
sideband  from  outsr  edge,  B  [42].  Open  paper 
out  and  measure  along  bottom  the  size  of  head- 
line. Measure  along  the  top,  A,  about  2  in.  less 
and  cut  off  along  the  curved  lines.  No  pattern 
need  be  made  of  the  tip  as  it  is  fitted  to  the  side- 
band when  the  shape  is  made  up. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  the  same  result 
is  to  take  a  piece  of  paper,  fold  it  in  half,  and 
mark  the  centre  at  top.  Hold  the  end  of  a  tape 
measure  on  this  mark  and  make  A  at  15-18  in. 
down.  Sweep  to  either  side  of  A  [43].  Measure 
upwards  2-£  in.  or  3  in.,  according  to  size  required, 
mark  B,  and  sweep  round  again. 

Measure  along  curve  from  A  half  the  size 
of  headline.  Mark  each  side  and  draw  a  line 
from  the  pivot  to  these  points.  Cut  along  the 
curved  lines. 

Fancy  patterns  of  toque  shapes  should  be 
made  in  wire  from  measurements  taken.  They 
would  be  difficult  to  copy  in  hard  materials,  as 
these  do  not  lend  themselves  to  such  manipula- 
tion. 

Children's  hats  and  bonnets  may  be  drafted 
from  measurements.  For  hats,  only  one  measure- 
ment is  required— size  of  head.  For  bonnets 
there  are  four  measurements  :  Over  the  head  to 
below  the  ears,  14  in.  ;  ear  to  ear,  round  back 
of  head,  5  in. ;  forehead  to  nape  of  neck,  11£  in. ; 
forehead  to  centre  crown  at  back  of  head,  5  in. 

Cut  length  of  paper  to  correspond  in  length 
with  the  first  measure  and  in  width  with  the 
fourth  measure  [44].  Round  the  corners. 

For  the  back  of  the  bonnet,  cut  a  square  of 
paper  the  size  of  third,  less  the  fourth  measure 
[45].  Make  a  circle  from  the  square.  Fold  it 
in  half  and  cut  off  1  in.  to  1|  in.  to  form  an 
oval. 

Cut  off  1  in.  from  the  bottom.,  For  "Coro- 
nets," with  revers  (the  patterns  of  which  are 
made  separately)  [49  and  50],  place  the  front  of 
bonnet  flat  on  the  table,  pencil  round  the  shape 
on  paper  and  draw  the  shape  and  width  re- 
quired. 

The  cutting  out,  making,  and  trimming  of 
the  bonnet  shown  in  46,  47,  and  48,  are  described 
when  dealing  with  Children's  Millinery. 

SHAPE-MAKING 

Having  learned  to  take  patterns,  we  will 
proceed  to  make  the  shape.  The  best  milliners 
usually  make  their  own  shapes,  as  they  are 
much  lighter,  fit  better,  and  possess  more  in- 
dividuality. The  block  shapes  bought  in  shops 
are  turned  out  by  the  thousand,  and  are  mostly 
made  of  an  inferior  kind  of  buckram,  badly 
wired,  and,  in  some  cases,  the  different  parts  are 
only  gummed  together. 

We  will  take  first  "  winter "  shapes,  which 
have  to  be  covered  with  velvet,  cloth,  silk  or 
fancy  millinery  material.  The  best  material 
for  shape-making  is  espatra,  known  in  the 
trade  as  "  spatrie." 

It  is  made  only  in  white  in  sheets  24  in.  by 
31  in.,  and  in  two  kinds,  stiff  and  soft.  The 
stiff  is  used  for  straight  or  very  slightly  curved 


brims  and  crowns.  The  soft  spatrie  is  better  for 
the  curved  brims  of  hats,  toques  and  coronets 
of  bonnets.  It  is  easier  to  manipulate  as  it 
stretches  ;  or  can  be  eased  on  the  wire.  It  also 
makes  the  shape  lighter  in  weight.  If  espatra 
is  not  obtainable,  millinery  buckram  is  the  best 
substitute,  made  only  in  black  and  white,  and 
sold  by  the  yard. 

Open  out  the  pattern  and  place  it  on  the 
espatra  with  the  front  (which  was  marked  in 
each  piece  with  a  "  snick ")  to  the  corner. 
Remember  that  all  parts  are  cut  with  the  centre  - 
front  placed  on  the  cross  [51].  Pin  the  pattern 
firmly  on  the  espatra,  leaving  these  turnings  : 
( 1 )  Half -inch  turning  inside  headline  ;  (2)  |  in. 
at  each  end  of  sideband. 

If  the  brim  is  cut  at  the  back  [36],  in  order  to 
overlap  or  sew  in  a  gusset,  leave  £  in.  turning 
each  side. 

Mark  on  the  espatra  the  centre -front  of  each 
part ;  cut  out  and  remove  the  pattern. 

Making  up  the  Shape.  Snick  the  .V  in. 
turnings  left  inside  the  headline,  £  in.  apart, 
and  turn  back  to  rough  side,  denning  well  the 
headline  [52].  All  parts  of  the  shape  must  now 
be  wired,  using  the  wire  stitch,  one  wire  coming 
to  two  edges.  Use  firm  support  wire. 

BRIM.  Wire  headline  on  rough  side  of  espatra 
outside  the  turnings  [52].  Overlap  the  wires 
for  2  in.  wherever  they  join.  Wire  edge  of 
brim  on  the  muslin  or  smooth  side  of  espatra 
at  the  extreme  edge  [53].  Sew  another  (finer) 
wire  £  in.  from  the  edge  on  the  under  part  of  the 
brim.  [53]. 

SIDEBAND.  Pin  centre-front  to  centre  of  front 
of  brim,  the  smooth  side  of  the  spatrie  coming 
outside  [54].  Back  stitch  evenly  all  round  to 
turnings  of  brim  and  over  the  wire,  and  stitch 
up  the  join.  Wire  inside  the  top  of  sideband 
at  the  extreme  edge. 

THE  TIP.  As  no  pattern  is  usually  made  for 
a  hat  tip  a  piece  of  espatra,  rather  larger  than 
required,  is  pinned  on  sideband  (with  the  cross 
of  espatra  to  the  front  of  sideband),  smooth  side 
uppermost  [54].  Cut  off  about  1  in.  at  the  time 
to  shape  of  sideband  and  wire,  stitching  it  as 
you  proceed.  When  the  half  is  done,  start  again 
from  the  centre -front. 

Shaping  the  Tip.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  keep  the  tip  a  good  shape,  and  not  to 
cut  away  too  much,  or  it  will  sink  in,  and  prevent 
the  covering  from  setting  well.  Dome  crowns 
[24]  are  bought  blocked  ready  made. 

Oval  crowns  with  a  dip  in  the  centre  [25] 
have  the  tip  rubbed  and  stretched  in  the  centre 
to  make  the  necessary  dip. 

Oval  crowns  without  dip  are  cut  from  two 
similar  pieces,  wired  on  one  side,  and  the  other 
sewn  to  it. 

When  a  brim  has  to  be  gradually  curved,  as 
in  a  Gainsborough  or  San  Toy,  the  shape  should 


DRES3 

be  held  on  the  arm,  or  some  other  soft  substance, 
and  the  espatra  gently  rubbed  with  a  thimble. 
Rub  on  the  outside  for  an  upward,  on  the 
underneath  for  a  downward  curve. 

For  a  boat  shape,  in  wiring  the  edge  of  brim 
the  shape  is  slightly  contracted. 

For  fluted  brims  the  edge  is  slightly  stretched 
in  the  wiring. 

In  shapes  with  crowns  larger  at  the  top  than 
at  the  base,  the  crown  is  not  sewn  on  until  the 
upper  brim  is  covered  [40]. 

In  some  shapes  with  deep  sidebands  the  brim 
is  slipped  over  the  crown,  part  of  the  sideband 
making  the  bandeau  [53]. 

Bonnet  shapes  are  made  up  in  the  same  way 
as  hat  shapes,  except  that  the  outside  wire  must 
go  all  round,  overlapping  for  2  in.  at  the  back. 
Cut  the  tip  exactly  to  pattern,  and  the  sideband 
with  ^  in.  turnings  round  the  bottom.  Cut  the 
front  or  brim  with  \  in.  turnings  round  the 
head,  snicking  the  turnings  at  regular  intervals 
and  folding  them  back  to  the  edge  of  pattern 
to  define  the  headline  distinctly. 

Wire-stitch  a  wire  round  the  outside  of  these 
snicks,  as  for  hat,  leaving  \  in.  of  wire  beyond 
each  end.  Pin  the  bottom  of  sideband  round 
the  headline  of  the  front,  beginning  from  the 
centre-front,  and  snick  the  \  in.  turning  to  make 
it  set  well.  Then  backstitch  this  round. 

Wire  the  top  edge  of  sideband  inside,  leaving 
\  in.  of  wire  at  each  side.  Pin  the  tip  round 
the  top  of  sideband,  and  wire -stitch  it  on 
carefully. 

Wire  the  edge  all  round,  nipping  on  the 
\  in.  turnings  left  at  the  ends  of  the  sideband 
and  headline.  Wire-stitch  it  across  the  back, 
overlapping  the  wire  for  2  in.  where  they  meet, 
and  cut  away  any  rough  turnings  that  may  be 
left  inside. 

To  enlarge  a  bonnet  shape,  cut  the  pattern  in 
the  middle,  leaving  the  sides  the  same  shape, 
and  add  1  in.  or  2  in.  in  the  centre  of  shape. 
If   the  sideband   is   also  enlarged,  it  will  make . 
the  whole  band  wider. 

Mulling.  Mulling  is  the  process  of  covering 
the  wires  with  mull  muslin  to  prevent  the  wire 
and  stitches  marking  the  material.  Cut  strips 
of  mull  muslin  on  the  cross,  or  sarcenet  about 
1  in.  wide,  turn  in  the  edges,  bind  round  the 
edge  of  brim  and  tip,  using  the  long  backstitch 
[55].  Mulling  the  tip  must  be  done  by  two  pro- 
cesses ;  first  sew  round  the  tip,  and  then  round 
the  sideband.  It  will  not  set  well  if  the  stitches 
are  taken  through  both  edges  alternately. 

For  shapes  to  be  covered  with  silk,  crepe, 
thin  velvet  or  similar  light  millinery  material, 
both  upper  and  under  brim  and  entire  crown  are 
covered  with  mull  cut  to  shape,  and  the  edges 
mulled  as  described  above.  Often  the  under 
brim  only  is  mulled  all  over,  in  which  case  the 
wire  \  in.  from  edge  of  brim  is  omitted. 


Continued 


1  c 


4769 


Group  5 

APPLIED 
CHEMISTRY 


Ontlnned  from 
page  4.i  (4 


ALKALIES 


Plant  and  Processes  in  Manufacturing  Alkalies.    Soda,  Ammonia,  Chlorine, 
Bleaching    Powder,    Chlorates,    Phosphorus  and    Alum.      Organic  Acids 


By  CLAYTON  BEADLE  and  HENRY  P.  STEVENS 


operation  we  have  described  [page  4634], 
called  the  salt  cake  process,  is  the  first  step 
in  a  method  of  manufacturing  carbonate  of  soda, 
first  practically  worked  out  by  the  Frenchman 
Leblanc,  at  a  time  previous  to  the  Revolution. 
It  is  still  largly  used  at  the  present  day,  although 
other  methods,  in  particular  the  ammonia-soda, 
or  Solvay  process,  have  replaced  it  to  a  great 
extent,  and  now  account  for  half  the  total 
production. 

The  pure  salt  cake,  such  as  is  prepared  in 
muffle  furnaces,  consists  of  sodium  sulphate, 
with  only  a  small  quantity  of  unchanged  common 
salt,  sulphuric  acid,  and  other  substances.  The 
srude  salt  cake,  prepared  hi  a  reverberatory 
furnace,  contains  about  96  per  cent,  of  sodium 
sulphate,  and  for  the  next  operation,  termed 
the  black  ash  process,  it  is  mixed  with  an 
equal  weight  of  powdered  limestone,  and  three- 
quarters  of  its  weight  of  coal.  The  limestone 
should  be  free  from  silicates,  and  the  coal  as 
free  as  possible  from  ash,  both  sources  of  silica, 
as  the  soda  formed  in  this  process  reacts 
with  silica  to  form  sodium  silicate,  with  con- 
sequent loss  of  soda.  The  mixture  is  placed  in 
furnaces.  The  older  type  consisted  of  a  rever- 
beratory furnace,  but  this  has  been  replaced 
to-day  to  a 
large  extent 
by  revolving  _ 

furnaces  [15].  c±-  i[[ 
The  advan-  T| — 
tage  of  a  re-  MM 

volving     fur- 
nace  is   this, 
that  the  ma- 
t  e  r  i  a  1  s    get  15.  REVOLVING  SALT  CAKE  FURNACE 
unif  or  m  ly 

mixed  during  the  process,  placed  as  they  are 
inside  a  horizontally  rotating  drum,  R,  kept  on 
the  move ;  and  further,  the  mixing  is  carried 
out  mechanically,  and  hence  a  great  saving  of 
labour  is  effected. 

The  Revolving  Furnace.  The  revolving 
furnace  is  heated  either  by  a  flue  from  the  fur- 
nace, A,  or  by  "  producer  gas,"  which  enters  the 
cylinder  at  one  axis,  while  the  fumes  and  pro- 
ducts of  combustion  escape  from  the  other  end 
of  the  cylinder,  through  the  dust  chamber,  D. 
H  is  the  hopper  for  charging  the  cylinder,  which 
revolves  on  rollers,  BB.  The  contents  of  the 
furnace  can  be  emptied  through  a  door,  not 
-limvn  in  the  diagram,  into  the  waggon,  W, 
underneath. 

The  chemical  changes  which  take  place  may 
conveniently  be  represented  as  consisting  of  the 
reduction  of  the  sodium  sulphate  by  the  cat  1  on 
of  the  coal,  or,  in  other  words,  the  carbon 

4770 


Na.CO... 

Sodium 

carbonate, 

or  black 

ash 


combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  sodium  sulphate 
to  form  carbon  monoxide  and  carbon  dioxide, 
which  burns  or  escapes  while  the  sodium  sul- 
phate, bereft  of  its  oxygen,  and  converted  into 
sodium  sulphide,  remains  behind. 

Na,S04    +    2C     =     Na.S     +        2CO, 
Sodium          Coal         Sodium  Carbon 

sulphate  sulphide  dioxklo 

Sodium  sulphide  is  produced  in  the  presence 
of  the  limestone  or  carbonate  of  calcium,  and 
immediately  reacts  with  this  substance.  That 
is  to  say,  the  metals  sodium  and  calcium  change 
places  with  the  formation  of  sodium  carbonate 
and  calcium  sulphide. 

Na.S      4-    CaCO:5     =      CaS 
Sodium         Calcium         Calcium 
sulphide         carbon-         sulphide 

ate,  or 
limestone 

As  the  operation  proceeds,  the  pasty  mass  or 
black  ash  begins  to  get  stiffer.  In  the  last 
stages  a  good  deal  of  carbon  monoxide  gas  is 
given  off,  which  burns,  forming  blue  jets  of 
flame.  The  appearance  of  these  jets  is  an 
indication  of  the  completion  of  the  process.  The 
black  mass  is  removed  as  a  lump  or  ball  from  the 
furnace.  The  temperature .  of  the  black  ash 
furnace  will  reach  1,000°  C.,  and  as  in  the  old 
form  of  furnace  the  mass  had  to  be  well  raked 
over  by  hand  the  advantage  of  the  revolving 
furnace  will  be  evident. 

Lixiviation  of  Black  Ash.  The  third 
and  last  process  consists  of  the  separation 
of  the  carbonate  of  soda  from  the  worthless 
sulphide  of  calcium.  The  former  is  readily 
soluble  in  water,  but  the  latter  is  insoluble, 
so  that  the  black  ash  is  lixiviated — that  is,  ex- 
tracted with  water — in  tanks,  hence  the  term 
"  tank  liquors."  These  tanks  are  usually 
provided  with  perforated  bottoms.  The  denser 
sodium  carbonate  solution  passes  through  the 
perforations  and  is  drawn  off  continuously, 
leaving  the  calcium  sulphide,  or  "tank  waste," 
behind.  Sufficient  water  must  be  led  into  the 
tanks  to  keep  the  ash  always  covered.  It 
is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  chemical  changes 
that  they  are  frequently  liable  to  reversion — that 
is,  to  take  place  in  the  opposite  direction.  The 
agencies  which  effect  a  change  in  chemical 
composition  tend  to  retard  this  change  by 
reversing  the  process  directly  one  or  other  con- 
dition of  affairs  preponderates.  To  put  this 
diagrammatically,  the  body  AB  reacts  under  one 
set  of  conditions  with  a  body  CD  to  form  bodies 
AC  and  BD.  If,  now,  we  change  the  conditions, 
AC  and  BD  will  react  together  again  to  form  the 
original  AB  and  CD.  Now,  if  A  represents  sodium 


and  B  sulphur,  C  calcium,  and  D  the  group 
CO 3,  we  have  a  case  of  reversion  before  us. 
In  the  black  ash  furnace  sodium  carbonate 
and  calcium  sulphide  are  formed  ;  during  lixivia- 
tion  there  is  always  a  tendency  for  the  sodium 
carbonate  to  react  with  the  calcium  sulphide, 
giving  sodium  sulphide  and  calcium  carbonate,  so 
that  it  is  of  importance  to  conduct  the  lixiviation 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  Nothing  conduces  to 
this  more  than  a  porous  ash,  and  to  get  the  ash 
into  this  condition  the  quantities  given  above  of 
limestone  and  coal  dust  are  used,  although  they 
are  in  excess  of  what  is  necessary  theoretically. 
In  practice  one  half  as  much  limestone  and  almost 
twice  as  much  coal  dust  are  taken  as  would  be 
required  in  theory.  The  coal  dust  decomposes 
some  of  the  limestone,  forming  carbon  monoxide. 
This  is  why  the  blue  jets  of  flame  appear  at  the 
end  of  the  process.  The  gas,  escaping  as  the  ash 
cools,  fills  it  with  tiny  holes  and  renders  it  porous. 

CaCO.,    +     C     =      CaO    +    2CO 
Limestone       Coal        Caustic        Carbon 
lime        monoxide 

At  the  same  time  a  certain  quantity  of  caustic 
lime  (CaO)  is  formed  which  slakes  in  the  presence 
of  water  and  acts  on  the  solution  of  sodium  car- 
bonate to  form  caustic  soda. 

CaO   +  H,O=Ca(OH),+  Na,CO:5  =   CaC08 
Caustic     Water      Slaked       Black  ash      Calcium 

lime  lime         or  sodium     carbonate 

carbonate 

Recarbo nation.  This  caustic  soda  has  to 
be  recarbonated  by  allowing  the  liquors  to 
descend  carbonating  towers,  up  which  passes 
carbon  dioxide  gas  from  limekilns.  At  the 
same  time,  other  impurities  such  as  sodium 
sulphide,  silicate  and  aluminate  are  decom- 
posed, with  the  formation  of  sodium  carbonate. 
The  carbonated  "  tank  liquor  "  is  concentrated 
in  iron  pans  which  are  provided  with  mechanical 
scrapers  ;  the  black  salt  which  separates  out 
tends  to  adhere  to  the  sides  and  bottom  of 
the  pan.  This  "  black  ash  "  consists  of  mono- 
hydrated  carbonate  of  soda  (Na2CO:.HoO). 
This  after  ignition  yields  the  "  anhydrous " 
(water  free)  carbonate  of  soda  or  soda  ash. 
Sometimes  the  evaporation  of  the  tank  liquors 
is  carried  only  far  enough  to  bring  about  the 
separation  of  crystals,  which  are  then  removed 
from  the  mother  liquor  (red  liquor).  If  the  soda 
ash  be  dissolved  in  water  and  a  little  bleaching 
powder  added,  traces  of  iron,  etc.,  will  be  pre- 
cipitated. Crystals  separated  from  the  concen- 
trated liquor  yield  "  refined  alkali  "  on  ignition. 

Caustic  Soda.  If,  however,  caustic  soda 
be  required,  there  is  no  need  to  reconvert  the 
caustic  back  to  carbonate,  but  the  tank  liquors 
obtained  by  treating  the  black  ash  with  water, 
which  may  contain  as  much  as  20  per  cent,  of 
caustic,  or  the  red  liquors  are  diluted  and  caus- 
ticised  by  heating  in  iron  vessels  with  slaked 
lime.  The  reaction  which  brings  this  about 
has  already  been  explained. 

This,  again,  is  a  reversible  action,  and  rever- 
sion takes  place  more  and  more  the  greater 
the  concentration  of  the  liquor.  To  get  a  good 
yield  of  caustic,  the  liquor  must  be  dilute,  say 
15  deg.  Twaddel,  or  7 '3  per  cent,  of  soda  ash. 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

The  weak  caustic  liquor  is  run  off  from  the  de- 
posit of  carbonate  of  calcium  and  concentrated 
in  iron  vessels.  To  complete  the  destruction  of 
traces  of  sulphate  and  other  impurities  from  the 
tank  liquor,  a  little  nitre  is  added  in  the  stages 
of  concentration.  [For  further  details  of  caus- 
ticising  see  Soda  Recovery  under  PAPERMAKING.] 

Recovery  of  Sulphur.  It  will  be  seen 
that  in  chemical  manufacturing  operations,  the 
by-products  are  made  use  of  wherever  possible. 
Thus,  the  by-product  in  the  salt-cake  process 
is  the  valuable  substance — hydrochloric  acid. 

The  by-product  in  the  black  ash  process  is  of 
very  little  value,  and  enormous  quantities  of  it 
accumulate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  alkali 
works,  where  it  becomes  a  nuisance.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  utilise  it,  and  a  satis- 
factory process  was  eventually  worked  out  by 
Chance.  In  this  process  carbon  dioxide  is  allowed 
to  act  on  the  calcium  sulphide,  which  is  decom- 
posed with  the  liberation  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. The  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  burned 
with  a  limited  supply  of  oxygen,  sufficient  only 
to  convert  the  hydrogen  into  water,  while 
the  sulphur  is  deposited  as  such:  Of  course, 
the  gas  can  be  burned  completely  with  the  for- 
mation of  water  and  sulphur  dioxide  if  required  for 
+  2NaOH  uge  direct  in  sulphuric  acid  works. 

Caustic  The  Ammonia  <=  soda  Pro= 
soda  cess.  We  have  described  the  old 
Leblanc  process  by  which  considerable 
quantities  of  alkali  are  still  manufactured.  Were 
it  not  for  the  valuable  by-product — hydro- 
chloric acid — formed  in  this  process,  it  would 
have  given  place  to  the  ammonia -soda  pro- 
cess even  more  than  it  has  done.  With  the 
improvements  in  electrolytic  processes  for  mak- 
ing chlorine  and  bleaching  liquors,  one  of  the 
main  outlets  for  hydrochloric  acid — namely,  the 
production  of  chlorine — will  disappear.  There 
is  a  considerable  demand  for  salt  cake  and  for 
hydrochloric  acid  (for  pickling  iron),  but  to 
all  appearances  the  Leblanc  process  for  working 
up  the  salt  cake  is  doomed  unless  greater  econo- 
mies should  be  effected  in  working. 

The  ammonia-soda  process  possesses  several 
advantages : 

1.  There    are    no     malodorous     by-products 
difficult  to  dispose  of. 

2.  Soda  ash  is  obtained  directly  in  solid  form. 

3.  The  products  are  considerably  purer. 
Theory    of   the    Process.     It   has    long 

been  known  that  carbon  dioxide  gas  passed  into 
a  solution  of  ammonia  in  brine  brings  about  the 
precipitation  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  but,  as  in 
all  such  cases,  there  were  numerous  failures 
when  attempts  were  made  to  apply  this  principle 
on  a  large  scale.  The  problem  was  eventually 
solved  by  a  Belgian — Solvay — and  the  process 
is  frequently  known  as  "  The  Solvay  Process." 
On  ignition  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  splits  off 
carbon  dioxide  gas,  leaving  soda  ash  behind 

2NaHCO;,    =  Na.COo  +    CO,      +     H20 
Bicarbonate        Soda  ash      Carbon         Water 
of  soda  dioxide 

Theory  Applied  to  Practice.  Concen- 
trated brine  is  saturated  with  ammonia  gas 
obtained  from  gas  liquor  [see  Coal  Tar  Products]. 

4771 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

The  carbonic   acid  gas  is  obtained  in  the  first 
place   from   limekilns.      The  saturated  solution 
of  brine  is  run  into  a  tank  fitted  with  a  false 
bottom,  and  the  liquor  saturated  with  the  gas 
[16].      The  brine  is  run  into  the  reservoir,  B, 
with    the    addition    of    suffi- 
cient lime  to  precipitate  any 
iron,  alumina,  etc.     The  liquid 
then  passes  to   the  adjoining 
vessel,  the  saturator,  where  it 
is  saturated  with  ammonia  gas 
driven  in  through  the  pipe,  C, 
and,  passing  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel,  is  distributed  by  the 
perforated  false  bottom,  D. 

In  the  course  of  this  opera- 
tion much  heat  is  evolved,  and, 
to  prevent  loss  of  ammonia, 
which  is  a  very  volatile  sub- 
stance, the  tank  is  provided 
with  coils  of  tubing,  E,  through 
which  cold  water  passes.  From 
this  tank,  the  brine,  now  satu- 


liquor.     As  it  will  carry  away  with  it  mechanically 
some  of  the  ammonia,  sufficient  space  is  left  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  tower  for  these  twro  to 
combine  to   form    carbonate  of  ammonia  and 
to  descend   into   the   liquor.     In   spite   of  this 
precaution     a     small     quan- 
tity    of    ammonia    will    be 
carried  away  with  the  excess 
of  carbonic   acid  through  F, 
and  to  effect  recovery  of  this 
valuable  substance  the  gases 
are  led  through  two  scrubbers, 
the    first    containing   water, 
and  the    second  dilute    sul- 
phuric acid. 

The  Cycle  of  Reac= 
tions.  It  may  as  well  be 
pointed  out  here  that  the 
ammonia  is  the  expensive 
ingredient  in  the  process,  and 

16.  BRINE  SATURATOR  AND  RESERVOIR   ™  {i  ls  ?Ot  USed   UP*  but  OIlly 
FOR  THE  AMMONIA  SODA  PROCESS          P1^8    the   Palt    °f    a    Contact 

substance,  means  must  be  de- 


rated with  ammonia,  passes  to  a  settling  tank, 
and  is  thence  pumped  up  into  carbonating 
towers,  where  the  liquor  is  treated  with  carbon 
dioxide  gas,  by  which  bicarbonate  of  soda  is  pre- 
cipitated [17  and  18].  These  are  iron  towers 
some  50  ft.  or  60  ft.  high,  and  built  in 


vised,  which  we  shall  consider  presently,  for 
recovering  the  whole  of  the  ammonia,  and  using 
it  again.  The  part  played  by  the  ammonia  in  the 
ammonia-soda  process  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
nitric  fumes  in  the  sulphuric  acid  chamber 
process.  The  reaction  between  carbonic  acid 
and  the  brine,  in  the  presence  of  ammonia, 
causes  the  separation  of  the  bicarbonate  of  soda. 
We  give  a 
diagram- 
matic rep- 
resentation 
of  the  am- 


CaCl2+  NH3 


I 

18.  DETAILS  OP 
CARBONATING   TOWER    IN 
AMMONIA-  SOD  A  PROCESS 

sections,  each  section  form- 
ing a  drum  6  ft.  across  and 
3£  ft.  high.  Between  each 
section  is  a  plate  provided 
with  a  wide  opening,  and 
resting  on  this  a  perfo- 
rated cover  full  of  small 
holes  and  convex  in  shape, 
like  an  inverted  watch- 
The  tower  is  also 
traversed  by  a  number  of 
tubes,  EE  [18],  through 
which  cold  water  flows  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping 
down  the  temperature  due  to  the  chemical 
react  ion  taking  place.  If  allowed  to  get  too  hot, 
<  misidrnible  loss  of  ammonia  would  result.  The 
l>rinr  enters  the  tower  rather  more  than  half  way 
up  [B,  17].  The  branch,  C,  is  merely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  equalising  the  pressure.  The  carbonic  acid 
is  pumped  in  at  the  bottom,  D,  and,  rising  up 
through  the  tower,  is  caught  and  broken  up 
into  a  number  of  streams  of  bubbles  by  the 
perforated  plates,  so  that  a  large  surface  of 
the  gas  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  brine 

4772 


17.  CARBONATING 

TOWER  IN  AMMONIA- 

SODA  PROCESS 


m  o  n  i  a  - 
soda  pro- 
cess. Lime- 
stone burnt  in  kilns  yields  lime  and  carbon 
dioxide.  The  latter  combines  with  the  ammonia 
from  gas  liquor  and  salt  from  brine  to  form 
ammonium  chloride  and  sodium  bicarbonate. 
The  ammonium  chloride  is  decomposed  by 
the  lime  (from  limestone)  giving  calcium  chloride, 
which  goes  to  waste,  and  ammonia,  which  is 
used  over  again.  The  sodium  bicarbonate  is 
ignited,  and  yields  carbon  dioxide  for  use  over 
again  and  carbonate  of  soda. 

The  minute  crystals  of  bicarbonate  are  heavier 
than  the  liquid,  and  gradually  sink  to  the  bottom 
of  the  tower,  whence  the  liquid  is  withdrawn 
through  H,  thick  and  muddy.  This  liquor  con- 
tains bicarbonate  of  soda  in  suspension,  also 
some  ammonium  chloride  and  excess  of  sodium 
chloride.  The  sodium  chloride  forms  a  quarter 
of  the  total  quantity  taken — it  goes  to  waste, 
as  it  does  not  pay  to  recover  it.  This  is  prefer- 
able to  losing  more  of  the  ammonia,  which  would 
be  the  case  if  it  were  attempted  to  utilise  the 
salt  completely.  The  muddy-looking  liquor  is  put 
through  sand  filters,  where  the  granular  crystals 
are  separated,  or  the  separation  may  be  effected 
by  a  centrifuge.  The  crystals  and  mother- 
liquor  are  introduced  into  a  rapidly  rotating 
sieve.  The  mother-liquor  is  driven  through  the 
sieve  by  the  centrifugal  force,  but  the  crystals, 
being  too  large  to  pass  through  the  holes,  are 


retained.  The  crystals  of  bicarbonate  of  soda 
are  next  washed  with  water.  The  washings,  of 
course,  containing  much  of  the  bicarbonates,  as 
well  as  traces  of  salt,  ammonium  chloride,  etc., 
are  used  over  again  with  the  brine. 

Although  bicarbonate  of  soda  finds  extended 
use  as  such,  nevertheless,  for  many  purposes, 
the  carbonate  is  required.  All  that  is  necessary 
to  obtain  it  is  to  calcine  the  bicarbonate.  Half 
of  the  carbonic  acid  is  easily  driven  off,  leaving 
a  mass  of  pure  carbonate  behind,  and  the  carbon 
dioxide  may  be  used  again  for  carbonating  the 
ammoniacal  brine.  Carbonate  of  soda  prepared 
in  this  manner  has  one  disadvantage  over  that 
obtained  by  the  Leblanc  process.  It  is  specifi- 
cally much  lighter,  the  density  being  0 '8,  whereas 
the  density  of  the  Leblanc  product  is  T2.  This 
increased  bulk  raises  the  cost  of  carriage  very 
considerably. 

Ammonia  Recovery.  In  order  that  the 
ammonia-soda  process  may  be  worked  economi- 
cally, it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  recover  the 
ammonia.  The  residual  mother -liquors  from 
which  granular  crystals  of  bicarbonate  have 
been  separated  contain  chloride  of  ammonia, 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  a  common  salt. 
They  are  introduced  into  a  column,  or  dephleg- 
mator.  This  contrivance  consists  essentially 
of  a  tall  tube  or  column  divided  into  compart- 
ments not  unlike  the  carbonating  tower.  It  is 
situated  over  the  still  in  which  the  liquors  are 
heated.  The  volatile  gases,  together  with  steam, 
pass  up  the  column,  which  is  constructed  to 
bring  them  into  frequent  and  close  contact,  so 
that  the  less  volatile  steam  has  every  opportunity 
for  condensing  and  returning  to  the  still,  while 
the  more  volatile  ammonia  passes  over. 

The  ammonium  carbonate  is  sufficiently  vola- 
tile of  itself,  but  to  obtain  the  ammonia  from 
the  ammonium  chloride  lime  is  added  to  the 
contents  of  the  still.  This  reacts  in  such  a 
way  as  to  produce  calcium  chloride  and  free 
ammonia.  The  residue  of  calcium  chloride  in 
the  still  and  excess  of  salt  goes  to  waste.  This 
plant  works  on  the  same  principle  as  that  we 
shall  shortly  describe  and  illustrate  for  making 
ammonium  sulphate  from  gas  liquors. 

Working  Details.  Owing  to  the  separa- 
tion of  the  crystals  of  bicarbonate  in  the  tower, 
the  holes  in  the  plates  gradually  get  clogged,  and 
every  week  or  ten  days  the  tower  must  be  emptied, 
and  the  bicarbonate  washed  out  by  letting  in  hot 
water  or  steam.  In  the  improved  process  this 
is,  to  a  certain  extent,  got  over  by  using  double 
carbonating  towers.  The  first  tower  is  smaller 
than  the  other,  and  in  it  is  prepared  neutral 
carbonate  of  ammonia.  This  may  be  regarded 
as  the  first  stage  in  the  chemical  changes  which 
produce  the  sodium  bicarbonate.  It  is  also 
that  in  which  most  of  the  heat  is  liberated,  so 
that  this  tower  is  the  one  which  requires  to  be 
effectively  cooled. 

The  contents  of  the  second  carbonating  tower 
should  not  be  kept  cool,  as  the  best  temperature 
for  the  precipitation  of  the  granular  bicarbonate 
is  35°  C.  If  the  temperature  be  higher,  too  much 
bicarbonate  remains  in  solution,  while,  if  lower, 
ammonium  chloride  and  ammonium  carbonate 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

tend  to  separate  out  with  the  sodium  bi- 
carbonate. 

Caustic    Soda    by  Loewig's  Process. 

A  new  method  for  the  conversion  of  sodium 
carbonate  into  caustic  soda  was  devised  by 
Loewig,  and  is  particularly  applicable  when 
worked  in  combination  with  the  ammonia-soda 
process.  The  carbonate  of  soda  (three  tons)  is 
intimately  mixed  with  ferric  oxide  (one  ton). 
The  latter  substance  is  a  common  iron  ore.  The 
mixture  is  heated  to  a  bright  redness  in  a 
revolving  (black  ash)  furnace,  when  carbon 
dioxide  is  given  off,  and  there  remains  behind 
the  caustic  soda  in  combination  with  iron  as 
sodium  ferrite. 

The  mass  can  be  extracted  with  cold  water 
to  remove  any  impurities,  and  the  remaining 
material  is  then  decomposed  with  hot  water 
(90°  C).  The  action  of  the  hot  water  is  to  re- 
convert the  iron  into  oxide,  which  settles  out, 
and  to  leave  the  caustic  soda  in  solution.  As 
carried  out  on  the  lines  of  the  Hewitt-Mond 
patent,  some  92  per  cent,  of  the  soda  is  causticised, 
the  remaining  8  per  cent,  being  unacted  upon.  By 
this  means  the  caustic  liquor  is  obtained  much 
stronger  (58°  to  62°  Tw.)  than  by  the  lime  process, 
so  that  a  considerable  saving  is  effected  in  con- 
centrating. As  the  concentration  proceeds, 
the  8  per  cent,  carbonate  which  has  escaped 
causticising  separates  out,  so  that  the  resulting 
caustic  is  practically  free  from  carbonate. 
Further,  no  lime  is  required,  and  the  product 
is  much  purer  and  free  from  other  salts 


H20 

WATER 


Naz  COj  fee  Oj 

SODA  ASH  FERRIC  OXIDE. 


SODIUM  FERRI TE        CARBON  DIOXIDE 

2NaOH    +          Fe2O3 

CAUSTIC    SODA  FERRIC    OXIDE 

Carbonate  of  Soda.  We  have  followed 
out  the  manufacture  of  this  substance  on  a  large 
scale  by  more  than  one  process,  and  have 
familiarised  ourselves  with  the  forms  in  which 
it  appears  in  commerce.  We  have  explained 
the  manufacture  of  black  ash  in  the  Leblanc 
process,  and  the  soda  ash  obtained  from  it. 
We  have  also  seen  how  soda  ash  can  be  obtained 
directly  by  igniting  bicarbonate  of  soda. 

Soda  ash  is  anhydrous — that  is,  free  from 
water — and  contains  only  a  trace  of  caustic  soda 
and  other  impurities.  The  best  commercial 
varieties  contain  98  to  99  per  cent,  of  the  pure 
substance. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  in  the  Leblanc 
process  caustic  soda  is  formed  at  the  same  time 
as  carbonate  of  soda.  This  is  no  disadvantage 
when  required  for  many  purposes,  such  as  soap- 
boiling,  etc.  The  caustic  is  not  removed,  and 
a  variety  known  as  caustic  ash,  containing 
20  per  cent,  of  caustic  soda,  is  sold.  If  carbo- 
nate of  soda  be  obtained  as  crystals  deposited 
from  a  solution,  we  obtain  soda  crystals 
(Na^COglOHoO),  or  common  washing  soda.  On 
account  of  the  large  quantity  of  water  present, 
the  crystals  contain  much  less  soda  than  the 
soda  ash,  but  they  are  much  purer,  and  form 
the  common  household  soda,  which  contains 

4773 


APPLIED  CHEMISTRY 

only  37  per  cent,  of  anhydrous  carbonate  of 
soda.  Soda  crystals,  as  sold,  have  been  con- 
siderably adulterated  of  late,  and  a  conviction 
was  recently  obtained  against  a  trader  for  selling 
a  mixture  of  crystallised  carbonate  of  soda  mixed 
with  Glauber's  salts  (or  sulphate  of  soda)  as 
soda  crystals. 

Adulteration  of  Soda.  We  have  already 
made  ourselves  familiar  with  the  sulphate  of 
soda  in  the  form  of  salt  cake,  and  know 
that  this  substance  has  neither  scouring  nor 
cleansing  properties.  It  is  evident  that  the 
lady  of  the  house  was  badly  put  upon  when 
she  bought  soda  crystals  adulterated  in  this 
manner.  The  case  in  question  was  brought 
before  the  Court  of  Appeal  in  November,  1905, 
and  soda  crystals  have  now  been  definitely 
defined  as  crystallised  carbonate  of  soda 
(Na.,CO310BLO).  If  the  soda  crystals  be  pre- 
pare"d  by  the'Leblanc  process,  it  is  quite  possible 
that  they  will  be  contaminated  with  a  trace  of 
the  sulphate  of  soda  from  which  they  were 
prepared;  but  this  should  not  exceed  1  per  cent., 
or  at  the  most  2  per  cent. 

To  test  for  the  presence  of  Glauber  salts  in 
washing  soda,  a  few  crystals  should  be  crushed 
up  and  treated  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid 
until  no  more  gas  is  evolved.  To  some  of  this 
solution  a  little  barium  chloride  solution  should 
be  added,  and  the  liquid  warmed,  when  any 
Glauber  salts  present  brings  about  the  formation 
of  a  white  precipitate  of  barium  sulphate.  This 
precipitate  will  be  heavy  and  copious  in  the  case 
of  a  really  adulterated  sample  of  soda  crystals. 
There  is  no  excuse  for  the  presence  of  much 
sulphate  of  soda  in  soda  crystals,  as  these  two 
substances  cannot  be  made  to  crystallise  together 
without  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  Under  ordinary 
conditions  the  carbonate  crystallises  and  separates 
out  first,  excess  of  sulphate  remaining  in  solution. 
Baking-powder.  Besides  carbonate  of 
soda,  we  have  met  with  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
the  main  product  in  the  ammonia-soda  pro- 
cess. This  is  a  white  powdery  substance,  and 
as  it  contains  twice  as  much  carbonic  acid  as 
the  normal  carbonate  of  soda,  its  alkaline 
properties  are  less  marked.  We  find  it  in 
most  homes,  where  they  call  it  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  use  it  for  cooking.  A  little  of  it 
is  often  put  into  the  teapot  to  bring  out  the 
colour  of  the  tea,  with  the  idea  of  making  the 
tea  stronger,  with  doubtful  advantage.  It  is 
the  main  ingredient  of  most  baking-powders, 
as  it  very  easily  parts  with  its  carbonic  acid,  and 
the  gas  liberated  causes  the  pastry  to  rise.  Many 
baking-powders  consist  of  a  mixture  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  and  tartaric  acid  (or  acid  calcium 
phosphate),  with  the  addition  of  some  rice-flour. 
TM  the  course  of  baking,  these  two  substances 
react  together,  forming  sodium  tartrate,  and  the 
whole  of  the  carbonic  acid  is  liberated. 

The  best  proportions  to  take  are :  1  Ib.  of 
tartaric  acid  to  1  Ib.  2  oz.  of  bicarbonate  of  soda. 
These  are  the  proportions  in  which  they  react 
together  according  to  the  equation : 


It  is  essential  that  all  the  materials  used 
should  be  thoroughly  dry.  They  should  be  finely 
powdered  and  thoroughly  mixed.  Baking-powder 
must  also  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  as,  when  wetted, 
the  two  substances  begin  to  react  with  one 
another.  This  is  seen  on  throwing  a  little  of  the 
mixture  into  water,  when  a  violent  effervescence 
takes  place.  This  same  principle  is  made  use  of 
in  the  preparation  of  effervescing  salts,  sherbet, 
fruit  salts,  saline,  seidlitz  powders,  etc. 

There  is  one  other  carbonate  of  soda,  the  so- 
called  sesqui  carbonate,  which  is  prepared  by 
mixing  solutions  of  sodium  carbonate  and 
bicarbonate.  It  contains  more  soda  than  the 
crystal  soda,  and  can  be  used  for  similar  pur- 
poses. Its  action  is  somewhat  milder,  owing  to 
part  of  the  soda  being  in  the  form  of  bicarbonate. 

Caustic  Soda.  The  manufacture  of  caustic 
soda,  either  from  carbonate  of  soda  by  the 
lime  process  or  by  Loewig's  process  or  elec- 
trically has  already  been  considered.  It  is  often 
cast  into  sticks,  and  is  very  readily  soluble 
in  water.  It  exceeds  all  forms  of  carbonate  or 
bicarbonate  of  soda  in  its  powerful  scouring  or 
detergent  properties — in  fact,  it  is  too  powerful 
for  domestic  use,  as  it  attacks  and  dissolves  many 
substances.  A  little  of  the  solution  between  the 
fingers  has  an  extremely  soapy  feel,  and  dis- 
solves the  surface  of  the  skin.  It  is  used  in 
large  quantities  in  many  industries,  particu- 
larly in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  paper, 
and  in  the  processes  for  the  purification  of  tar 
oils  and  petroleum.  The  commercial  standards 
of  strength  for  carbonate  and  caustic  soda  are 
somewhat  puzzling.  Thus,  for  instance,  sodium 
carbonate  58 '5  per  cent,  will  be  pure  sodium 
carbonate.  Caustic  soda  of  77*5  per  cent,  will  be 
pure  caustic  soda.  These  figures  are  got  at  some- 
what as  follows. 

In  both  cases  for  the  purposes  of  reckoning, 
the  percentage  of  oxide  of  sodium  (Na.,0)  in 
the  substance  is  taken,  and  as  58 '5  per  cent, 
of  pure  oxide  of  sodium  is  theoretically  ob- 
tainable from  pure  sodium  carbonate,  it  is  said 
to  be  58 '5  degrees  of  strength,  or  58 '5  per  cent. 

Ammonia,  or  Spirits  of  Hartshorn. 
By  far  the  most  important  source  of  ammonia  is 
the  gas  liquor  which  collects  in  the  hydraulic 
main  and  scrubbers  of  the  gasworks.  But 
there  are,  in  addition,  certain  other  sources 
which  we  shall  now  enumerate.  Ammonia  salts 
are  found  occurring  in  a  native  state — thus, 
ammonium  carbonate  is  found  among  guano 
deposits,  and  also  exudes  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth  in  Tuscany,  being  contained  in  the  so- 
called  "suffioni,"  or  volcanic  jets  of  steam,  from 
which  it  is  obtained  as  a  by-product. 

As  nitrogen,  one  of  the  elements  which  go  to 
make  up  ammonia,  forms  four-fifths  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, it  is  only  natural  that  many  attempts 
should  be  made  to  convert  this  nitrogen  into 
ammonia.  In  spite  of  the  amount  of  work  do- 
voted  to  this  subject,  no  satisfactory  process  has 
as  yet  been  devised  for  its  cheap  production  on 
However,  much  is  hoped  for  a 


these  lines. 

H.C4H4p0  +  2NaHC03   =  Na,C4H4O6+2H20-l-  2COo      new  process  depending  on  the  combination 
Tartaric  Sodium  Sodium  Carbon    of  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  with  calcium  car 

acid          bicarbonate       tartrate  dioxide    bide.     (Frank  &  Caro.) 

4774 


APPLIED  CHEMISTRY 


Other  Sources  of  Ammonia.  Although 
coal  is  the  chief  source  of  ammonia,  it  contains 
but  little  more  than  1  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
It  is,  however,  the  main  source  of  ammonia, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  organic  waste, 
such  as  sewage,  contains  a  much  larger  "— 
proportion.  In  Paris,  the  nitrogen  of 
sewage  is  converted  into  ammonia  com-  ~  - 
pounds  and  used  as  manure.  The  formation  •— ^ 
of  ammonia  is  brought  about  by  the  putre 
faction  of  the  sewage.  Enormous  sums  have  ^« 
been  wasted  in  attempts  to  utilise  the 
ammonia  in  sewage,  which  for  London  alone 
would  amount  to  60,000  tons  per  annum.  The 
road  grit,  etc.,  dilutes  it  so  as  to  make  it  unsale- 
able, even  after  filter  pressing  for  the  removal  of 
the  water. 

A  small  quantity  of  ammonia  is  also  obtained 
by  the  distillation  of  animal  refuse,  such  as  bones, 
wool,  leather,  etc.  The  aqueous  distillate  is 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  coal-tar  liquor. 
Not  only  in  the  gasworks,  but  also  in  other 
furnaces,  such  as  blast  furnaces,  gas  producers, 
coke  ovens,  shale  distilleries,  etc.,  where  coal 
is  distilled  and  heated  and  the  product  collected, 
we  obtain  liquors  practically  identical  with  gas 
liquors  from  the  gasworks,  all  of  which  can  be 
similarly  treated. 

However,  by  far  the  greatest  quantity  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia  of  commerce  is  obtained 
from  the  liquor  of  the  gasworks.  More  than 
200,000  tons  per  annum  is  so  produced,  of  which 
the  greater  part  is  exported.  This  ammonium 
sulphate  is  used  chiefly  as  artificial  manure  [see 
Manures]. 

How  to  Treat  Gas  Liquor.  We  shall 
now  consider  the  working  up  of  gas  liquor  for 
the  production  of  ammonia  and  its  salts. 

The  ammonia  is  contained  in  the  gas  liquor 
either  in  the  free  state  or  in  combination  with 
other  substances.  For  practical  purposes,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  regarded  as  either  "  free  "  or 
"  bound."  These  terms  do  not  apply  in  the  strict 
chemical  sense.  The  "  free  "  ammonia  consti- 
tutes the  great  bulk,  and  is  driven  off  by  merely 
heating  the  liquor.  The  "  combined, "  or  "  bound" 
ammonia  is  driven  off  only  after  the  addition  of 
lime  «r  other  alkali.  The  volatile  ammonia  is  in 
combination  as  carbonate,  sulphide,  hydro- 
sulphide,  cyanide,  and  possibly  acetate.  The 
combined  is  present  as  sulphate,  sulphite,  thio- 
sulphate,  thiocarbonate,  chloride,  sulphocyanide, 
and  ferrocyanide.  Before  treatment  it  is  usually 
subjected  to  an  analysis,  to  determine  the  pro- 
portion of  the  ammonia  that  is  "  free,"  and 
whether  that  proportion  which  is  combined  be 
worth  recovery.  In  many  works  no  attempt  is 
made  to  recover  the  combined  ammonia,  and  it 
is  simpfy  run  to  waste.  For  many  purposes  the 
gas  liquor  is  concentrated.  This  is  carried  out 
in  automatically  working  evaporating  plant, 
which  are  in  use  by  several  firms  in  this  country 
and  abroad. 

Solway  Still  for  Concentrating  Gas 
Liquor.  A  boiler,  of  which  only  one  end  is 
shown,  is  divided  into  partitions  at  A,  and  each 
division  thus  formed  is  further  subdivided,  as 


shown  in  section  in  the  diagram  [19].  The  gas 
liquor  enters  at  B.  We  shall  imagine  the  plant 
in  action,  when  the  lower  half  will  be  filled  with 


SOLWAY  STILL  FOR  CONCENTRATING  GAS  LIQUOR 

liquor  right  through.  Vapour  is  given  off  from 
the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  each  compartment. 
Take,  say,  D3,  the  vapour  passes  from  here  into 
E4,  and  drives  some  of  the  liquor  from  H4  over 
intoD4.  Thus  some  of  the  liquid  from  D5  has 
passed  over  into  D4.  In  this  way  the  liquor 
gradually  passes  through  the  boiler  in  the  direc- 
tion shown  by  the  arrows,  leaving  the  other  end 
of  the  boiler  deprived  of  its  ammonia.  The 
vapour  escaping  from  D5  is  condensed  in  the 
worm  K,  and  the  heat  liberated  gives  a  prelimi- 
nary heating  to  the  gas  liquor  as  it  flows  into  the 
boiler.  This  concentrated  liquor  serves  very  well 
for  the  manufacture  of  soda  by  the  ammonia - 
soda  process.  It  is  also  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  a  solution  of  pure  ammonia  gas  hi  water. 
Formerly,  and  sometimes  even  now,  the  latter  is 
prepared  by  distilling  sulphate  of  ammonia  with 
lime,  but  it  is  more  frequently  worked  up  from 
the  gas  liquor. 

The  liquor  is  distilled  and  the  vapour  filtered 
through  wood  charcoal,  which  retains  the 
"  empyreumatic  "  substances  which  lend  to  the 
crude  ammonia  its  peculiar  colour  and  odour. 
The  gas  which  first  comes  over  should  be  collected 
in  a  separate  receptacle,  or  converted  into 
sulphate.  There  is  a  great  demand  for  concen- 
trated ammonia  liquor  for  various  purposes. 

At  the  present  day  the  anhydrous  liquid 
ammonia  is  prepared  in  some  quantity,  as  it  is 
used  for  refrigerating  machines,  the  evaporation 
of  liquid  ammonia  producing  a  low  degree  of  cold. 
For  the  preparation  of  liquid  ammonia,  the  gas 
is  drawn  off  from  the  concentrated  liquor  by 
means  of  a  vacuum  pump,  well  dried,  and  then 
compressed  by  another  pump  into  a  worm, 
placed  in  a  cooling  tank.  The  liquid  ammonia 
condenses  and  collects  in  a  strong  wrought-iron 
cylinder,  from  which  it  is  drawn  off  into  small 
cylinders  [see  Food  Preservation]. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia.  This  is  the 
chief  product  of  the  gasworks,  and  most  of  the 
gas  liquor  is  worked  up  for  the  production  of 
this  substance.  Enormous  quantities  are  pre- 
pared and  exported  from  this  country,  par- 
ticularly for  use  as  fertiliser  [see  Manures].  The 
plant  employed  consists  essentially  of  a  still 
for  vaporising  the  ammonia,  and  a  lead-lined 
vessel  containing  sulphuric  acid,  into  which  the 
ammonia  gas  is  conducted.  The  type  of  plant 
will  be  best  understood  by  reference  to  the 
diagram  [20].  The  still  itself  is  built  of  two 
parts.  The  upper  part,  or  dephlegmating 
column,  is  constructed  so  that  the  free 
ammonia  is  driven  off,  while  steam  is  re- 
tained. As  will  be  seen,  it  consists  of  several 

4775 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

compartments,  leading  into  one  another  through 
wide  openings.     The  edge  of  the  opening  is  pro- 
vided with  a  ridge,   and  covered  with  a  cap. 
The  openings 
are  also  con- 
nected   with 
one    another 
by      short 
lengths        of 
tube.    A  pool 
of      liquid 
forms  at  the 
bottom       o  f 
each     com- 
partment, 
held     as     it 
were     in     a 
tray,    and 
eventually 
overflows  20.  STILL  FOR  PREPARING  AMMONIUM 
through    the         SULPHATE  FROM  GAS  LIQUOR 
narrow   tube 

into  the  compartment  below.  This  causes  the 
gas  passing  up  through  the  central  openings  to 
bubble  through  the  liquid  in  the  tray  under  the 
cap,  and  thus  insures  thorough  contact  of  the 
liquid  and  the  gas. 

The  gas  liquor  is  heated  by  steam  at  B  by 
passing  through  a  series  of  jacketed  tubes  before 
it  enters  the  column  at  C,  and  during  its  descent 
through  the  column  it  is  heated  by  steam 
entering  at  F.  By  the  time  it  has  reached  the 
bottom  of  the  column  I),  all  free  ammonia  will 
have  been  driven  off.  The  liquor  then  runs  into 
the  vessel  E,  into  which  milk  of  lime  is  pumped, 
and  overflows  through  a  wide  central  tube  into 
the  bottom  vessel,  F,  where  it  trickles  over  steps 
and  finally  escapes.  The  steam  driven  in  heats 
the  mixture  of  milk  of  lime  and  liquor  containing 
fixed  ammonia,  so  that  free  ammonia  is  driven 
off  and  passes  up  the  column  D.  The  ammonia 
escapes  at  H,  and  passes  into  a  bell-shaped 
vessel,  I,  where,  coming  into  contact  with  sul- 
phuric acid  in  the  vessel  L,  it  is  absorbed  with 
the  formation  of  ammonium  sulphate. 

Gas  liquor  always  contains  some  ammonium 
sulphide  and  other  salts,  which  are  decomposed, 
forming  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  This  and  other 
noxious  gases  collect  in  the  cover,  K,  and  are 
drawn  off  and  burnt,  or  otherwise  got  rid  of. 
Ammonium  sulphate  is  the  salt  of  ammonia 
most  commonly  met  with  in  commerce.  It  is  a 
white  crystalline  substance,  and  the  ammonia 
it  contains  is  easily  driven  off  by  heating  with 
lime. 

Ammonium  Chloride  of  Sal  Am= 
moniac.  This  substance  was  formerly  pre- 
pared by  mixing  ammonia  with  hydrochloric 
;n  i<l.  but  is  now  got  mostly  from  the  sulphate. 

A  saturated  solution  of  the  latter  in  water 
is  mixed  with  a  strong  solution  of  common 
salt,  and  on  evaporating  somewhat  and  on  the 
mixture  standing,  sodium  sulphate  separates 
out  from  the  hot  liquor,  leaving  ammonium 
chloride  in  solution.  Crude  ammonium  chloride 
is  often  discoloured  by  tar  and  other  impurities 
derived  from  the  ammonium  sulphate  from 
which  it  is  purified  by  "  sublimation."  That 

4776 


is  to  say,  the  dry  solid  is  heated  in  iron  pots, 
when  it  passes  into  vapour  without  previously 
melting.  The  vapours  deposit  on  the  cold 
surface  of  covers  placed  over  the  pots  and 
form  a  thick  fibrous  mass  of  crystals. 

Ammonium    Carbonate    or  Sal  Vol- 
atile.    To   obtain    this    material,    familiar    to 
ladies  as  "  smelling  salts,"  ammonium  sulphate 
is  mixed  with  chalk,  and  the  powdered  materials 
heated  in  retorts,  when  the  carbonate  of  ammonia 
sublimes    over,    leaving   sulphate   of    lime.     It 
forms  a  white  crystalline  ice-like  mass. 
(NH4),SO4  +    CaCO:}    =  (NH4),CO:}  -f-  CaS04 
Sulphate  of     Carbonate     Carbonate         Sulphate 
ammonia         of  calcium     of  ammonia      of  lime 
or  chalk        or  sal  vola- 
tile 

Chlorine.  Enormous  quantities  of  chlorine 
are  produced  for  making  chloride  of  lime,  or 
bleaching  powder.  Chlorine  itself  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  bleaching  agents  known,  but  is 
seldom  used  in  the  gaseous  form  for  this  purpose. 
Being  a  gas  it  is  difficult  to  manipulate  ;  nor 
is  it  soluble  enough  in  water  to  allow  of  its  use 
in  a  handy  form  like  a  solution  of  ammonia  gas. 
A  weak  solution  of  chlorine  in  water  will  often 
be  found  on  the  laboratory  bench,  but  although 
the  bottle  is  usually  pasted  over  with  paper  to 
keep  out  the  light,  the  solution  is  mostly  decom- 
posed in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  Chlorine 
gas  compressed  into  cylinders  has  been  put 
on  the  market,  but  is  not  yet  in  general 
use  in  this  form.  As  a  rule,  it  is  better  to 
convert  it  into  some  substance  such  as  bleach- 
ing powder,  often  called  "  bleach,"  from  which 
it  is  easily  liberated  when  required,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  it  is  in  a  convenient  and  safe 
form  for  transport. 

Chlorine  itself  is  a  yellow  gas  which  it  is 
difficult  to  handle,  as  there  are  few  substances 
which  it  does  not  attack.  Its  corrosive  action 
is  astonishing.  The  source  of  most  chlorine  m 
commerce  is  the  hydrochloric  acid  formed  in 
the  manufacture  of  salt  cake,  and  the  common 
method  for  preparing  chlorine  is  to  act  on  the 
higher  oxide  of  a  metal  called  manganese  with 
the  acid.  The  best  material  to  use  is  a  naturally 
occurring  manganese  ore  termed  "  pyrolftsite  " 
(MnO2). 

Chlorine  Stills.  Stills  for  preparing 
chlorine  are  usually  made  of  earthenware  [21], 

as  this  is 
found  to  be 
more  resist- 
ant to  the 
action  of  gas 
than  the 
commoner 
metals.  The 
pyrolusite  is 
put  into  the 
inner  perfo- 
rated jar.  The 
still  is  placed  in  a  wooden  box  for  steam  heating. 
Where  large  quantities  are  required,  vessels 
made  from  slabs  of  sandstone  are  employed. 
The  pyrolusite  is  spread  on  a  false  bottom, 


21.    CHLORINE    GENERATOR 


consisting  of  a  perforated  plate,  and  hydro- 
chloric is  run  in  through  an  earthenware  pipe. 
The  gas  is  let  off  through  another  earthen- 
ware pipe,  and  to  avoid  the  use  of  cocks, 

which  would 
almost  cer- 
tainly leak, 
resort  is  had  to 
an  ingenious 
device  [22]. 
The  exit  pipe, 
carrying  the 
gas,  is  bent  in 
the  form  of  a 
"  U."  At  the 
bottom  of  this 
is  a  small  hole 
connected  by 
a  flexible  tube 
with  a  reser- 
DEVICE  FOB  CUTTING  OFF  voir  containing 

GAS   SUPPLY 


water.      By 
raising    this 


reservoir,  the  water  is  led  into  the  bottom 
of  the  "  U,"  effectively  sealing  the  pipe. 
Fig.  23  shows  the  purification  apparatus. 

Manganese    Recovery.     To    work    the 
process  economically,  it  is  necessary  to  recover 

the    manganese.     This    is   carried  , __ 

out  by  the  well-known  "  Weldon 
process."  The  manganese  con- 
tained in  the  "still-liquors" — that 


23.    CHLORINE   PURIFICATION    PLANT 

is  to  say,  the  liquors  remaining  in  the  still  after 
the  chlorine  has  gone  over — contains  the  manga- 
nese in  solution  as  a  chloride  (MnCl.2).  The 
pyrolusite,  when  acted  upon  by  hydrochloric 
acid,  gives  a  chloride  (MnCl4),  which  breaks 
up  thus  (MnCl4  =  MnCL  +  C12).  These  two 
chlorides  represent  the  two  salts  derived  from 
the  oxides  of  manganese,  of  which  manganic 
oxide  (Mn0.2)  is  the  higher  and  manganous 
oxide  (MnO)  the  lower.  Before  the  manganese 
can  be  used  again  for  liberating  chlorine,  it 
must  be  reconverted  into  a  compound  of  the 
higher  series.  The  still-liquors  always  contain 
a  small  quantity  of  hydrochloric  acid  remaining 
over  from  the  excess  of  acid  used,  and,  after 
neutralisation  with  chalk,  they  are  run  into  a 
tower  or  oxidiser,  where  they  are  treated  with 
milk  of  lime,  warmed  by  steam,  and  acted  upon 
by  a  current  of  air.  The  air  converts  the  manga- 
nese into  the  higher  state  of  oxidation  and  it 
is  precipitated  in  combination  with  a  small 
quantity  of  lime.  This  lime  does  not  interfere 
with  the  use  of  the  manganese  for  liberating 
chlorine  from  hydrochloric  acid,  so  that  it  is 
necessary  only  to  allow  the  solid  matter  to  settle 
and  run  off  the  clear  liquid,  which  consists 
largely  of  calcium  chloride.  The  black  slime 
or  mud,  commonly  called  "  Weldon  mud," 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

which  remains  at  the  bottom  may  be  run  direct 
into  the  stills  and  treated  with  more  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Another  Chlorine  Process.  Chlorine 
can  also  be  obtained  without  using  manganese. 
This  process,  which  we  owe  to  Deacon,  belongs 
to  that  class  termed  "contact  processes,"  which, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  includes  one  of  those 
processes  for  making  sulphuric  acid. 

Oxygen  of  the  air  is  made  to  combine  directly 
with  the  hydrogen  of  the  hydrochloric  acid 
to  form  water,  setting  chlorine  free.  The  con- 
tact substance  in  this  case  consists  of  lumps 
of  coke  saturated  with  chloride  of  copper. 
The  mixture  of  air  and  hydrochloric  acid  is 
heated  to  400°  C.  before  it  reaches  the  "de- 
composers," the  name  given  to  that  part  of  the 
apparatus  containing  the  coke  and  copper  salts. 
This  preliminary  heating  is  necessary  in  order 
that  the  reaction  may  take  place,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  heat  is  given  out  during  the  operation 
as  a  result  of  the  chemical  changes  going  on. 
In  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  by  the 
contact  process  the  same  sort  of  thing  happens. 
When  it  has  been  in  use  for  some  time  the  con- 
tact substance  loses  its  activity  and  has  to  be 
renewed. 

Bleaching  Powder.  Whichever  way  the 
chlorine  is  prepared,  it  is  usually  led  direct 
to  the  bleaching  powder  chambers.  These  are 
large  leaden  boxes,  as  large  as  dwelling-rooms, 
in  which  layers  of  slaked  lime  are  spread  upon 
floors  made  of  sandstone  slabs,  and  the  lime 
is  raked  over  (turned)  occasionally  to  expose 
fresh  surfaces  to  the  action  of  the  gas.  The 
chlorine  is  absorbed  by  the  lime  forming  a  sub- 
stance commonly  known  as  "  chloride  of  lime," 
or  bleaching  powder.  The  best  lime  to  use  is 
the  purest  that  can  be  got.  It  should  fall  to  a 
fine  powder  on  slaking,  and  leave  very  little 
residue  on  a  hundred-mesh  sieve.  Chloride  of 
lime  is  a  very  misleading  name.  We  should 
rightly  understand  it  to  mean  chloride  of  calcium 
or  calcium  chloride  (CaCL).  When  "  chloride 
of  lime,"  that  is,  bleaching  powder,  is  heated 
with  an  acid  (provided  it  be  not  too  dilute) 
chlorine  is  given  off  : 

Ca(oCl)  +  2HCl    "•'•    CaC1^  +  H*°  +C1* 
Bleaching  Hydrochloric  Calcium  Water  Chlorine 
powder          acid  chloride 

The  lime  of  bleaching  powder  is  left  behind  in 
combination  with  the  mineral  acid  used  to  de- 
compose it.  Chlorine  in  the  form  of  chloride 
cannot  be  liberated  by  treatment  with  acid,  and 
is  useless  for  the  purpose  of  bleaching.  In  this 
form  it  is  termed  "fixed"  or  "bound,"  while 
that  part  of  the  chlorine  which  is  given  off  by 
treatment  with  acid  is  termed  "  available." 

Strength  of  Bleach.  A  good  quality 
chloride  of  lime  should  contain  35  per  cent, 
of  available  chlorine.  Probably  the  highest 
strength  "bleach"  which  can  be  prepared  on 
a  commercial  scale  will  not  contain  over  40  per 
cent,  of  available  chlorine.  In  a  paper  recently 
published,  Davis  states  that  a  bleach  was  pre- 
pared (39'76  per  cent.)  in  a  plant  where  a  drying 

4777 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

scrubber  packed  with  coke  was  interposed  between 
the  lead  chamber  and  the  chlorine  stills.  Mois- 
ture, therefore,  interferes  with  the  absorption 
of  the  gar.,  but  unfortunately  in  the  case  just 
mentioned  the  bleach  produced  was  so  dry  and 
dusty  that  the  men  could  not  handle  it,  and  the 
scrubber  had  eventually  to  be  removed.  After 
its  removal,  bleach  manufactured  in  the  same 
plant  showed  a  strength  of  36  to  37  per  cent., 
and  rubbed  to  putty  between  the  fingers,  which 
is  one  of  the  rule  of  thumb  tests  for  good  powder. 

The  chlorine  penetrates  with  difficulty  through 
the  layer  of  lime  spread  at  the  bottom  of  the 
chambers.  Before  turning  or  raking  over,  the 
top  layer  may  contain,  say,  36  per  cent,  bleach, 
the  middle  12  per  cent.,  and  the  bottom  layer  per- 
haps only  2  per  cent.  These  figures  are  taken 
from  actual  experiments  recorded  by  Davis,  and 
they  illustrate  the  importance  of  "turning" 
where  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  bleach  of  high 
strength. 

Constitution  of  Bleach.  If  bleaching 
powder  yields  at  the  most  40  per  cent,  avail- 
able chloride,  it  is  obvious  that  part  of  the 
lime  remains  unacted  upon.  Bleach  of  com- 
merce contains,  roughly,  two  molecules  of  the 
hypochloride  to  one  of  slaked  lime — thus, 
2CaOCl,Ca(OH),,  with  a  small  proportion  of 
water.  "  The  figures  obtained  from  the  high- 
strength  bleach  mentioned  above  as  containing 
39'76  per  cent,  available  chlorine  correspond 
with  the  formula  3(CaOCl2H.,O),  Ca(OH).,  after 
allowing  for  a  small  quantity  of  inert  matter  con- 
tained in  the  original  lime.  This  corresponds 
to  three  molecules  of  the  hypochlorite  to 
one  of  lime.  Buxton  lime  is  as  good  as  any 
for  making  bleach.  It  is  usual  to  pass  the 
lime  through  a  sieve  before  spreading  it  on  the 
floors  of  the  chambers.  Sieved  lime  usually 
contains  about  71  per  cent,  of  calcium  hydroxide 
available  for  absorption  of  the  gas  ;  100  grammes 
should  therefore  yield  172  grammes  of  40  per  cent, 
bleach,  including  6  per  cent,  of  inert  matter. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  180  grammes  of  38  per  cent, 
bleach  is  the  usual  yield  owing  to  moisture  taken 
up  during  the  operation.  High  strength  bleach 
usually  contains  4  to  15  per  cent,  of  moisture. 

Bleaching  powder  is  an  almost  white  powder 
with  a  damp  appearance  and  feel.  It  has  a  pecu- 
liar odour,  which  is  due  to  the  liberation  of  hypo- 
chlorous  acid  by  the  carbonic  acid  from  the 
atmosphere.  Hypochlorous  acid  is  a  very 
unstable  substance,  and  readily  decomposes, 
yielding  chlorine.  This  is  why  strong  acids 
always  give  chlorine  with  bleaching  powder ;  if 
very  weak  and  dilute  acids  be  used,  hypo- 
chlorous  acid  is  obtained.  Salts  of  hypochlorous 
acid,  such  as  sodium  hypochlorite,  are  used  for 
bleaching,  and  are  obtained  electrolytically. 

Chlorates.  When  chlorine  gas  is  passed 
into  a  hot  solution  of  caustic  potash  or  soda 
the  chlorine  combines  with  the  alkali  to  form 
l>oth  chloride  and  chlorate.  The  reaction  in 
question  may  be  represented  by  the  chemical 
equation : 

301,  +6KOH  -  5KC1  +  KClO.j  +  3H..O 
Chlorine  Caustic  Potassium  Potassium  Water 

potash     chloride       chlorate 
4778 


It  will  be  seen  that  only  one-sixth  part  of  the 
chlorine  is  converted  into  chlorate,  five-sixths 
remaining  as  the  comparatively  useless  chloride, 
which  would  have  to  be  worked  up  to  caustic 
before  it  could  be  used  over  again. 

In  the  preparation  of  potassium  chlorate  it  is 
possible  to  avoid  the  formation  of  potassium 
chloride  by  the  use  of  sufficient  lime  to  replace 
the  potash.  Milk  of  lime  is  run  into  vessels 
provided  with  agitators,  and  chlorine  gas  passed 
in.  The  chlorine  is  absorbed  with  the  formation 
of  calcium  chloride  and  calcium  chlorate.  It  is 
not  advantageous  to  let  the  temperature  get  too 
high.  On  the  other  hand,  the  formation  of 
hypochlorite  must  be  avoided.  When  the  satu- 
ration is  completed,  the  liquids  are  run  into 
"  settling  "  tanks,  and  the  clear  liquid  carefully 
tested  to  see  what  proportion  of  calcium  chlorate 
is  present.  A  sufficiency  of  a  solution  of  potas- 
sium chloride  is  added  to  react  with  the  calcium 
chlorate,  giving  calcium  chloride,  which  remains 
in  solution,  and  potassium  chlorate — a  substance 
soluble  with  some  difficulty,  which  separates 
out.  On  the  other  hand,  although  less  soluble 
than  calcium  chloride,  potassium  chlorate  is 
by  no  means  an  insoluble  substance,  so  that 
concentration  of  the  liquor  is  necessary  before 
the  crystals  begin  to  separate.  In  some  of  the 
more  recent  processes  lime  is  replaced  by  mag- 
nesia, and  it  is  claimed  that  by  its  use  there  is 
less  likelihood  of  loss  from  chlorate  remaining 
dissolved  in  the  liquor.  The  crude  substance  has 
to  be  recrystallised  to  obtain  a  pure  product. 

Industrial  Uses  of  Chlorate.  Potas- 
sium chlorate  is  largely  employed  in  making 
matches  [see  Matches],  also  for  fireworks  and 
some  descriptions  of  explosives,  although  it  is 
usually  found  too  energetic  for  the  latter  purpose. 
It  is  also  used  in  calico  printing  and  dyeing,  and 
in  medicine.  The  quantity  manufactured  is  not 
inconsiderable  ;  several  tons  are  produced 
annually  in  this  country. 

Sodium  chlorate  is  of  less  importance  than 
the  corresponding  potassium  salt.  Like  most 
sodium  salts,  it  is  more  soluble  in  water,  which 
makes  it  better  suited  for  some  purposes,  as.  for 
instance,  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  black. 
It  cannot  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as 
potassium  chlorate,  as  it  is  not  sufficiently 
insoluble  to  be  readily  separated  from  the 
calcium  chloride.  It  is  prepared  by  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  process  whereby  calcium  chlorate  is 
decomposed  with  sodium  sulphate,  and  calcium 
sulphate  separates  out,  leaving  the  sodium 
chlorate  in  solution.  Chlorates  are  now  prepared 
electrolytically. 

Phosphorus,  Phosphoric  Acid,  and 
Phosphates.  We  owe  the  discovery  of  this 
element  to  the  alchemist  Brandt.  He  obtained  it 
in  the  course  of  some  experiments  with  urine. 
The  urine  was  mixed  with  sand,  evaporated  to 
dryness,  and  strongly  ignited.  Brandt  kept  the 
process  secret,  and  phosphorus  remained  for  a 
long  time  even  more  of  a  chemical  curiosity  than 
radium  is  to-day. 

Urine  contains  only  very  small  quantities  of 
phosphoric  acid,  which  was  the  source  of  the 
phosphorus  obtained,  and  working  a  hundred 


years  later,  the  Swedish  chemist  Scheele,  finding 
that  bones  contained  large  quantities  of  phos- 
phates, made  use  of  them  for  the  preparation  of 
phosphorus,  and  prepared  the  element  in  a  larger 
quantity.  Bone  ash  is  still  the  best  raw  material 
for  making  phosphorus,  as  it  consists  of  very  little 
else  but  phosphate  of  calcium,  100  parts  of  bone 
ash  containing  rather  over  17  parts  of  the  element. 
There  are  other  compounds  of  phosphorus  met 
with  in  commerce  and  used  not  so  much  for  the 
preparation  of  the  element  but  in  the  manu- 
facture of  phosphates  for  manures,  as  examples 
of  which  substances  we  may  mention  the  minerals 
apatite  (fluoride  and  phosphate  of  calcium),  phos- 
phorite, etc.  We  refer  to  these  again  in  the 
course  on  Manures. 

Details  of  the  Process.  Phosphoric  acid 
is  prepared  from  bone  ash  by  converting  the 
lime  into  sulphate  with  sulphuric  acid.  The 
operation  is  carried  out  in  wooden  tubs,  pro- 
vided with  stirring  appliances.  The  phosphates 
of  lime  and  water  are  mixed  and  then  steam 
is  blown  in  through  a  lead  pipe.  The  mass  is 
kept  stirred  while  further  quantities  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  phosphate  are  added  alternately,  until 
the  whole  of  the  charge  has  been  introduced. 
Enough  sulphuric  acid  must  be  used  to  decom- 
pose the  phosphates,  and  the  reaction  will  be 
better  understood  by  glancing  at  the  following 
equation  : 

Ca..(P04)3  +  3H.2S04  =  3CaS04  4-  2H.TP04 
Calcium  phosphate  Sulphuric  Calcium  Phosphoric 

or  bone  ash  acid        Sulphate      acid. 

The  phosphoric  acid  is  easily  soluble  in  water, 
whereas  the  sulphate  of  lime  is  soluble  with  diffi- 
culty. Separation  is  consequently  conducted 
by  filtration.  The  mass  may  be  filtered  through 
ashes  distributed  over  a  layer  of  clinkers  spread 
in  wooden  boxes,  the  clear  liquor  flowing  away 
through  holes  in  the  bottom.  Fresh  water  is 
added  as  the  liquor  drains  away,  so  as  to  wash 
out  the  phosphoric  acid.  The  sludge  remaining 
behind  still  contains  some  phosphate  of  lime  with 
the  sulphate,  and  may  be  utilised  as  a  manure. 
The  phosphoric  acid  liquor  is  concentrated  in 
lead  lined  tanks.  In  the  course  of  this  operation, 
small  quantities  of  gypsum  (calcium  sulphate) 
contained  in  the  solution  are  deposited,  and  the 
liquor  may  be  run  off,  leaving  the  solid  im- 
purities behind. 

Phosphoric  acid  prepared  in  this  way  contains 
traces  of  arsenic.  By  further  concentration, 
crystals  of  the  acid  separate  on  cooling,  which 
are  extremely  "deliquescent" — that  is  to  say, 
they  rapidly  absorb  moisture  from  the  air.  This 
form  of  phosphoric  acid  may  be  regarded  as 
still  containing  water  in  combination,  and  is 
known  as  orthophosplioric  acid  (H.5P04  equiva- 
lent to  HPO:3  +  H20).  The  sodium  phosphate 
of  commerce  is  the  disodium  phosphate  (Na2 
HP04).  If  more  strongly  heated,  the  ortho- 
phosphoric  acid  loses  water,  and  is  converted 
into  meta phosphoric  acid,  a  transparent  ice-like 
solid  (H.,P04  -  HPO:>  +  H20).  It  is  met 
with  in  commerce  under  the  name  of  the  "  glacial 
phosphoric  acid."  It  dissolves  in  water  readily, 
and  is  slowly  converted  into  orthophosplioric 
acid  in  the  cold,  but  rapidly  on  boiling. 


PHOSPHORUS   EETORTS 
IN   FURNACE 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

Manufacture  of  Phosphorus.  To  re- 
turn to  the  manufacture  of  phosphorus.  The 
concentrated  solution  of  phosphoric  acid,  which, 
as  we  have  explained,  is  the  variety  known 
as  orthophosphoric  acid,  is  mixed  with  roughly 
ground  charcoal,  coke  or  sawdust,  and  the  semi- 
solid  mass  dried  in  a  muffle.  This  forms  the 
raw  material  ready  for  distillation. 

A  series  of  fireclay  retorts  are  arranged 
in  a  furnace  with  their  mouths  projecting  ; 
a  section  through  a  furnace  showing  four  retorts 
is  seen  in  24.  The  retorts  usually  used,  A,  are 

shaped  exactly 
like  short-necked 
bottles,  and  are 
placed  horizon- 
tally. The  ma- 
terial is  intro- 
duced into  the  red 
hot  retorts,  and  a 
bent  iron  pipe,  B, 
luted  into  the 
mouth  of  each. 
The  pipe  dips  into 
a  trough,  C,  con- 
taining water,  so  that  when  the  retorts  are  at  a 
bright  red  heat,  and  the  phosphorus  begins  to 
distil  over,  the  vapour  passes  down  the  pipes  and 
collects  in  the  trough  under  the  water.  The 
chemical  reaction  which  takes  place  is  brought 
about  by  the  carbon  of  the  charcoal  or  coke,  which, 
at  the  high  temperature  employed,  combines  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  phosphoric  acid.  This  latter, 
by  the  by,  is  now  in  the  form  of  metaphosphoric 
acid,  as  water  will  have  been  driven  off  from  the 
orthophosphoric  acid  in  the  first  stages  of  the 
operation.  Carbon  monoxide  and  hydrogen  gas 
are  given  off  during  the  process,  so  that  the 
troughs  are  kept  covered,  and  the  gases  led 
away  and  burnt.  Some  60  to  70  per  cent,  of 
the  theoretical  yield  of  phosphorus  is  obtained. 

Purification  and  Properties,  The  crude 
element  is  discoloured  and  impure.  For  the 
purpose  of  refining,  it  is  introduced  into  lead- 
lined  pots,  where  it  is  melted  under  water  by 
means  of  steam,  and  treated  with  a  mixture  of 
bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphuric  acid.  The 
mixture  is  ke^>t  stirred  for  two  hours,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  the  liquid  phosphorus  should  be  clear 
and  transparent.  When  cold  the  mass  is  removed, 
melted  under  hot  water,  and  moulded  into  sticks, 
in  which  form  it  comes  into  commerce. 

Phosphorus  is  extremely  inflammable,  and  must 
be  kept  under  water.  The  surface  becomes  dis- 
coloured on  keeping,  especially  if  exposed  to 
light,  but  very  little  chemical  change  takes  place. 
It  is  largely  used  for  making  matches  [see 
Matches].  There  is  another  form  in  which  the 
element  occurs  known  as  red  phosphorus,  on 
account  of  its  colour.  This  substance,  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  safety  matches,  is  obtained 
on  the  commercial  scale  by  heating  yellow  phos- 
phorus in  a  covered  cast-iron  pot  for  some  time  at 
a  temperature  of  240°  to  250°  C.  The  cover  is 
fitted  with  a  short  tube  to  act  as  a  safety  valve. 
The  hard  lumps  are  ground  up  with  water,  and 
boiled  with  caustic  soda,  which  dissolves  small 
quantities  of  unconverted  yellow  phosphorus. 

4779 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

The  two  forms  of  phosphorus  differ  from  one 
another  in  a  very  striking  manner.  Red  phos- 
phorus is  not  poisonous,  or  easily  inflammable, 
and  is  generally  inert  until  strongly  heated,  when 
it  passes  back  into  the  yellow  variety. 

Alums  and  Aluminium  Sulphate. 
Strictly  speaking,  we  understand  by  alums  the 
double  salts  of  certain  metals  which  crystallise 
with  twenty-four  molecules  of  water  in  the  regu- 
lar system.  As  a  typical  example,  we  may  take 
potash  alum,  whose  composition  may  be  repre- 
sented by  K2SO4  .  AL(SO4)3  .  24H,O;  that  is 
to  say,  one  molecule  each  of  potassium  and 
aluminium  sulphates  with  twenty-four  molecules 
of  water.  For  technical  purposes  we  need  con- 
sider only  potash,  soda,  and  ammonia  alums, 
although  many  others  have  been  prepared,' 
some  of  which  do  not  even  contain  aluminium, 
its  place  being  taken  by  some  other  metal.  As  an 
example  we  may  cite  chromium  in  chrome  alum, 
K,SOvCr2(SO4)3.24H2O.  In  most  oases  where 
alum  is  used  the  sulphate  of  alumina  is  the 
active  ingredient,  the  sulphate  of  the  alkali  metal, 
whether  potassium,  sodium,  or  ammonium,  being 
inert. 

Sulphate  of  Alumina  Replaces 
Alum.  "At  not  a  very  remote  date  aluminium 
sulphate  was  still  regarded  as  merely  a  labora- 
tory product,  and  it  was  only  about  the  year 
1845 — when  Pommier,  of  Paris,  commenced  to 
prepare  it  on  a  proper  manufacturing  scale — that 
this  substance  began  to  be  used  industrially. 
Difficulties  were  encountered  at  the  outset, 
consumers  hesitating  to  give  up  the  alum  to 
which  they  were  accustomed  and  which  they  could 
rely  on  obtaining  pure  in  favour  of  the  amor- 
phous, pasty,  deliquescent,  acid,  and  often  im- 
pure product  forming  the  aluminium  sulphate 
manufactured  at  that  date.  This  distrust 
was,  moreover,  heightened  in  consequence 
of  certain  mishaps  (due  to  excessive  acidity) 
that  attended  the  employment  of  the  new 
product  as  a  mordant  and  in  the  sizing  of  paper  ; 
but  as  soon  as  a  method  of  producing  it  in 
a  neutral  condition,  and  free  from  iron,  was  de- 
vised, aluminium  sulphate  was  promptly  adopted 
and  substituted  for  alum  in  numerous  branches 
of  industry."  (Geschwind.) 

Nowadays,  manufacturers  have  put  on  the 
market  pure  brands  of  sulphate  of  alumina,  and 
this  substance  has  practically  replaced  the  alum 
previously  used  for  dyeing,  papermaking,  and 
other  purposes. 

"  The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  various 
applications  of  alum  are  based  on  its  content 
of  alumina,  which  is  barely  10  to  10'6  per  cent., 
whereas  aluminium  sulphate  contains  from  14 
to  16  per  cent.  Given  equality  of  price,  it  is 
therefore  more  economical  to  employ  the  latter, 
which,  besides  being  more  soluble,  is  more  con- 
venient in  use."  (Geschwind.) 

Although  the  papermaker  no  longer  buys  the 
double  salt,  but  sulphate  of  alumina  instead, 
he  still  calls  it  "  alum,1'  and  it  is  commonly  re- 
ferred to  as  such. 

The    "Alumen"    of    the    Ancients. 

In  ancient  times  the  efflorescence  of  certain 
rocks  supplied  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Egyp- 

4780 


tians  with  a  product  known  by  the  name  of 
'  alumen,'  largely  employed  in  medicine,  dyeing, 
tanning,  etc.  According  to  Dioscorides  and 
Pliny,  several  species  of  this  product  were  known, 
some  of  them  perfectly  white,  others  more  or 
less  coloured,  and  all  possessing  a  styptic 
flavour.  They  were  all  more  or  less  complex 
mixtures  of  aluminium  sulphate  and  iron 
sulphate,  and  the  term  alumen  (from  which 
the  word  alum  is  derived)  had  in  those  days 
a  much  wider  significance  than  now."  (Gesch- 
wind.) 

Natural  Sources.  Natural  alums  are 
found  in  small  quantities  in  a  very  pure  con- 
dition, but  for  its  manufacture  on  a  large  scale 
we  are  dependent  on  certain  products,  such  as 
alunite,  or  alumstone,  a  natural  potash  alum 
found  in  Italy  and  Hungary,  and  alum  shale, 
which  was  the  chief  source  in  this  country. 
These  shales  vary  a  good  deal  in  composition, 
but  may  be  broadly  regarded  as  composed  of 
aluminium  silicate,  iron  pyrites,  and  bituminous 
substances.  A  good  deal  was  obtained  from 
deposits  underlying  the  coal  seams  in  South 
Lancashire  ;  it  was  made  into  heaps  (Spence's 
process)  and  burnt,  the  bituminous  substances 
contained  in  it  supplying  most  of  the  fuel. 
After  a  few  days,  when  the  heaps  had  burnt  out, 
the  alumina  was  extracted  from  the  mass  with 
sulphuric  acid.  The  chief  raw  materials  are, 
however,  the  alunite,  already  mentioned,  and 
bauxite,  an  impure  alumina  from  which 
12,000  to  14,000  tons  of  aluminium  sulphate  are 
now  produced  annually  in  France. 

Manufacture  from  Bauxite.  In  one 
process  the  bauxite  is  mixed  with  carbonate 
of  soda  and  heated  in  a  reverberatory  furnace 
for  five  hours.  On  lixiviation,  the  sodium  alumi- 
nate  is  extracted.  This  operation  is  carried 
out  systematically  so  as  to  heat  the  fresh  melt 
with  weak  liquors  from  the  previous  one.  The 
liquors  are  then  run  into  a  boiler,  provided  with 
an  agitator  and  false  bottom,  beneath  which  enter 
pipes  for  steam  and  carbon  dioxide  gas.  In  this 
way  the  alumina  is  precipitated  as  hydroxide, 
which,  on  dissolving  in  sulphuric  acid,  produces 
a  very  high  class  sulphate. 

A  modification  of  this  process,  originated  by 
Baeyer,  considerably  reduces  the  cost  in  treatment. 
This  method  is  based  on  the  discovery  that  when 
a  solution  of  sodium  aluminate  is  agitated  with 
a  small  quantity  of  freshly  precipitated  aluminium 
hydroxide  the  precipitate  of  alumina  goes  on 
increasing,  and  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time  only 
a  small  proportion  is  left  in  solution. 

A  More  Direct  Process.  Bauxite,  how- 
ever, contains  alumina  in  a  form  in  which  it 
is  directly  acted  on  by  acid,  so  that  the  manu- 
facture of  a  crude  sulphate  on  these  lines  is  a 
comparatively  simple  matter.  The  bauxite 
must  be  finely  ground  before  heating  with  acid, 
otherwise  the  action  of  the  acid  is  slow  and  im- 
perfect. This  is  effected  in  France,  according 
to  Geschwind,  either  by  means  of  millstones  or 
edge  runners,  a  sifting  contrivance  to  separate 
the  finely-powdered  material  from  the  coarser 
lumps  being  usually  combined  with  the  latter. 
An  illustration  and  description  of  the  edge  runner 


FT 
|| 


mill  will  be  found  in  the  Paints  and  Polishes 
course,  and  of  the  millstone  under  Cement. 
In  these  sections  also  appear  descriptions  of 
other  grinding  plant  suitable  for  treating  hard 
materials  such  as  we  are  now  considering. 

The  treatment  with  acid  is  conducted  in  wooden 
vats  [25]  lined  with  sheet  lead  and  heated  with 
live  steam  by  a  pipe,  A.     A  current  of  air  from 
pipe    B     is     passed 
through  to  keep  the 
mineral  in  suspension 
by    constant    agita- 
tion.   The  base,  C,  on 
which    the    air    and 
steam  currents   pro- 
ject,  is  protected  with 
a    layer    of   pumice. 
The  operation  takes 
seven  or  eight  hours,  ,_j-n 
and  after  allowing  to    '""^ 
settle,       the       clear 
liquor     is    run     off. 
This  first  treatment 
is   made   with  weak 
liquors  from  the  pre-  25.  CYLINDRICAL  VAT  FOR 
vious  operation,  after   PREPARING  SULPHATE  OF 
which  the  solid  resi-  AMMONIA 

due  is  subjected  to  a 

second  treatment,  using  fresh  sulphuric  acid.  The 
liquors  are  concentrated  in  leaden  vats  and  run 
out  into  shallow  trays,  where  they  cool  and  solidify 

Purification.  The  crude  sulphate  is  often 
treated  to  remove  the  iron,  which  is  the  most 
objectionable  impurity  it  contains.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  remove  a  great  deal  from  the  original 
bauxite  by  a  preliminary  treatment  with  a  weak 
acid,  such  as  oxalic  acid  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  crude 
sulphate  liquors  are  treated  either  with  potassium 
ferrocyanide  or  lead  dioxide.  In  the  former  case 
a  hot  solution  of  the  ferrocyanide  (yellow 
prussiate)  is  added  until  no  further  precipitate 
of  Prussian  blue  is  formed.  The  clear  liquor 
is  decanted,  and  the  blue  —  which,  however,  is 
of  inferior  quality  —  can  also  be  utilised.  In 
the  second  case  a  paste  of  lead  dioxide  is  added 
to  the  cold  liquors  when  the  iron  is  thrown  out  in 
the  form  of  a  reddish-brown  precipitate  (iron 
plumbate).  This  second  process  is  not  adapted 
to  a  sulphate  containing  free  acid,  as  it  would 
attack  and  destroy  part  of  the  lead  peroxide. 
This  is  readily  recovered  for  using  over  again 
by  dissolving  out  the  iron  with  a  carefully 
adjusted  proportion  of  acid.  The  other  raw 
material,  alunite,  which  is  used  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  manufacture  of  alum,  has  first  to  be 
roasted  in  reverberatory  furnaces  before  attack- 
ing with  mineral  acid.  As  it  contains  a  quantity 
of  potassium  sulphate,  it  yields  by  judicious 
treatment,  not  only  sulphate  of  alumina,  but  also 
potash  alum.  A  ton  of  alunite  will  furnish 
14  to  16  cwt.  of  alum  and  2  cwt.  of  sulphate 
of  alumina  (15  per  cent.  A12O;3). 

Properties  and  Uses.  Sulphate  of 
alumina  is  a  white  substance  with  an  acid  re- 
action to  litmus,  while  it  turns  congo  red  a 
purple  colour.  Potash  and  the  other  alkali  alums 
behave  similarly.  Sulphate  of  alumina  is  usually 
met  with  as  hard  lumps  difficult  to  powder  and 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

readily  soluble  in  water.  A  strong  solution 
forms  crystals,  if  given  time  enough,  containing 
an  amount  of  water  approximating  to  the  for- 
mula A12(S04);318H,O.  Free  acid  and  iron  are 
the  impurities  for  which  the  analyst  must  be 
on  the  look-out.  The  latter  is  easily  detected, 
even  when  present  in  mere  traces,  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  blue  colour  with  potassium  ferrocyanide. 
The  detection  of  free  acid  is  a  very  difficult 
matter  if  it  be  present  in  small  quantities  only. 

Uses  for  Alum  and  Sulphate  of 
Alumina.  Both  are  used  as  mordants  in 
dyeing  cotton,  wool,  and  silk.  Aluminium 
acetate  prepared  from  the  sulphate  is  even 
preferred.  Sulphate  of  alumina  is  used  largely 
in  the  preparation  of  lake  pigments  [see  Paints 
and  Polishes],  for  "  tawing  leather,"  for  pre- 
cipitating resin  size  in  papermaking,  for  harden- 
ing plaster,  slowing  the  set  of  cement,  and  to  a 
large  extent  for  the  purification  of  water  and 
effluents,  as  so-called  ahtminaferric. 

Organic  Acids.  Under  this  heading  we 
shall  discuss  three  or  four  of  the  more  common 
organic  acids,  which  are  used  either  in  industries 
or  for  human  consumption  in  such  quantities 
as  to  necessitate  their  manufacture  on  a  com- 
mercial scale. 

Oxalic  Acid.  This  acid  is  a  poisonous  sub- 
stance which  is  met  with  in  small  quantities  in 
such  common  plants  as  sorrel  and  rhubarb. 

Pine  sawdust,  or  sawdust  from  other  soft  wood, 
is  mixed  with  caustic  alkali  and  heated.  It  may, 
in  some  cases,  be  worth  while  to  purify  the  wood 
by  first  extracting  the  resin.  The  solution  of 
caustic  alkali  or  alkaline  lye  is  a  mixture  of 
caustic  soda  and  caustic  potash.  The  student 
has  learnt  that  caustic  soda  and  caustic  potash 
resemble  one  another  very  closely,  and  in  all 
ordinary  chemical  actions  they  may  replace 
one  another.  In  manufacturing  operations, 
caustic  soda  is  preferred  as  being  cheaper ; 
but  the  manufacture  of  oxalic  acid  is  an  ex- 
ception to  the  general  rule,  and  it  makes  a  great 
deal  of  difference  whether  caustic  soda  or  caustic 
potash  is  used  for  decomposing  the  wood. 

Caustic  soda  by  itself  produces  little  or  no 
oxalic  acid,  while  caustic  potash  gives  the 
maximum  yield.  Chemists  have,  however,  fotnd 
that  mixtures  of  caustic  potash  and  caustic 
soda  in  certain  proportions  (which,  of  course, 
will  be  cheaper  than  pure  caustic  potash),  may 
be  used  instead  of  the  latter  substance  with 
equally  good  results.  It  is  not  possible  to 
state  here  the  best  proportions  to  take,  as  that 
will  depend  upon  how  the  process  is  carried  out ; 
some  makers  use  more  caustic  potash,  others 
more  caustic  soda. 

We  may  instance  one  process  where  three 
parts  of  potash  are  used  to  two  parts  of  soda 
and  a  solution  of  sp.  gr.  1'35  prepared  from 
the  mixture.  Sawdust  and  alkaline  lye  are 
intimately  mixed  ;  one  part  of  sawdust  to  three 
parts  of  solid  alkali.  The  mixture  is  spread 
on  an  iron  plate  and  heated  from  beneath. 
A  good  deal  of  gas  is  given  off,  the  mass  swelling 
up.  The  gases  are  mostly  composed  of  hydrogen 
and  hydrocarbons.  The  heating  is  continued 
for  six  hours  or  so,  when  a  whitish  mass  remains 

4781 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

behind.  The  temperature  in  the  furnace  is 
not  allowed  to  rise  above  250°  C.  The  mass, 
which  now  contains  about  20  per  cent,  of  dry 
anhydrous  oxalic  acid,  is  treated  with  a  small 
quantity  of  water  which  dissolves  most  of  the 
unchanged  alkali,  leaving  the  less  soluble  sodium 
oxalate  behind.  This  latter  is  dissolved  in 
water  and  the  solution  boiled  with  lime,  when 
the  oxalic  acid,  in  the  form  of  calcium  oxalate, 
a  very  insoluble  substance,  remains  and  can  be 
washed  with  water.  This  purified  calcium 
oxalate  is  decomposed  with  sulphuric  acid  in 
lead- lined  vats  fitted  with  "  agitators,"  when 
a  reaction  takes  place  with  the  formation  of 
calcium  sulphate  and  the  liberation  of  oxalic 
acid,  which  remains  in  solution  and  is  filtered  off. 
Concentration  of  the  solution  causes  the  separa- 
tion of  crystals  of  oxalic  acid  in  combination 
with  two  molecules  of  water,  C2H2O42H2O. 

Potassium  oxalates,  known  as  salts  of  sorrel 
or  salts  of  lemon,  are  used  in  photography,  as, 
for  instance,  in  the  platinotype  process.  They 
are  also  used  for  removing  ink-stains  and  iron- 
mould.  Calcium  oxalate  is  the  form  in  which 
oxalic  acid  is  usually  met  with  in  nature.  Cerium 
oxalate  is  sometimes  administered  in  cases  of 
sickness. 

Tartaric  Acids.  The  student  who  first 
comes  across  the  tartaric  acids  is  liable  to  get 
confused  between  the  different  varieties.  There 
are  several  acids,  all  of  which  have  the 
same  composition.  We  may  refer  to  the  Pure 
Chemistry  section  for  an  explanation  of  this  riddle. 
Common  tartaric  acid,  or,  correctly  speaking, 
dextro -tartaric  acid,  is  obtained  from  a  deposit 
forming  a  crystalline  crust  at  the  bottom  of  the 
vats  in  which  grape  juice  ferments.  It  is,  there- 
fore, a  by-product  in  the  wine  industry.  Grapes 
and  most  other  fruits  contain  tartaric  acid  as 
a  potassium  salt,  and  the  crystalline  deposit, 
known  as  argol,  is  also  a  potassium  salt. 
Argol  is,  strictly  speaking,  impure  acid  potas- 
sium tartrate.  We  have  already  met  with  this 
substance  in  the  form  of  a  precipitate  formed 
on  testing  for  potassium  with  sodium  bitar- 
trate,  as  it  is  one  of  the  very  few  potassium 
salts  which  are  not  readily  soluble  in  water. 
Argol  is  recrystallised  and  gives  tartar,  and 
tartar  similarly  yields  cream  of  tartar.  These 
names,  therefore,  stand  for  the  same  substance 
in  different  degrees  of  purity. 

To  obtain  the  acid  from  the  tartar  it  is  added 
to  boiling  water  to  which  lime  or  chalk  is  added  ; 
a  dense  insoluble  precipitate  of  calcium  tartrate 
settles  to  the  bottom,  and  requires  only  to 
be  decomposed  with  sulphuric  acid  to  yield 
insoluble  calcium  sulphate  and  tartaric  acid, 
which  remains  in  solution.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  method  by  which  tartaric  acid  is 
prepared  from  tartar  is  analogous  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  oxalic  acid  from  crude  sodium  oxalate. 

Tartaric  acid  may  contain  traces  of  lead  from 
the  lead  vats  or  from  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  as 
it  is  used  largely  for  human  consumption,  care 
should  he  taken  to  test  for  lead,  and  see  that 
none  is  there.  It  is  used  in  conjunction  with 
carbonate  of  soda  for  making  baking-powder 
ALKALIS  concluded  ; 

4782 


and  effervescent  drinks.      It  is  also  used,   like 
oxalic  acid,  by  the  dyer  and  calico  printer. 

We  have  already  dealt  with  acid  potassium 
tartrate,  otherwise  known  as  potassium  bi- 
tartrate,  in  the  form  of  tartar,  cream  of  tartar, 
and  argol.  Like  tartaric  acid,  it  is  much  used 
for  effervescent  drinks  and  also  in  the  dyeing 
industry.  Rochelle  salt  or  potassium  sodium 
tartrate  is  used  medicinally  as  an  aperient. 
It  is  formed  in  the  reaction  between  sodium 
carbonate  and  cream  of  tartar  in  seidlitz  powders. 

Citric  Acid.  This  acid  occurs  naturally 
in  lemon  juice  and  is  prepared  from  lemons  on 
a  large  scale.  Lemons  are  best  used  in  Novem- 
ber, when  they  contain  a  maximum  amount  of 
the  acid.  The  juice  is  either  expressed  from 
the  fruit  in  Sicily  (Sicilian  juice),  or  from  fruit 
imported  into  England  (English  juice).  The 
latter  is  a  better  class  of  material,  and  is  more 
nearly  free  from  other  organic  acids. 

The  preparation  of  pure  acid  from  the  juice 
follows  the  same  lines  as  the  formation  of 
oxalic  and  tartaric  acids.  That  is  to  say,  calcium 
salt  is  first  prepared  by  treating  the  juice  with 
whiting  (calcium  carbonate)  ;  calcium  citrate 
is  precipitated,  while  malic  acid  and  other 
impurities  remain  dissolved.  The  calcium  citrate 
is  decomposed  with  sulphuric  acid,  yielding 
calcium  sulphate — which  is  filtered  off — and  a 
solution  of  citric  acid.  On  concentrating  the 
acid  liquors,  crystals  separate  out. 

The  crystallised  acid  of  commerce  contains 
one  molecule  of  water.  It  is  very  soluble, 
dissolving  in  about  half  its  weight  of  water  when 
boiling.  It  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as 
tartaric  acid,  particularly  by  calico-printers 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  aerated  waters.  We 
need  not  trouble  about  the  salts. 

Lactic  Acids.  These  are  puzzling  sub- 
stances, related  to  one  another  much  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  tartaric  acids,  and  similarly 
constituted. 

The  common  acid  is  formed  in  small  quantities 
when  milk  goes  sour ;  but  for  commercial 
purposes  it  is  obtained  from  sugar.  The  solu- 
tion of  sugar  is  allowed  to  ferment,  not  in  the 
ordinary  manner,  but  under  the  influence 
of  a  curious  growth  found  in  stale  cheese.  In 
order  that  this  ferment  may  grow  heathily,  a 
little  food  in  the  shape  of  tartaric  acid  and  milk 
is  added.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  lactic 
acid,  as  soon  as  formed,  tends  to  destroy  the 
activity  of  the  ferment,  so  that  it  is  necessary 
to  neutralise  the  acid  as  fast  as  it  is  produced. 
For  this  purpose  a  quantity  of  chalk  is  added 
to  the  liquid  equal  to  half  the  weight  of  the 
sugar  it  contains,  and  in  the  course  of  a  week 
or  so  the  whole  settles  to  a  semi-solid  mass  of 
calcium  lactate.  Instead  of  chalk,  zinc  white 
(carbonate  of  zinc)  may  be  used,  in  which  case 
zinc  lactate  is  formed.  Calcium  lactate  is 
decomposed  with  sulphuric  acid  and  the  liquor 
concentrated.  It  comes  into  the  market  in  this 
form,  as  it  is  very  difficult  indeed  to  get  it  into 
a  crystalline  state.  Lactic  acid  and  some  of 
its  salts  are  used  for  pharmaceutical  purposes. 
ly  OILS,  FATS,  AND  SOAPS 


SADDLERY  AND  HARNESS 

The  Various  Tools  Used  in  the  Manufacture 
of  Saddlery  and  Harness,  and  their  Purposes 


Group  20 

LEATHER 
14 

Continued  from 
page  4546. 


By  W.  S.  MURPHY 


""THE   saddlery  and  harness-making  trade  has 
not  yet    been   absorbed    into  the   factory 
system.     In   large   centres,    such    as     London, 
Glasgow,  Walsall,  and  Birmingham,  the  factory 
system  prevails  ;  but  even  these  factories  are  not 
so  independent  of  the  craftsman  as  the   weaving 
factory  or  the  spinning  mill.      They  are  rather 
like  big  workshops,  in  which  the  workmen  are 
well    supplied    with    mechanical   tools,     set    to 
perform  each  one  a  part  of  the  manufacturing 
process.      The    greater    part    of    the   trade    is 
carried  on  in  workshops  employing  from  three 
to  twenty  men,  where  the  goods  are  mostly  made 
by  hand,  assisted  by  machine  tools  for  cutting, 
and  by  sewing  machines.     For  that  reason  we 
propose  to  deal  with  the   trade  from   a  crafts- 
man's point  of  view. 

Groups  of  Tools.  Our  tools  are  numerous, 
and,  if  looked  at  in  the  mass,  appear  formidable 
to  the  learner.     For  convenience,  we  shall  group 
the  tools  and  appliances  under  different  heads, 
as  follows:    (1)  knives  and  cutting  tools;    (2) 
punches   and   stamping   machines ;     (3)   sewing 
appliances  ;     (4)   grippers,  holders,  and  miscel- 
laneous tools. 

Knives  and  Cutting  Machines.    Adopt- 
ing the  natural  principle  of  proceeding  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex,  we  take  up   the   knives 
first.     The  hand  knife  and  the  paring  knife  are 
constantly  in  use.     The  former  has  a  straight, 
narrow  blade,  and  the  latter  is  broad-bladed,  with 
a  straight  edge.      Shaped  like  a  half -moon,  the 
round  knife  lends  itself  to  splicing,  shaping,  and 
fine  work.     The  head  knife  has  a  pointed  beak 
and  round  head,  making  it  a  good  tool  for  cutting 
holes  or  round    pieces  out  of  leather  on  the 
working  bench. 

Plough    Gauge.      The   first    approach    to 
machinery  in  the  saddlery  trade  was  the  cutting 

p  1  o   u  g  h 
gauge.      Be- 
f  o  r  e    this 
came  into  use 
straps    were 
cut       labor- 
iously by  use 
of  compasses 
and       knife. 
The  blade  of 
the      plough 
is  fixed  in  a 
frame  which 
slides  along  a 
marked 
gauge,  screws 
holding     the 
_______^  gauge  to  the 

BELT-SPLICING  AND  LEATHER-    breadth     re- 
SPLITTING  MACHINE  quired. 


Spokeshave.  Next  we  get  the  spoke- 
shave,  a  two-handed  tool  with  a  cutting  blade  in 
the  centre.  With  this  tool  any  gradation  of 
skive  or  paring  can  be  cut  away 

Splitter.  Devised  for  a  similar  purpose, 
but  better  suited  for  a  large  number  of  straps  of 
the  same  kind,  is  the  splitting  machine  [1],  which 
bears  some  resemblance  to  a  stamping  machine. 

Edge=trimmer.  The  edge-trimmer  is  a 
two-pronged  fork,  and,  as  the  name  implies,  is 
used  for  trimming  edges.  Circular  pieces  are 
accurately  rounded  by  the  washer  cutter,  which 
slides  on  a  marked  gauge,  supported  by  a  centre 
pin. 

Strap=cutter.  Midway  between  knives  ana 
stampers  are  the  many  cutting  machines  placed 
at  the  service  of  the  trade.  Suitable  for  either 
the  workshop  or  the  factory  is  the  strap-cutting 
machine,  with  rollers  encircled  with  knives,  set 
to  any  breadth  of  strap.  On  top  is  a  setting 
wheel,  and  at  the  side  is  the  handle,  which  may 
be  displaced  by  a  driving  wheel  for  power. 

Leather  a  splitting  Machine.  Similai 
is  the  leather-splitting  machine  [see  page  3165], 
with  corrugated  feed  rollers  and  straight  cutting 
blade,  which  reduces  to  uniform  thickness  any 
kind  of  hide.  Splicing  or  scarfing  machines  are 
used  to  suit  all  classes  of  trade,  the  principle  of 
most  of  them  being  a  slanted  knife,  geared  to 
play  upon  a  movable  feed,  adjustable  to  any 
depth  of  slice. 

Cutting  Presses.  Of  cutting  presses  there 
is  a  wide  variety,  ranging  from  the  small  fly 
press  [2],  closely  resembling  a  die-stamping 
press,  to  the  huge  guillotine  presses,  that  cut 
saddle- backs,  skirts,  or  horse-collars  at  a  single 
stroke. 

Punches  and  Stamping  Machines.  A 
punching  kit 
comprises  a 
good  mallet,  a 
lead  punching 
block,  and  six 
each  of  round 
and  oval 
s  t  r  iking 
punches,  the 
sizes  ranging 
from  medium 
small  to  me- 
dium large  in 
both  cases. 
Different  in 
nothing  but 
the  kind  of 
mark  they 
make  are  the 
scalloping 
irons,  as  they  2.  FOOT  PRESS 

4733 


STRAIGHT    IRON    CREASING    OR 
VEINING   MACHINE 


LEATHER 

are  called,  with   which    we    please  the    artistic 

fancy  of  the  young  horseman  in  shaping  for  his 

steed    rosettes    and  scalloped  shapes.     A  hand 

punch  is  indispensable  and  a  set  of  three  or  four 

needles    to 

put  into  it, 

carrying 

the   size  of 

hole     from 

the  smallest 

striking 

punch  to  a 

pin  point. 

PricK- 
ers  and 
Greasers. 
Pricking 
irons,  some 
straight, 
o  t  h  e  r  s 
wheels,  like 
spur  rowels, 
are  neces- 
s  ar  y  to 
mark  out 
the  path  of 
the  hand 
s  t  i  t  c  h  - 

ing.  The  screw  race  cuts  a  channel  to  hide  the 
stitching.  Another  curious  tool  is  the  curved 
pin  with  the  beak,  which  we  call  the  single 
crease.  This  is  needed  as  a  marker  in  places 
where  either  the  compasses  or  the  screw  crease 
cannot  go.  Screw  creases,  one  light  and  one 
heavy,  are  always  provided  to  mark  the  lines  of 
stitching  on  belts,  or  to  make  fine  lines  along  the 
sides. 

Checkers  and  Bevellers.  Checkers  and 
bevellers  are  irons  for  purposes  similar,  the 
latter  being  used  chiefly  in  a  heated  state  to 
make  ornaments  on  loops.  Compasses,  as 
everybody  knows,  are  two-legged  tools  used  to 
measure  and  mark  distances,  and  are  therefore 
equipped  with  screw  and  gauge  to  give  accuracy 
to  the  work. 

Punches.  Mechanical  punches  are  in  every 
trade,  and  need  no  description  ;  a  nice  little  one 
covering  the  round  numbers  up  to  ten,  and  the 
oval  holes  up  to  twenty-five,  is  very  generally 
used. 

Washer-cutting  machines  have  come  into 
factory  use,  Chough  they  are  needed  only  where 
a  trade  with  the  water-engineer  is  cultivated. 
The  cutting  press  is  better  for  our  work. 

Stitch=pricker.  Very  useful  is  the  stitch- 
pricking  machine,  the  mechanically-driven  spindle 
taking  on  prickwheels  of  any  size,  and  running 
above  a  holder  which  curves  or  straightens  the 
work  as  required,  marking  the  stitches  for 
the  needle  with  an  accuracy  no  hand  could 
equal. 

Creasing  Machines.  Simple  as  it  appears 
when  done  by  the  hand,  creasing  work  presented 
serious  difficulties  to  the  mechanical  inventor. 
Lately,  however,  several  good  creasing  machines 
have  come  on  the  market  [3  and  4].  The 
l»c!t  or  flap  to  be  creased  is  run  through  a  guide 


by  a  corrugated  roller,  while  the  creasing  irons, 
hot  or  cold,  are  held  in  the  adjustable  arm 
above. 

Sewing    Appliances.     The  saddler  uses 
awls  like  the  shoemaker,  and  needles  like  the 
tailor,  but  with  variations  which  can  best  be 
understood  in  the   actual  working.     The  seat 
awls  are  square-bladed   and    straight-pointed ; 
stitching  awls  are  curved ;   and  sewing  awls  are 
round  and  straight.     Our  needles  have  curved 
blades  hollowed  up  to  the  middle,  with  wide 
eyes.     Before  beginning  to  stitch,  the  saddler 
or  harness-maker  arms  his  palm  with  an  iron 
protector,  called  the  hand-iron,  honeycombed  so 
as  to  grip  the  needle  head.   These  protectors 
save  the  hand  and  at  the  same  time  add 
to  the  purchase  of  the  sewer's  thrust  on  the 
needle. 

Sewing  Machines.  While  the  sewing- 
machine  makers  were  looking  around  for 
more  worlds  to  conquer,  it  was  inevitable  that 
the  saddlery  and  harness-making  trade  should 
receive  attention.  At  first  the  sewing  machine 
was  decisively  relegated  to  the  lightest  work, 
the  severe  strains  to  be  borne  by  most  belts 
and  traces  being  quite  under- estimated  by  the 
makers.  Of  late  years  we  have  been  able  to 
welcome  a  number  of  machines  which  produce 
work  equal  in  strength  to  the  best  hand  work. 
Saddles  and  other  parts  of  the  horse's  equipment 
cannot  be  made  by  mechanical  means,  but  belts, 
bridles,  bands,  and  traces  are  now  made  hi 
the  factory  by  sewing  machines. 

Miscellaneous  Tools.  Pincers,  nippers, 
and  pliers  are  needed  for  pulling  out  nails, 
stretching  the  leather  over  points,  and  other 
purposes.  To  hold  the  seam  while  being  hand- 
sewn  we 
have  the 
clamps, 
jaws  of  bent 
wood,  held  to- 
gether at  the 
bottom  by  a 
straight  block, 
and  forming  a 
curved  jaw  at 
the  top.  The 
tool  is  old  and 
finely  con- 
ceived. 

Stuffing 
Rods.  These 
are  required  for 
filling  evenly 
the  saddle  pads 
and  collars. 
Some  are 
merely  sticks 
with  a  nick  in 
the  end ;  others 
are  bent  steel 
rods,  like  large  awls.  With  these  the  flock,  horse- 
hair, or  straw  is  put  into  the  various  pads. 

Loop  sticks,  burnishers,  loop-forming  machines 
and  dies,  trimming  and  burnishing  machines, 
with  hammers  and  mallets,  complete  the  outfit. 


WHEEL  CREASING    OR  VEINING 
MACHINE 


Continued 


4784 


THE    CLARIONET 

Group  22 

MUSIC 

Registers    and    Pitch.       Intervals.       Fingering.       Effects. 
Exercises.     Basset  Horn.     Bass  and  Double-bass  Clarionet 

33 

Continued  from 
page  4570 

By    ALGERNON    ROSE 


'"TO- 


>-DAY  there  are  two  leading  types  of 
clarionets — those  made  in  France  with  a 
straight  bore,  and  those  in  Germany  with  thicker 
wood  and  conical  bore.  The  former  speak 
with  greater  facility,  whilst  the  latter  possess  a 
rounder  tone,  especially  in  the  lower  register. 
But,  between  the  mellow  tone  best  suited  for 
the  concert-room  and  the  more  brilliant  effects 
required  when  leading  a  long  column  upon  the 
march  there  is  a  golden  mean  in  the  average 
type  which  the  student  should  endeavour 
to  acquire.  Clarionets  possess  either  6,  9, 
11,  13,  or  15  keys.  That  most  used  is  the 
ordinary  13-keyed  instrument.  According  to  the 
system  of  manufacture,  whether  English  or 
French,  and  whether  with  German  or  real  silver 
keys,  so  the  price  ranges  from  £2  to  £15  15s. 
The  reeds  cost  from  Is.  4d.  to  5s.  per  dozen. 
When  ordering,  it  should  be  stated  whether  hard, 
medium,  or  soft  quality  is  required.  A  case 
for  the  instrument  of  American  cloth,  swan- 
lined,  can  be  obtained  from  5s.  upwards. 

The  Parts.  In  a  full  military  band,  as  in 
certain  modern  scores  of  Strauss  and  Wagner, 
the  clarionet  family  consists  of  the  following 
instruments:  First,  the  smallest,  or  E!?,  which 
has  often  an  important  melody  part  ;  secondly, 
the  Bb,  or  principal  instrument  of  the  military 
band.  This  is  written  for  usually  in  three  parts, 
the  first  being  termed  the  "  solo,"  the  second 
and  third,  "  ripieno,"  or,  literally,  "  filling  up  " 
harmony  parts.  In  an  orchestra,  the  B  ?  player 
sometimes  uses  clarionets  in  A  and  C.  In  military 
bands,  in  addition  to  the  Eb  and  Bb,  instru- 
ments in  D,  F,  and  Ab  are  occasionally  em- 
ployed. All  these,  excepting  the  one  in  C,  are 
called  "  transposing  "  instruments,  because  they 
do  not  sound  the  actual  note  written.  Thirdly, 
there  is  the  alto  clarionet,  which  acts  as  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  Bb  clarionet  and  the 
bassoons.  Lastly,  we  have  the  bass  clarionet, 
and  the  monster  double-bass.  But  no  matter 
how  many  keys  or  levers  an  instrument  has,  or  the 
pitch  to  which  it  is  tuned,  each  member  of  this 
musical  family  is  made  up  of  three  parts:  the 
lower  joint  (for  the  right  hand),  the  middle 
joint  (for  the  left  hand),  and  the  bulbous  upper 
joint,  superimposed  by  the  mouthpiece  in  which 
the  reed  is  fixed. 
Ex.  1. 

:;  4  l  -J  :;  -I  1  2          a          4 


The  Reed.  Upon  the  substance  of  the  reed 
the  quality  of  the  tone  in  a  great  measure 
depends.  This  slip  of  yellowish-white  sugar- 
cane should  be  prepared  and  adjusted  with  the 
greatest  care,  so  that  it  may  be  perfectly  straight, 
and  neither  too  hard  nor  soft.  Otherwise  it  is 
apt  to  whistle  and  squawk.  Nowadays,  however, 
the  beginner  has  a  great  advantage  over  the  tyro 
of  a  generation  ago,  who  had  to  prepare  his  own 
reeds,  because  such  requisites  can  be  obtained 
ready  finished  and  cheap  from  any  military 
instrument  seller.  But  the  best  reed  in  the 
world  will  not  ensure  a  good  effect  if  the  keys 
do  not  act  properly,  in  which  case  probably  the 
pads  need  fresh  lining — not  a  difficult  operation. 
Remove  the  pad  and  cut  out  a  new  one.  Hold 
the  key  over  a  light  until  the  lacquer  melts. 
Press  on  the  fresh  lining.  Replace  the  key, 
squeezing  the  new  substance  tightly  over  the 
hole  while  the  key  is  still  warm. 

In  the  Army  it  is  usual  for  a  young  beginner 
to  start  with  the  E!?  clarionet,  because  that 
instrument,  having  the  shortest  tube,  has  the 
holes  closer  together.  The  keys,  therefore,  are 
easier  to  manipulate  for  small  fingers.  If  a 
boy  fifer  shows  exceptional  musical  ability 
be  is  generally  put  on  to  an  Eb  clarionet 
or  a  soprano  cornet,  to  which  his  lips  are  more 
suited  than  the  larger  varieties  of  those  instru- 
ments. But,  so  far  as  arrangement  of  the  keys 
(or  pistons)  is  concerned,  the  fingering  is  precisely 
the  same  on  the  larger  models.  Therefore,  the 
student,  no  matter  what  length  of  tube  he  takes 
up,  will  find  the  instruction  given  for  any  one 
of  them  adaptable  to  any  other. 

Attitude.  As  this  is  a  military  instrument, 
the  student  must  assume  a  soldierly  attitude. 
Stand  upright  and  throw  out  the  chest.  Rest  the 
clarionet  on  the  right  thumb.  Do  not  bend  the 
knees.  Turn  out  the  feet,  and  keep  the  heels 
slightly  apart.  The  angle  at  which  the  instru- 
ment is  inclined  forward  from  the  body  is  indi- 
cated correctly  when  the  elbows  are  pressed 
under  the  ribs.  Place  the  underlip  over  the 
teeth.  Rest  the  reed  on  the  lip.  Blow  down  the 
instrument  without  touching  the  keys. 

Tone  Production.  The  open  sound  pro- 
duced without  manipulation  of  the  keys  gives  the 
note  written  as  G,  second  line  treble  clef.  As 

there    are    sev- 

1  "  •>-          eral  varieties  of 

clarionets,  it 
does  not  follow 
that  the  G 
sounded  corre- 
spends  with  the 
G  on  the  piano. 
The  student 
4785 


MUSIC 


A\|M>  has  a  musical  oar  will  naturally  be  puzzled 
to  know  why  he  should  be  taught  that  a  sound 
representing  some  other  note  should  be  called  G. 
Before  he  argues  that  the  musical  system  of 
transposing  instruments  is  wrong,  he  should 
remember  that,  even  as  nations  are  ruled  by 


the  A  clarionet,  because  the  greater  length  of  its 
tube  renders  easier  the  production  of  the  tone 
throughout  the  compass.  Try  Ex.  1,  keeping 
strict  time. 

The    Embouchure.      Much    depends,   in 
good  clarionet  playing,   on  what  is  called  the 


•  -\  j  icdiences,  so  have  military  instrument  players  ''embouchure" — the  mouthpiece  of  the  instru- 

found  it  desirable  to  sacrifice  calh'ng  the  notes  ment.     The  latter  being  continually  between  the 

by  their  correct  names  for  the  sake  of  being  able  HpS  and  teeth  of  the  player,  the  word  has  come 

to   finger   every    instrument    in    the    clarionet  to  denote  the  arrangement  of  the  lips,  tongue, 

family  in  a  uniform  manner.     Thus,  no  matter  and  so  forth,  in  the  production  of  tone.     It  is 

how  long  or  how  short  is  the  tube  employed,  it  important  to  note  that  blowing  out  the  cheeks 


has  been  found  far  easier  to  adopt  a  compromise, 
so  that  the  music  played  makes  the  same 
impression  on  the  eye,  although  the  effect  is 
different  to  the  ear. 

The  reason  why  an  orchestral  clarionet  player 
works  with  two,  and  sometimes  three,  instru- 
ments is  because  certain  series  of  sounds  are 
easier  to  play  on  an  A  than  on  a  B*7  or  a  C, 
owing  to  the  acoustical  divisions  of  each  tube 


does  not  augment  the  force  of  the  sounds. 
The  ancient  Roman  trumpeters  used  to  bind 
the  faces  of  their  pupils  to  prevent  this,  and 
Alcibiades  considered  that,  in  flute  playing,  it 
detracted  from  the  charm  of  the  music.  Take 
every  opportunity  to  watch  and  get  hints  from 
good  clarionet  players  in  military  bands.  There 
is  no  reason  why  the  charm  of  the  tone  should 
be  destroyed  by  facial  contortion.  Do  not  bite 


producing   the   natural   harmonics    peculiar   to      the  mouthpiece  with  the  teeth.     Hold  it  by  a 


them.    So  the  C  clarionet  is,  generally  speaking, 

best  suited  for  the  natural  key,  the  B  b  clarionet 

for  flat  keys,  and  the  A  clarionet  for  sharp  keys. 

The  longest  of    Ex  2 

these  is  the  A.  _  _^==^       ^ 

gteEg:|zj..  J  <fc- jPpgivJ^zj 


gentle  pressure  of  both  lips,  so  that  the  reed 
may  vibrate  freely.  If  the  mouthpiece  is  com- 
pressed too  tightly,  the  reed  has  not  free  play, 


Ex.  3. 


Ex.  4. 


It  is  so  called 
because  when 
it  plays  the  note 
C,  written  on 
the  third  space 
treble  clef,  the 
actual  sound 
produced  is  A 
below. 

The  instru- 
ment of  medium 
length  is  called 
Bt?  because 
when  C  is  ^ 

played  the  actual  sound  produced  is  Bb.  The 
shortest  of  the  trio  alone  gives  the  actual  C  as  it 
is  written.  At  one  time  all  clarionets  were 
pitched  in  C,  but  the  better  quality  of  tone 
produced  by  lengthening  the  tube  led  to  com- 
posers employing  the  latter,  and  transposing 
the  parts  in  the  score  so  as  to  save  the  bands- 
man being  confused  in  any  way.  Because  of 
the  less  satisfactory  timbre  of  the  C,  this  instru- 
ment is  to-day  least  used  of  all  members  of  the 
family,  save  by  amateurs  who  like  to  try  over  solos 
with  piano  accompaniment.  To  get  the  utmost 


the  tone  produced  is  poor,  and  the  lips  soon 
become  fatigued.  To  produce  the  sound  -required, 
the  tongue  sends  the  necessary  air  into  the 
instrument  by  a  short,  sharp  stroke.  This 
forces  a  sufficient  quantity  of  breath  into  the 
tube  to  make  the  requisite  sounds.  Once  the 
musical  vibration  is  produced,  it  must  be  sus- 
tained without  increasing  or  diminishing  the 
force  of  the  blowing. 

As  regards  tone-quality,  what  is  wanted  is 
a  combination  of  sweetness  and  brilliancy  in 
effect.  The  student  should  strive  to  get  a  soft 


brilliancy,  military  instrument  makers,  by  con-       and  full  sound   before   increasing  its  power 
siderably  shortening  the  column   of  air   of   the 
C  tube,   produced  the  smallest  instrument,  Eb. 
This  is  so  called  because  when  the  C,  third  space 


intensity.  Try  to  avoid  a  harsh  and  screaming 
quality.  When  once  a  harsh  tone  has  become 
habitual,  the  player  is  seldom  able  to  get  any- 


treble clef,  is  played  the   sound    actually  pro-       thing  else.     Rather  than  force  the  tone  of  the 

,lii..,.,l    Zr.     *l.,       T^  n      _l mi ji  -n  U     •         t  i  «i  i  j        -    j  i    1 1 


duced  is  the  Eb  above.  Thus,  the  E  instru- 
ment sounds  a  minor  third  higher  than  the  notes 
written  in  the  band  parts,  whilst  at  the  same 


reed  unnecessarily,  some  players  twist  round  the 
mouthpiece  and  play  with  the  reed  uppermost. 
But,  for  practice  and  for  solo  work,  it  is  better  to 


time  tin-  A  clarionet  may  be  sounding  the  same       play  with  the  reed  on  the  lower  lip,  as  the  tone 
\\ritteri   notes  a  minor   third  lower  than   they 
appear  to  the  eye.     The  mechanism  being  the 
same  on  all  four  instruments,  the   question  is, 

\\*i.:,.i,    i.-.    4 1,.      >— ~: A.  i        •          -.1     «' 


is  then  softer  and  more  agreeable. 

The    Registers.      Although   the  intensity 
f  the  sound  is  affected  by  the  degree  of  the  force 


Which  is  the  easiest  to  l)egin  with  ?     A  young  of  breath,  the  pitch  of  each  note  is  influenced 

lad  in  the  Army,  as  noted,  is  generally  put  to  the  in  the  same  manner,  for  it  will  be  found  that, 

E7  ;  but  a  man  is  recommended  to  begin  with  when  sustaining  a  low  note,  if  it  is  blown  beyond 
4786 


a  certain  point  the  tone  will  jump  oft  and 
elicit  quite  another  sound.  This  brings  us  to 
the  consideration  in  the  clarionet  of  what 
players  call  the  "registers."  Berlioz  and 
Prout  divide  these  into  four  :  the  low,  or  grave  ; 
the  Chalumeau,  or  medium  ;  the  acute  ;  and 
the  high,  ranging  respectively  from  E  below 
third  ledger  line,  to  E,  first  line  ;  F,  first  space, 
to  B !?  above  ;  B  £]  to  C,  second  ledger  line  above  : 
and  D  to  D,  on  the  sixth  ledger  line.  But  certain 
German  players  divide  the  tone  into  three 
registers.  The  first  they  call  the  Chalumeau, 
giving  the  notes  deepest  in  pitch.  This  extends 
from  E  below  third  ledger  line  under  treble  staff, 
to  B !?  on  the  third  line.  The  second  register, 
or  medium,  produced  by  greater  pressure  on 
the  reed,  extends  from  B,  third  line  treble  clef, 
to  D!?  over  second  ledger  line  above  treble 
staff. 

Finally,  the  highest  register,  known  as  the 
Upper,  and  least  satisfactory  on  account  of  its 
shrieking  qualities  when  indifferently  played, 
extends  from  C  j  on  second  ledger  line  above 
treble  staff,  to  C  over  fifth  ledger  line,  nearly 
an  octave  above. 

2nd  and  3rd  Sounds.  Having  mastered 
Ex.  1,  proceed  to  get  the  tone  above  the  G. 
Control  the  lower  joint  of  the  instrument  by  the 
right  hand,  as  described,  and  the  middle  joint  by 
the  left  hand.  With  the  first  left  finger,  open  the 
A  key.  In  touching  it,  the  forefinger  reaches 
the  key  by  a  slight  turn.  As  the  wood  has  been 
hollowed  out  to  receive  the  key,  the  latter  has 
not  far  to  go.  Manipulation,  therefore,  should 
be  done  delicately.  The  touch  of  the  fingers 
should  always  be  light  and  almost  soft.  There 
is  no  necessity  to  raise  any  finger  high  when 
playing.  After  getting  the  A  clearly  and 
practising  it  like  the  G,  combine  it  with  the  latter 
note,  as  in  Ex.  2. 

Further  behind  the  instrument,  to  the  top,  will 
be  found  the  B  b  key.  Place  down  on  this  the 
left  thumb.  This  will  produce  the  semitone 
above  A.  If  he  wishes  to  check  the  correct- 
ness of  his  sounds  at  a  piano  keyboard,  he 
must  remember,  if  using  an  A  clarionet,  that 
every  note  in  the  music  should  be  read  on  the 
piano  a  minor  third  lower.  Thus,  with  all  the 
fingers  off,  the  actual  sound  is  E.  With  the  A 
key  pressed  down,  the  real  tone  is  F  £.  Now 
that  the  Bt>  key  is  brought  into  requisition,  the 
result  is  G.  Try  these  three  notes  in  succession, 
till  they  are  produced  correctly  and  in  good 
time,  without  hurrying  [Ex.  3].  This  study  in 
G  minor  should  be  played  smoothly.  Do  not 
leave  any  perceptible  gaps  between  successive 
sounds,  especially  where  the  notes  are  connected 
by  a  slur.  Do  not  sound  the  notes  in  the  first 
two  bars  spasmodically,  but  let  the  intensity  of 
the  breath  form  a  true  crescendo  and  diminuendo, 
keeping  strict  time.  The  exercise  may  be  repeated 
in  a  different  way  [Ex.  4]. 

Here  .special  emphasis  is  given  to  the  first 
notes  in  the  opening  bar.  But  the  student  can 
write  out  the  same  notes  entirely  as  minims, 
and  get  a  crescendo  on  each  note,  beginning 
softly  and  increasing  the  tone  gradually.  The 
crescendo  is  easier  than  the  decrescendo.  For 


MUSIC 

the  latter,  begin  with  the  full  tone,  then  diminish 
the  breath  gradually,  counting  mentally  two 
very  slow  beats  for  each  sound. 

Pitch.  Unless  the  clarionet  is  used  daily  it 
will  be  found  to  vary  considerably  in  pitch.  This 
is  only  natural,  because  a  wooden  tube,  after  being 
made  damp  and  not  touched  for  a  few  days, 
will  contract  in  its  fibres  as  it  gradually  dries. 
Then  the  sudden  moisture  of  the  breath  will 
cause  it  to  swell  rapidly,  so  that  the  internal 
diameter  of  the  instrument  is  lessened,  and  the 
pitch  of  the  sounds  produced  consequently 
raised.  Some  players,  when  a  clarionet  has  been 
laid  aside  for  a  while,  will  take  off  the  keys  a 
day  or  two  before  performance  and  steep  the 
tube  in  grease.  This,  of  course,  is  an  exceptional 
expedient.  More  reliable  as  a  way  to  insure  the 
correctness  of  the  pitch  is  unremitting  daily 
practice.  Nevertheless,  the  student  must  not 
feel  discouraged  if,  when  attempting  to  play 
with  a  piano  accompaniment,  he  finds  that,  before 
the  piece  has  concluded,  although  he  started 
in  tune,  his  instrument  has  gone  up  nearly  a 
semitone.  A  good  player,  under  such  circum- 
stances, can,  by  slackening  the  pressure  of  his 
lip  on  the  reed,  humour  the  latter  so  as  to  lower 
the  pitch  ;  or  he  can,  by  tightening  the  pressure, 
raise  it.  But  any  such  strain  involves  giving 
undue  attention  to  pitch  to  the  neglect  of  pro- 
ducing the  best  quality  of  tone  and  performing 
the  music  in  the  most  accurate  manner.  In 
other  words,  the  proper  place  of  the  clarionet 
is  in  a  band  rather  than  in  the  home  circle,  and. 
when  practising  with  an  instrument  of  fixed 
pitch,  like  the  piano,  a  great  deal  of  valuable 
time  is  often  wasted  in  trying  to  adapt  it  to 
the  accompaniment. 

When  a  clarionet  is  provided  with  a  tuning 
slide  the  tone  can  be  lowered  by  extending  the 
upper  joint  of  the  mouthpiece.  But  if  this  is  done 
to  any  extent  it  upsets  the  accuracy  of  intonation 
between  the  different  intervals  when  playing. 
But  accuracy  of  intonation  should  be  culti- 
vated from  the  beginning  with  the  greatest  care, 
for  the  clarionet  has  certain  exceedingly  beauti- 
ful tone- qualities  distinct  from  those  of  other 
musical  instruments,  and  the  student  whose  in- 
tonation is  of  an  indifferent  character  can  never 
hope  to  excel.  Some  people  cannot  work  success- 
fully alone.  The  best  method  for  such  students 
to  adopt  is  to  persuade  a  friend  to  begin  to  learn 
the  instrument  at  the  same  time.  Much  enjoy- 
ment will  be  obtained  by  practising  together  easy 
studies  and  tunes  arranged  for  two  clarionets. 
These  pieces  can  be  obtained  from  any  military 
music -seller.  The  difference  in  pitch  will  then 
not  be  noticed,  as  the  change  will  be  alike  in 
both  instruments. 

The  Low  Tones.  The  student  has  already 
learnt  bow  to  produce  G,  A,  and  B7,  the  G 
being  the  open  note,  the  A  being  produced  by 
opening  the  A  key  with  the  left  forefinger, 
and  the  Bi?  by  opening  that  key  with  the  left 
thumb.  To  get  the  F  below  the  G,  take  the 
left  forefinger  off  the  A.  With  that  finger  cover 
the  hole  below.  With  the  second  finger  open 
the  F  key  at  its  side,  or,  with  the  first  right 
finger,  the  F  key  on  the  upper  joint  by  the  A 

4787 


Ex. 


Ex.  6. 


MUSIC 

trill.  The  note  produced  will  then  be  F,  first 
space  treble  clef.  Next  raise  the  first  left 
finger.  The  sound  will  be  F$.  Cover  the  first 
hole  of  the  upper  joint  with  the  first  left  finger. 
E,  first  line,  treble  clef,  will  result.  Place  the 
second  finger  on  the  second  hole  ;  the  sound 
will  be  I)  below  the  first  line  treble  clef.  With 
the  third  finger,  open  the  key  by  its  side  ;  the 
sound  will  be  D  sharp.  Cover  the  third  and  last 
hole  on  the  upper  joint  with  the  third  finger  ; 
the  semitone  C,  first  ledger  line,  will  result.  The 
fourth  finger  should  then  open  the  key  behind  the 
1  hird  hole  ;  this  will  give 
<^J.  Keeping  the  left 
lingers  down,  place  the 
first  right  finger  on  the 
first  hole  of  the  lower 
joint ;  B,  below  the  C, 
will  be  produced.  Put 
the  second  finger  on  the 
second  hole,  and  A  will 
result. 

Open  the  key  at  its 
side  with  the  third 
finger;  this  will  sound 
Ajf.  Release  that  key 
and  put  the  third  finger 
on  the  third  hole,  and 
the  sound  will  be  G. 
With  the  fourth  finger, 
open  the  large  key  be- 
hind the  third  hole  ;  G$ 
will  result.  Release  that 
key,  and  let  the  fourth 
linger  cover  the  hole  to 
the  right ;  the  result  will 
be  bottom  F.  Let  the 
left  fourth  finger  now 
open  the  smaller  of  the 
two  long  keys  in  the 
upper  joint ;  this  will 
raise  the  bottom  F  a 
semitone.  Lastly,  let  the 
fourth  finger  cover  the 
hole  below  the  largest 
key  ;  this  will  produce 
the  deep  E,  the  lowest 
.sound  of  the  instrument. 
80  the  student  will  now 
understand  how  to  get 
the  various  tones  and 
half-tones  from  the  open 
G  to  the  lowest  sound  in 
the  bottom  register. 

Beginning  with  this 
note,  the  deep  E,  the 
student  should  now  go 
up  the  scale  in  whole 
tones,  disregarding  the  keys  away  from  the  line 
of  the  holes.  Blow  each  sound  as  firmly  as 
possible.  Keep  strict  time.  Preserve  the  force 
of  the  breath  after  the  tongue  has  started  the 
notes,  so  that  the  sound  is  maintained  fully  as 
long  as  each  note  lasts.  This  exercise,  which 
should  be  taken  very  slowly,  will  strengthen  the 
muscles  of  the  mouth.  Avoid  distending  the 
cheeks,  and  take  care  not  to  let  the  breath 
escape  from  the  sides  of  the  lips.  [Ex.  5.] 

47SS 


m 


SECONDS 


=MJj'j^3 


3 


Intervals.  It  is  important  not  only  to 
practise  the  scale  given,  very  slowly  up  and 
down  the  lowest  register  of  the  instrument,  but 
to  endeavour  to  obtain  a.  crescendo,  and  then  a 
decrescendo,  on  each  note  before  proceeding 
to  the  next.  Equally  necessary,  if  progress  is 
to  be  made,  is  the  study  of  intervals.  First 
try  seconds  ;  then  thirds,  skipping  each  inter- 
vening note  ;  fourths,  skipping  two  notes ; 
fifths,  skipping  three  ;  sixths,  skipping  four  ; 
sevenths,  skipping  five  ;  and  octaves.  This 
will  train  the  eye  as  well  as  the  ear,  so  that,  later 
on,  no  matter  what  in- 
tervals occur,  they  may 
be  played  with  pre- 
cision. Not  only  should 
the  right  notes  be 
sounded,  but  it  is  ex- 
cellent training  to  play 
them  alternately  stac- 
cato and  legato.  Then, 
as  the  student  masters 
the  initial  difficulties, 
he  can  gradually  in- 
crease the  pace  at  which 
he  plays  each  exercise. 
[Ex.  6.] 

The  student  may 
consider  this  rather  un- 
interesting work.  But 
it  has  to  be  mastered 
sooner  or  later  ;  there- 
fore, the  sooner  the 
better. 

As  the  clarionet  is  a 
military  instrument,  a 
point  to  observe  is  time. 
If  a  note  is  produced 
badly,  no  matter  ;  com- 
plete the  phrase.  Then 
go  over  the  exercise 
again  until  the  note 
wanted  is  sounded  cor- 
rectly and  in  proper 
time.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that,  later 
on,  when  playing  on  the 
march,  it  will  not  be 
possible,  if  a  mistake 
is  made,  to  get  the 
column  to  halt  while 
the  phrase  is  repeated. 
For  the  staccato  effect, 
sound  each  note  smartly 
with  the  tongue.  Then 
cut  off  the  sound 
suddenly  bv  holding  the 
breath. 

The  Second  Register.  Having  tried 
various  exercises  in  the  lowest  octave,  proceed 
to  the  register  above.  This,  ascending  from 
the  B  on  the  third  line,  is  somewhat  difficult 
for  beginners.  The  B  is  fingered  like  the 
lowest  E.  Sound  that  again ;  then  increase 
the  pressure  of  the  lips.  The  result  will  be  not 
an  octave,  but  a  twelfth  higher.  This  is  OAving 
to  the  difference  in  the  bore  of  the  instrument 
being  unlike  that  of  the  flute  or  oboe.  Bind 


FIFTHS 


SIXTHS 


this  B  with  the  A  preceding  it.  Note  that  the 
B7  key  at  the  back  of  the  instrument  must 
always  be  left  open  for  the  second  register. 

The  student  will  now  have  to  learn  to  ascend 
the  scale  of  C  major,  beginning  at  B  on  the 
third  line,  and  going  up  to  F  over  third  ledger 
line  above  staff,  or  twelve  notes  from  the  B. 
When  this  is  mastered,  the  student  will  be  able 
to  play  twenty-three  notes  without  accidentals 
from  the  lowest  E  up  the  compass  of  the  in- 
strument and  down  again. 

Fingering.  It  is  well  here  to  recapitulate 
certain  points  hitherto  partially  explained. 
If  all  the  key  mechanism  is  taken  off,  it  will  be 
found  that,  in  a  thirteen-keyed  clarionet,  there 
are  twenty  side-holes.  Now,  seven  of  these 
holes  are  closed  by  the  left  thumb  and  the  first, 
second,  and  third  fingers  of  the  right  and  left 
hands ;  two  more  are  closed  by  the  little 
fingers  pressing  the  open-standing  keys;  one 
hole  is  stopped  by  either,  or  both,  of  the  right 
second  and  third  fingers  acting  on  the  rings. 
The  remaining  holes  are  manipulated  by  closed 
keys.  Arrange  the  fingers  so  that  all  the 
holes  are  closed.  Then  raise  them  successively. 
Blow  softly.  The  notes  given  will  be  A,  B,  C, 
D,  E  and  F,'.  Next,  sound  the  G  from  the 
thumb-hole.  The  two  lower  keys,  we  know, 
when  closed,  produce  the  low  F  and  E.  A 
matter  we  have  not  hitherto  mentioned  is  that 
the  B1?  key,  negotiated  by  the  left  thumb, 
is  called  the  Speaker,  so-called  because,  when 
the  hole  is  covered  and  the  low  note  is  blown 
harder,  the  tone  "  speaks "  a  twelfth  higher. 
Thus,  G  sounds,  not  G  above,  as  it  would  do 
on  the  flute,  but  the  D  over  the  G.  A  does 
not  give  A  octave,  as  it  would  on  the  oboe, 
but  E  over  the  A.  B  produces  F  ;  and  so  on. 
This  charming  peculiarity  of  the  clarionet 
distinguishes  it  from  other  wood  or  reed 
instruments. 

Another  speciality  of  the  clarionet  is 
that  its  low  register  gives  what  are  called 
"  chalumeau "  sounds,  the  tone  being  remi- 
niscent of  the  "  schalmey,"  the  clarionet's 
antitype.  This  obsolete  instrument  was  played 
by  a  single  reed  cut  in  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
cane-tube  itself,  so  that  it  could  not  be  removed. 
To  the  eye  of  the  beginner  the  complications 
of  the  modern  key-mechanism  may,  at  first, 
seem  bewildering,  for  its  actual  simplicity 
requires  some  explanation  before  it  is  perceived. 
Then,  instead  of  feeling  bewildered,  the  student 
marvels  at  the  ingenuity  which  enables  the  player 
to  overcome  with  ease  much  that  not  long  ago 
was  impossible.  For  it  must  be  obvious  that,  if 
the  instrument  is  pierced  by  no  fewer  than 
twenty  side-holes,  and  the  player  has  only  two 
thumbs  and  eight  other  fingers,  means  must 
be  provided  for 

keeping  ten  out  of   ^Xt  **•  tr  tr  tr 

the    twenty    holes 


MUSIC 

inventions  of  Albert  and  Boehm,  the  primitive 
clumsiness  has  been  improved  in  a  remarkable 
manner.  By  means  of  the  chart  on  the  next  page 
the  student  should  be  able  to  learn  the  names 
of  all  the  holes  and  keys,  and  the  way  in  which 
the  clarionet  is  fingered  from  one  end  of  its 
compass  to  the  other.  There  are  seven  holes 
and  thirteen  keys,  covering  as  many  more — 
or  twenty  holes  altogether.  The  keys  are 
numbered  successively  from  the  bell.  Each 
key,  as  well  as  each  hole,  has  two  names,  desig- 
nating the  low  and  higher  registers,  the  latter 
being  a  twelfth  above  the  former.  Begin  with 
the  key  nearest  to  the  bell.  This  is  known  as 
No.  1,  and  is  called  the  E,  or  B  key.  No.  2  is 
the  FJf,  or  C3  key.  No.  3,  higher  up  to  the 
right,  is  the  F,  or  C  key.  No.  4,  also  to  the  right, 
is  the  E?  or  At>. 

Then  comes  the  G,  or  D  hole.  In  other 
words,  when  this  hole,  as  well  as  those  above 
it,  is  covered,  the  note  sounded  is  the  low  G 
below  second  ledger  line,  treble  clef  ;  or,  if*the 
instrument  is  blown  with  more  force,  the  D 
on  the  fourth  line  on  the  staff  ab.ove.  The 
fifth  key  is  called  the  B?  ,  or  F  above.  Then 
comes  the  second  hole,  for  A  or  E.  The  sixth 
key,  round  to  the  left,  is  known  as  the  B,  or 
F  jt.  Above  that  is  the  third  hole,  also  giving 
B  or  Fti.  That  completes  the  lower  joint  of 
the  instrument  negotiated  by  the  right  hand. 
The  seventh  key,  manipulated  by  the  left  hand, 
gives  C£  or  G/.  Then  comes  the  fourth 
hole,  producing  C  or  G.  Above  that  is  the 
eighth  key,  giving  E>  or  B?.  Next  comes 
the  fifth  hole,  which  sounds  the  D  or  A.  Then 
we  have  the  ninth  key  for  F.  Above  that  is  the 
sixth  hole,  called  E  or  B.  Next,  we  have  the 
seventh,  or  G,  hole.  Above  that  is  the  tenth 
key,  known  as  A1?.  The  eleventh  key  gives 
A  ;  the  twelfth  is  the  Trill  key  ;  and  lastly,  the 
thirteenth  is  the  B)  key.  Attention  to  the 
table  appended  will  show  what  fingers  should 
be  used  for  the  manipulation  of  each  note. 
Certain  sounds,  like  the  low  A  £,  F  on  the 
first  space,  the  octave  F  above,  and  the  A  JI 
above  that,  have  alternative  fingerings,  of 
considerable  advantage  in  certain  passages. 

The  Shake.  The  shake  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  effects  obtainable  from  the 
clarionet.  But  it  must  be  executed  evenly. 
Begin  slowly,  and  increase  the  speed  gradually. 
If  a  trill  is  performed  unevenly  it  loses  its  charm. 

Ex.  7. 


tr 


tr 


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also     be     evident 

that,   to  negotiate 

twenty  holes  with  ten  digits,  each  finger  must 

be  employed   in  various  ways.      Through  the 


According  to  the  key,  the  shake  is  made  either 
a   tone   or   a   semitone   higher   than    the    note 

4789 


MUSIC 


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indicated.  Begin  with  the  note  written,  and 
alternate  it  with  the  sound  above,  resolving  the 
shake  by  two  grace  notes  before  concluding  it 

[Ex.  n 

The  student  should  try  this  exercise  on  almost 
every  note  of  the  scale.  He  should  not  be 
discouraged  if  first  attempts  are  unsuccessful. 
The  player,  if  his  ear  is  good,  will  by-and-by 
discover  ways  of  getting  the  effects  in  the 
neatest  manner.  The  most  difficult  shakes, 
which  must  not  be  attempted  at  first,  are  shown 
in  Ex.  8. 

BASSET     HORN 

The  basset  horn  is  the  alto  clarionet  in  F, 
known  also  as  the  "  corno  di  bassetto."  In 
appearance  it  is  somewhat  more  imposing  than 
the  clarionets  described,  as  its  top  and  bottom 
shanks  are  of  metal,  the  mouthpiece,  tube,  and 
the  bell  being  curved.  The  basset  horn  is  useful 
in  a  military  band  as  a  connecting  link  between 
the  second  and  third  B?  clarionets  and  bassoons. 
I'j^sages  which  are  too  high  for  the  bassoon,  or 
inconveniently  low  for  the  B?  clarionet,  can  be 
played  with  ease  on  this  instrument.  Generally, 
the  alto  clarionet  plays  harmony  notes,  but  it 
frequently  relieves  the  bassoon  in  its  higher 
passages.  Combined  with  the  euphonium,  it  serves 
to  soften  the  melody.  The  instructions  given  as 
to  the  fingering  and  the  blowing  of  the  B?,  A,  and 

4700 


other  clarionets,  apply  to  this  instrument,  as  its 
mechanism  is  almost  the  same.  The  main  differ- 
ence is  that  the  alto  clarionet  in  F  sounds  every 
note  a  fifth  below  the  clarionet  in  C.  But  the 
timbre  is  different,  and  for  this  reason  exceedingly 
valuable  to  composers.  Both  Mozart,  in  his 
"Requiem,"  and  Mendelssohn, in  his  "Funeral 
March,"  have  parts  for  two  basset  horns  to- 
gether. But,  although  in  those  compositions  the 
character  of  tone  is  gloomy,  Beethoven  made 
serviceable  use  of  this  instrument  in  his  ballet 
music  of  "Prometheus." 

The  alto  clarionet  is  a  beautiful  instrument. 
Its  tone  is  powerful  from  the  lowest  E,  below 
third  ledger  line,  to  the  E  above.  It  is  less  good 
from  that  E  to  the  B?  on  the  third  line.  But 
the  quality  from  the  B?  to  the  D,  over  second 
ledger  line  above  treble  clef,  is  excellent.  Higher 
than  that,  the  tone  is  uncertain,  and  of  little 
use. 

BASS     CLARIONET 

The  bass  clarionet  is  in  A,  B\  or  C.  It  speaks 
an  octave  lower  than  its  smaller  brethren  let- 
tered in  the  same  way.  To  economise  space,  this 
I  a  rue  instrument  has  a  turned-up  metal  bell.  Its 
mouthpiece  shank  is  also  of  metal,  and  curved 
considerably  downwards  towards  the  player.  As 
regards  the  fingering,  the  mechanism  resembles 
in  construction  that  of  the  ordinary  clarionets 


described.  On  account  of  the  greater  length  of 
tube,  however,  the  holes  are  further  apart,  and 
give  space  for  more  auxiliary  keys ;  so  the 
finger  stretches  are  not  only  greater,  and  the 
instrument  not  only  heavier,  but  some  bass 
clarionets  have  as  many  as  twenty-one  keys,  only 
two  holes  being  acted  upon  directly  by  the 
fingers  of  the  player  [see  illustration]. 

The  bass  clarionet,  unless  required  for  special 
solos,  is  played  in  a  military  band  with  the  first 
or  second  bassoon.  In  small  bands,  one  bass 
clarionet  and  one  bassoon  suffice.  When  well 
played,  the  lower  notes  of  this  instrument  are 
superb — a  fact  much  appreciated  by  Meyerbeer 
and  Wagner.  Like  the  small  B?  or  A  instru- 
ments, the  part  of  the  bass  clarionet  is  usually 
written  in  the  treble  clef.  Meyerbeer  invariably 
adhered  to  this  plan,  and  in  the 
fifth  act  of  the  ''Huguenots" 
he  displays  the  telling  tones  in 
the  extreme  low  compass  of 
this  instrument  in  a  remark- 
able manner.  Wagner,  on  the 
other  hand,  wrote  for  the  bass 
clarionet  sometimes  in  the  bass 
clef  (as  in  the  "Walkiire"), 
and  sometimes  in  the  tenor  clef 
(as  in  "Tristan  and  Isolde"). 
Charts  are  procurable  of  the 
fingerings,  throughout  the  en- 
tire compass  of  three  and  a 
half  octaves,  for  the  bass  clari- 
onet— whether  tuned  in  A,  B!?, 
or  C — showing  how  every  semi- 
tone is  produced  on  an 
instrument  provided 
with  twenty- one  keys. 
The  student,  who 
should  be  prepared  to 
play  in  other  clefs, 
should  first  transpose 
this  staff  into  the  bass, 
starting  from  the  E& 
on  the  first  ledger  line 
below  the  staff. 

In  this  instrument 
the  14th  key  is  F ;  the 
15th,  Fff;  the  16th,  G: 
17th,Gj£  (or  A!?);  18th, 
A ;  19th,  an  auxiliary  B  ?  ;  20th,  the  B  shake  key ; 
and  the  21st,  the  Bl?  octave  key- 

The  bass  clarionet,  although  unsuitable  for 
solo  playing  except  on  rare  occasions,  is  most 
useful  in  strengthening  the  reed  department  of  a 
military  band,  and  helping  to  keep  the  bassoons 
in  tune.  On  this  instrument  long  sustained  notes 
have  a  grand  effect.  But  tonguing  is  difficult, 
and  many  of  the  shakes  are  almost  impossible. 
The  bass  clarionet,  therefore,  does  not  demand 
great  digital  execution.  Rather  must  the 
student  cultivate  the  production  of  a  good  tone- 
quality  and  the  faculty  of  playing  in  strict 
time,  because  if  the  deep  bass  clarionet,  with  its 
powerful  sound,  attacks  a  chord  too  soon  or  too 


DOUBLE-BASS 
CLARIONET 
(Besson  ot  Co.) 


MUSIC 

late,  it  will  completely  spoil  the  effect,  and  throw 
out  the  smaller  clarionets. 

In  a  full  military  score  the  part  of  the  bass 
clarionet  is  immediately  below  the  basset  horn 
and  over  the  bassoon.  Above  the  former 
come  the  various  saxophones,  and  over  these  the 
B  ^  clarionet,  oboe,  E  '  clarionet,  and  the  flutes. 
The  bass  clarionet  has  been  found  by  Wagner, 
Strauss,  Tschaikowski  and  others,  of  considerable 
value  as  a  means  of  infusing  into  the  modern 
orchestra  an  unusual  tint  of  tone-colour.  The  bass 
clarionet  extends  the  peculiar  tone-qualities  of  the 
single  reed  instrument  an  octave  lower  than  its 
ordinary  compass  in  a  beautiful 
manner,  adding  a  delightful 
sonorousness  to  masses  of 
the  wood-wind.  Nevertheless, 
good  bass  clarionet  players  are 
not  easy  to  find.  One  reason 
is  perhaps  the  expense,  such  an 
instrument,  new,  costing  not 
less  than  £10  10s.  Hundre*ds  of 
young  men  will  devote  them- 
selves diligently  to  the  usual  type 
of  smaller  instrument,  and,  when 
they  depend  for  their  livelihood 
on  the  private  engagements  they 
receive,  find  it  difficult  to  earn 
even  a  modest  income.  Moreover, 
it  is  becoming  increasingly  diffi- 
cult to  make  a  limited  number 
of  appointments  suffice  for  the 
numerous  candidates,  when  the 
big  music  schools  are  turning 
but  yearly  many  finished 
clarionet  players.  It 
is  well  for  the  am- 
bitious student,  there- 
fore, to  give  attention 
to  such  special  instru- 
ments as  the  bass 
clarionet.  By  doing  so 
he  distinguishes  him- 
self immediately  from 
the  rank  and  tile  of 
players,  and  is  in  a 
position  to  demand  and 
receive  better  terms. 

At  the  Brussels  Con- 
servatoire is  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  existing 
of  a  bass  clarionet;  the  bore  coiling  five  times  on 
itself,  serpentine  fashion. 

THE  DOUBLE-BASS  CLARIONET 

We  give  here,  to  complete  the  clarionet  family, 
an  illustration  of  the  BBt?,  used  at  the  Royal 
Military  School  of  Music,  Kneller  Hall.  By 
doubling  the  tube,  its  increased  length  enables 
it  to  sustain  contra-bass  pedal  notes  with  mag- 
nificent effect.  The  cost  of  this  (£48)  is  rather 
beyond  the  individual,  but  is  within  the  means 
of  large  societies.  So  far  as  the  fingering  is  con- 
cerned, it  will  be  readily  understood  by  the 
student  who  has  familiarised  himself  with  tho 
bass  clarionet  mechanism. 


TENOR  BASS 

CLARIONET         CLARIONET 

(Kudall  Carte  &  Co.) 


CLARIONET  concluded 


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Group  18 

LANGUAGES 
33 


ITALIAN- FRENCH -SPANISH-ESPERANTO 

Italian  by  F.  de  Feo ;  French  by  Louis  A.  Barbe,  B.A.  ;  Spanish  by 
Amalia  de  Alberti  and  H.   S.   Duncan  ;    Esperanto  by  Harald  Clegfg 


ITALIAN 


By  Francesco  de  Feo 


IRREGULAR    VERBS 
Second    Conjugation 

Verbs  in  ere  (short) — continued 
(Past  Def.  in  si.     Past  Part,  in  so  or  stn.) 

Accendere,  to  light 
Past  Def. — Accesi,  accese,  accesero. 
Past  Part. — Acceso. 

Accludere,  to  enclose 
Past  Def. — Acclusi,  accluse,  acclusero. 
Past  Part.—Acduso. 

Conjugate  like  accludere  :  concludere,  to  con- 
clude ;  escludere,  to  exclude ;  includere,  to 
include  ;  precludere,  to  hinder. 

Alludere,  to  allude 
Past  Def. — Allusi,  alluse,  alliisero. 
Past  Part.—Alluso. 

Conjugate  like  alludere :  deludere,  to  delude ; 
illiider  e,  to  illude. 

Appendere,  to  hang  up 
Past  Def. — Appesi,  appese.  appesero. 
Past  Part. — Appeso. 

Ardere,  to  burn 
Past  Def. — Arsi,  arse,  arsero. 
Past  Part. — Arso. 

Chiedere,  to  ask 

Ind.  Pres. — Ckiedo  (chieggo),  etc.  ;  chiedono 
(chieggono). 

Past  Def. — Chiesi,  chiese,  chiesero. 

$ubj.  Pres. — Chieda  (chiegga),  etc. 

Past  Part.—Chiesto. 

Conjugate  like  chiedere  :  richiedere,  to  request. 

Chiudere,  to  shut 
Past  Def. — Chiusi,  chiuse,  cliiusero. 
Past  Part. — Chiuso. 

Conjugate  like  chiudere :.  mnchiudere,  to 
conclude  ;  dischiudere,  to  open,  to  disclose. 

Concedere,  to  grant 

Past  Def. — Concessi,  concedei,  concedetti ;  con- 
cesse,  concede,  conceddh  :  <-nn<-i ««<>•(>  and  con- 
cedettero. 

Past  Part. — Concern  (<-<nin-<lnt<>). 

Conjugate  like  concedes  :  xiu-rhlere,  to  succeed  ; 
recedere,  to  recede. 

Decidere,  to  decide 
Past  Def. — Decisi,  decise,  declwra. 
Pati  Part.—Deciso. 
Conjugate  like  decide r(  :    r<r]<lci<'.  to  cut  off. 

Difendere,  to  defend 
Past  Def. — Difesi,  difese,  difesero. 
Past  Part.—Difeso. 

Conjugate  like  difendere  :  afjhiderv,  to  oifend. 
4792 


Dipendere,  to  depend 
Past  Def. — Dipesi,  dipese,  dipesero. 
Pa  ^    Part.  — Dipeso. 

Dividere,  to  divide 
Past  Def. — Divisi,  divise,  divisero, 
Past  Part.—Diviso. 

Eludere,  to  elude 

Past  Def. — Elttsi,  eludei,  eludetti ;  eluse,  elude, 
elndette;  elusero,  and  eludettero. 
Past  Part.— Elmo. 

Esplodere,  to  explode 
Past  Def. — Esplosi,  esplose,  esplosero. 
Past  Part.—Esploso. 

Evadere,  to  evade 
Past  Def. — Evasi,  evase,  evasero. 
Past  Part. — Evaso. 

Fondere,  to  melt 

Past  Def. — Fusiy  fuse,  fusero. 

Past  Part.—Fuso. 

Conjugate  like  fonder  e :  confondere,  to  con- 
found ;  diffondere,  to  diffuse  ;  effondere,  to  pour 
out;  infdndere,  to  infuse. 

Incidere,  to  engrave 
Past  Def. — Incisi,  incise,  incisero. 
Past   Part. — Inciso. 
Conjugate  like  incidere  :  coincldere,  to  coincide 

Remarks  on  Irregular  Verbs 

1.  The  greater  part  of   the  verbs  in  -ere  end 
in  past  definite  in  -si  (first  person  singular),  -se 
(third  person  singular),  and  -sero  (third  person 
plural).      As  has  been  already  seen,  the  other 
persons  are  regular,  thus  : 

Accendere  (to  light).  Past  def. :  accesi,  accen- 
desti,  accese,  accendemmo,  accendeste,  accesero. 

Chiudere  (to  shut).  Past  def. :  chiusi,  chiude-sti, 
clmise,  chiudemmo,  chiudeste,  chiuse.ro. 

Decidere  (to  decide).  Pastf  def. :  decisi,  decidesti, 
etc. 

2.  The  past  participle  of  these  verbs  is  nearly 
always  irregular,  and  is  formed  by  the  addition 
of  the  terminations  -so,  -to,  or  -sto,  thus : 

Ridere  (to  laugh).  Past  part. :  riso.  Leggerc 
(to  read).  Past  'part. :  letto.  Chiedere  (to  ask). 
Past  part. :  chiesto. 

3.  The  verbs  with  the  stem  ending  in  d,  n,  nd. 
lose  these  letters  before  the  s  of  the  terminations 
sir  se,  sero,  of  the  past  definite,  and  the  termina- 
tions so,  sto  of  the  past  participle.     Thus  : 

Ardere  (to  burn),  «m,  I  burned ;  arso,  burned. 

Rhtianere  (to  remain),  rimasi,  I  remained  ; 
rimasto,  remained. 

Spendere  (to  spend),  spesi,  I  spent ;  speso, 
spent. 


4.  A  few  verbs  change  the  vowel  of  the  stem. 
Example  :  fondere  (to  melt) — Past  Def. :  fusi  ; 
Post  Part.  :  fuso. 

EXERCISE  XLIII. 

1.  Vedete  se  hanno  acceso  i  lumi  nella  sala 
da  pranzo.  2.  Che  cosa  avete  concluso  ?  3. 
Essi  speravano  di  ottenere  chi  sa  che,  ma  son 
restati  delusi  (disappointed).  4.  Gli  scioperanti 
arsero  una  gran  quantita  di  grano.  5.  Egli  mi 
chiese  del  danaro,  ma  non  gliene  diedi.  6. 
Chiudete  le  finestre,  perche  si  avvicina  un  gran 
temporale.  7.  Oggi  e  festa,  e  tutte  le  botteghe 
sono  chiuse.  8.  Tutti  corrono  verso  la  chiesa  ; 
chi  sa  cosa  sara  successo.  9.  Essi  decisero  di 
partir  subito,  senza  aspettare  il  vostro  avviso. 
10.  Si  e  offesa  perche  non  le  abbiamo  restituito 
la  visita.  11.  L' Italia  era  divisa  in  tanti 
piccoli  stati.  12.  II  prigioniero  (prisoner)  eluse 
la  vigilanza  delle  guardie  e  riusci  a  fuggire.  13. 
Si  confusero  le  lingue. 

ESERCIZIO  DI  LETTTJRA 

Nei  tumulti1  popolari  c'-  e  sempre  un  certo 
numero  d'uomini  che,  o  per  un  riscaldamento 
di  passione,  o  per  una  persuasione  fanatica,  o 
per  un  disegno  scellerato,  o  per  un  maledetto 
gusto  del  soqquadro,2  fanno  di  tutto  per  ispinger 
le  cose  al  peggio  ;  propongono  o  promovono  i 
piu  spietati3  consigli,  soffian  nel  fuoco  ogni 
volta  che  principia  a  illanguidire :  non  e  mai 
troppo  per  costoro  ;  non  vorrebbero  che  il 
tumulto  avesse  ne  fine  ne  misura.  Ma  per 
contrappeso,4  c'  e  sempre  anche  un  certo  numero 
d'altri  uomini  che,  con  pari  ardore  e  con  in- 
sistenza  pari,  s'adopranor'  per  produr  Feffetto 
contrario ;  taluni  mossi  da  amicizia  o  da  parzia- 
lita  per  le  persone  minacciate  ;  altri  senza 
altro  impulse6  che  d'un  pio  e  spontaneo  orrore 
del  sangue  e  dei  fatti  atroei.  II  cielo  li  benedica. 
In  ciascuna  di  queste  due  parti  opposte,  anche 
quando  non  ci  siano  concerti  antecedenti, 
I'uniformita  dei  voleri  crea  un  concerto  istan- 
taneo  nelle  operazioni.  Chi  forma  poi  la  massa, 
e  quasi  il  materiale  del  tumulto,  e  un  miscuglio 
accidentale  d'uomini,  che,  piu'  o  meno,  per 
gradazioni  indefinite,  tengono  dell'uno  o  del- 
1' altro  estremo  ;  un  po'  riscaldati,  un  po'  furbi, 
un  po'  inclinati  a  una  certa  giustizia,  come 
1'intendon  loro,  un  po'  vogliosi7  di  vederne 
qualcuna  grossa,8  pronti  alia  ferocia  e  alia 
misericordia,  a  detestare  e  ad  a-dorare,  secondo 
che  si  present!  1'occasione  di  provar  con  pienezza 
1'uno  o  1'altro  sentimento  ;  avidi  ogni  momento 
di  sapere,  di  credere  qualche  cosa  grossa,  bisognosi 
di  gridare,  d'applaudire  a  qualcheduno,  o 
d'urfargli  dietro.9  (Manzoni,  "  I  Promessi  Sposi," 
Cap.  XIII).  Continued. 

NOTES.  1,  tumults ;  2,  confusion  ;  3,  inhuman ; 
4,  to  counterbalance ;  o,  endeavour ;  6,  impulse  ; 
7,  eager  ;  8,  something  striking ;  9,  to  howl  after 
him. 

Idiomatic  Expressions 

The  student  should  become  familiar  with 
the  following  expressions,  which  are  of  daily 
use : 

Aver  la  gentilezza  di,  to  be  so  kind  as 

Esser  finito,  to  be  over 

Lo  spettdcolo  e  finito,  the  performance  is  over 


LANGUAGES-ITALIAN 

Mi  xi  dice,  I  am  told 

Mi  e  stato  detto,  I  have  been  told 

Aver  notizie  di,  to  hear  from 

Non  ho  notizie  di  lui,  I  haven't  heard  from  him 

Farei  meglio,  I  had  better 

Fareste  molto  meglio,  you  had  much  better 

A  che  serve  ?  what  is  the  use  ? 

Secondo  me,  in  my  opinion 

Secondo  lui,  according  to  him 

Esser  di  cattivo  umore,  to  be  in  a  bad  temper 

Servirsi,  to  help  one's  self 

Si  serva,  help  yourself 

Avere  da,  to  have  to,  to  be  obliged  to 

EXERCISE  XLIV. 

1.  Abbia  la  gentilezza  di  dirmi  come  si  dice 
questo  in  Inglese.  2.  Quando  arrivammo  in 
chiesa  il  servizio  era  gia  finito.  3.  Invece 
di  star  qui  a  far  niente,  fareste  molto  meglio  a 
studiare  la  vostra  lezione  d'ltaliano.  4.  Avete 
notizie  del  signor  Carlo  ?  5.  No,  non  abbiamo 
piu  notizie  di  lui ;  forse  non  e  a  Londra.  6. 
Lasciatemi  in  pace,  vi  prego  ;  son  di  cattivo 
umore  oggi,  senza  saperne  il  perche.  7.  Se  le 
capita  di  vedere  (if  you  happen  to  see)  il  suo 
amico,  abbia  la  gentilezza  di  dirgli  di  venire 
da  me  stasera,  perche  ho  da  parlargli.  8.  Mi 
dispiace  di  non  potere  accompagnarla ;  ho 
da  scrivere  delle  lettere  importantissime.  9. 
Secondo  me,  in  primavera  ricominceranno  le 
ostilita.  10.  A  che  servono  questi  ferri  ?  11. 
Si  serva,  signore  ;  come  vede  tutto  e  pronto. 
12.  A  che  serve  ritornare  sul  passato  ?  Quel 
ch'  e  fatto  e  fatto. 

CONVERSAZIONE 

Chi  ha  chiuso  la  port  a  ? 

L'  ho  chiusa  io. 

Chi  ha  acceso  il  lumc  nella  mia  camera  ?  Lei, 
non  e  vero  ? 

Io  no  ;   era  gia  acceso   quando  sono  entrato. 

Che  giornali  ha  comprato  ? 

Ho  comprato  il  Corriere  delta  Sera  e  il  Mattino. 
Quale  vuole  ? 

L'uno  o  1'altro  ;  fa  Io  stesso. 

Non  ho  piu  notizie  di  suo  nipotc  ;   dov'  e  ? 

E  chi  Io  sa  ;  e  un  anno  che  non  ci  scriviamo 
piu. 

Di  chi  sono  queste  carte  ? 

Sono  mie,  grazie. 

Mi  e  stato  detto  che  la  signora  N.  e  cli  miovo 
a  Firenze,  sara  vero  ? 

Secondo  me  dev'  esser  vero,  perche  1'altro 
giorno  m'  e  parso  di  vedere  la  sua  cameriera. 

Dio  buono,  che  donna  ! 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XL. 

1.  Where  did  you  know  that  gentleman  ? 
2.  I  knew  him  at  Nice  last  year.  3.  I  acknow- 
ledge my  mistake,  and  I  beg  your  pardon. 
4.  My  esteem  for  the  young  sailor  increased 
much  when  I  heard  him  praised  in  such  a  way 
by  his  captain.  5.  One  knows  where  one  was  born, 
but  one  does  not  kno"w  where  one  dies.  6.  He 
was  born  of  very  poor  parents,  but  by  constant 
work  he  has  succeeded  in  putting  together  a  fair 
fortune.  7.  They  have  insisted  so  much  that 
I  have  ended  by  yielding.  8.  At  the  end  of  the 

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LANGUAGES-FRENCH 

dinner,  all  drank  to  the  health  of  the  married 
couple.  9.  The  thieves  broke  the  glass  of  a 
\\intlo\v  on  the  ground  floor,  and  penetrated 
into  the  house.  10.  To-day  I  was  present  at  a 
terrible  scene ;  a  poor  mason  fell  and  broke  his  leg. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XLI. 
1.  The  house  of  which  I  have  spoken  to  you  is 
in  Via  Roma.  2.  He  who  cannot  obey  does  not 
know  either  how  to  command.  3.  Do  what  I 
have  told  you,  and  you  will  prosper.  4.  We 
must  love  him  who  loves  us,  but  we  must  not 
hate  him  who  hates  us.  5.  I  thank  you  for 
the  many  proofs  of  friendship  that  you  have 
always  shown  me.  6.  Let  me  see  what  you 
have  in  your  pocket.  7.  I  have  returned  him 
the  money  that  he  lent  me.  8.  The  lady  whom 
you  have  seen  is  our  landlord's  wife.  9.  The 
order  that  you  gave  me  has  been  faithfully 


executed.  10.  That  is  all  I  know ;  I  cannot  tell 
you  more.  11.  The  aged  husbandman  plants 
the  seed  of  the  tree,  whose  fruits  his  sons  and 
grandchildren  will  see. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XLII. 
1.  How  much  have  you  paid  for  this  hat  ? 
2.  Whose  pocket-book  is  this'?  3.  Who  has 
brought  this  luggage  ?  4.  That  gentleman  is 
an  Englishman,  is  he  not  ?  5.  Which  is  the 
train  for  Rome  ?  6.  What  have  you  ordered 
for  Christmas  ?  7.  What  is  the  matter  with 
these  boys  ?  8.  Who  is  that  (man)  ?  9.  At 
which  station  shall  we  stop  ?  10.  To  whom 
have  you  given  the  ticket  ?  11.  What  has 
your  father  said  ?  12.  Of  which  lady  are 
you  talking  ?  13.  In  what  year  were  you  born  ? 
14.  Of  what  is  your  cousin  thinking  ?  15.  Who 
has  asked  to  be  admitted  ? 


Continued 


FRENCH 


By  Louis  A.  Barbe,  B.A. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS 
Third  Conjugation 

1.  S'asseoir,  to  sit  down,  s 'asseyant,  s'etant 
assis. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  m'assieds,  tu  tfassieds,  il 
s'assied,  nous  nous  asseyons,  vous  vous  ass.eyez, 
ils  s'asseyent. 

Imperf. — je  m'asseyais. 

Past  Def. — je  m assis. 

Future. — jt  m'assierai. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  m'assierais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  m'asseye,  que  tu  fasseyes, 
qu'tl  s'asseye,  que  nous  nous  asseyions,  que  vous 
vous  asseyiez,  qu'ils  s'asseyent. 

Imperf. — que  je  m'assisse. 

Imperat.  (positive). — assieds-toi,  qu'il  s'asseye, 
asseyons-nous,  asseyez-vous,  qidls  s'asseyent. 

Imperat.  (negative). — ne  fassieds  pas,  qu'il 
ne  s'asseye  pas,  ne  nous  asseyons  pas,  ne  vous 
asseyez  pas,  quails  ne  s'asseyent  pas. 

There  is  a  transitive  form  asseoir,  to  seat. 
The  alternative  conjugation,  je  m'assois,  je 
m'assoyais,  je  m'assoira,  etc.,  is  seldom  used. 

2.  Mouvoir    to  move,  mouvant,  mv.,  f.  mm. 
Ind.  Pres. — Je  meus,  tu  meus,  il  meut,  nous 

mouvons,  vous  mouvez,  Us  meuvent. 

Imperf. — je  mouvais. 

Past  Def. — je  mus. 

Future. — je  mouvrai. 

Condit.   Pres. — je  mouvrais.  . 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  meuve,  que  tu  meuces, 
qu'il  meuve,  que  nous  mouvions,  que  vous  mouviez, 
quails  meuvent. 

Imperf. — que  je  musse. 

The  derivatives  emouvoir,  to  move,  to  affect ; 
s'emouvoir,  to  be  affected,  and  promouvoir.  to 
promote,  take  no  circumflex  accent  in  the 
•past  participle:  emu,  promu. 

:;.   Pouvoir,  to  be  able,  pouvant,  pn. 

Ind.  Pres.—je  peux,  or  je  puis,  tu  pern;  il 
pent,  fious  pouwns,  vous  pouvez;  ils  peuvent. 

1  in  />(•  rf.  — je  pouvais. 

Past  Def. — je  pus. 

4794 


Future. — je  pourrai. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  pourrais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  puisse,  que  tu  pulsses, 
qu'il  puisse,  que  nous  puissions,  que  vous  puissiez, 
qu'ils  puissent. 

Imperf. — que  je  pusse. 

Of  the  two  forms  of  the  first  person  singular, 
present  indicative,  puis  is  the  only  one  that 
can  be  used  interrogatively  :  Puis-je  ?  May  I  ? 
Can  I? 

In  the  Future  and  the  Conditional  the  two  r's 
are  not  pronounced  separately. 

Pouvoir  is  used  absolutely  with  the  meaning 
of  "to  be  able  to  do  "  :  Je  ne  puis  rien  pour 
lui,  I  can  do  nothing  for  him. 

The  Subjunctive  followed  by  its  subject  is 
used  to  express  a  wish.  In  that  case  the  first 
person  singular  takes  an  acute  accent :  Puisse-je 
reussir,  puissiez-vous  reussir,  May  I  succeed, 
may  you  succeed,  etc. 

4.  S  avoir,  to  know,  sachant,  su. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  sais.  tu  sais,  il  sait,  nous  savons, 
vous  savez,  ils  savent. 

Imperf. — je  savais. 

Past  Def. — je  sus. 

Future. — je  saurai. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  saurais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  sache,  que  tu  saches, 
qu'il  sache,  que  nous  sachions,  que  vous  sachiez, 
qu'ils  sachent. 

Imperf. — que  je  susse. 

Imperat. — sache,  qu'il  sache,  saclions,  sachez, 
qu'ils  sachent. 

.sViroiV  and  connaitre  both  mean  "to  know." 
Connaitre  means  "  to  know "  in  the  sense  of 
"  to  be  acquainted  with,"  and  therefore  applies 
to  persons  and  places  :•  Je  connais  son  frere, 
I  know  his  brother  ;  II  connait  Paris,  He  knows 
Paris.  Savoir  means  "  to  know  "  as  the  result 
of  study :  il  sait  sa  lecon. 

Savoir  is  also  used  when  the  object  is  a  fact 
or  statement,  or  a  pronoun  referring  to  a  fact 
or  statement :  Savez-mus  ce  que  je  viens 


(Vapprendre?  Do  you  know  what  I  have  just 
learned  ?  S'il  etait  venu,  je  le  saurais,  If  he  had 
come,  I  should  know  it. 

Savoir  also  means  "  to  know  how  to,"  and 
therefore  to  be  able :  Get  enfant  salt  deja 
lire  et  ecrire,  That  child  can  read  and  write 
already. 

Savoir  is  frequently  used  negatively  without 
pas  or  point :  Je  ne  safe  ee  que  je  dots  faire,  I 
do  not  know  what  1  should  do. 

5.  Valoir,  to  be  worth,  volant,  vain, 

Ind.  Pres. — je  vaux,  tit  vaux,  il  vaut,  nous 
•calons,  vous  valez.  Us  valent. 

Imperf. — je  valais. 

Past  Def.—je  valus.  4 

Future. — je  vaudrai. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  raudrais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  vaille,  que  tu  vailles, 
qit'il  vaille,  que  nous  valions,  que  vous  valiez, 
qu'ils  vaillent. 

Imperf. — que  je  valusse. 

Equivaloir,  "  to  be  equivalent,"  and  revaloir, 
"  to  repay,"  are  conjugated  like  valoir.  Preva- 
loir,  "  to  prevail,"  diners  from  it  in  the  Present 
Subjunctive :  Que  je  pi'evale,  que  tu  prevales, 
qidl  prevale,  que  nous  prevalions,  que  vous 
prevaliez,  qu'ils  prevalent-. 

6.  Voir,  to  see,  voyant,  vu. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  vois,  tu  vois,  il  voit,  nous  voyons, 
vous  voyez,  Us  voient. 

Imperf. — je  voyais. 

Past  Def. — je  vis. 

Future. — je  verrai. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  verrais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  voie,  que  tu,  voies,  qu'il 
voie,  que  nous  voyions,  que  vous  vwjiez,  qn'il* 
voient. 

Imperf. — que  je  visse. 

In  the  Future  and  the  Conditional  the  two 
/•'.$  are  not  pronounced  separately. 

7.  Vouloir,  to  wish,   want,  to   be   willing, 
voulant,  voulu. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  veux,  tu  veux,  il  veut,  nous 
voulons,  vous  voulez,  Us  veulent. 

Imperf. — je  voulais. 

Past  Def. — je  voulus. 

Future. — je  voudrai. 

Cond.  Pres.—je  voudrais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  veuille,  que  tu  veuilles, 
qu'il  veuille,  que  nous  voulions,  que  vous  vouliez, 
qu'ils  veuillent. 

Imperf. — que  je  voulusse. 

The  Imperative  is  hardly  ever  used,  except  in 
the  form  veuillez,  or  veuillez  blen,  "  please," 
"  have  the  kindness." 

Bien  added  to  vouloir,  gives  the  idea  of 
consent :  Venez-vous  avec  nous  ?  Je  veux  Men, 
Are  you  coming  with  us  ?  I  am  quite  willing. 

En  vouloir  a,  means  "  to  have  a  grudge  against," 
"  to  have  designs  on." 

II  m'en  veut  d 'avoir  agi  sans  le  consult er,  He 
bears  me  a  grudge  for  having  acted  without 
consulting  him. 

Vouloir  dire,  literally,  "  to  wish  to  say,"  is  the 
usual  expression  for  "  to  mean,"  "  to  signify  " ; 
Que  veut  dire  ce  mot  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of 
that  word  ? 


LANGUAGES- FRENCH 

Fourth  Conjugation 

1.  Boire,  to  drink,  buvant,  bu. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  bois,  tu  bots,  il  boit,  nous  buvons, 
vous  buvez,  Us  boivent. 

Imperf. — je  buvais. 

Past  Def. — je  bus. 

Future. — je  boirai. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  boirais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  boive,  que  tu  boives,  qu'il 
boive,  que  nous  buvions,  que  vous  buviez,  qii'ils 
boivent. 

Imperf. — que  je  busse. 

2.  Dire,  to  say,  to  tell,  disant,  dit. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  dis,  tu  dis,  il  dit,  nous  disons, 
vous  dites,  Us  disent. 

Imperf. — je  disais. 

Past  Def. — je  dis. 

Future. — je  dirai. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  dirais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que  je  disc,  que  tu  dises,  qu'il 
dise,  que  nous  disions,  que  vous  disiez,  qu'ils 
disent. 

Imperf. — que  je  disse. 

With  the  exception  of  redire,  to  say  again, 
which,  like  dire,  has  vous  redites  in  the  Present 
Indicative,  and  redites  in  the  Imperative,  all  the 
derivatives  have  -disez  in  the  second  person 
plural.  They  are  :  dedire,  to  retract,  gainsay  ; 
contredire,  to  contradict ;  interdire,  to  forbid  ; 
medire,  to  backbite  ;  predire,  to  foretell  (vous 
predisez,  vous  contredisez,  etc). 

3.  Faire,  to  make,  to  do,  faisant,  fait. 

Ind.  Pres. — je  fais,  tu  fais,  il  fait,  nous  faisons, 
vous  faites,  Us  font. 

Imperf. — je  faisais. 

Past  Def.—je  fis. 

Future.* — je  fenri. 

Cond.  Pres. — je  ferais. 

Subj.  Pres. — que.  je  fasse,  que  tu  fusses,  qu'il 
fasse,  que  nous  fassions,  que  vous  fassiez,  qu'ils 
fassent. 

Imperf. — que  je  fisse. 

Faire,  followed  by  an  infinitive,  means  "  to 
cause  to  be,"  "  to  get,"  "  to  have."  II  fait 
bdtir  une  maison,  He  is  getting  a  house  built ; 
Je  ferai  relier  mes  livres,  I  shall  get  my  books 
bound. 

In  this  construction,  if  the  second  verb  has  a 
direct  object,  the  object  of  faire  is  indirect : 
Je  le  fais  lire,  I  make  him  read  ;  but  Je  lui  fais 
lire  un  livre  francais,  I  make  him  read  a  French 
book. 

Faire,  followed  by  an  adjective  used  as  a  noun, 
means  "  to  play  the  part  of,"  "  to  pretend  to  be." 
77  fait  le  sourd,  He  pretends  to  be  deaf. 

Nouns  are  occasionally  used  in  this  construc- 
tion :  "  L'homme  n'est  ni  anqe,  ni  bete ;  et  le 
malheur  veut  que  qui  veut  faire  Van:ie  fait  la  bete," 
Man  is  neither  an  angel  nor  a  fool ;  but  ill  luck 
will  have  it  that  he  who  wants  to  play  the  angel 
makes  a  fool  of  himself. 

EXERCISE  XXXIV.   " 

1.  Little  Mary,  seated  in  an  arm-chair  (le  jauteuil), 
was   reading  the  .story  of    Little   Red    Riding-Hood 
(le  Petit  Chaperon  Rouge). 

2.  When  the  poor  girl  had  done  her  work,  she  used 
to  go  (and)  sit  down  in  the  ashes  (la  cendre) ;  that  is 
why  she  was  called  Cinderella  (Cendrfllori). 

4795 


LANGUAGES-SPANISH 

3.  Do  not  sit  on  the  grass  ?  it  is  damp  ;  you  would 
catch  cold  (s'enrhumer). 

4.  He  spoke  every  moment  (at  each  instant)  of  going 
away,   but  he   always  sat  down   again   (se  rasseoir), 
and  we  could  not  get  rid  (se  debarrasser)  of  him. 

6.  To  (pour)  move  hi?  hearers  (auditeur)  the  orator 
must  himself  (><>  moved  ;  one  does  not  move  without 
being  moved. 

6.  An  army  is  a  body  animated  (animer)  by  (de) 
an  infinite  number  (une  infinite)  of  different  pas- 
sions which  a  skilful  (habile)  man  sets  in  motion 
(fairr  mouvoir)  for  the  defence  of  the  fatherland  (la 
patrie). 

I.  When  we  (on)  cannot  do  what  we  wish,  we  must 
try  to  wish  what  we  can. 

8.  Wo  speak  little  when  vanity  does  not  mal«-  n- 
speak. 

9.  We    easily    forget    our    faults    when     they    are 
known  only  to  (de)  ourselves. 

10.  Perfect    valour    is    to    do    without    witnesses 
(le  temoin)  what  we  should  be  capable  of  doing  before 
everybody. 

II.  Weak  people  (la  perscnne)  cannot  be  sincere. 

12.  We    are    nearer    loving    those    who     hate    us 
than  those  who  love  us  more  than  we  (ne)  wish. 

13.  A  philosopher  has  said  that  few  people  (gens) 
know  how  to  be  old. 

14.  Vanity   makes   us    do    more    things    contrary 
(contre)  to  our  taste  than  (does)  reason. 

15.  What  we  know  is   little   in  comparison  with 
(de)  what  we  do  not  know  ;    and    sometimes,  even 
what  we  do  not  know  is  just  what  we  ought  to  know. 

16.  To  know  that  one  knows  nothing  (it)  is  to  know 
a  great  deal. 

17.  The   man   who   sells   himself     is   always   paid 
more  than  he  (ne)  is  worth. 

18.  Great  thoughts  come  from  the  heart. 

19.  The  proverb  tells  us  that  everything  comes  in 
due  time  (a  point)  to  (him)  who  knows  how  to  wait 
(attendre). 

20.  We  speak  well  (dire  du  bien)  of  our  friends  for 
two   reasons  :     first  of  all   (d'abord)  that   (pour  que) 
they  may  learn   that  we    speak  well   of   them,   and 
then  (ensuite),  that  they  may  speak  well  of  us. 

21.  What  a  judicious  (judicieux)  foresight  (la  pre- 
voyance)  was  not  able  to  put  into  the  minds  (I'esprit) 
of   men,    a   more    imperious    mistress    (imperieuz),  I 
mean  experience,  has  forced  them  to  believe  (it). 


22.  Tell  us  what  we  must  do,  and  we  shall  do  it 
immediately. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXIII. 

1.  Le   Petit  Chaperon   Rouge   partit  pour  aller 
chez  sa  grand' mere,  qui  demeurait  dans  un  autre 
village. 

2.  Le   loup   qu'elle   rencontra    lui   deinancla   ou 
elle  allait, 

3.  La    petite   fille   lui   dit :     "  Je   vais    voir    ma 
grand' mere  et  lui  porter  une  galette  avec  un  petit 
pot  de  beurre  que  ma  mere  lui  envoie." 

4.  Le  loup  se  mit  a  courir  de  toute  sa  force 
par  le  chemin  qui  etait  le  plus  court,  et  la  petite 
fille  s'en  alia  par  le  chemin  le  plus  long,  s'amusant 
a  cueillir  des  noisettes  et  a  courir  apres  des  papillons. 

5.  Le  Chat  Botte  dit  a  1'Ogre  :    "  On  m'a  assure 
.-.quo  vous  aviez  le  pouvoir  de  vous  changer  en  un 

rat  et  une  souris ;  je  vous  avoue  que  je  tiens  cela 
tout  a  fait  impossible." — "  Impossible,"  reprit 
1'Ogre  ;  "  vous  allez  voir." 

0.  II  ne  tiendra  qu'a  vous,  Monsieur  le  Marquis," 
dit  le  Roi,  "  que  vous  ne  soyez  mon  gendre." 

7.  Le  Chat  devint  grand  seigneur,  et  ne  courut 
plus  apres  les  souris  que  pour  se  divertir. 

8.  La  fee  dit  a  Cendrillon  :   "  Va  dans  le  jardin  ; 
tu    y    trouveras    six    lezards    derriere    1'arrosoir ; 
apporte-les-inoi." 

i).  "  Je  te  recommande  surtout  de  ne  pas  passer 
minuit :  si  tu  derneures  au  bal  un  moment  de  plus, 
ton  carrosse  redeviendra  citrouille,  tes  chevaux 
des  souris,  tes  laquais  des  lezards;  et  tes  vieux 
habits  reprendront  leur  premiere  forme." 

10.  La  vieille  fee  dit  que  la  princesse  se  percerait 
la  main  d'un  fuseau,  et  qu'elle  en  mourrait. 

11.  La  princesse  se  percera  la  main,  mais  elle 
n'en  mourra  pas ;    au  lieu  d'en  mourrir,  elle  tom- 
bera  dans  un  profond  sommeil  qui  durera  cent  ans, 
au  bout  desquels  le  fils  d'un  roi  viendra  la  reveiller. 

12.  Le  Petit  Poucet  alia  se  recoucher  et  ne  dorm  it 
point  du  reste  de  la  nuit ;    il  se  leva  de  bon  matin, 
et  alia  au  bord  d'un  ruisseau,  ou  il  emplit  ses  poches 
de   petis   cailloux    blancs,   et   ensuite   revint   a    la 


Continued 


SPANISH 


Continued  from 
page  4654 


By  Amalia  de  Albert!  &  H.  S.  Duncan 


UNCLASSIFIABLE    IRREGULAR 
VERBS — continued 
Third  Conjugation 

Asir,  to  seize,  grasp,  asiendo,  asido. 

Ind.  Pres. — asgo,  ases,  ase,  asimos,  asis,  asen. 

Imperat. — ase,  asga,  asgamos,  asid,  asgan. 

Subj.  Pres.— asga,  asgas,  asga,  asgamos,  asgais, 
asgan. 

The  other  tenses  are  all  regular. 

Conducir,  to  lead,  to  conduct,  conduciendo, 
conducido. 

Ind.  Pres.  —  conduzco,  conduces,  conduce,  con- 
ducimos,  conducis,  conduct  H. 

Past  Def. — condnjc,  condnjiste,  condttjo,  con- 
tliijiiiios,  conditjisteis,  condujtron. 

Imperat. — conduce,  condnzca.  ooncktzcamot,  co»- 
il  a  rid,  conduzcan. 

Subj.  Pres. — conduzca,  eondvzctte,  condn-ca.  c<»i- 
duzcamoe,  oondvzcaM,  condition. 

Subj.  Imperf. — condnjem,  condiijeras,  condiiju'd, 
condiijcramos,  condujcrcti*.  cotidujeran,  or  con- 
duje.se,  ete. 

Subj.  Flit. — condujere,  condujeres,  condiijere,  con- 
(/iiji-/-rin(ix.  roiiflnji  /•<•/.•>•.  (-(mil 'ijnrnr. 

4796 


The  Future  of  the  Indicative  and  the  Conditional 
are  regular. 

Decir,  to  say,  to  tell,  dicicndo,  dicho. 

Ind.  Pres. — digo,  dices,  dice,  decimos,  decis,  dicen. 

Past  Def.—dije,  dijiste,  dijo,  dijimos,  dijistcis, 
dijeron. 

Imperat.  —di,  diga,  digamos,  decid,  digan. 

Subj.    Pres. — diga,   diga*,   d>ga,   digamos, 


Subj.  Imptrf.—dijera,  dijerax,  dijera,  dijeramos, 
dijerais,  dijeran  or  dijese,  ete. 

Subj.  Put. — dijere,  dijeres,  dijere,  dijeremon, 
dijereis,  dijeren. 

The  Imperfect  of  the  Indicative  is  regular,  the 
Future  and  the  Conditional  have  the  regular 
endings  applied  to  the  stem  dir.  Example :  dire, 
etc.,  diria,  ete. 

All  the  derivatives  of  decir,  as  contradecir  (con- 
tradict), desdecir  (to  give  the  lie  to),  etc.,  are  con- 
jugated in  the  same  manner  as  decir,  save  that  the 
second  ]K-rson  singular  of  the  Imperative  is  gener- 
ally dice  instead  of  di.  Example:  contradice.  Ben- 
decir,  to  bless,  and  maldecir,  to  curse,  are  regular 
in  the  Imperfect  and  Future  of  the  Indicative,  in 
the  Conditional,  and  in  the  second  person  singular 


LANGUAGES— SPANISH 


and  plural  of  the  Imperative  ;  in  all  other  tenses 
these  verbs  follow  the  conjugation  of  decir. 

Ir,  to  go,  yendo,  ido. 

Ind.  Pres.—voy,  vas,  va,  vamos,  vais,  van. 

Imperf.— iba,  ibas,  iba,  ibamos,  ibais,  iban. 

Past  Def.  —fui,  fuwte,  fue,  fuimos,  fuisteis,  fueron. 

Imperat.  —  ve,  vaya,  vamos,  id,  vayau. 

Subj.  Pres.— vaya,  vayas,  vaya,  vayam,os,  vayais, 
cayan. 

Subj.  Imperf.— fuera,  fueras,  fuera,  fueramos, 
fnerais,  fueran  or  fuesc,  etc. 

Subj.  Fut.—fuere,  fueres,  fuere,  fueremos,  fuereis, 
fueren. 

The  Future  of  the  Indicative  and  the  Conditional 
are  regular. 

The  reflexive  verb  irse,  to  go  away,  is  conju- 
gated in  the  same  way  as  ir. 

Ind.  Pres.— me  voy,  te  vas.  se  va,  nos  vamos, 
os  vais,  se  van. 

Oir,  to  hear,  oyendo,  oido. 

Ind.  Pres. — oigo,  oyes,  oye,  oimos,  ois,  oyen. 

Past  Def.  —oi,  oiste,  oyo,  oimos,  oisteis,  oyeron. 

Imperat.  —oye,  oiga,  oigamos,  oid,  oigan. 
^Subj.    Pres.—oiya,    oigas,    oiga,    oigamos,    oigais, 
oigan. 

Subj.  Imp. — oyera,  oyeras,  oyera,  oyeranws, 
oyerais,  oyeran  or  oyese,  etc. 

Subj.  Put. — oyerc,  oyeres.  oyerc,  oyeremos,  oyereis, 
oyeren. 

The  Imperfect  and  Future  of  the  Indicative  and 
the  Conditional  are  regular. 

Salir,  to  go  out,  saliendo,  salido. 

Ind.  Pres. — salgo,  sales,  sale,  salimos,  sali-t, 
salen. 

Fut.—saldre,  saldrds,  saldrd,  saldremos,  saldrti-*, 
saldrdn. 

Cond.  —saldria,  saidrias,  •  saldria,  scddriamos,  sal- 
driaw,  saldrian. 

Imperat. —sal,  stdga,  saiga  mos,  solid,  salgan. 

Subj.  Pres.  —saiga,  saigas,  saiga,  salgamos,  salgais, 
salgan. 

The  other  tenses  are  regular. 

Venir,  to  come,  viniendo,  venido. 

Ind.  Pres.—vengo,  vienes,  viene,  venimos,  venis, 
vienen. 

Put. — vendre,  vendrds,  vendrd,  vendremos,  ven- 
dreis,  vendrdn. 

Past  Def. — vine,  viniste,  vino,  vinimos,  vinisteis, 
vinieron. 

Cond. — vendria,  vendrias,  vendria,  vendriamos, 
vendriais,  vendrian. 

Imperat. — ven,    venga,    vengamos,    venid,    vengan. 

Subj.  Pres.  — venga,  vengas,  venga,  vengamos, 
vengais,  vengan. 

The  other  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  have  the 
regular  endings  applied  to  the  stem  vin.  Example  : 
viniera  or  viniese,  etc.,  viniere,  etc. 

Irregular  Past  Participles 

The  following  verbs  have  irregular  past  par- 
ticiples :  Past  Participle. 

Decir,  to  say,  with  all  its'] 
derivatives  ( except  bendecir—  ben-  ( 
dito,  and  maldecir—  maldito),  as  j 
contradecir,  to  contradict,  etc.  J 
"  Hacer,  to  make,  to  do,  andl 
all  its  derivatives,  contraliacer  V 
(to  counterfeit),  falsify,  etc.  J 

Morir,  to  die. 

Poner,  to  put,  to 
all    its    derivatives,     as 
to  oppose,  etc. 


place,  andl 
is     oponer,  j- 


dicho, 

contradicho, 
etc. 

hecho, 
contraheclio, 

etc. 
muerto 

puesto, 
opuesto,  etc. 


Solver,  to  solve ;  this  verb"] 
is  obsolete,  but  its  derivatives ! 
have  the  same  form  of  past  par-  j 
ticiple,  as  absolver,  to  absolve,  etc.  J 

Ver.to  see,  and  its  derivatives,  \ 
as  prever,  to  foresee.  / 

Volver,  to  return,  and  alH 
its  derivatives,  as  devolver,  to  give  h 
back.  °  \ 


suelto, 
absuelto 

visto, 
previsto 

vuelto, 
devudto 


Double  Past   Participles 

The  few  verbs  which  follow  have  a  true  double 
past  participle.  Other  so-called  double  participles 
are  simply  adjectives,  and  can  only  be  used  with 
ser  and  ester.  The  true  participle  must  admit  of 
Mkr  •  Past  Participle. 

Freir,  to  fry ;  the  second ) 
form  is  preferred  with  estar.  f 

Injerir,  to  engraft  ;  the' 
first  form  is  used  with  estar  and 
haber,  the  second  as  ';  grafted  " 
without  auxiliary. 

Oprimir,  to  oppress;  the \ 
second  form  is  not  often  used.  / 

Prender,  to  arrest ;  both^j 
forms  may  be  used  with  haber,  r 
the  second  is  most  usual  with  ser.) 

Proveer,  to  provide ;  thel 
second  form  is  most  usual  with  h 
estar. 

Romper,  to  break,  used  both  ^ 
with  haber  and  estar.  J 


freido,  frifo 

injerido, 
injerto 

oprimido, 
opreso 

prcndido, 


provisto 


roto 


. 

Ind.  Pres.  —place 
fmperf.  —  placia 
Past  Def.  —plugo  or 

placid 
Put.  —placerd 


Defective  Verbs 

Placer,  to  please,  is  used  only  in  the  third 
person,  singular  or  plural,  in  the  following  moods 
and  tenses  ;  it  is  always  accompanied  by  a  personal 
pronoun  in  the  objective  case.  Example:  me  place, 
it  pleases  me,  etc. 

Cond.  —  placer  ia 
Subj.  Pres.  —  plazca  or  plegu  c 
Subj.      Imperf.  —  pluguiera, 
placiera,       plugiese,       or 
placiese 

R.oer,  to  gnaw,  is  found  in  the  following  forms  : 
Ind.  Pres.  —roo,  roigo,  and  royo,  roes,  roe,  etc. 
Siibj.    Pres.  —  roa,   roiga,  and  roya,   roas,   roiga-s, 
and  royas,  etc. 

NOTE.  Corroer,  to  corrode,  differs  from  roer, 
the  Ind.  Pres.  being  corroe,  corroen,  and  the  Subj. 
Pres.  corroa,  corroan. 

Soler,  to  use,  to  be  accustomed  (past  participle, 
solido),  is  only  used  in  the  following  tenses  : 

Ind.  Pres.  —  Suelo,  sneles,  suele,  solemos,  soleis, 
suelen. 

Imperf.  —  Solia,  solias,  solia,  soliamos,  soliais,  solian. 

Yacer,  to  lie,  is  chiefly  used  in  the  form  of 

"  aqui  yace  "   in  epitaphs.       Other  forms   of  the 

verb   are  rarely   used.     The   following  tenses   are 

irregular  : 

Ind.  Pres.  —yazco  or  yazgo,  yaces,  yace,  etc. 
Impf-ff.  —yace  or  yaz,  yaced. 

Subj.  Pres.  —  yazca,  yazca-s,  yazca,  etc.,  or  yazga, 
yazgas,  yazga,  etc. 

Vocabulary  —  Vocabulario 


A  chest              Una  area 
A  bow,  an  arch  Un  arco 
The  quiver         El  carcaj 
An  arrow           Una  flecha 
The  flannel        La  franela 
To  charter  a     Fletar  un 
ship                    buque 
The  freight        El  flete 
Lazy                    Pere/oso 
A  florist              Un  (una) 
fk)rista 

Gracefulness      Garbo(m.) 
The  claw            I>a  garra 
The  gutter        La  gotera 
Spinning             Hilar  (in.) 
The  spinning-  La  rueca 
wheel 
Inaccurate         Incorrecto 
Indigent            Indigente 
Infamy               Infamia  (f.) 
Unfortunately  Desgraeia- 
damente 

4797 


LANGUAGES— SPANISH 

Vocabulary— Vocabulario 
To  inflame        Jniiamar  A  slate  quarry  (Jupizarral 

A  mountain       lrn  monte.  mm  A  pebble-stone  Un  guijarro 


inontumi  The  clav 

Mountain-aide    La  falda  de  mi  The  1'ur 


A  vale 
A  cave 
The  sand 
A  whetstone 

A  brick 
A  roof-tile 
A  slate 

monte 

Un  val  It- 
Una  cueva 
La  arena 
Una  pieclra  de 
amplor 
Un  ladrillo 
Una  tcja 
I'n.i  pizarra 

To  ripen 
Mature,  ripe 
A  sheep-fold 
Foolish 
To    commit 
suicide 
Deformed 
To  be  pleased 

Deforme 
tyuedar  con- 
tento 


El  barro 
La  barra 
Madurar 

Maduro 
Un  majadal 
Majadero 
Suicidarse 

1 

EXERCISE  XVIII.  (1) 
Translate  the  following  into  Spanish  : 

1.  One  cannot  say,  "I  shall  not  drink  of  this 
water." 

2.  We   are  going  to  the   theatre  to-night.    We 
shall  go  in  a  carriage. 

3.  Cursing  his  fate,  he  committed  suicide. 

4.  Let  us  bless  Providence  for  its  benefits. 

5.  Let  us  hear  the  good  advice  that  is  given  us, 
and,  after  hearing,  follow  it. 

6.  Come   when  duty  calls   you    and    rejoice   at 
coming. 

7.  The  world  has  absolved  us  of  all  guilt. 

8.  The  son  of  Madam  T.  is  deformed. 

9.  A  despot  oppresses  those  who  surround  him, 
but  in  oppressing  makes  himself  hated. 

10.  They  captured  the  assassin.     He  was  taken 
after  offering  great  resistance. 

11.  There  is  a  shop  which  is  called  (calls  itself) 
'•  general  provider."   It  has  provided  for  many  from 
the  cradle  to  the  grave. 

12.  My  watch  is  broken,  and  the  servant  broke 
the  tumbler  after  breaking  the  dish. 

EXERCISE  XVIII.  (2) 
Translate  the  following  into  English  : 

1.  En    Holanda    se    encuentran    areas    antiguas 
talladas  con  gran  habilidad  que  son  muy  apreciadas. 

2.  El    carcaj    de   Cupido   esta   lleno   de   flechas 
traidoras. 

3.  Fui   al   florista    y  compre    floras  escojidas  y 
olorosas. 

4.  Con  sus  garras  me  a  ran 6  el  gato. 

5.  El  arte  de  hilar  ha  pasado   de  moda,  antigua- 
mente  hasta  las  reinas  hilaban,  y  con  el  hilo  que 
producian  con  sus  ruecas  tejian  lienzos  muy  finos. 

6.  Ese  hombre  se  cree  un  escritor  de  primera,  y  es 
tan  iliterato  que  todas  sus  citacionessonincorrectas. 

7.  El    inflamar    las    malas  pasiones   de   nuestro 
projimo  es  una  infamia. 

8.  En  las  faldas  de  los  montes  se  hallaii  musgo, 
helechos,  y  cesped  silvestre. 

9.  A  veces  se  encuentran  en  la  arena  a  la  orilla 
del  mar  guijarros  de  cierto  valor. 

10.  Pusimos  las  manzanas  y  peras  a  madurar. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XVII.   (I) 

1.  Anduvimos  de  un  pueblo  a  otro.     Ando  mucho 
sin  cansarme,  pero  el  no  puede  andar. 

2.  Le  di  limosua  a  un  pobre,  me  da  gusto  dar  al 
verdadero  necesitado. 

:$.  Yo  quepo  en  ese  sillon,  y  aquellos  cupieron 
en  el  sofa,  y  el  nino  cabe  en  la  cuna. 

4.  Podefe  tomar  eee  manuscrito  si  i-s  que  pueden 
Vds  leerlo.     No  puedo  decifrarlo. 

5.  Ponga   el    pan  sobre  la  mesa,   y  despues   lo 
pondre  en  el  aparador  mientras  poneri  la  mesa. 

0.  Quiero  que  me  escuchen,  y  ellos  no  quiertvu 
oirme. 

7.  -Mis  aniigos  sabeu  de  menuoria  la  historia  de 
Tngla  terra  ;  yo  se  muy  bien  la  de  Espafia,  y  con  el 
tieiupo  la  sabran  ellos  tambien. 

H.  Traigan  a  la  vuelta  la  buena  fortuna  con  Vds. 
y  despues  de  traida.  f.spei-pmos  que  so  quedaia. 

4798 


9.  Este  cuadro  no  vale  mucho,   pero  despues  de 
limpiado    valdra    mas,    y    no    me    extranaria    que 
entonces  valiese  mucho. 

10.  Veo  que  su  a!iiist:i(l  es  dada  a  otro  y  viendolo 
la  mia  disminuye. 

11.  Las    fabulas    de     Lafontaine     no     son     tan 
conocidas  como  las  de  Esopo. 

12.  La  faehenda  de  ese  hombre  es  ridicula. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XVII.  (2) 

1.  The  tobacco  factory  of  Seville  is  one  of  the 
curiosities  of  the  town. 

2.  The     people    in    Andalusia    wear    sashes    of 
brilliant  colours  ;   the  effect  is  very  picturesque. 

3.  The    word   fatiga,  besides   being  used  with  the 
meaning  of  fatigue,  is  used  as  an  exclamation  which 
means  "  how  tiresome  !  "  "  what  an  affliction  !  " 

4.  In  lime  of  knight-errantry  the  knights  received 
from  the  hands  of  their  ladies  a  reward,  which  they 
kept  and  defended  with  their  lives. 

5.  The  National  Gallery  in  London  contains  very 
good  pictures. 

G.  The   bulls   which  come  to  the  towns  for  the 
bull-fights  are  always  called  the  cattle. 

7.  There  are   beggars   who,  dressed  in  rags,  still 
preserve  some  dignity. 

8.  The  exploits  of  the  Cid  are  known  all  over  the 
civilised  world. 

9.  Very  pretty  stuffs  arc  made  of  cotton.     Those 
of  Manchester  are  the   best. 

10.  At  merrymakings  the  )>easants  dance  round 
bonfires. 

11.  Humility  is   a  virtue,   but   to   humiliate  the 
humble  is  the  act  of  a  despotic  and  proud  person. 

12.  Ignorance  is  daring.     No  one  gives  a  more 
decided  and  peremptory  opinion  than  an  ignorant 
person. 

PROSE  EXTRACT  XV. 

From  "  Notas  sobre  el  Comercio  Hispano-Britanieo 
en  el  ano  1904." 

One  of   the  causes  ex-  Una  de  las  causas  qu^ 

ercising  the   greatest    in-  ejerce    mayor    influencia 

fluence  on  the  reduction  sobre  el  descenso  en  los 

in  the  prices  of  some  of  precios  de  algunos  de  los 

the  articles  exported  from  productos  de  la  exporta- 

Spain  to  the  United  King-  cion    espanola    al    Reino 

dom  is  the  unmethodical  Unido,  esta  en  la  manera 

manner  in  which  the  ex-  desorderiada  como  dicha 

portation  is  carried  out.  exportacion  se  verifica. 

The  remarks  which  we  Las  observacioiies  que 

are  about  to  make  may  vamos    a    hacer    pueden 

be  applied  to  the  export  aplicarse  a  la  exportaeion 

of  articles  of  food,  such  de  productos  alimenticios 

as   oranges,   grapes,    and  tales  como  naranjas,  uvas 

raisins.  \    pasas. 

The  losses  sustained  in  Las  perdida.s  experi- 
the  year  1904  in  connec-  mentadas  el  ano  ]904,  en 
tion  with  the  two  last-  los  dos  ultimos  productos 
mentioned  fruits  are  at-  antes  mencionados,  de- 
tributable  almost  exclu-  bense,  casi  exclusiva- 
sively  to  the  lack  of  some  mente,  a  la  falta  de  un 
organisation  in  the  Penin-  organismo  u  organiza- 
sula,  which  would  regulate  cion  en  la  Peninsula,  que 
foreign  exports,  and  avoid  regule  la  exportacion  cx- 
the  agglomeration  of  a  terior.  evitando  la  agio- 
certain  article  in  any  one  meracion  de  un  pro- 
place  at  a  given  moment  ducto  en  nna  plaza  en  un 
\V!KMI  the  supply  greatly  momento  dado,  cuando  la 
exceeds  the  demand  at  oferta  excede  con  much' 
a  time  when  in  another  a  la  demanda,  en  tanto 
market  tiic  latter  exceeds  que  en  otro  rnercado  la 
the  former.  ultima  es  superior  a  la 
primera. 


LANGUAGES— ESPERANTO 


Thus,  for  .  example, 
(and)  with  respect  to 
grapes,  it  happened  that 
Almeria  glutted  the  Eng- 
lish markets  with  a  very 
large  number  of  barrels 
at  a  certain  moment,  the 
result  being  a  very  seri- 
ous fall  in  prices.  Fortu- 
nately, the  demand  was 
very  active  in  America  at 
that  time,  and  the  sur- 
plus barrels  were  imme- 
diately re-shipped  to  the 
United  States,  where  a 
good  price  was  paid  for 
the  fruit,  and  a  catas- 
trophe was  thus  averted. 

The  same  happened 
with  raisins.  Our  growers 
began  by  enormously  ex- 
aggerating the  value  of 
the  crop,  '  which  they 
estimated  at  an  exceed- 
ingly short  figure.  Facts 
soon  demonstrated  the 
mistake  which  they  made, 
and  all  at  once  the  Eng- 


Asi,  por  ejemplo,  y  con 
respecto  a  la  uva,  resulto 
que  Almeria  aglomero  en 
los  mercados  ingleses 
graiides  cantidades  de 
barriles  en  cierto  mo- 
mento,  lo  cual  produjo 
una  baja  importantisima 
en  los  precios.  Afor- 
tunadamente,  la  de- 
manda  era  grande  en- 
tonces  en  America,  y  los 
barriles  que  aqui  sobra- 
ron  fueron  reembarcados 
inmediatamente  para  los 
Estados  Unidos,  donde  se 
pago  bien  el  fruto,  y  asi 
se  evito  una  catastrofe. 

Lo  niismo  sucedio  con 
la  pasa.  Empezaron 
nuestros  cosecheros  por 
exagerar  enormemente  la 
importancia  de  la  cose- 
cha,  que  calcularon  en 
una  cifra  extrema- 
damente  pequena.  Los 
hechos  vinieron  a  demos  - 
trar  el  error  cometido,  y 


lish  markets  were  flooded 
with  a  supply  three  or 
four  times  as  great  as  the 
average  consumption. 
And  as  every  market  has 
a  limited  power  of  ab- 
sorption, the  inevitable 
happened,  and  prices  ex- 
perienced a  sharp  decline. 
And,  as  if  this  by  itself 
were  not  sufficient,  Span- 
ish exporters,  observing 
that  the  Baltic  markets 
were  not  buying  such 
large  quantities  as  in 
previous  years,  brought 
over  to  England  the  un- 
sold parcels,  thereby 
causing  great  congestion 
in  these  markets,  the  still 
greater  depreciation  of 
the  raisin  and  the  conse- 
quent ruin  of  many  ex- 
porters, who  lost  enor- 
mous sums  during  that 
season. 


Continued 


de  pronto  inundaron  los 
mercados  ingleses  con 
una  cantidad  triple  6 
cuadruple  de  la  que  ordi- 
nariamente  consumen.  Y 
como  los  mercados  tienen 
un  limite  en  su  absorcion, 
resulto  lo  que  no  podia 
menos  de  ocurrir,  que  los 
precios  sufricron  un  gran 
descenso.  Y  si  esto  por 
si  solo  no  era  bastante, 
los  exportadores  espan- 
oles,  viendo  que  los  mer- 
cados del  Baltic  o  no 
compraban  las  grandes 
cantidades  de  anos  an- 
teriores,  trajeron  a  Ingla- 
terra  las  sobrantes  que 
por  colocar  alii  tenian, 
causando  con  esto  la 
congestion  de  estos  mer- 
cados, la  depreciacion 
aun  mayor  de  la  pasa,  y 
la  consiguiente  ruina  de 
muchos  exportadores, que 
perdieron  fuertes  sumas 
en  la  citada  temporada. 


ESPERANTO  r<m^£ 


By  Harald  Clegg 


A  D  J  ECT I V  ES  —  continued 

The  adjective  may  be  placed 
either  before  or  after  the  substan- 
tive which  it  qualifies  or  of  which  it 
predicates  something.  Example : 

Li  trovis  tro  forta  la  teon,  He 
found  the  tea  too  strong. 

Sometimes  it  happens  that  two 
nouns  joined  together  by  and  are 
qualified  by  a  single  adjective,  and 
in  such  cases  the  adjective  must 
carry  the  plural  sign  /.  Example  : 

Mi  havas  onklon  kaj  kuzon 
fortajn,  I  have  a  strong  uncle 
and  cousin. 

This  is  an  important  point,  be- 
cause were  the  j  omitted,  it  might 
appear  that  only  the  cousin  was 
strong.  When  a  plural  noun  is 
used  and  different  adjectives  are 
required  to  qualify  singly  each  of 
the  several  objects  signified  by 
that  noun,  then  the  singular 
adjective  must  be  used.  Example  : 

Mi  parolas  la  anglan  kaj  la 
francan  lingvojn,  I  speak  the 
English  and  French  languages. 

THE  VERB  (Future  Tense) 

The  future  tense  of  the  verb  is 
formed  by  adding  os  to  the  root. 
The  conjugation  is,  as  before,  quite 
regular.  Examples : 

Morgau  mi  vidos  vin  ce  la 
koncerto,  To-morrow  I  shall  see 
you  at  the  concert.  Hi  estos 
felicaj  paroli  kun  vi,  They  will 
be  happy  to  speak  with  you. 


VOCABULARY 

abon',  subscribe  honest',  honest 

afabl',  affable,  jurnal',  journal, 

kind  newspaper 

agrabl',  agree-  kay',  cage 

able  kanari',  canary 

alt',  high  leapt',  capture 

amuz',  amuse  Tear',  dear 

ban',  bath  lakt',  milk 

bel',  beautiful,  (subst.) 

fine  lang',  tongue 

blank',  white  leter',  letter 

brak',  arm  (communica- 

cert',  certain,  tion) 

sure  many',  eat 

cigared',  cigar-  maten',  morning 

ette  matur',  ripe 
carm'.  charming      mature 

ciel',  heaven,  mend',  order 

sky  i  (goods) 
danger',  danger  pag',  pay 

dens',  dense,  rezultat',  result 

close  ric',  rich 

detru',  destroy  rid',  laugh 

dik',  thick,  romp',  break 

^  stout  rond',  round, 

eh',  echo  circle 

ekstrem',   ex-  sag',  wise 

treme  san',  health 

facil',  easy  sun',  sun 
gaj',  gay,  merry  sultr',  shoulder 

gant',  glove  temp',  time 

glor',  glory  trov',  find 

hero',  hero  voc,  voice 

EXERCISE  4. 

Yesterday  I  was   ill.     To-day  1 
am  well.     The  bird  in  the  cage  is 


a  canary.  He  caught  it  yesterday. 
The  cherries  are  ripe,  and  you  can 
eat  them.  The  box  contains 
cigarettes  and  matches.  He  sub- 
scribes to  the  journal  and  the 
gazette.  Dear  sir.  Time  flies,  and 
we  must  go  out.  Esperanto  is 
easy.  He  has  a  letter  in  his  (the) 
hand,  and  a  newspaper  under  the 
arm.  She  has  a  white  horse  and 
a  beautiful  dog.  To-morrow  we 
shall  go  to  the  theatre.  We  shall 
laugh  and  be  gay.  He  is  rich  and 
will  pay  you.  The  glorious  hero 
will  arrive  to-morrow,  and  you 
will  see  him.  The  table  is  high  and 
round.  The  lion  is  a  dangerous 
animal.  You  will  find  the  glove 
and  the  stick  on  the  table  in  the 
garden.  I  wrote  the  letter,  and 
he  destroyed  it.  The  general 
with  the  beard  is  stout  and  the 
poor  soldiers  are  thin.  They  are 
wise  and  will  amuse  themselves. 
I  can  hear  the  echo.  The  cousin 
is  disagreeable  to-day.  The  sun  is 
in  the  sky.  To-morrow  I  shall 
buy  the  clock,  and  it  will  belong 
to  me.  The  soldiers  are  honest 
and  merry.  The  matter  is  difficult. 
To-morrow  I  will  decide  as  to  it, 
and  you  can  be  certain  about  the 
result. 

ADVERBS 

In  Esperanto  there  are  two 
kinds  of  adverbs,  i.e.— 

1.  Those  which  are  derived 
from  substantival  and  adjectival 
root-words  by  the  addition  of  a 
final  e.  Examples:  nokte,  in  the 
night ;  bele,  beautifully. 

4799 


LANGUAGES— ESPERANTO 

2.  Those  which  are  by  nature 
adverbs,  and  have  no  distinctive 
final  ending.  These  latter  will  he 
dealt  with  in  a  subsequent  lesson. 

The  use  of  derived  adverbs  is 
very  .similar  to  that  in  English. 
They  may  be  placed  either  before  or 
after  the  verb,  care  being  taken  thai 
their  position  gives  the  exact  mean- 
ing desired.  The  necessity  for  this 
remark  is  shown  in  the  following  : 

Li  kantas  la  Me  kaj  dancas, 

Li  la  Me  kantas  kaj  dancas, 
the  correct  translation  of  which  is, 
"  He  sings  loudly,  and  dances." 
In  the  second  sentence  the  word 
laute  might  be  considered  to  relate 
to  dancas,  which  is  hardly  what  is 
intended. 

When  these  adverbs  are  used  to 
qualify  adjectives  they  are  usually 
placed  before  them.  Examples- 

Si  estas  vere  bela,  She  is  truly 
beautiful.  Li  estis  ekstreme  mal- 
gcntila,  He  was  extremely  rude. 

The  prepositions  may  also  at 
times  be  conveniently  converted 
into  adverbs  by  adding  e,  in  which 
case  the  result  is  the  same  as  pre- 
fixing them  to  verbs.  Examples  : 

Li  loijas  suite,  He  lives  under- 
neath. Ni  iris  Jcunc,  We  went 
together. 

Esperanto  sometimes  has  a 
curious  usage  of  the  adverbial  form 
where  we  use  the  adjectival.  This 
is  illustrated  in  the  sentences  : 

Estas  amnze  legi,  It  is  amusing 
to  read.  Estas  bele  en  la  fjardeno, 
It  is  beautiful  .in  the  garden. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
adjectival  form  would  suppose  a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  be  present 
or  understood,  and,  as  in  the  above 
cases  neither  is  to  be  found,  the 
adverb  is  logically  substituted. 

The  Negative.  The  negation 
is  formed  by  the  use  of  ne,  no,  not. 

Contrary  to  English  practice, 
it  is  placed  before  the  verb.  It 
is  often  convenient  to  prefix 
the  negative  directly  to  some  of 
the  parts  of  speech,  as  :  'iiflio/m, 
bad  (not  good) ;  nelumc,  dimly. 
When  an  adverb  is  used  in  prox- 
imity to  the  negative,  the  position 
of  both  must  be  carefully  noted  or 
the  phrase  may  have  a  meaning  eon- 
Irary  to  that  intended.  Example: 

Li  tute  ne  komprenis. 

Li  ne  tute  komprenis. 

The  former  sentence  means  that 
he  understood  nothing  at  all. 
while  the  latter  implies  thai  In 
only  partially  comprehended. 

VOCABULARY 
.  \  Iccentf,  accent    aprob',  approve 
nJi'.    other,    an-/"//',  heal 

other  hln'.  blue 

apart',  separate,  boj'.  bark  (of  a 

apart  dog) 

4800 


bran',  brown  leg',  read,  pei  use 

ceter',  rest,    re-  oft',  often,  f re- 
mainder quent 

cef,  chief,  prin-  oJcaz',    happen, 

cipal  occur 

dekstr',    right-  ombr',  shadow 

hand  ov',  egg 

detal',  detail  post',    post    (a 
divers',  diverse,       letter) 

various  prav',  right,  cor- 
felic",  happy  rect 

franc',  French-  rey",  king 

man  rigard',  behold, 
gratul',  congra-  look  at,  watch 

tulate  silab',  syllable 

hotel',  hotel  silent',  silent 

kamp',  field  simpl',  simple 

hares',  caress  soif,   thirst 

kelk',    some,  strang',  strange 

several  tre,  very 

knab',  boy  urb',  town,  city 

koler',  angry  uiil',  useful 

korekt',  correct  uz',  use 
kovert',  envelope  van',  vain,  need- 
kred',  believe  less 

last',  last,  latest  vang',  cheek 
la  tit',  loud,  noisy  vilag',  village 

lav',  wash  volont',  willingly 

EXERCISE  5. 

You  are  right,  and  I  am  quite 
wrong.  We  must  not  stand  in 
(on)  the  king's  shadow.  You  will 
be  happy,  and  I  must  heartily 
congratulate  you.  He  was  very 
angry,  and  wanted  to  beat  me. 
The  boys  washed  themselves  in  the 
river.  You  must  go  to  the  left- 
hand  house.  Some  streets  in  the 
town  are  very  ugly.  He  told  me 
sundry  strange  details  about  the 
occurrence,  and  I  willingly  believed 
him.  The  eggs  are  bad,  and  you 
must  not  eat  them.  To  live  sim- 
ply is  to  live  happily.  You  may 
have  the  brown  envelopes,  the 
blue  do  not  belong  to  me.  In  the 
silent  fields  he  often  sits  and 
watches  the  birds  upon  the  trees 
and  the  glorious  sun  in  the  heavens. 
Without  a  word  he  angrily  went 
out.  One  often  sees  very  strange 
houses  in  villages.  They  are 
extremely  vain,  and  sit  apart  from 
us.  The  dog  barks  loudly.  It  is 
thirsty  and  wants  water.  Several 
boys  wanted  to  open  the  window. 
The  remainder  did  not  approve  the 
suggestion,  and  would  not  remain 
in  the  room.  To-morrow  morning 
we  can  be  found  at  the  hotel  with 
the  other  gentlemen. 

KKY  TO  EXERCISE  2. 

La  soldatoj  iris  tra  la  stratoj. 
Dimanco,  lundo,  nuirdo,  mer- 
krodo,  jaudo,  vendredo  kaj 
sabato  estas tagoj  de  la  semajiio. 
En  la  nokto  la  filo  audis  bruon. 
La  akvo  kaj  la  supo  bolas.  La 
pafcro  parolis  al  la  soldato  pri  la 
Pontin  ued 


Mi 

1'ip" 


afero.  La  infanoj  dancis  en  la 
cambro  kaj  la  birdoj  kantis  sur 
la  arbo.  La  generalo  havis 
botelon  da  vino  kaj  petis  glason 
da  akvo.  La  cerizoj  restis  sur 
la  arbo.  Je  vendredo  kaj  sabato 
la  patro  kaj  la  frato  iris  al  la 
teatro  por  audi  la  koncerton. 
Hierau  la  pastro  acetis  funtou 
da  cerizoj,  kaj  hodiau  la  filo  de 
la  generalo  vendis  botelon  da 
vino  al  la  kuzo.  Jen  estas  pipo 
kaj  la  gazeto.  Jen  estas  cerizoj 
kaj  glaso  de  (or  por)  akvo.  La 
leono  havas  dentojn.  La  akvo 
rest/is  sur  la  tablo  en  la  cambro. 
Jen  estas  amaso  da  viroj  sur  la 
strato.  La  sinjoro  kaj  la  mastro 
audis  la  bruon  kaj  parolis  al  la 
pastro  pri  la  afero.  La  filo^vidis 
la  fraton  ce  la  teatro.  Ce  la 
k  oncer  to  la  sinjoroj  kantis  kaj 
la  popolo  guis  la  muzikon.  La 
birdo  eliris  tra  la  fenestro. 
En  la  mano  la  soldato  hnvas 
bastoiioii. 

KEV  TO  EXERCISE  3. 
i  petas  glason  da  biero  kaj 
n.  Vi  devas  estingi  la 
fajroii  kaj  la  lampoii.  Mi  audis 
la  blekojn  de  la  cevalo  kaj  de  la 
safo.  Li  dubis  pri  la  afero. 
Bopatro.  Bofrato.  La  bovo 
apartenas  al  .si.  Mi  povas« 
kanti  kaj  danci.  Jos,  sinjoro, 
mi  havas  cigaron  kaj  alumetoju. 
Li  mem  estis  en  la  gardeiio. 
Si  helpis  min  kaj  mi  dankis  sin 
por  la  propono.  Hi  doiiis  al  mi 
la  libron  kaj  mi  dis.siris  gin. 
Li  havas  amikou  kaj  si  havas 
malamikon.  Hi  volas  malhelpi 
vin.  En  la  vintro  mi  Jogas  en 
la  domo  kaj  laboras.  Si  decidis 
aceti  la  horlogon.  Vi  citis  la 
aferon  al  mi.  Homo  havas 
harojn,  gorgon,  manojn  kaj 
koron.  La  fajro  brulas.  Vi  faris 
al  mi  proponon  kaj  mi  akceptis 
gin.  La  alumetoj  en  la  skatolo 
apartenas  al  ni.  Mi  konas  vin 
kaj  vi  koiias  min.  Hodiau  estas 
merkredo  kaj  hierau  estis  mardo. 
La  bofilo  restas  en  la  strato  kun 
la  kuzo.  En  la  nokto  la  vento 
blovis.  A  La  leono  vundis  sin 
(mem).  Giblekiskaj  faris  bruon. 
Adiau,  amiko ;  mi  volas  danki 
vin  por  la  helpo. 

(a)  NOTE.  The  verb  following 
voli,  povi,  and  devi  is  always  infini- 
tive ;  even  when  not  actually  used 
the  infinitive  is  always  implied. 
Example : 

Vi  i>ontt<  skribi,  kaj  ri  di  m.< 
(A-/-/ •////).  You  ca)i  write  and  you 

///  ttxf. 


39.    L.  &  X.W.    It  A  i  r.   Moid  ix   (A 


40.  STEAM  RAIL  CAR,  WITH  COCQRAX  BOILER, 
ON  G.N.  OF  S.  RAILWAY 


41.  N.E.R.  PETROL  ELECTRIC  AUTOCAR 


1    B 


MODERN      RAILWAY      PRACTICE 

fSEE    OVER] 


4801 


48.  MAIN  LIME  CORRIDOR  VESTIBULE 


CAK   KXPRKSS  ON   L.  &  N.W.  RAILWAY 


49.  MECHANICAL  TRAIN  WASHER 


,-r,  R,-,,   ST(.RB, 


61.  Ruo  AND  PILLOW  BARROW 


INTERIOR  OF  G.W.R.  RAIL  MOTOR-CAR 


53.   N.E.R.   CHELMSFORD  PASSENGER  MOTOR  'Bu» 


i     ii  •!  i  i  •iiiliiiiii 


COMPOSITE  DINING  CAR.          G.W.  RAILWAV  Co. 


4802 


MODERN      RAILWAY      PRACTICE 

[SEE  OVER] 


THE   PASSENGER  TRAFFIC 

The  Passenger  Train  Staffs.     The  Modern  Railway  Passenger  Train. 
Railway  Comfort  and  Luxury.     Railway  Tickets  and  Railway  Fares 


Group  29 

TRANSIT 
20 

RAILWAY   M  A  X  A  ( :  KM  K 

continued  from 
page  46!t7 


By   H.    G.    ARCHER 


'"THE  superintendent  of  the  line,  or  general 
superintendent  in  the  case  of  those  com- 
panies which  have  divided  the  operating  from 
the  commercial  side,  is  responsible  for  the 
preparation  of  the  time-tables,  both  public 
and  working.  A  public  time-table,  which 
refers  only  to  the  working  of  the  passenger- 
traffic,  is  issued  twice  or  thrice  a  year — the 
summer  train  service,  for  the  months  of  July, 
August,  and  September,  and  the  winter  train 
service,  which  remains  in  force  from  October 
1st  to  June  30th  following,  though  a  few  com- 
panies issue  a  third  time-table  for  the  months 
of  May  and  June.  It  will  be  easily  understood 
that  there  is  a  greater  volume  of  passenger 
traffic  in  the  summer,  and  a  greater  volume  of 
goods  and  mineral  traffic  in  the  winter. 

Time=table  Work.  A  working  time-table, 
which  forms  the  real  key  to  the  working  of 
the  traffic,  deals  not  only  with  the  arrival 
and  departure  times  of  passenger  trains  at 
stations,  but  also  fixes  their  passing  times 
at  junctions  and  stations  where  they  do  not 
stop,  for  the  guidance  of  £he  staff.  In  addition, 
it  gives  the  working  of  all  goods,  mineral, 
special,  and  empty  trains  and  light  engines  ; 
in  short,  every  movement  of  traffic  which 
takes  place  outside  station  limits.  Can  it,  there- 
fore, be  wondered  that  a  working  time-table 
should  be  a  ponderous  volume  which,  as  a  rule, 
has  to  be  issued  in  parts  for  the  different  sections 
of  the  system  ?  The  "  heavy  "  lines  publish  a 
fresh  working  time-table  each  month,  and  every 
week,  or  sometimes  e very  ^  day,  supplement  it 
with  addenda  relating  to  the  altered  working 
necessitated  by  special  trains,  duplication  of 
ordinary  trains,  and  the  exigencies  of  the 
engineering  department.  Some  companies  make 
use  of  diagrams,  which  are  prepared  for  each 
section  of  the  line,  showing  how  the  engine 
working  is  arranged,  the  time  and  speed  of 
running,  and  the  intersection  of  the  trains  where 
goods  and  slow  passenger  trains  have  to  shunt 
for  the  express  trains  to  pass  them.  The  London 
and  North- Western  diagrams  are  drawn  to  scale, 
with  perpendicular  lines  dividing  the  day  of 
twenty-four  hours  into  periods  of  hours,  half 
hours,  quarters  of  hours,  and  of  five  minutes  ; 
and  with  horizontal  lines  dividing  the  railway 
into  sections  of  miles-chains  ;  while  slanting  lines 
are  inked  in  to  represent  the  traffic  timed  to  run 
over  the  line.  Thus,  the  diagram  offers  a  visible 
picture  of  the  state  of  the  line  as  to  its  being 
occupied  or  otherwise  between  any  two  points 
at  any  minute  of  the  day,  and  with  this  type  of 
diagram  one  can  readily  detect  any  abnormal  - 
speed  of  a  train,  wait  at  stations,  length  of  day 
for  the  men.  or  idle  time  of  engines. 


Time  =  table  Conferences.  Before  a 
time-table  is  materially  revised,  time-table  con- 
ferences— usually  summer  and  winter — are  held, 
which  meetings  are  attended  by  all  the  divisional 
superintendents,  together  with  representatives 
of  the  locomotive  department,  and  presided 
over  by  the  superintendent  of  the  line.  Prior  to 
the  holding  of  a  conference,  suggestions  for  new- 
trains  or  altered  workings  have  reached  the  office 
from  all  parts  of  the  system,  and  such  sug- 
gestions which  are  invited  must  be  accompanied 
by  particulars,  specifying  reasons,  likely  ad- 
vantages, and  the  total  increase  or  decrease  of 
sngine  and  train  mileage  which  each  change 
would  involve.  The  conference  thoroughly 
threshes  out  these  proposals,  approving  of  some 
and  rejecting  others.  Approved  suggestions  go 
to  the  general  manager  and  traffic  committee 
for  ratification,  after  which  the  time-bill  clerks 
attached  to  each  divisional  superintendent  meet 
and  work  up  the  details,  filling  in  the  junction 
and  passing  times. 

Rectifying     Slack     Train     Working. 

It  would  be  manifestly  a  herculean  task  to 
arrange  the  working  of  trains  on  a  great  railway 
from  the  very  beginning  without  some  previous 
knowledge  of  requirements  and  possibilities, 
but  as  traffic  develops  gradually  the  work  is  very 
much  simplified.  Of  course,  the  superintendent 
of  the  line  has  to  arrange  his  time-table  in  unison 
with  that  of  a  friendly  foreign  company,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  keep  a  watchful  eye  on  the 
doings  of  competing  lines,  so  as  to  be  prepared 
to  counter  accelerations  or  new  trains  which 
might  steal  traffic  from  his  own  company.  In 
arranging  for  a  new  train,  the  first  difficulty  is  to 
get  the  others  out  of  the  way,  and  having  put  in 
the  trunk,  so  to  speak,  the  second  difficulty  is  to 
feed  and  run  off  it  by  means  of  local  trains, 
connections  at  junctions,  and  rail  and  road 
motor-cars,  etc.  "  Train  runners,"  or  travelling 
inspectors,  are  attached  to  the  office  of  the 
superintendent  of  the  line.  If  from  the  reports 
that  come  into  the  office,  either  officially  or 
privately,  there  be  reason  to  suspect  any  slack- 
ness in  the  working  of  a  train — if  a  train 
consistently  lose  time,  or  a  locomotive  be  thought 
not  to  be  doing  proper  work — a  runner  is 
despatched  to  travel  by  that  train  in  order  to 
locate  and  report  upon  the  mischief.  Similarly, 
goods  train  runners  are  sent  out  to  various 
places  to  see  how  the  working  of  the  goods 
traffic  can  be  improved. 

Porters,  Ticket=collectors  and  Con= 
ductors.  The  various  grades  of  the  staff 
associated  with  the  working  of  the  passenger 
traffic  must  now  be  explained. 

4803 


TRANSIT 

Porters  are  divided  into  platform  porters, 
earning  158.  to  19s.  per  week,  luggage  labelling 
porters,  with  18s.  to  23s.  per  week,  luggage 
stowing  porters,  cloak-room  porters  and  parcels- 
post  porters  earning  16s.  to  18s.  per  week,  the 
peculiar  duties  of  each  being  explained  by  their 
designation,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the 
luggage  stowing  class.  These  latter,  who  are  only 
found  at  the  great  terminal  stations,  are  re- 
sponsible for  stowing  passengers'  luggage  in  tl  e 
vans  where  it  can  be  most  easily  handled  during 
the  journey.  For  example,  the  guard  must  not 
find  his  Exeter  luggage  buried  beneath  the 
Plymouth.  Platform  porters  meeting  trains  are 
enjoined  to  attend  to  the  compartments  opposite 
to  them,  irrespective  of  class.  The  duties  of 
ticket  inspectors  (35s.  to  47s.  per  week)  and 
ticket  collectors  (28s.  to  35s.  per  week)  are  to 
examine  and  collect  tickets,  together  with 
excess  fares.  The  best  men  are  selected  to 
become  travelling  inspectors  in  corridor  trains, 
where  they  are  generally  expected  to  act  as 
conductors  or  attendants  as  well,  while  in  some 
cases  they  fulfil  the  duties  of  junior  guards, 
but  without  the  pay  of  that  rank. 

The  increase  of  corridor  trams  is,  hi  fact, 
bringing  into  existence  a  distinct  conductor  class, 
which  must  not  be  confused  with  that  of  dining 
or  sleeping-car  attendants,  and  which  is  not 
necessarily  recruited  from  the  ticket  collectors. 
Thus,  the  Great  Northern  Railway  furnishes 
"  lavatory  attendants  "  on  its  "  crack  "  trains, 
and  the  Great  Western  Railway  recently  inaugu- 
rated the  practice  of  having  male  and  female 
attendants  to  accompany  its  Cornish  expresses. 
The  Great  Western  male  attendants  do  more 
than  attend  to  the  lavatories  ;  their  services  are 
available  for  valeting  a  passenger,  while  the 
female  attendants,  who  wear  a  kind  of  nurse's 
uniform,  will  chaperone  ladies  travelling  un- 
escorted, and  look  after  children  while  their 
guardians  are  at  meals  in  the  restaurant-car. 

Shunters.  Very  few  shunters  are  employed 
in  the  passenger  traffic  department,  as  almost  all 
shunting  of  passenger  vehicles  is  performed  by 
engines,  while  the  movements  demanded  of  this 
kind  of  rolling  stock  are  comparatively  few  and 
far  between.  In  the  working  of  the  goods 
traffic,  however,  a  large  army  of  shunters  is 
required,  and  the  duties  of  the  men  are  far  harder 
and  call  for  greater  intelligence  than  in  the 
passenger  service.  Passenger  shunters  are 
practically  confined  to  the  sheds  where  the 
trains  are  marshalled.  The  grades  of  shunters 
are  as  follows  :  superior  foreman  shunter,  fore- 
man shunter  (earning  25s.  to  38s.  per  week), 
shunter,  and  assistant  shunter  (wages  18s.  to 
32s  per  week). 

Guards.  Just  as  the  passenger  train  takes 
precedence  of  the  goods,  so  the  passenger  guard, 
as  a  rule,  takes  precedence  of  the  goods  guard, 
although  not  a  few  among  the  latter  are 'the 
better  off  in  respect  of  pay.  A  guard  [43]  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  proper  equipment  of  his  train 
In-fore  Martin.u.  the  safety  and  comfort  of  the 
passen^-rs  during  the  journey,  and  must,  after  the 
foregoing,  give  his  next  attention  to  the  luggage, 

4804 


parcels,  despatches,  and  other  packets  entrusted 
to  him.  Mail  bags  are  usually  accompanied  by 
rostal  officials  ;  when  they  are  not,  the  guard  is 
esponsible  for  their  safety.  It  is  not  generally 
known  that  railway  companies  send  their  own 
voluminous  correspondence,  as  far  as  is  practic- 
able, by  rail  direct,  instead  of  through  the  post, 
hence  the  guards  of  the  night  expresses  are  also 
called  upon  to  act  as  sorters. 

Duties  of  Guards.  On  joining  his  train, 
every  passenger  guard  must  have  with  him 
his  watch,  whistle,  and  carriage  key,  and  take 
in  his  van  a  red  and  a  green  flag,  not  less  than 
twelve  detonators,  and  a  hand  signal  lamp,  which 
must  be  lighted  when  passing  through  long 
tunnels,  and  after  sunset  and  in  foggy  weather. 
In  the  event  of  a  breakdown  the  guard  must 
protect  the  rear  of  the  train  by  going  back  for 
a  prescribed  distance  and  placing  detonators  on 
the  line.  During  the  journey  a  guard  has  a  good 
deal  of  clerical  work  to  perform.  Every  parcel 
is  accompanied  by  a  way  bill,  which  has  to  be 
checked,  and  any  irregularity  notified.  Then, 
a  guard  has  to  keep  a  journal  or  "  log  "  of  his 
train,  which  furnishes  a  most  important  record 
as  to  proper  time  being  kept,  and  illustrates  a 
variety  of  other  features  concerned  with  the 
smooth  and  economical  working  of  the  traffic. 
In  his  journal  he  records  the  actual  time  of 
arrival  at  and  departure  from  every  stopping 
station  ;  the  number  of  minutes  late  away  from 
a  station  ;  the  time  lost,  and  whether  due  to 
station,  engine,  or  signals  ;  if  signals,  whether 
they  were  ordinary  or  engineering  signal  checks  ; 
the  number  of  carriages,  carriage  trucks,  horse 
boxes,  and  vans  taken  on  and  put  off ;  the 
number  of  wheels  on  leaving  station  where  load 
is  altered  ;  remarks  as  to  detentions  at  stations, 
and  in  running  ;  general  remarks,  occurrences  to 
trains,  causes  of  delay,  and  suggestions  for 
improvement  of  working  ;  state  of  weather 
during  journey,  if  wet,  wind,  frost,  fog,  or  snow, 
between  what  points  ;  particulars  as  to  whether 
train  was  full  or  empty  in  each  class  of  compart- 
ment ;  the  numbers  of  the  engines  employed, 
and  the  names  of  the  enginemen  and  the  names 
of  the  junior  guards.  The  journal  of  every 
through  train  is  sent  to  the  superintendent  of  the 
line  or  running  superintendent,  and  that  of  every 
local  train  to  the  proper  divisional  superinten- 
dent. The  journals  of  the  previous  day  are 
carefully  scrutinised  every  morning,  and  if  the 
examiner  find  any  delay  or  occurrence  which  is 
not,  in  his  opinion,  properly  accounted  for,  he 
wires  the  divisional  superintendent  in  whose 
division  it  happened  for  a  full  explanation.  An 
improperly  explained  delay  of  as  little  as  two 
minutes  may  involve  an  enormous  departmental 
correspondence  lasting  for  months,  till  the  fault 
be  ascertained.  For  instance,  it  may  be  dis- 
covered that  the  late  arrival  of  a  train  at 
Yarmouth  was  due  to  a  plethora  of  luggage  put 
into  a  connecting  train  at  Aberystwyth.  A  copy 
of  every  guard's  journal  is  entered  in  ledgers  at  the 
office  of  the  superintendent  of  the  line,  and  so  the 
minute  history  of  all  and  sundry  trains  on  each 
day  of  the  year  can  be  traced  back  for  years. 


Grades  of  Guards.  The  grades  of 
passenger  guards  are  according  to  the  different 
ratings  of  trains,  which  classification  usually 
comprises  (1)  through  or  express  trains  ; 
(2)  main-line  stopping  trains  ;  (3)  local  trains. 
Some  companies,  or  combination  of  companies, 
like  those  working  a  through  Anglo-Scottish 
service,  have  a  superior  grade  of  guards, 
who  accompany  a  train,  say,  from  London  to 
Aberdeen.  These  men  wear  a  more  elaborate 
uniform,  and  are  dignified  with  the  title  of 
"  conductor." 

Wages  and  Promotion  of  Guards.  The 

wages  of  passenger  guards  are  from  23s.  to 
40s.  per  week ;  relief  guards  are  paid  27s.,  pilot 
guards  25s.  and  porter  guards  20s.  It  may  be 
noted  that  a  guard  of  a  long-distance  through 
train  is  seldom  as  well  off  as  his  wages  of  40s. 
per  week  would  imply,  inasmuch  as  some 
companies  give  these  men  no  lodging  allowance, 
and  they  have,  therefore,  to  maintain  what  are 
practically  two  homes,  one  at  each  end  of  the 
line.  Some  companies,  again,  provide  barracks 
for  guards  making  long  journeys.  As  a  rule,  a 
man  is  promoted  straight  to  guard,  and 
appointed  to  the  charge  of  one  of  the  least 
important  local  trains.  But  one  or  two  com- 
panies have  an  intermediate  grade  in  the  shape 
of  passenger  brakesmen,  who  assist  in  local 
workings  as  required.  During  the  holiday  season, 
the  services  of  goods  guards,  with  whom  it  is  the 
slack  time  of  the  year,  are  requisitioned  to  staff 
excursion  trains.  Two  or  more  guards  are  carried 
only  on  trains  which  are  heavily  loaded  with 
passengers,  luggage,  or  parcels.  The  length  or 
intrinsic  importance  of  the  train  does  not  affect 
the  question.  The  business  man's  city  train 
invariably  requires  two  guards,  as  one  guard 
would  not  suffice  to  ensure  smart  working.  Then, 
a  train  may  start  with  only  one  guard,  and  pick 
up  another  further  down  the  line.  Where  two 
guards  are  carried,  with  some  companies  it  is  a 
rule  that  the  head  guard  occupies  the  rear  van, 
and  the  junior  guard  the  front,  while  with  others 
it  is  just  the  opposite,  as  it  is  considered  that  the 
head  guard  should  be  in  the  van  next  to  the 
engine.  Some  companies  require  all  parcels  to 
be  placed  in  the  front  van,  and  luggage  and  mails 
in  the  rear  ;  others,  again,  order  it  all  to  be 
equally  divided,  as  far  as  possible,  throughout 
the  train. 

Slip  Coaches.  "  Slip  "  guards  have  to 
undergo  special  training,  and  their  duties, 
which  call  for  the  exercise  of  considerable 
judgment  and  discretion,  can  be  explained  only 
by  describing  the  practice  of  "  slipping " 
itself — that  is,  attaching  a  carriage  to  an 
express  train  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be 
detached  at  a  station  while  the  rest  of  the  train, 
termed  the  "  main  train,"  passes  on  without 
stopping.  The  advantages  of  the  system  are 
obvious.  It  alloAvs  of  "  express  "  journeys  to 
many  places  which  are  not  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  warrant  the  stopping  of  an  ex- 
press train.  "  Slip  "  coaches  are  nearly  as  old 
as  the  railways  themselves.  One  of  the  earliest 
lines — namely,  the  London  and  Greenwich — was 


TRANSIT 

worked  in  the  "  down  "  direction  solely  on  the 
"  slip  "  coach  principle.  The  main  train  did  not 
stop  till  it  reached  the  terminus  ;  meantime  a 
carriage  was  "slipped"  at  every  intermediate 
station.  So  long  as  trains  were  controlled  by 
hand  brakes  in  the  guard's  van,  and  on  the  engine, 
the  slipping  of  coaches  required  no  more  com- 
plex apparatus  than  a  special  form  of  coupling. 
However,  the  adoption  of  automatic  continuous 
brakes  has  compelled  the  use  of  additional 
apparatus,  whereby  the  brake  hose  can  be  dis- 
connected without  impairing  the  efficiency  of 
the  brake  power  in  either  the  main  train 
or  "  slip "  portion.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
automatic  continuous  brake  in  use  by  British 
railways — the  vacuum  and  the  air — conse- 
quently the  method  of  slipping  with  each  differs 
somewhat.  However,  we  will  describe  the 
process  as  carried  out  by  a  railway  employing 
the  vacuum  brake.  A  "  slip  "  coach  is  a  tri- 
composite  carriage,  with  a  slip  compartment 
at  each  end,  equipped  with  a  hand  brake,  a  lever 
operating  the  slip  coupling,  a  brake  indicator,  a 
brake  setter  valve,  and  vacuum  guages.  The 
main  train  is  coupled  to  the  "  slip  "  coach  by  means 
of  a  special  coupling  hook  [54],  the  jaws  of  which 
are  released  by  pulling  over  the  aforesaid  lever. 
Underneath  the  latter  is  a  diaphragm  which, 
while  a  vacuum  exists  throughout  the  train, 
locks  the  lever.  At  the  last  stopping-place,  a 
slip  coupling  cock  is  attached  to  the  brake 
hose  at  the  point  of  severance,  and  its  handle  is 
turned  to  the  left,  in  which  position  the  passage 
is  open  for  the  maintenance  of  a  vacuum  through- 
out the  train.  The  switch  of  the  vacuum  brake 
indicator,  contained  in  a  little  bracket  table,  is 
also  turned  to  the  left,  so  that  the  indicator 
displays  a  shutter  inscribed  in  red  letters, 
"  Wrong  to  slip." 

Slipping  a  Coach.  From  one  to  three 
miles  away  from  the  slipping  point,  the  "  slip  " 
guard  leans  out  of  his  end  window  [56]  and  pulls 
a  cord  which  turns  the  handle  of  the  "slip" 
coupling  cock  parallel  with  the  hose.  He  next 
turns  the  switch  of  the  vacuum  indicator  in  the 
same  direction.  The  result  of  these  two  opera- 
tions is  that  the  "  slip  "  portion  now  forms  a 
separate  and  self-contained  unit.  The  vacuum 
brake,  as  controlled  from  the  engine,  ends  with 
the  tail  coach  of  the  main  train,  while  the  slip 
portion  has  retained  a  residuum.  Still,  the  slip 
coupling  cannot  be  released,  as  there  is  a  third 
vacuum  holding  down  the  diaphragm.  Just 
before  reaching  the  slipping  point,  which  must 
bs  judged  to  a  nicety,  the  guard  lifts  the  handle 
of  the  brake  setter  valve — a  sharp  hiss,  and  the 
vacuum  locking  the  diaphragm  is  destroyed, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  indicator  displays 
a  fresh  shutter,  inscribed  in  white  letters,  "  Right 
to  slip."  Then,  at  the  right  place,  the  slip 
guard  pulls  over  the  lever,  whereupon  the  jaws 
of  the  coupling  hook  open,  the  brake  hose  parts 
at  the  joints,  and  the  train  is  running  in  two  por- 
tions [42].  With  the  London  and  North -Western 
Railway  all  the  operations  of  "slipping"  are 
accomplished  more  simply  by  means  of  a 
pneumatic  apparatus.  The  rear  guard  of  the 

4805 


TRANSIT 

main  train  and  the  "  slip  "  guard  exchange  signals, 
with  green  flags  or  lamps,  to  indicate  that  the 
"  slip  "  has  been  satisfactorily  effected.  The 
momentum  of  the  "  slip  "  portion  is  checked  with 
the  hand  brake,  for  the  power  stored  in  the  power 
brake  is  reserved  for  use  in  case  of  emergency. 
The  Board  of  Trade  regulations  prohibit 
"  slipping  "  in  a  fog,  and  the  companies'  rules 
enjoin  the  "  slip  "  guard  to  see  that  the  "  distant " 
signal  is  "  off "  before  he  slips.  At  night  a 
slip  portion  carries  a  head  light  and  also  special 
tail  lamps  to  distinguish  it  from  those  of  the 
main  train. 

Responsibilities  of  the  Stationmaster. 
Stationmasters  are  answerable  for  the  security 
and  protection  of  the  office  and  buildings  and 
of  the  company's  property  there.  They  are 
responsible  for  the  general  working  of  the  station, 
the  control  of  the  staff,  and  the  economical  use 
of  stores.  They  must  take  care  that  waiting- 
rooms,  offices,  platforms,  and  name-plates  are 
kept  neat  and  clean,  and  must  also  see  that  copies 
of  the  company's  bylaws,  Carriers'  Act,  list  of 
fares,  statutory  and  other  notices  are  kept 
properly  exhibited.  At  important  stations  the 
Stationmaster  attends  only  to  the  passenger  work, 
and  is  accountable  to  the  superintendent  of  the 
line,  while  his  confrere,  the  goods  agent,  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  goods  working,  and  comes  under 
the  control  of  the  goods  manager.  There  are 
stations  of  such  little  importance  that  the  station- 
master  is  the  only  servant  employed  thereon, 
and  acts  as  porter,  parcel  clerk,  signalman,  etc., 
as  well  ;  nevertheless,  he  ranks  as  a  third-class 
Stationmaster,  and  is  uniformed  accordingly. 
Second  and  third-class  stationmasters  are  weekly- 
paid  servants  (wages  25s.  to  47s.),  who  have  risen 
from  lad  porters  ;  while  first-class  stationmasters 
receive  salaries,  and,  as  a  rule,  are  selected  from 
the  clerical  staff.  Lastly  there  is  a  specially 
high  grade  of  stationmasters  in  command  of 
the  great  terminal  stations.  Some  companies 
make  all  their  stationmasters  except  the  last- 
named  (who  are  expected  to  wear  frock-coats 
and  top  hats)  wear  complete  uniform.  Others, 
however,  confine  the  wearing  of  complete 
uniform  to  the  second  and  third-class  grades, 
first-class  men  being  allowed  to  don  mufti,  though 
they  must  wear  an  official  cap,  while  they  garb 
their  stationmasters-in-chief  in  an  elaborate 
uniform. 

The  Stationmaster  of  a  London  terminus  is  a 
very  important  official,  and  when  a  man  has 
risen  to  this  height  the  chances  of  his  ultimately 
attaining  one  of  the  plums  of  the  railway  service 
are  pretty  well  assured. 

Traffic  Inspectors.  Broadly  speaking, 
inspectors  are  divided  into  chief  inspector, 
divisional  inspector,  inspector  or  sub-inspector, 
assistant  or  platform  inspector. 

The  chief  inspector  is  the  divisional  superin- 
tendent's right-hand  man,  for  safe  traffic  work- 
ing first,  and  for  appointment  and  preferment 
of  the  staff  secondly.  With  some  companies  he 
ranks  as  head  of  the  weekly-paid  staff  ;  arranges 
all  the  duties  of  that  staff,  together  with  their 
annual  leave,  and  when  the  engineering  depart  - 

4806 


ment  requires  occupation  of  the  line,  the  arrange- 
ments are  made  through  him.  In  any  case,  the 
chief  inspector  is  constantly  about  the  line, 
making  suggestions  and  conveying  instructions 
with  the  authority  of  the  superintendent  of  the 
line  or  general  superintendent  behind  him.  He, 
too,  is  among  the  officials  who  accompany 
Royal  trains.  The  next  grade  of  inspector  may 
be  either  divisional  inspector,  responsible  to  the 
divisional  superintendent,  or  sub-inspector,  in 
charge  of  a  district,  earning  from  35s.  to  47s. 
per  week,  and  responsible  for  all  detail  work 
under  the  chief  inspector.  The  assistant  or 
platform  inspector  (wages  32s.  to  50s.  per 
week)  is  the  stationmaster's  deputy  at  every  big 
station.  Under  the  Stationmaster  he  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  time-keeping,  good  order,  and 
cleanliness  of  the  station  staff,  for  the  prompt 
despatch  of  trains,  and  for  the  loading  and 
unloading  of  luggage  and  parcels. 

Train  Formation.  The  Stationmaster* 
are  responsible  for  the  proper  make-up  of 
passenger  trains,  although  they  have  to  delegate 
their  responsibility.  Through  passenger  traina 
are  marshalled  in  the  carnage  sidings  or  sheds 
attached  to  the  starting  place  of  such  trains.  A 
programme  is  prepared  showing  the  fixed 
formation  of  every  train — that  is,  the  number 
of  coaches,  the  class  of  coaches,  the  number 
of  compartments,  the  lavatory  accommoda- 
tion, dining  or  sleeping  cars,  post  office  or 
parcels  vans,  milk  trucks,  horse-boxes,  etc.  ; 
between  what  points  each  coach  works,  what 
vehicles  are  to  be  picked  up  or  taken  off 
on  the  journey,  and  what  special  vehicles  ai-e 
to  be  run  on  certain  days  of  the  week.  But 
the  programme  does  more  than  this.  It  shows 
how  each  of  the  coaches  is  balanced  on  the 
return  journey.  Only  local  trains  run  through 
intact  to  their  destination  and  return  in 
similar  fashion ;  whereas  through  trains  soon  get 
split  up.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  to  work  out 
how  each  vehicle  returns,  and  to  state  the  hour 
when  it  is  due  back.  Trains  must  always  bo 
formed  in  the  order  shown  in  the  programme  in 
order  to  determine  the  places  on  the  platforms 
wrhere  the  luggage  and  parcels  are  held  in 
readiness. 

Before  a  train  leaves  the  carriage  sheds  the 
gas  reservoirs  and  lavatory  tanks  must  be 
filled,  clean  towels  and  fresh  soap  placed  in  the 
lavatories,  tail  and  side  lamps  put  on,  screw 
couplings,  steam  heating  pipe,  brake  hose,  and 
communication  cord  properly  fastened  and 
arranged,  and  the  gas  lighted  (except  in  the 
case  of  trains  electrically  lighted)  on  the  by- 
pass if  it  is  a  night  journey,  and  in  the  case  of 
a  day  journey  also  if  there  are  any  tunnels. 

Communication  between  Passenger 
and  Guard.  By  the  Board  of  Trade  regulations 
every  train  that  travels  for  a  distance  of  20  miles 
without  stopping  must  be  provided  with  a  means 
of  communication  betAveen  the  passengers  and 
the  guard.  For  many  years  this  took  the  form  of  a 
cord  running  under  the  eaves  of  the  carriage, 
which  was  wound  up  at  the  end  of  the  train  upon 
a  drum  in  the  guard's  van,  and  at  the  other  was 
attached  to  the  handle  of  a  special  whistle  on 


the  locomotive.  The  notice  ran  :  "  To  call  the 
attention  of  the  guard  or  driver,  passengers  must 
pull  down  the  cord.  There  are  cords  on  both 
sides  of  the  train,  but  that  on  the  right-hand  side 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  train  is  travelling  is 
the  one  by  which  alone  communication  can 
be  made."  Imagine,  as  a  writer  pointed  out, 
the  nervous  girl,  or  even  the  average,  self-pos- 
sessed male,  in  the  moment  of  danger  sufficiently 
collecting  his  or  her  thoughts  to  remember  which 
was  the  right  cord  to  pull,  let  alone  the  difficulty 
of  reaching  out  to  get  at  it.  The  southern  lines 
were  the  first  to  improve  upon  the  system. 
They  adopted  the  principle  of  having  two  electric 
wires  running  through  the  train  like  two  sides 
of  a  ladder,  which  are  joined  together  in  each 
compartment  by  a  rung  that  is  broken  in  the 
middle.  Draw  out  the  bell-pull  in  any  com- 
partment and  the  broken  rung  is  instantly 
mended,  the  circuit  closed,  and  a  bell  in  the 
guard's  van  starts  ringing.  The  awkward  and 
inefficient  cord  communication  is  now  a  relic  of 
the  past.  During  the  last  two  or  three  years  the 
companies  that  formerly  used  it  have  adopted 
a  standard  train  signal,  which  consists  of  a 
valve,  with  a  small  passage  that  forms  a 
whistle,  and  a  rod  passing  through  the  valve  to 
each  side  of  the  vehicle,  and  having  a  red  disc 
attached  to  both  ends.  Near  each  end  of  the  rod 
is  also  attached  a  lever,  to  which  is  connected 
one  or  two  chains,  usually  two,  which  pass  along 
the  inside  of  the  carriage  immediately  over  the 
windows  and  doors  of  the  compartment.  The 
pulling  of  either  chain  by  a  passenger  will  be 
followed  by  a  gentle  application  of  the  brake 
and  the  whistle  being  sounded.  At  the  same 
time  the  red  discs  change  from  a  horizontal  to  a 
vertical  position,  and  so  indicate  to  the  officials 
the  carriage  from  which  the  communication  has 
been  made. 

Train  Working.  The  cleaning  of  carriages 
after  a  journey,  and  filling  the  axle-boxes 
with  oil  (for  oil-boxes  have  almost  everywhere 
superseded  grease  in  the  case  of  passenger 
rolling  stock,  and  are  now  being  fitted  to 
the  fast  goods  trains),  devolves  upon  a  clean- 
ing staff,  which,  as  a  rule,  comes  under  the 
locomotive  and  carriage  department.  Every 
passenger  carriage  at  the  end  of  a  journey  is  as 
thoroughly  cleaned  both  outside  and  in  as  time 
will  permit — the  floors  washed,  carpets  shaken, 
cushions  dusted,  etc.  At  important  centres 
the  vacuum  cleaning  process  is  used.  An 
ingenious  apparatus  for  cleaning  the  exterior 
of  carriages  by  machinery  has  been  adopted  by 
a  few  companies.  This  is  a  shed  [49],  inside  and 
on  each  side  of  which  are  vertical  roller  brushes, 
together  with  pipe.*  spraying  water.  The  com- 
plete train,  dirty  and  travel-stained,  is  drawn 
through  the  shed  at  a  speed  of  4  miles  per  hour. 
Directly  the  engine  has  passed  through,  the 
brushes,  which  are  fixed  to  rocking  arms,  spring 
forward  and  lightly  grip  the  carriages.  A  spray 
of  water  from  a  perforated  pipe  issues  in  front  of 
and  behind  each  brush.  The  brushes  rotate  at 
high  speed,  just  like  the  machine  brushes  em- 
ployed by  hairdressers,  being  connected  by 
shafting  to  the  flywheel  of  a  small  gas  engine. 


TRANSIT 

and  geared  like  a  bicycle  with  chains  and 
sprocket  wheels.  A  pair  of  small  pilot  brushes 
takes  the  window  in  hand,  while  the  remainder 
scrub  the  entire  woodwork,  from  the  eaves  of  the 
roof  to  the  footboard.  The  apparatus  cannot  be 
relied  upon  to  remove  grease,  to  get  rid  of  which 
a  carriage  must  be  oil  cleaned  or  washed  with 
soft  soap  once  a  week,  but  it  does  everything  that 
can  be  expected  of  cold  water,  and  as  a  time  and 
labour-saving  arrangement  gives  satisfactory 
results.  Before  making  a  journey,  all  passenger 
rolling  stock  is  inspected  by  train  examiners,  who, 
if  they  find  any  defect  which  does  not  affect  the 
safe  running  of  the  vehicle,  affix  a  green-coloured 
"  For  Repairs  "  label,  while  if  the  vehicle  is  found 
to  be  so  badly  injured  that  it  cannot  be  used,  a 
red  "  Not  to  go  "  label  is  attached.  Another 
class  of  examiners  are  employed  in  tapping  the 
wheels  with  long  hammers  for  the  purpose  of 
discovering  fractures.  Train-examiners  and 
wheel-tappers  belong  to  the  locomotive  arid 
carriage  department. 

Refinements  of  Station  Working. 
In  conclusion,  a  few  lines  must  be  devoted  to 
several  interesting  refinements  which  have 
recently  been  adopted  for  smoothing  the 
way  for  passengers.  Information  bureaus  are 
being  opened  at  the  principal  termini,  where  the 
prospective  traveller  may  obtain  gratis  all  the 
information  he  needs.  The  London  and  North  - 
Western  Railway  has  introduced  a  novelty  at 
Euston  Station  in  the  provision  of  a  writing-room 
for  the  convenience  of  passengers.  There  are 
facilities  for  correspondence,  including  a  staff  of 
typewriters,  and  for  using  the  telephone.  Pass- 
engers can  have  letters,  telegrams,  and  messages 
addressed  to  them  here  ;  and  a  private  room  can 
be  engaged  for  interviews.  Train  indicators  have 
long  been  used  to  denote  the  respective  plat- 
forms from  which  the  different  trains  depart,  and 
to  enumerate  the  principal  places  served  by  the 
latter  ;  but  arrival  indicators  are  a  new  feature. 
The  latest  kind  of  arrival  indicator  is  electrically 
operated.  It  tells  one  the  time  each  train  is 
due,  the  number  of  minutes  it  is  late,  the  names 
of  the  principal  stations  at  which  it  has  called, 
and  the  number  of  the  platform  where  it  will 
be  berthed. 

Train  Lighting.  Improvements  of  a 
revolutionar}'-  character  in  the  lighting  of 
trains  have  come  to  pass  during  the  last  decade 
or  so.  Most  of  us  can  remember  the  primitive 
vegetable  oil  lamp,  now  happily  a  thing  of  the 
past.  This  was  the  earliest  method  of  lighting 
railway  carriages,  and  although  it  formed  a 
byword  of  reproach  on  account  of  its  feeble 
illuminating  powers  and  general  filthiness, 
while  it  entailed  the  employment  of  a  special 
staff  of  lamp  men,  a  very  long  period  elapsed 
before  anything  better  was  devised.  Com- 
pressed oil  gas  is  now  the  standard  illuminant 
for  railway  carriages. 

Every  railway  company  has  its  own  oil  gas- 
works, and  the  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  works  to 
the  sidings,  where  the  carriages  are  charged,  in 
mains,  to  which  valves  and  connecting  hydrants 
are  attached  at  suitable  places.  The  storage 
cylinders,  which  hold  about  100  ft.  of  gas  and  are 

4807 


TRANSIT 

fixed  to  the  under-framing  of  a  carriage,  are 
charged  from  the  mains  by  means  of  flexible 
hose.  However,  gas  cannot  be  consumed  under 
the  high  pressure  in  which  it  is  made,  but 
has  first  to  be  passed  through  a  regulator, 
which  reduces  the  150  Ib.  pressure  to  1  in.  of 
water,  and  admits  gas  at  the  same  rate  at  which 
it  is  consumed  in  the  single  or  duplex  flat-flame 
burners.  Each  jet  can  be  regulated,  or  all  the 
jets  in  a  carriage  turned  off  or  allowed  to 
burn  on  the  bypass  by  turning  a  key  at  the 
end  of  the  carriage,  while  each  carriage  has 
a  pressure  gauge  to  indicate  the  pressure  in 
the  cylinders  and  the  state  of  the  supply. 
Non-"  gassing "  stations  receive  their  supplies 
from  travelling  gas  tanks.  Experiments  have 
been  made  with  acetylene  gas,  but  in  this 
country  they  have  not  proved  very  successful. 
At  the  time  of  writing,  trials  are  in  progress  with 
incandescent  gas  and  small,  inverted  burners, 
and  several  companies  already  have  carriages 
so  fitted  experimentally. 

Electrical  Train  Lighting.  Although 
oil  gas  is  the  standard  method  of  lighting  railway 
carriages,  a  large  number  of  trains  is  lit 
electrically.  There  are  at  least  three  methods  of 
electric  train  lighting — namely,  (1)  lighting 
entirely  by  accumulators  ;  (2)  lighting  by  one 
dynamo  for  an  entire  train  ;  (3)  lighting  by 
one  dynamo  fitted  to  each  carriage.  The  two 
latter  methods  entail  the  employment  of 
accumulators. 

The  third— namely,  that  of  a  separate  dynamo 
and  accumulators  for  each  carriage — is  the  one 
which  has  been  practically  accepted  as  the 
standard  method.  The  dynamo  for  generating 
the  current  is  suspended  from  the  under-framing, 
and  its  pulley  is  driven  direct  by  a  belt  from  the 
pulley  on  one  of  the  axles.  As  the  lamps  must 
be  supplied  at  constant  pressure,  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  means  to  maintain  the  voltage  of  the 
dynamo  constant  over  a  wide  range  of  train 
speed.  This  is  usually  accomplished  as  follows: 
After  a  certain  limit  has  been  reached,  the 
dynamo  always  runs  as  at  uniform  speed  and 
produces  the  same  voltage,  no  matter  how  much 
the  speed  of  the  train  may  vary,  which  result  is 
achieved  by  a  compensating  device  attached 
to  the  dynamo.  When  the  train  is  travelling 
very  slowly,  or  is  stationary,  the  lamps  are  fed 
from  the  accumulators  alone,  which  are  auto- 
matically connected  to  the  dynamo  by  means 
of  a  mechanical  governor.  The  accumulators 
are  divided  into  two  parts,  each  half  acting  as 
a  regulator  to  the  other,  and,  being  always  in 
connection  with  the  lamps,  the  light  remains 
perfectly  steady.  We  are  far  from  suggesting 
that  the  foregoing  system  represents  finality  in 
electric  train  lighting.  Although  this  method  of 
illuminating  carriages  by  means  of  the  energy 
of  the  moving  train  is  in  the  abstract  quite 
perfect,  in  practice  the  problems  involved  in  its 
completely  successful  realisation  are  many  and 
intricate,  and  are  far  from  having  been  solved. 
Already  rival  systems  are  springing  up,  in  which 
no  attempt  is  made  to  control  the  speed  of  the 
dvnnmo,  but  the  dynamo  output  itself  is 
regulated  to  compensate  for  the  changes  in  the 

4808 


speed  of  the  train.  Electric  train  lighting  is,  in 
fact,  a  very  big  subject,  and  is  likely  to  occupy  the 
attention  of  electrical  engineers  for  many  years  to 
come.  However,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the 
system  described  has  succeeded  in  producing 
an  efficient  and  economical  light,  while  it  also 
provides  a  ready  source  of  power  on  a  small 
scale  for  actuating  bells  and  cooling  or  ventilating 
machinery  in  the  carriages  and  restaurant  cars. 
When  trains  are  electrically  lighted  the  guard  ia 
responsible  for  switching  the  current  on  and  off. 

Heating  of  Carriages  The  heating  of 
carriages  forms  another  phase  of  work  associated 
with  the  comfort  of  the  travelling  public  upon 
which  much  skill  and  ingenuity  has  recently 
been  brought  to  bear.  The  rudimentary 
apparatus  that  long  held  the  field  was  the 
foot-warmer — an  oblong  tin  filled  with  water 
through  an  orifice,  which  was  then  hermetically 
sealed,  and  the  warmer  placed  in  a  boiler  until 
the  water  was  heated.  Like  the  vegetable  oil 
lamp,  this  cumbersome  apparatus  necessitated 
setting  aside  a  special  staff  of  men  to  fill,  heat, 
and  distribute.  Eventually  it  was  realised  that 
an  efficient,  simple,  and  economical  method  of 
heating  could  only  be  achieved  by  mechanical 
means. 

Mechanical  heating  was  first  introduced  into 
this  country  from  America  about  the  same 
time  as  Pullman  cars  [45]  by  the  Midland  and 
Brighton  companies,  the  system  being  that  of 
high-pressure  hot- water  pipes,  fed  from  a  boiler 
heated  by  a  coke  stove.  This  method  is  still 
employed  in  not  a  few  sleeping  cars,  but,  as 
it  requires  the  constant  attention  of  an  attendant 
it  is  unsuitable  to  an  ordinary  train. 

Rival  Methods  of  Steam  Heating. 
The  two  different  methods  of  train  heating 
which  are  standard  at  the  present  day  are 
direct  steam  heating  and  dry  steam  storage 
heating.  The  former  requires  but  a  brief  de- 
scription. A  pipe  runs  throughout  the  train 
containing  exhaust  steam  from  the  locomotive. 
Dry  steam  storage  heating,  which  is  more 
elaborate,  is  managed  as  follows.  The  steam 
is  taken  direct  from  the  boiler  of  the  locomotive 
and  passed  to  each  carriage  of  the  train  by  means 
of  a  main  steam  pipe.  From  the  latter  it  passes 
through  a  branch  pipe  to  a  series  of  storage 
heaters,  one  of  which  is  found  beneath  each 
seat.  A  storage  heater  comprises  a  wrought-iron 
boiler  tube,  closed  at  both  ends,  and  filled  to 
seven-eighths  of  its  capacity  with  a  strong 
solution  of  brine.  The  steam  is  thus  brought  into 
contact  with  the  interior  tubes,  whereupon  the 
brine  contained  in  the  latter  absorbs  a  part  of  the 
heat,  which  is  then  gradually  given  off  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  would  be  the  case  with  any 
method  of  direct  steam  heating  at  similar 
pressure. 

A  regulator  affixed  to  the  back  or  side  of  the 
compartment  permits  of  a  passenger  shutting 
off  the  heat  or  re-admitting  it  as  desired.  These 
heaters  require  no  repairs  ;  the  strong  solution 
of  brine,  of  course,  is  proof  against  freezing, 
while  the  special  form  of  steam  pipe  coupling 
between  coaches  is  unfreezable,  absolutely 
steam-tight,  and  uncouples  automatically  when 


any  two  carriages  are  drawn  apart.  In  order  to 
obviate  the  discomfort  of  entering  cold  carriages, 
arrangements  are  made  for  heating  trains  at 
terminal  stations  before  the  engine  couples  on. 
A  stationary  boiler  supplies  steam  to  a  main 
running  alongside  the  platform,  and  this  main 
is  temporarily  connected  to  the  carriages  at  one 
or  more  points  by  means  of  flexible  hose. 

One  company — the  North  British — have 
adopted  a  combination  of  the  old  foot  warmer 
and  steam  heating  systems.  Fixed  foot  warmers, 
charged  with  acetate  of  soda,  have  high-pressure 
steam  turned  into  them  from  the  locomotive 
while  the  train  is  stopping  at  a  station. 

Electrical  Heaters.  Lastly,  electrical 
heaters  are  occasionally  met  with  in  dining 
saloons.  The  heaters  are  compact  in  form  ;  there 
is  nothing  of  a  combustible  nature  used  in  their 
construction,  and  a  free  circulation  of  air  against 
the  lioated  wires  is  provided  for.  The  heaters 
are  fed  from  accumulators,  which  in  turn  derive 
their  current  from  the  dynamos,  driven  by 
belts  attached  to  the  axles. 

Sleeping  Cars.  Although  there  is  in 
this  country  of  short -distance  journeys  nothing 
approaching  the  same  extensive  field  for  its 
employment  as  exists  in  America  and  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe,  the  British  sleeping 
car  is  the  most  comfortable,  the  best  equipped, 
and  also  the  cheapest  in  point  of  the  additional 
fee  demanded  for  its  use  in  the  world.  At 
present,  sleeping  accommodation  is  limited 
to  first-class  passengers,  which  is  the  rule 
almost  everywhere,  but  it  would  not  be  surpris- 
ing if  we  were  soon  to  find  an  extension  of 
such  facilities  to  second  and  third-class  travel. 
An  improved  pattern  of  corridor  sleeping  car 
has  long  been  the  standard  on  British  railways. 
The  car  is  divided  into  a  number  of  state-rooms 
[44],  entered  from  the  corridor.  These  rooms,  as 
a  rule,  hold  one  berth — never  more  than  two — 
some  being  convertible  into  one  or  two  bedded 
compartments.  The  berths  are  arranged  trans- 
versely, which  position  has  been  found  to  yield 
greater  comfort  than  the  longitudinal.  Upper 
berths,  unpopular  and  rarely  occupied,  have 
quite  disappeared.  The  bed  is  no  shake-down 
affair,  for  its  furniture  comprises  mattress, 
blankets,  linen  sheets,  rugs,  pillow,  and  bolster. 


58.     WEST    COAST    STANDARD    SLEEPING    CAR 

Each  berth  compartment  has  its  own  washing- 
stand  and  other  toilet  fittings.  The  London  and 
North-Western  Company's  latest  sleeping  cars 
[58]  are  65  ft.  6  in.  in  length,  and  carried  on 
two  six-wheeled  bogies.  They  are  electrically 
lighted,  steam  heated,  provided  with  electric 
bells,  a  lavatory  at  each  end,  a  buffet,  from 
which  tea,  coffee,  and  mineral  waters  are  served, 
and  a  smoking  compartment,  while  a  supply  of 
hot  water  is  among  the  toilet  refinements. 


TRANSIT 

Notwithstanding  their  great  weight — namely,  41 
tons — they  can  accommodate  only  eleven  occu- 
pants, each  of  whom,  therefore,  accounts  for 
some  3  £  tons  of  dead  weight.  Prior  to  1903  the 
supplementary  fee  for  all  this  luxury  was  but 
5s.  over  and  above  the  ordinary  first-class  fare. 
In  that  year,  however,  the  Northern  companies 
raised  the  fee  on  the  longer  journeys  to  7s.  6d. 
When  a  car  arrives  at  a  terminus  earlier  than 
8  a.m.,  the  occupants  may  remain  in  it  until 
that  hour. 

Staffing  and  Stocking.  A  service  of 
sleeping  cars  is  managed  by  the  superintendent 
of  the  line,  while  the  carriage  department  is  re- 
sponsible for  preparing  the  cars  for  the  road, 
washing  and  mending  the  bed  furniture,  etc. 
The  stock  of  bedding  kept  by  the  North-Western 
Company  comprises:  1,998  mattresses,  4,868 
mattress  covers,  4,647  sheets,  2,267  rugs,  2,841 
pillows,  8,081  pillow-cases.  There  are  special 
halls  at  Willesden  [50],  where  the  bedding  is 
kept  aired  and  sorted  ready  for  use.  Every 
car  is  in  charge  of  an  attendant  or  conductor 
(wages  25s.  per  week),  who  attends  to  the 
comfort  of  p;T!ssengers.  He  cleans  their  boots  ; 
brushes  their  clothes  ;  takes  charge  of  their 
tickets  and  collects  excess  fares,  so  that  their 
rest  may  not  be  disturbed  ;  serves  them  witli 
tea  or  coffee,  which  he  prepares  in  his  pantry  ; 
and  regulates  the  heating  and  ventilation  of 
the  car.  The  position  of  sleeping  car  attendant 
is  a  coveted  post,  for  naturally  it  carries  with 
it  perquisites  in  the  way  of  tips.  Only  thoroughly 
intelligent  and  cleanly  men  of  unimpeachable 
character  are  selected  for  the  work,  and,  broadly 
speaking,  they  are  promoted  from  among  the 
ticket  collectors  and  head  porters.  The  inmates 
of  a  car  generally  look  to  the  attendant  for 
help  and  advice  concerning  their  journeys, 
hence,  the  latter  must  be  well  acquainted  with 
the  time-table,  and  able  to  display  an  intelligent 
interest  in  the  travelling  affairs  of  those  under 
his  charge.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are 
unable  to  afford  the  luxury  of  a  "sleeper," 
pillows  and  rugs  may  be  hired  from  the  company, 
as  shown  in  51.  These  articles  are  trundled 
about  the  platform  in  glass-covered  barrows,  so 
as  to  ensure  perfect  cleanliness  before  issue. 

The  Travelling  Restaurant.  Dining- 
cars  were  given  to  the  world  by  America. 
As  might  be  expected,  their  introduction  has 
been  largely  responsible  for  the  increased  weight 
of  trains.  Cars  range  from  60  ft.  to  70  ft. 
in  length,  and  weigh  from  35  tons  to  40  tons. 
The  small  compass  within  which  a  host  of 
articles  in  everyday  use  is  carried  on  board  ship 
is  constantly  quoted,  but  a  far  more  remarkable 
system  of  stowage  is  observed  on  board  a  dining- 
car,  where  also  the  risk  of  breakage  is  greater.  The 
kitchen  and  pantry  take  up  about  a  quarter 
of  the  length  of  the  car,  and  from  these  confined 
premises  a  train  like  the  Scotch  express  is  some- 
times called  upon  to  serve  200  luncheons,  150 
teas,  and  200  dinners,  all  within  the  space  of  time 
of  8|  hours.  The  early  kitchen-cars  were  equippec 
with  coal- stoves.  These  were  subsequently 
superseded  by  gas-stoves,  while  the  batterie  de 
cuisine  comprises  a  gas-grill,  ovens,  refrigerator, 

4809 


TRANSIT 

plate-heater,  carving-table,  cupboards,  sinks, 
and  separate  boilers  for  washing-up  and  for 
making  tea. 

Organisation  and  Staffing.  The  din- 
ing-car business  has  now  attained  such  vast 
proportions  that  it  necessitates  the  employment 
of  a  special  organisation  and  staff.  Most  com- 
panies place  the  management  and  catering  of 
the  cars  under  the  chief  of  the  hotels  and  refresh- 
ment department,  while  one  at  least  has  a  special 
officer  who,  although  he  draws  many  of  his  stores 
from  the  hotel  department,  otherwise  works 
independently  of  the  latter.  Under  the  hotel 
chief  is  a  salaried  officer  who  acts  as  maitre 
d'hotel  to  the  dining-cars.  He  may  be  seen 
inspecting  the  cars  before  a  train  starts,  to  satisfy 
himself  that  all  is  in  order.  The  staff  of  a  car 
consists  of  page  attendants,  second  attendants,  a 
head  attendant  or  conductor,  a  kitchen  porter, 
a  carver,  and  one  or  two  cooks.  The  staffing  of 
the  cars  may  be  described  as  an  Englishman's 
job.  Without  exception,  the  companies  refuse 
to  engage  foreigners  to  wait  upon  passengers, 
while  some  give  preference  to  English  cooks. 
Lads  are  taken  as  page  attendants  between 
the  ages  of  14  and  15,  and  if  they  give 
satisfaction  they  are  certain  to  become  head  at- 
tendants in  time.  Adults  are  also  engaged  as 
attendants,  but  the  choice  of  such  is  practically 
limited  to  men  who  have  been  waiters  in  the 
company's  refreshment  rooms  or  footmen  or 
butlers  in  private  families..  Railway  directors 
are  deluged  with  applications  from  private 
servants,  especially  those  who  have  married  or 
who  are  contemplating  matrimony,  as  this 
coveted  post  enables  them  to  settle  down. 

The  head  attendant  or  conductor  is  responsible 
for  the  provisions,  which  are  invoiced  to  him, 
also  for  all  stores,  wines,  etc.,  while  the  service 
staff  generally  is  charged  with  the  cleanliness 
of  the  cutlery,  linen,  and  plate. 

Provisioning.  The  provisioning  of  cars 
is  arranged  for  at  terminal  and  important 
intermediate  stations.  Broadly  speaking,  the 
food  is  cooked  on  the  train,  but  prepared  before- 
hand. Thus,  soups  and  sweets  have  only  to 
be  heated  up,  whereas  fish  and  joints  have  to  be 
cooked  while  the  train  is  travelling  at  full  speed. 
The  Great  Central  procedure  is  to  have  all  the 
food  brought  aboard  direct  from  the  vendors — 
the  fish  from  the  fishmonger,  the  game  from  the 
poulterer,  and  so  forth — and  handed  over  to 
the  dining-car  chef  direct.  At  Euston  you  may 
see  an  array  of  culinary  offices,  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  chief  chef,  who  draws  up  all  the  menus 
for  the  day.  In  one  kitchen  sweets  and  soups 
are  being  prepared  ;  in  a  scullery  vegetables 
are  being  washed  ;  in  a  larder  joints  are  being 
cut  up  and  fish  prepared  ;  in  a  still-room 
groceries,  pickles,  cheese,  and  fruit  are  being 
made  up  into  parcels  ;  and  in  a  linen-room 
maids  arc  checking  linen  home  from  the  wash, 
;.nd  mending  it.  All  the  comestibles  for  each 
car.  together  with  a  separate  package  containing 
laMedoths  and  napkins,  are  packed  in  a  large 
hamper,  which  has  just  been  steam  scoured, 
and  despatched  to  the  proper  train.  Dining- 
car  cooks  form  a  distinct  class,  which  has  come 

4810 


into  existence  during  the  last  fifteen  years. 
A  cook  who  joins  without  experience  is  sent  for 
a  week  or  so  up  and  down  the  line  in  company 
with  an  old  hand  to  learn  his  business. 

At  the  end  of  a  journey  a  car  is  gassed  and 
watered  by  the  carriage  department,  which  is  also 
responsible  for  cleaning  all  parts  of  it  except  the 
kitchen  and  pantry,  this  latter  task  being  the 
duty  of  the  car  staff.  Some  companies  have 
very  stringent  rules  relating  to  the  removal 
of  any  food  over,  the  penalty  being  instant 
dismissal  if  so  little  as  the  tail  of  yesterday's 
sardine  be  found  in  a  car  on  the  following  morning. 
The  washing  of  the  soiled  table-linen  some- 
times falls  to  the  carriage  department,  and  some- 
times to  the  hotel  department.  By  aid  of  the 
invoice  system  it  is  possible  to  ascertain  exactly 
how  each  car  is  paying.  Dining-cars  are  now  a 
profitable  enterprise,  but  they  are  not  run  with 
the  idea  of  making  big  profits,  the  management 
being  quite  satisfied  if  they  just  pay  their  way. 
Most  companies  now  serve  a  la  carte  refreshments, 
except  during  the  service  of  meals. 

Refreshment  =  room  Catering.  The 
majority  of  railway  companies  have  taken  over 
the  ownership,  management,  and  catering  of 
all  station  refreshment  rooms.  In  doing  so 
they  have  been  actuated  not  so  much  by  the 
desire  to  establish  a  fresh  source  of  revenue 
as  to  study  the  comfort  and  convenience  of 
passengers.  It  was  found  that  private  owner- 
ship sometimes  led  to  abuses.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  the  management  and  staffing  of  the 
refreshment -rooms  is  a  large  business  of  itself,  but 
as  it  cannot  be  said  to  form  a  part  of  the  railway 
industry  proper,  it  need  not  be  described.  One  new 
and  welcome  feature  may,  however,  be  noted. 
The  spread  of  restaurant-car  facilities,  perhaps, 
has  pampered  the  travelling  public  ;  at  any  rate, 
the  more  enterprising  companies  have  come  to  the 
conclusion  that,  in  the  case  of  non-restaurant- 
car  trains,  it  is  good  business  to  bring  the 
refreshment  counter  to  the  doors  of  the  carriages, 
and  so  obviate  the  necessity  of  asking  persons 
to  leave  the  train  and  walk  a  few  yards.  The 
travelling  refreshment  stalls  [38]  inaugurated  by 
the  Midland  do  this.  Equipped  with  boiler,  urns, 
and  ice-safe,  they  perambulate  the  platform,  and 
serve  out  tea,  coffee,  soup,  etc.,  freshly  made. 

The  Advantages  of  Rail  Motor=cars. 
The  employment  of  what  are  called  rail  motor- 
cars is  a  very  remarkable  development  that  has 
taken  place  on  British  railways  during  the  last 
few  years.  From  the  outset  the  enterprise  was 
attended  by  such  marked  success,  inasmuch  as 
it  at  once  proved  its  ability  to  solve  so  easily 
some  of  the  problems  of  the  traffic  manager, 
that  at  the  present  time  there  is  scarcely  a 
railway  of  importance  which  has  not  adopted 
this  new  type  of  vehicle  containing  its  own 
motive  power. 

The  idea  of  rail  motor-cars  is  that  they  furnish 
better  accommodation,  and  secure  more  econo- 
mical results  in  working  the  passenger  traffic  under 
certain  conditions,  which  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows.  First,  in  the  case  of  suburban  traffic 
which  encounters  competition  on  the  part  of 
electric  tramways,  the  rail  motor-car  enables 


a  railway  company  to  afford  facilities  for  cheap 
and  rapid  transit  during  those  periods  of  the 
day  when  the  number  of  passengers  to  be 
carried  does  not  warrant  the  running  of  heavy 
engines  and  long  trains,  these  latter  being 
reserved  to  meet  the  stress  of  the  morning  and 
evening  traffic.  Secondly,  where  rural  branch 
lines  are  concerned,  the  rail  motor-car  can  be 
used  to  fill  a  void  by  giving  a  far  more  frequent 
service  than  it  would  pay  to  do  by  means  of 
ordinary  trains.  The  general  manager  of  a  rail- 


59.     STEAM    RAIL    MOTOR-CAB    ON    G.N.    RAILWAY,    WITH    DETACHABLE    ENGINE 


way  company  largely  employing  such  cars  for  this 
particular  purpose  states  that  the  cost  of  runniag 
a  rail  motor-car  as  compared  with  a  train  is  as 
5|d.  for  the  former  per  train  mile,  as  against 
Is.  3d.  for  an  engine,  with  four  coaches,  per  train 
mile.  By  means  of  rail  motor-cars,  therefore, 
both  the  railway  company  and  those  residing 
on  branch  lines  benefit,  while  as  the  cars  can 
also  be  used  to  stop  between  stations,  at  level 
crossings,  and  at  other  places  where  roads  are 
close  to  the  railways,  they  give  access  to  districts 
which  formerly  laboured  under  the  disadvan- 
tage of  being  situated  some  distance  away  from  a 
station.  These  intermediate  stopping-placws  are 
called  "  halts,"  and  it  is  necessary  only  to 
furnish  them  with  a  low  platform  and  a  small 
waiting  room. 

Different  Patterns  of  Cars.  It  is  not 
possible  to  describe  all  the  different  patterns 
of  cars  now  in  use  on  the  different  rail- 
ways, but  the  principal  points  of  distinction 
between  various  types  may  be  touched  upon. 
From  the  road  automobilist's  standpoint,  the 
term  "  rail  motor-car  "  is,  however,  somewhat 
of  a  misnomer,  as  it  gives  him  the  impression 
that  these  cars  are  operated  with  an  internal 
combustion  engine,  consuming  petrol,  whereas 
there  are  only  two  or  three  instances  of  this  latter 
kind  of  engine  being  adapted  to  rail  motor-car 
work.  At  present  the  vehicles  are  divided  into 
three  classes,  viz.,  (1)  steam-operated  ;  (2)  petrol- 
electric  operated ;  (3)  petrol-operated,  by 
means  of  an  internal  combustion  engine.  The 
sum  total  of  the  two  last  types  numbers  about 
half  a  dozen,  while  there  are  several  hundreds 
of  steam-propelled  cars  in  service. 

Common  Characteristics.  A  steam- 
driven  rail  motor-car  combines  on  one 
frame  an  engine  and  a  passenger  car  of 
moderate  seating  capacity,  the  total  length  of 
the  vehicle  varying  between  about  55  ft.  and 
70  ft.  The  car  is  carried  on  two  four-wheeled 
bogies,  that  at  the  trailing  end  being  usually  a 
standard  passenger  coach  bogie,  and  the  other 
forming  a  four-wheeled  outside-cylindered  loco- 
motive of  small  dimensions.  Sometimes  the 


TRANSIT 

locomotive  is  complete  in  itself  [59]  when  de- 
tached from  the  car  frames,  and  may,  if 
required,  be  run  separately  for  shunting  pur- 
poses, which  are  almost  indispensable  in  railway 
working,  while  in  most  other  cases  the  engine 
bogie  is  detachable  [39],  and  the  boiler  and 
chimney  can  pass  through  an  end  door,  in  order 
that  a  defective  engine  can  be  replaced.  The 
engine  can  always  be  operated  from  either  end 
of  the  car,  by  means  of  a  duplication  of  the 
stopping  and  starting  apparatus,  whistles, 
vacuum,  steam,  and 
hand  brakes ;  for 
the  essence  of  a  rail 
motor-car  is  that  it 
can  be  worked  as  a 
shuttle  —  that  is, 
without  having  to 
be  turned  round  in 
order  to  keep  the 
engine  foremost.  A 
special  arrangement; 
provides  that  the  vibration  from  the  engine  body 
is  not  transmitted  to  the  body  of  the  car. 

Types  of  Boilers  and  Valve  Gearing. 
There  are  several  different  types  of  boilers 
— namely,  a  smaller  pattern  of  the  ordinary 
locomotive  type  of  boiler,  with  or  without  a 
Belpaire  firebox,  and  carried  horizontally ;  a 
vertical  multitubular  boiler,  which  kind  is  the 
most  popular  ;  and  a  novel  generator  of  the 
vertical  type  [40]  —  namely,  Cochran's  patent 
boiler.  This  last  possesses  a  minimum  of 
joints  and  welds,  and  has  no  rivets  or  welded 
joints  in  actual  contact  with  the  fire.  The 
feature,  however,  which  takes  pre-eminence  is 
the  facility  that  is  afforded  by  the  boiler  design 
for  obviating  internal  scaling..  Scale  formation  is 
an  important  factor  in  the  life  of  any  boiler  under 
all  and  sundry  conditions.  Failure  by  burnt 
plates  or  tubes,  and  consequent  early  scraping  of 
boilers,  generally  arises  from  inability  to  get  at 
the  interior  so  as  to  clean  effectively.  The  acces- 
sibility of  all  parts  of  the  Cochran  boiler  for  the 
latter  purpose  forms  its  chief  claim  to  considera- 
tion. Sometimes  the  valve  gear  is  worked  by 
ordinary  eccentrics,  which  are  fitted  on  the  driving 
axle  instead  of  on  the  frame,  and  which  actuate 
the  valves  on  the  top  of  the  cylinders  by  means  of 
a  rocking  shaft  from  ordinary  link  motion.  More 
often,  however,  the  cylinders  are  actuated  by  the 
Walschaert  valve  gear.  Sufficient  water  is  carried 
for  the  service  in  a  tank  or  tanks  placed  below 
the  carriage  body,  and  there  is  also  room  for  a 
supply  of  fuel  in  the  motor  compartment  or 
elsewhere. 

Arrangement  of  the  Carriage.  The 
carriage  itself  is  divided  into  two  or  three 
saloon-like  passenger  compartments  [52],  a 
guard's  and  luggage  compartment,  and  a  driver's 
compartment  at  the  opposite  end  to  the  engine- 
room,  all  having  corridor  communication  ;  while 
the  entrance  to  the  car  is  .  generally  effected 
by  gangways  fitted  with  collapsible  gates.  Elec- 
trical communication  or  speaking-tubes  are 
furnished  between  the  driver's  and  guard's  com- 
partments. For  convenience  in  stopping  at 
"  halts  "  at  which  no  platform  is  provided,  there 

4811 


TRANSIT 

are  steps  on  each  side  of  the  car,  which  can  be 
either  covered  by  hinged  flaps  when  the  car 
draws  up  at  an  ordinary  platform,  or  swung  back 
to  the  width  of  the  ordinary  footboard  by  a 
lever.  With  some  cars  the  outward  movement 
of  the  steps  opens  a  valve  in  the  main  vacuum 
pipe,  and  so  prevents  the  car  from  starting  till 
the  steps  are  locked  in  running  position. 

The  North  Eastern  Railway  employs  a  few 
petrol-electric  autocars  [41],  with  which  the 
generating  power  is  a  four-cylinder  petrol 
engine,  80  B.H.P.,  that  drives  a  dynamo  direct, 
which,  in  turn  generates  current  for  four  motors, 
one  on  each  axle  of  the  vehicle. 

Petrol  Cars.  The  only  purely  petrol- 
propelled,  internal -combustion  engined  cars  are 
found  on  the  Great  Northern  and  London  and 
Brighton  and  South  Coast  Railways  [46].  These 
vehicles  are  much  smaller  than  any  of  the  steam 
and  petrol -electric  cars,  being  only  34  ft.  6  in.  in 
length,  weighing  11  tons,  and  being  carried  on 
four  wheels.  The  motive-power  consists  of  two 
four-cylinder  petrol  engines,  which  drive  both 
axleSj  while  provision  is  made  for  two  speeds  in 
either  direction.  There  is  a  driver's  compartment 
at  each  end. 

"Trailers."  The  seating  capacity  of  a 
steam  rail  motor  coach  varies  according  to  its,  size 
from  50  to  64  passengers.  The  more  powerful 
cars  [47]  are  capable  of  hauling  a  ;'  trailer  "  coach, 
and  they  are  also  calculated  to  attain  a  speed  of 
30  miles  per  hour  within  30  seconds  of  starting  ; 
while  but  few  cars  are  designed  to  run  at  a 
higher  rate  of  speed  than  45  miles  per  hour. 

Before  ending  the  description  of  rail  motor 
coaches,  mention  must  be  made  of  a  later 
development  upon  the  same  lines.  Several  com- 
panies have  fitted  small  side-tank  engines  to 
work  with  "  trailer "  cars  as  complete  units. 
Engine  and  coach  are  never  uncoupled  while  in 
service,  and  duplicate  gear  in  the  driver's  com- 
partment of  the  coach,  at  the  end  farthest  from 
the  locomotive,  enables  the  unit  to  be  worked 
either  end  foremost. 

Management  and  Staffing.  Rail 
motor-cars  are  under  the  control  of  the 
chief  mechanical  engineer,  which  he  exercises 
through  the  district  locomotive  superintendent 
in  precisely  the  same  way  as  he  looks  after 
engines.  It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  as 
the  employment  of  the  cars  becomes  more  ex- 
tensive, a  special  department  will  be  called  into 
existence  for  the  purpose  of  supervising  them. 
A  feeling  is  growing  that  since  rail  motor-cars 
constitute  what  is  an  essentially  light,  rapid,  and 
mobile  form  of  traffic,  they  require  something 
less  ponderously  inclined  than  the  brains  of  the 
locomotive  department  to  study  their  needs  and 
devise  technical  details. 

The  staffing  of  the  cars  is  as  follows.  The 
steam-propelled  vehicles  require  the  services  of 
both  a  driver  and  a  fireman,  as  there  must  be  a 
man  in  charge  of  the  boiler.  Therefore,  when  a 
car  is  running  engine-room  hindmost,  the  men 
part  company,  the  driver  being  in  the  motor 
compartment  in  front  (which,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, is  equipped  with  duplicate  controlling 
gear),  while  the  fireman  remains  behind.  Some 
4812 


companies  make  the  fireman  act  as  guard  or 
conductor  as  well,  but  the  general  practice  is  to 
employ  a  third  man.  The  duties  of  the  con- 
ductor of  a  rail  motor-car  are  the  same  as  those 
of  a  passenger  guard  in  seeing  to  the  needs  of 
passengers,  looking  after  luggage,  and  attending 
to  the  safety  of  the  "  train."  In  addition,  he 
often  issues  and  collects  all  tickets,  and  when 
the  car  stops  at  a  "  halt,"  acts  as  the  station- 
master,  porter,  etc.,  of  that  "  halt."  The  opera- 
tion of  a  car  fitted  with  an  internal  combustion 
engine  can  be  entrusted  to  one  man,  the  driver 
or  motorman,  a  fireman  being  unnecessary. 
Drivers  or  motormen,  together  with  the  firemen 
of  rail  motor-cars,  are  drawn  from  the  staff  of 
enginemen.  Conductors  are  selected  from  men 
who  aspire  to  become  full-fledged  passenger 
guards  ;  in  fact,  this  service  is  now  regarded  as 
a  training  field  for  the  latter. 

Passenger  Road  Motor  Traction. 
The  functions  of  passenger  road  motor-cars 
are,  broadly,  to  act  as  feeders  to  the  railways, 
and  so  to  promote  travel  in  eveiy  capacity  ; 
while,  incidentally,  they  also  serve  to  exploit 
tourist  districts,  to  form  an  efficient  substitute 
for  light  railways,  and  to  render  possible  a 
complete  service  over  a  new  railway  route, 
starting  from  rail  head,  pending  the  completion 
of  the  construction  of  the  line. 

Practically  every  railway-owned  passenger 
road  motor  vehicle  is  petrol-driven,  and  among 
the  different  types  of  bodies  used  are:  (1) 
double  deck  omnibus  ;  (2)  single-deck  omnibus 
[53]  ;  (3)  observation  or  char-a-banc  [55]  ;  (4) 
open  wraggonette  ;  (5)  composite  goods,  mail, 
and  omnibus.  Each  type  of  vehicle  has  accom- 
modation for  a  certain  amount  of  passengers' 
luggage,  together  with  parcels,  and  many  of 
them  also  make  a  speciality  of  the  conveyance 
of  packages  containing  agricultural  produce,  so 
that  a  service  may  fulfil  an  additional  purpose 
in  the  way  of  bringing  markets  nearer  to  pro- 
ducers or  of  opening  up  to  the  latter  new  areas 
of  supply. 

Passenger  Tickets.  Passenger  tickets 
comprise :  (1)  ordinary  tickets,  issued  for 
ordinary  trains  at  ordinary  fares  ;  (2)  blank 
card  tickets,  used  for  light  traffic  only — • 
that  is,  where  there  are  few  passengers  be- 
tween a  pair  of  stations  in  a  month,  and  on 
which  the  name  of  the  destination  station  is 
omitted  ;  (3)  tourist  and  week-end  tickets  at 
reduced  fares  ;  (4)  excursion  tickets,  printed 
specially  for  each  excursion  ;  (5)  circular  tour 
tickets,  which  take  the  form  of  booklets  of 
coupons  ;  (6)  market,  fishing,  golfing,  hunting, 
etc.,  tickets  at  reduced  fares  ;  (7)  periodical, 
season,  or  contract  tickets,  which  are  specially 
printed,  and  require,  as  a  rule,  the  holders 
signature  ;  (8)  officers',  soldiers',  seamen  and 
police  tickets,  at  reduced  fares,  which  are  kept 
in  books  with  counterfoils,  and  which  are  issued 
on  the  production  of  orders  signed  by  the  proper 
authorities  ;  (9)  workmen's  tickets  at  reduced 
fares,  which  are  available  only  by  trains  running 
at  specified  hours  ;  (10)  pleasure  party  tickets, 
which  save  stamping,  say,  150  separate  tickets 
to  the  members  of  a  school  treat  ;  and  (11) 


privilege  tickets,  issued  to  the  company's 
servants.  Further,  tickets  for  the  conveyance  of 
dogs,  bicycles,  perambulators,  etc.,  or  any  other 
articles  carried  at  owner's  risk,  are  issued  at  the 
passenger  booking-office. 

Manufacture  of  Railway  Tickets. 
Some  companies  print  their  own  tickets,  and 
others  contract  for  them,  while  some  do  both  ; 
but  in  all  cases  the  ticket  printing  establishment 
is  under  the  close  supervision  of  the  company's 
accountant,  who  exercises  a  constant  check  on 
the  supplies. 

The  manufacture  of  railway  tickets,  as  carried 
out  by  the  London  and  North- Western  Railway 
at  Euston  Station,  may  be  described  as  a  repre- 
sentative process.  The  first  room  entered  is 
where  the  multi-coloured  sheets  of  pasteboard  are 
received  from  the  paper  makers,  and  where  the 
sheets  are  stored,  and  passed  through  machines 
which  cut  them  up  into  the  little  cards  with  which 
we  are  so  familiar.  The  first  machine  snips  off 
the  rough  edges  and  divides  each  sheet  into  a 
number  of  longitudinal  strips  of  the  required 
breadth,  while  the  second  machine  is  fed  with  the 
strips,  and  cuts  each  into  so  many  cards  of  the 
correct  length.  The  cards  issuing  from  the  latter 
machine  are  ready  for  printing,  and  are  carried 
by  tray  loads  into  an  adjoining — the  composing, 
printing,  and  counting — room. 

Ingenious  Automatic  Machine.  Great 
ingenuity  has  been  brought  to  bear  in  the  perfec- 
tion of  ticket-printing  machines.  The  latest 
patterns  may  be  described  as  being  self-acting  in 
every  respect.  The  blank  cards  are  fed  into  a 
hopper  on  one  side,  whence  they  descend  and  pass 
through  the  machine  in  an  endless  stream  so  long 
as  the  supply  lasts,  one  card  pushing  the  other 
forward.  In  the  body  of  the  machine  each  card 
is  impressed  with  its  proper  consecutive  number, 
has  its  face  printed  with  the  names  of  the  issuing 
and  destination  stations,  class,  fare,  etc.  ;  is  then 
turned  over  so  that  its  reverse  side  may  have 
imprinted  on  it  a  short  notice  beginning  "  Issued 
subject  to  the  company's  regulations,"  etc.  ; 
after  which  it  is  turned  face  uppermost  prepara- 
tory to  leaving  the  machine  by  another  and 
similar  hopper,  in  which  the  column  of  finished 
cards  is  pushed  upwards.  These  machines  can 
print  from  10,000  to  14,000  tickets  per  hour.  The 
supply  of  ink  is  automatically  fed  to  the  rollers, 
and  in  the  event  of  a  slightly  torn  or  crumpled 
card  being  encountered,  the  machine  stops  of 
itself,  and  declines  to  continue  printing  till  the 
offending  specimen  has  been  removed.  Lastly, 
the  printed  tickets  are  passed  through  a  machine 
which  automatically  counts  them  in  batches  of 
250  at  a  time,  and  records  the  total  number  which 
has  passed  through  it.  Here,  again,  the  cards  are 
placed  in  a  hopper,  and  the  attendant  turns  the 
handle  of  a  dial  to  the  number  borne  by  the  first 
ticket  to  enter  the  machine.  The  machine  is  then 
set  going,  and  automatically  stops  when  it  has 
counted  out  250  cards  into  a  hopper  below.  The 
attendant  must  see  that  the  dial  records  exactly 
that  number,  and  that  it  tallies  with  the  number 
of  the  last  ticket,  otherwise  one  or  more  tickets 
must  have  got  lost,  or  duplicates  as  regards  the 
successive  numbering  been  printed,  in  which 


TRANSIT 

case  very  careful  search  has  to  be  made  to  rectify 
the  error,  for  a  printed  ticket  is  treated  as  repre- 
senting its  face  value  in  cash.  The  latest  type  of 
ticket- counting  machine  can  deal  with  20,000 
cards  per  hour. 

Number  Check  on  Tickets.  The 
company's  audit  accountant  is  the  only 
officer  through  whom  passenger  tickets  (save, 
in  some  cases,  season  tickets,  which  are  supplied 
by  the  General  Manager)  may  be  obtained  by 
the  clerks  in  charge  of  the  booking  offices. 

All  tickets  are  type-numbered  consecutively 
at  both  ends  from  000  to  9999  inclusive  (to 
avoid  printing  five  figures  when  the  limit  of 
10,000  is  reached),  and  are  marked  to  indicate 
the  "  series  "  to  which  they  belong,  ten  thousand 
of  each  kind,  class,  and  station  making  a 
"  series."  By  the  Regulation  of  Railways 
Act,  1889,  Sec.  6,  the  fare  must  be  written  or 
printed  on  every  ordinary  ticket.  The  different 
colours  and  distinctive  markings  assigned  to 
the  tickets  for  various  classes  and  specifio 
purposes  are  legion,  while  there  is  a  curious 
want  of  uniformity  among  companies  in  the 
colours  that  distinguish  the  classes. 

Booking  Offices.  Inside  the  booking 
office,  the  tickets  are  kept  in  rows  of  "  tubes  " 
so-called — really  two  pieces  of  wood  joined  by  a 
spring — which  tubes  are  contained  in  lock- 
up cases  of  various  sizes  The  name  of  the 
destination  station  and  fare  is  written  above 
each  tube,  and  the  number  of  the  next  to 
issue  is  written  on  a  strip  of  slate  below  the 
tube.  The  system  is  to  place  tickets  in  the 
tubes  with  highest  numbers  at  the  top,  and, 
when  booking  passengers,  to  draw  from  the 
bottom,  so  that,  after  the  departure  of  a  train, 
by  deducting  the  number  written  upon  the 
slate  from  the  number  on  the  next  to  issue  it  is 
readily  ascertained  how  many  have  been  issued 
by  that  train.  Below  the  lock-up  cases  are 
chests  of  drawers  containing  bundles  of  tickets 
to  replenish  the  tubes.  At  large  stations  the 
arrangement  of  the  booking  hall  is  very  method- 
ical, the  apartment  being  divided  into  classes 
and  districts,  with  a  separate  window  for  each, 
while  the  case  containing  tickets  most  frequently 
used  is  placed  nearest  the  window,  and  the 
remainder  branch  out  in  geographical  order. 

Renewing  Stock  of  Tickets,  Here, 
too,  the  staff  comprises  not  only  clerks  to  issue 
tickets,  but  a  ticket  stock-keeper,  a  cashier, 
and  a  chief  booking  clerk,  each  of  whom  has 
his  own  office  within  an  office.  The  stock- 
keeper  periodically  replenishes  from  his  own 
stores  the  drawers  below  the  lock-up  cases,  and 
when  he  finds  that  a  series  of  one  class  between 
a  pair  of  stations  is  nearing  exhaustion  he  fills 
in  a  "  Ticket  Demand  Note,"  specifying  the 
name  of  destination  station,  route,  colour, 
class,  description,  fare,  number  of  ticket  which 
will  be  issued  last,  and  the  last  progressive 
number  of  tickets  in  stock. 

This  demand  note  is  signed  by  the  chief 
booking  clerk  and  sent  up  to  the  accountant's 
office,  where  it  is  checked  and  compared  with 
the  Ticket  Stock  Registers.  Each  issuing 
station  has  an  account  in  the  stock  registers, 

4813 


TRANSIT 

and  the  following  part ieulars  .in-  inserted  in 
I  heir  proper  columns  :  name  of  cadi  destination 
station,  route,  class.  (It-script  ion.  date  of  demand. 
last  progressive  number  of  tickets  supplied,  and 
tpiantity  supplied  in  bundles  of  •_';")(>.  and  date 
of  last  supply. 

Boohing  ClerKs.  Immediately  after  the 
departure  of  t-ach  train,  the  "  (rain  book  "  is  made 
up,  showing  an  account  of  tickets  issued,  a  separate 
entry  being  made  for  each  station  and  class. 
The  "  commencing  number  "  is  copied  from  the 
blate.  and  the  "  closing  number  "  from  the  ticket 
next  to  issue,  while  t  lit-  number  of  each  blank 
card  ticket  issued  has  to  be  entered  separately. 
.\ftei  the  train  book  has  been  nride  up,  the  old 
"commencing  number"  is  wiped  oil  the  slate, 
and  the  old  "closing  number,"  now  the  "com 
mencing  number,"  written  up  in  its  place. 
\\hcii  the  clerk  begins  booking  for  those  stations 
again. 

At  the  close  of  the  day  a  "  Proof  Sheet,"  or 
I  >aily  ( 'lassilication  i>ook  is  made  up,  giving  an 
account  of  every  ticket  issued,  but  before 
attempting  to  balance  the  day's  takings  th" 
number  of  tickets  that  has  been  issued  is 
balanced  in  a  "Taking  Out  Sheet."  At  in- 
tervals during  the  day  the  clerks  have  been 
paying  in  "  on  account  "  to  the  cashier  of  the 
booking  office,  and  OH  the  following  morning 
between  9  a.m.  and  10.30  a.m., the  whole  of  the 
takings  of  the  day  before  are  paid  to  the  cliiet 
cashier  in  the  accountant's  office,  and  there 
balanced  with  the  daily  classification  book. 

Checking  the  Receipts.  The  takings 
and  tickets  issued  by  each  individual  clerk 
are  made  up  separately,  BO  that  any  individual 
loss  or  surplus  may  be  located.  '  The  fore- 
going is  the  procedure  followed  at  the  great 
terminal  stations,  \\  here  on  certain  days  of  the 
year,  the  eve  of  a  Bank  Holiday,  for  instance, 
the  number  of  tickets  issued  runs  into  tens  ot 
thousands,  while  tin-cash  receipts  total  thousand-. 
of  pounds.  And  tlu>  s..me  system  applies  on 
a  more  or  less  modified  scale,  according  to  its 
importance,  at  every  issuing  station  on  the 
railway.  At  ordinary  stations,  the  station- 
master  is  responsible  for  the  woik  of  the  clerks, 
and  at  small  stations  he  issues  the  tickets  and 
makes  up  the  books  himself.  For  the  collection 
of  cash  receipts  and  used  tickets,  th"  line  is 
divided  into  districts.  Specially  constructed 
safes  travel  up  and  down  the'  line  between 
district  headquarters  by  passenger  train,  and 
into  these  receptacles  the  stationmasters  of 
intermediate  stations  place  their  takings  in 
bags,  for  which  the  guard  of  the  train  signs. 
while  leather  cases  containing  the  collected 
tickets  are  also  delivered  into  his  charge. 

At  the  district  headquarters  the  cash  is 
banked  as  soon  as  it  is  received,  while  the 
Vccount  sheets  and  collected  tickets  arc  for- 
warded every  month  to  the  chief  audit  office. 
The  daily  classitication  books  are  not  sent  up 
to  the  audit  department,  but  at  the  end  of 
each  month  the  \\lmle  of  the  commencing 


numbers  arc  taken  oil  from  the  ticket;  them 
selves,  and  worked  out  on  the  month's  issue. 
This  monthly  total  must  balance  with  the 
totals  of  the  dailv  classification  books. 

The  Monthly  Audit  System.  The  task 
of  gelling  out  tin-  monthly  audit  of  the  receipts 
Irom  all  coaching  tralfic  is  very  laborious,  and 
necessitates  the  employment  of  a  special  stall 
of  clerks  and  ticket  sorters,  the  latter  con- 
sisting of  boys.  (>]•  sometimes  women.  Kaeh 
collected  ticket  has  to  be  sorted  back  into  its 
proper  series  of  kind,  class,  and  station,  and 
a  note  taken  of  missing  numbers  ami  tickets 
irregularly  issued.  Directly  the  monthly  audit 
is  completed,  the  sorted  tickets  (save  those  of 
the  blank  card  type)  are  defaced  and  destroyed, 
but  blank  card  tickets  are  kept  back  for  another 
month  before  being  consigned  to  oblivion. 

Schedules  of  missing  tickets  are  sent  every 
month  to  the  station  responsible  for  an  explana- 
tion, and  should  the  number  be  unusually  large 
an  investigation  is  ordered. 

Training  of  Boohing  Clerks.  Book- 
ing clerks,  as  a  rule,  begin  to  learn  their  duties 
as  boy  clerks  or  boy  ticket  sorters.  Promotion 
in  this  branch  of  the  service  depends  entirely 
upon  intelligence  and  merit.  A  smart  clerk 
knows  the  geography  of  his  line  backwards,  so 
to  speak,  has  hundreds  of  fares  in  his  head, 
and  is  a  lightning  calculator  of  ticket  sums. 
Another  important  qualification  for  a  booking 
clerk  is  an  unruffled  temper.  Pertinacious 
inquirers  about  subjects  which  have  no  concern 
w  ith  the  issue  of  tickets  have  to  be  persuaded  to 
move  on,  and  no  notice  must  be  taken  of  the 
remarks  of  irritable  or  ill-conditioned  travellers 
who  air  grievances  against  the  company  on  the 
''man  behind  the  pig, -on  hole."  Booking  clerks 
are  sometimes  accused  of  being  curt,  but  the  fact 
is  that  they  an- generally  working  against  time. 

To  ease  the  labours  of  booking  clerks  during  the 
"rush"  hours,  automatic  1  icket -issuing  machines 
have  been  adopted  by  the  Great  Western, 
North  London,  and  Metropolitan  Companies. 
These  machines  are.  however,  practically  confined 
to  the  issue  of  workmen's  tickets,  at  penny  or 
twopenny  fares. 

Ticket  Nipping.  There  is  a  good  deal 
more  in  the  nipping  of  tickets  by  examiners 
than  meets  the  eye.  The  practice  has  a  two 
fold  object — to  deface  the  cards  so  that 
they  shall  not  IK?  used  over  again,  and  to 
mark  them  by  impressing  a  number  or  punch 
ing  out  a  sign  or  letter,  in  order  to  alTord 
evidence  of  the  right  of  companies  to  claim  a 
proport  ion  of  the  through  fare  when  passengers 
ha\e  travelled  by  a  route  different  from  that  for 
which  the  tickets  were  issued,  or  to  pro\c  how 
far  a  p:issv-n ;:er  had  travelled  in  the  c:\sc  of  n 
refund  claim.  A  different  numbiT  or  mark  is 
tixc.l  by  the  Clearing  irons-  for  each  junction 
or  principal  station,  or  group  of  minor  stations, 
a  record  of  the  same  being  kepi  there.  Further, 
certain  numbers  arc  kept  in  reserve,  and  given 
to  stations  from  time  to  time  a*  require.! 


Continued 


-1S1  I 


THE  JOURNALIST'S   SYSTEM 

The  Journalist's  Plan  of  Life.     Building  up  a  Library.     "  Every  Journalist  His 
Own  British  Museum."     Newspaper  Cuttings  and  What  to  Do  with  Them 


Group  19 

JOURNALISM 


Continued  from  page 
4(i75 


By  ARTHUR   MEE 


I F  it  ImH  seemed  that  these  articles  arc  inspired 
by  an  extravagant  optimism,  that,  fortunately, 
cannot  be  helped.  The  road  to  success  m 
journalism  may  be  hard  at  times,  but  there  are 
few  careers  which,  in  the  main,  fall  in  more 
pleasant  places.  And  it  is  a  fact  of  immense 
encouragement  to  the  young  journalist  to  know 
that  all  his  life,  whoever  he  is,  wherever  he  may 
be,  in  whatever  work  ho  may  be  engaged,  he  can 
be  laying  the  road  along  which  to  travel  to  his 
destination.  He  may  order  his  life  so  that  he  is 
going  constantly  forward ;  slower  than  ho  will  like 
sometimes,  perhaps,  but  always  forward.  For, 
as  we  have  agreed  that  journalism  is  the  reflection 
and  interpretation  of  life  itself,  it  follows  that 
the  natural  life  of  man  is  the  journalist's  best 
training  ground.  And  the  journalist,  if  he  is  a 
journalist  indeed  and  not  merely  in  name,  so 
orders  his  life  that,  almost  without  knowing  it, 
without  any  physical  strain  and  with  hardly  any 
eonseious  effort,  he  builds  up  a  system  that  be- 
comes to  him  a  means  of  living  and  a  joy  for  ever. 
The  journalist's  system  is,  if  anything  can  be, 
his  guarantee  of  success.  No  journalist  can  hope 
to  succeed,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  speak  of 
success  here,  unless  he  has  a  system.  What, 
then,  is  the  journalist's  system  ? 

The     Organisation      of     Knowledge. 

It  is,  in  a  word,  a  plan  of  life  by  which  all 
his  pleasures,  all  his  interests,  all  his  holidays, 
all  liis  books,  every  thought  and  energy  he  has, 
registers  itself  in  his  work.  The  chief  end 
of  the  journalist's  system  is  the  organisation 
of  knowledge  and  information.  His  motto  is 
to  have  all  the  facts  in  the  world  on  his 
desk.  His  first  business  is  to  know  as  much  as 
he  can  himself  ;  his  next  business  is  to  be  able 
to  find  out  at  once  what  ho  does  not  know.  He 
must  have  a  British  Museum  of  his  own.  He 
must  make  his  own  encyclopaedia  from  day  to 
day.  He  must  be  able  to  answer  any  one  of  a 
million  questions,  and  to  answer  them,  not  in  a 
week  or  in  a  day,  but  in  an  hour  or  in  a  minute. 
He  must  be  able  to  quote  an  opinion,  tell  a  story, 
or  recall  an  event,  and  to  do  all  these  things 
without  leaving  his  own  room. 

If  it  is  said  that  all  this  is  impossible,  that  no 
journalist  has  the  time  to  do  it  or  can  afford  to 
do  it,  the  reply  to  the  critic  is  that  he  had  better 
give  up  journalism.  If  reading  is  not  as  interest- 
ing to  him  as  playing  billiards,  if  books  are  not 
as  much  worth  buying  as  cigarettes,  he  should 
play  billiards  and  smoke  cigarettes  and  leave 
the  serious  things  of  the  world  alone.  We  are 
asking  nothing  that  has  not  been  done,  nothing 
that  is  not  easy  to  the  man  who  is  a  journalist 
because  he  loves  journalism.  In  no  age  sine*; 
printing  began  have  books  been  more  plentiful ; 


in  no  country  where  books  have  been  introduced 
have  books  oeen  cheaper  than  in  England  now. 
Never  have  the  newspapers  been  so  good,  so  full, 
so  varied.  Never  has  science  been  so  interesting, 
so  popular,  so  simple.  Never  have  commerce  and 
industry  and  invention  been  so  wonderful,  so 
full  of  romance.  All  the  strange  story  of  the 
world  as  it  moves,  all  the  energies  of  the  race 
as  it  reaches  out  to  its  great  destiny,  all  the 
thoughts  of  men  and  all  the  mysteries  and 
problems  of  our  lives,  come  to  us  in  papers 
and  books.  To  say  that  wo  know  nothing  of 
these  things  is  to  declare  ourselves  uneducated ; 
to  say  that  we  cannot  keep  a  record  of  these 
things  is  to  declare  ourselves  unfit  for  journalism. 

The  Legacy  of  Odd  Moments.  This 
course  of  journalism  is  being  concluded  in  a 
journalist's  library  which  its  possessor  wouW. 
not  part  with  for  a  gold  mine  in  Johannesburg. 
It  has  been  built  up  in  ten  years  of  a  busy 
journalist's  life,  in  leisure  hours  and  odd 
moments.  It  has  five  thousand  books,  half  of 
them  found  in  second-hand  book  shops  and  in 
second-hand  catalogues,  covering  every  subject 
under  the  sun.  It  contains  a  record  of  everybody 
of  importance  who  has  ever  lived.  It  contains  a 
history  of  every  country  that  has  ever  been.  It 
has  within  its  four  walls  the  best  thoughts  of  the 
best  thinkers  of  all  ages.  It  is  a  temple  of  all 
that  was  permanent  hi  the  past,  of  all  the  hopes 
of  men  for  the  future. 

And,  not  least  in  value  for  the  journalist,  it 
is  a  record  and  an  index  of  the  present.  For  it  is 
more  than  a  library  of  books  ;  it  is  a  library  of 
information  that  never  has  been  and  never  will 
be  contained  in  books.  It  has  a  cabinet  of  a 
quarter  of  a  million  articles,  paragraphs,  notes, 
and  references,  taken  from  magazines,  newspapers, 
and  books.  It  is  an  ever-ready,  ever-growing, 
ever-up-to-date  encyclopaedia  of  newspaper  infor- 
mation, every  item  of  it  immediately  accessible. 
At  least  five  thousand  columns  of  London  daily 
papers  have  been  written  from  this  library.  For 
years  it  furnished  two  regular  columns  a  day  in 
a  well-known  evening  paper,  and  one  of  these 
columns  is  now  running  in  its  seventh  year  from 
this  source  of  supply.  The  matter  that  has  been 
supplied  from  this  library  to  London  editors  could 
not  be  contained  in  all  the  volumes  of  the  SELF- 
EDUCATOR,  and  the  library  is  inexhaustible.  It 
grows  in  interest  and  freshness  every  day,  and  the 
time  can  never  come,  so  long  as  it  is  maintained, 
when  a  clever  journalist  could  not  earn  a  hand- 
some income  by  sitting  in  this  library  with  ;i 
typewriter  in  front  of  him,  a  telephone  at  his 
side,  and  a  post  office  within  reach. 

Newspaper  Cuttings.  The  building  up 
of  such  a  system  of  information  demands  no 


JOURNALISM 

great  genius,  and  no  very  considerable  out- 
lay. It  calls  for  great  patience,  care,  and 
foresight,  for  an  excellent  sense  of  discrimi- 
nation, and  for  all  the  qualities  that  go  to  make 
a  journalist.  It  implies  a  capacity  for  organisa- 
tion and  persistence,  and  a  wise  utility  of  spare 
moments.  It  demands,  above  all,  regularity. 
But  these  things  are  possible  for  all,  and  the 
creation  of  a  system  such  as  this  involves  no 
resources  beyond  the  reach  of  an  ordinary 
journalist  with  an  ordinary  income.  It  may  mean 
that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  keep  a  diary  of 
social  engagements,  or  to  stand  vacantly  watching 
a  football  match  ;  but  success  in  journalism  is 
cheap  at  the  price. 

The  best  of  all  the  raw  material  with  which  the 
journalist  has  to  build  is  the  newspaper.  He 
will  find  a  good  collection  of  newspaper  cuttings 
more  valuable  even  than  books.  The  five 
thousand  books  in  the  library  in  which  this  is 
written  might,  with  exceedingly  great  difficulty 
and  in  the  course  of  months  or  years,  be 
duplicated.  But  nobody  else  in  the  world 
has,  or  can  have,  a  duplicate  of  the  companion 
cabinet  of  information.  Newspaper  cuttings 
have,  therefore,  a  unique  value,  ever  increasing 
as  the  cuttings  grow  in  quantity  and  variety,  and 
the  journalist. who  builds  up  his  library  not  only 
of  printed  books,  but  links  his  books  with  a 
growing  collection  of  .unmade  books,  is  building 
his  house  on  a  rock. 

The  Journalist's  Newspapers.  He 
begins  by  giving  the  newsagent  a  list  of 
the  papers  that  are  most  prolific  in  "  things 
to  cut,"  and  he  will  find  this  experience,  by 
the  way,  the  surest  test  of  whether  a  newspaper 
is  well  or  badly  done.  In  going  through  his 
papers  he  will  mark  everything  that  is  to  be 
cut,  and  at  the  end  of  the  day  he  will  cut  these 
things  out,  date  them,  mark  them,  and  put 
them  away.  He  will  do  this  every  day  with  the 
dailies  and  every  week  with  the  weeklies,  and 
he  will  never,  if  he  is  wise,  allow  the  papers 
to  accumulate  uncut.  It  is  a  temptation  to 
which  it  is  easy  to  succumb  ;  but  it  encourages 
carelessness  and  makes  it  impossible  to  rely 
absolutely  on  the  system  he  is  creating.  He 
'  should  at  first  cut  out  the  paragraphs  or 
articles  he  wants  to  keep  and  mark  them  after- 
wards ;  the  placing  of  them  will  often  be  slow 
and  difficult.  In  course  of  time,  however,  he 
will  come  to  mark  the  papers  before  cutting 
them — that  is,  to  write  the  index-word  on  the 
paragraph  as  he  goes  through  the  paper.  This 
is  much  simpler,  especially  if  he  can  get  the 
papers  cut  for  him  afterwards.  He  must 
never  forget  to  date  a  cutting  plainly,  either  in 
the  white  space  in  the  heading  or  on  the  back, 
and  when  a  cutting  is  in  two  pieces  it  should 
be  carefully  pasted  together.  Small  cuttings 
of  two  or  three  lines  should  be  pasted  on  neat 
slips  of  white  paper  ;  any  stationer  will  make 
a  thousand  slips  gummed  half-way  down  on  one 
side  for  a  few  shillings,  and  these  are  very 
convenient,  the  ungummed  portion  being  avail- 
able for  writing. 

The    collection    may    grow    slowly    at    first, 
probably  not  at  a  greater  rate  than  a  dozen  or 

4816 


twenty  cuttings  a  day.  But  there  is  a  wonderful 
sympathy  in  newspaper  matter,  and  it  is  one 
of  the  amazing  things  in  journalism  how  events 
link  themselves  together ;  how,  when  one 
remarkable  thing  happens,  other  remarkable 
things  of  the  same  kind  follow  ;  and  after  a 
while  the  rate  of  growth  will  be  much  greater. 

Many  obvious  questions  arise.  What  is  to  bo 
kept  ?  In  what  form  should  it  be  preserved.  ? 
How  is  it  to  be  marked  ?  They  are  vital 
questions,  and  upon  the  care  exercised  in  these 
directions  the  usefulness  of  the  system  depends. 

Useless  Material.  What  should  be 
kept?  Two  things  should  not  be  kept.  It 
is  unnecessary  and  wasteful  to  store  in  the 
cabinet  a  great  mass  of  information  which 
is  readily  accessible  in  year  books  and 
encyclopaedias.  Twenty  paragraphs  may  ap- 
pear in  the  course  of  a  year  containing 
the  barest  facts  of,  say,  Lord  Rosebery's  life, 
but  as  these  are  obtainable  in  a  moment  from 
a  dozen  familiar  sources  it  would  be  waste  of 
time  and  space  to  keep  them.  The  second 
class  of  matter  that  should  not  be  preserved  ic 
that  of  a  fleeting  and  trivial  kind.  The  great 
mass  of  matter  appearing  in  newspapers  is 
interesting  only  for  a  day  or  two  and  is  not 
worth  keeping  under  any  circumstances.  It 
may  happen  that  for  some  reason  or  other  this 
matter  is  worth  cutting.  Perhaps  it  may  l>e 
helpful  for  a  column  of  daily  or  weekly  notes 
the  journalist  is  writing.  In  that  case  it  should 
be  cut  and  kept  at  hand,  but  on  no  account 
should  such  ephemeral  matter  be  admitted  to  the 
cabinet.  Ordinary  society  and  sporting  informa- 
tion may  be  useful  as  pegs  upon  which  to  hang  a 
piece  of  gossip,  but  when  the  gossip  is  written 
it  is  useful  no  longer,  and  it  is  sheer  madness 
to  choke  a  valuable  cabinet  with  .trivialities 
of  this  kind.  It  is  as  absurd  as  it  would  be  to 
store  flower-pots  in  the  British  Museum,  and  it 
is  possible  very  seriously  to  impair  the  value 
of  a  system  such  as  this  by  introducing  matter 
with  no  permanent  value,  adding  bulk  and 
complexity  to  a  system  which  is  the  more 
valuable  the  more  it  can  be  confined  and  tho 
more  simple  it  can  be  kept. 

What  to  Keep  from  the  Papers. 
Having  decided  what  to  leave  out,  the  question 
of  what  to  admit  is  easily  settled.  Everything 
of  interest  likely  to  have  a  permanent  vnluo 
should  be  kept.  All  good  stories  .should  l*o 
carefully  preserved ;  all  interesting  utterance;-, 
of  public  men ;  all  interesting  things  about 
places.  Any  unusual  incident,  any  odd  fact, 
should  be  kept.  Interviews,  unless  on  some 
quite  ephemeral  topic,  are  usually  worth  keep- 
ing. The  speeches  of  coming  men,  too,  have- 
a  value  not  sufficiently  realised;  and  tho 
fullest  report  of  these  should  be  kept  intact, 
another  being  cut  up  if  worth  while.  Many 
excellent  little  bits  of  copy  creep  into  speeches 
to  lie  there  for  twenty-four  hours  unnoticed  by 
most  people  and  then  to  be  forgotten  :  and 
the  time  comes  when  the  wise  journalist  who 
has  kept  them  reveals  these  little  buried 
treasures  and  turns  them  into  very  gold. 
Articles  by  prominent  men  are  generally  worth 


cutting  up,  if  they  do  not  justify  preservation 
intact.  Nearly  all  newspapers  pay  for  them- 
selves to  the  journalist  who  knows  how  to  cut 
them — some  sixty,  some  ninety,  and  some  a 
hundredfold.  The  magazine  pages  of  the 
halfpenny  dailies  usually  provide  good  material 
for  future  use,  and  the  regular  columns  of  gossip 
should  never  be  missed. 

How  to  Keep  Cuttings.  In  what 
form  should  the  cutting  be  preserved  ? 
There  is  only  one  possible  way.  No  wise 
journalist  ever  pastes  cuttings  into  a  book,  or 
pastes  them  up  at  all.  The  ideal  way,  and  the 
only  convenient  and  effective  way,  is  to  place 
the  cuttings  in  envelopes.  The  best  envelopes 
are  ordinary  foolscap  size,  opening  lengthways 
instead  of  at  the  end,  with  ungummed  edges. 
Generally  they  must  be  specially  made.  When 
these  are  placed  alphabetically  in  a  drawer, 
with  the  subjects  typed  on  the  front  at  the  top 
edge  in  the  left-hand  corner,  with  the  drawers 
labelled,  all  that  is  necessary  to  put  a  cutting 
away  is  to  open  the  right  drawer,  find  the  right 
envelope,  and  drop  the  cutting  in  without 
taking  the  envelope  out.  The  cabinet  should,  if 
possible,  be  specially  made  to  receive  the 
envelopes.  There  are  many  other  ways  of 
storing  cuttings,  but  the  journalist  who  is 
beginning  to  build  up  a  system  of  information 
will  be  wise  to  ignore  them  all  and  adopt  this 
one.  He  will  find  it  impossible  to  alter  his 
system  in  a  few  years,  and  no  other  system  is 
half  so  simple  or  half  so  effective  as  this. 

How  should  the  cutting  be  marked  ?  This 
is  the  most  important  point  of  all.  The  entire 
value  of  the  cabinet  depends  upon  it.  The 
art  of  indexing  is  not  an  easy  one,  and  the 
placing  of  cuttings  where  they  will  be  most 
useful,  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  be  avail- 
able whenever  wanted,  is  often  a  task  of  great 
difficulty.  It  is,  however,  strange  to  note  how 
often,  in  marking  a  cutting,  the  keyword  is 
easily  found  in  the  cutting  itself,  usually  in  the 
heading  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  article.  In 
this  case  it  is  better  merely  to  underline  the 
word  in  ink.  All  marks  on  cuttings  should,  of 
course,  be  made  in  ink  and  not  in  pencil. 

How  to  Mark  a  Cutting.  Two 
factors  should  be  borne  in  mind.  There 
may  be  a  dozen  points  of  view  from  which  a 
paragraph  may  be  regarded,  and  the  point 
of  view  from  which  we  decide  to  regard  it 
should  be  that  which  is  likely  to  make  the 
paragraph  most  useful.  It  will  frequently 
be  necessary  to  cut  two  or  three  copies  of 
a  paragraph  and  place  them  from  two  or  three 
points  of  view,  or  to  make  cross-references ;  and 
either  of  these  ways  is  easy,  nearly  all  interest- 
ing paragraphs  appearing  in  some  form  in  most 
papers. 

Another  factor  to  bear  in  mind  in  placing  a 
cutting  is  memory.  When  the  time  comes  for 
referring  to  the  cutting  the  probability  is  that 
it  will  come  to  mind,  but  it  is  essential  that  the 
headings  under  which  the  cuttings  are  placed 
in  the  index  shall  be  of  such  a  character  as  to 
help  memory.  Let  us  take  an  example.  A 
woman  had  a  delusion  that  she  had  swallowed 

1    F 


JOURNALISM 

a  lizard,  and  the  doctor,  knowing  her  story  to 
be  absurd,  placed  her  under  chloroform  and 
assured  her  that  the  operation  had  been  suc- 
cessful. The  woman  "  recovered,"  and  was 
perfectly  sane  again.  Obviously  the  paragraph 
is  of  great  interest  and  is  likely  to  be  useful. 
What  shall  we  do  with  it  ?  It  could  be  placed 
under  LIZARDS,  but  that  would  be  the  wildest 
thing  to  do.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  lizards, 
except  by  the  merest  chance,  and  it  is  as  likely 
as  not  that  when  the  paragraph  comes  to  mind 
we  shall  think  of  newts  or  cockroaches  instead 
of  lizards.  The  lizard  has  nothing  to  do  with  the. 
story.  The  paragraph,  again,  could  be  placed 
under  DOCTORS,  but  it  is  not  really  of  any  con- 
siderable interest  from  the  doctor's  point  of 
view,  and  in  writing  any  conceivable  thing 
about  doctors  it  would  not  greatly  help  one  to 
be  able  to  quote  this  example.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  contended  that  at  least  a  cross-reference 
to  this  story  might  be  made  under  DOCTORS. 
A  third  way  in  which  the  story  might  be  placed 
is  under  DELUSIONS,  but  here  again  the  last 
remark  applies.  In  the  history  of  delusions  this 
woman's  was  not  by  any  means  remarkable. 

The  Classifying  of  Information. 
What,  then,  shall  we  do  with  it  ?  Let  us 
read  the  paragraph  again  and  discover  its 
fundamental  idea.  Clearly,  it  is  a  remarkable 
example  of  the  power  of  imagination.  It  is 
by  far  the  most  interesting  point  of  view  from 
which  the  story  can  be  regarded,  and  the  po\ver 
of  imagination  is  a  subject  upon  which  a  jour- 
nalist can  write  frequently  without  becoming 
monotonous.  So  that  we  mark  our  paragraph 
IMAGINATION,  date  it,  and  put  it  away. 

It  may  be,  however,  that  the  single  word 
IMAGINATION  is  inadequate.  Let  us  suppose 
that  the  journalist  is  greatly  attracted  to  this 
subject,  and  collects  so  much  material  concern- 
ing it  that  he  must  classify  it  into  subdivisions. 
In  that  case  he  may  have  such  entries  as  IMAG- 
INATION simply  ;  IMAGINATION — POWER  OF  ; 
IMAGINATION — STORIES.  The  paragraph  we  are 
considering  would  then  come  under  IMAGINATION 
— POWER  OF.  This  subdivision  will  become 
a  matter  of  great  importance  as  the  collection 
grows.  As  material  under  a  specific  heading 
accumulates  it  must  be  edited  and  arranged  in 
several  groups.  No  single  envelope  must  be 
allowed  to  become  bulky.  The  more  bulky 
an  envelope  is,  the  more  difficult  reference  to  it 
becomes,  and  the  first  essential  of  the  system — 
instant  reference — is  defeated.  -  Important 
general  headings,  such  as  PARLIAMENT,  LONDON, 
GOVERNMENT,  RAILWAYS,  and  so  on,  and  im- 
portant names  in  the  personal  section,  may 
demand  a  dozen  or  even  twenty  or  thirty 
envelopes,  and  it  will  be  necessary  sometimes 
to  subdivide  these  divisions.  Let  us  take  an 
example. 

To  Make  Reference  Easy.  There 
must,  of  course,  be  a  main  heading  for  LONDON, 
and  one  of  the  subdivisions  will  be  LONDON — 
TRAFFIC.  But  the  London  traffic  question 
is  so  important  that  it  has  several  aspects, 
and  these  must  be  kept  clearly  in  mind.  There 
must  be,  for  instance,  traffic  statistics,  traffic 

4817 


JOURNALISM 

problems,  traffic  systems,  traffic  reports,  traffic 
finance,  perhaps  traffic  stories,  and  so  on, 
and  at  any  time  the  journalist  may  want 
material  upon  any  of  these  specific  subjects. 
Obviously  it  would  be  an  absurd  waste  of  time 
to  go  through  the  entire  mass  of  material  on  the 
traffic  question  to  find  oat  how  the  tube  railways 
are  ventilated,  and  the  only  possible  way  of 
arranging  all  this  matter  is  to  have  separate 
envelopes.  The  best  way  of  marking  these 
envelopes  is  to  type  the  heading  at  the  top 
left-hand  corner,  close  to  the  edge,  in  this  way : 
LONDON 
TRAFFIC 

Further  subdivisions  should  be  typed  like 
this: 

LONDON 

TRAFFIC — STATISTICS 

These  envelopes  will  come  alphabetically  in 
the  London  section  of  the  cabinet. 

The  journalist  will  find  it  extremely  useful 
and  most  interesting  to  develop  his  own  ideas 
in  his  cabinet,  and  to  make  it  much  more  than 
a  record  of  fact.  He  may  have,  for  example, 
some  ideas  as  to  the  quickest  ways  to  get  across 
London,  and  if  he  will  keep  the  idea  in  his 
mind  he  will  find  that  material  for  its  expansion 
will  come  from  many  unexpected  sources.  He 
should,  in  this  case,  type  an  envelope: 
LONDON 

QUICKEST  WAYS  ACROSS 

in  which  material  for  an  article  may  gradually 
accumulate.  In  his  notebook  he  will  note 
"  Quickest  Ways  Across  London  "  as  an  idea  for 
an  article,  with  a  reference  to  the  envelope,  and 
when  he  comes  to  write  it  he  will  find  that  the 
material  he  wants  is  ready  for  him. 

Cutting   Envelopes.      The  subdivision  of 

subjects   will    suggest  itself   as    the    collection 

grows,    but    it    may    be   helpful  to    give   one 

instance.      Let  us  take  one  subject  from  the 

cabinet  mentioned.     The  cross-references  on  the 

outside    of    the    envelopes    should    be    noted. 

They  are  important,  and  should  be  typed  along 

the  top  edge  of  the  envelope  in  line  with  the 

heading,  but  at  the  other  end. 

LEGAL  see  also   VERDICTS,   WITNESSES, 

JUDGES,  POLICE,   JURIES,  PEA^ENHALL  CASE. 

INQUESTS,  TIME— LEGAL,  FORTUNES,  IDENTITY, 

JUSTICE — MISCARRIAGES  OF,  DEATH — LEGAL. 

[Each  subsequent  envelope  bears  the  heading  LEGAL, 
but  for  brevity  only  sub-headings  are  given  here.] 
DECISIONS  see  also  VERDICTS 

SENTENCES  AND  JUDGMENTS 
DELAYS 

ERRORS  see  also  JUSTICE — MISCARRIAGES 

I  I.I.KI;  ALITIES  see  also  GOVT. — ILLEGALITIES 

LAW  OFFICERS 

LITIGANTS  see  also  DELUSIONS 

£  s.  d.  see  also  LAW  COURTS 

MECHANICAL  ODDITIES — WRITS,  etc. 
NEW  LAW  ODDITIES  soe  also  CHANGE 

NOTABLES  IN  COURT  see  also  WITNESSES 

ODDITIES — CRIMINAL  see  JURIES — IDENTITY 

ODDITIES — GENERAL 
I'OIVTS  see  also  TIME— LEGAL 

Sr  \NDALS 

The  heading  under  which  a  cutting  is  to  be 
placed  should  be  clearly  marked  in  a  white 
space,  anywhere  on  the  cutting,  rather  than  across 
the  reading  matter,  and  it  is  wise  to  use  a  rubber 
stamp  for  dating.  It  is  best  to  rr  ark  the  cuttings 

481R 


in  the  white  space  at  the  heading  :  in  the  case  of 
cuttings  which  fold  up  this  must  be  so,  and  they 
should  be  folded  with  the  mark  outside. 

Personal  Information.  The  cabinet 
as  a  whole  must  be  divided  into  two  main 
sections — personal  and  general.  Nearly  all  the 
difficulties  will  arise  in  the  general  section.  The 
titles  for  the  envelopes  in  the  personal  section 
are  fixed,  and  will  determine  themselves,  but, 
to  begin  with,  the  journalist  should  type 
envelopes  bearing  the  names  of  all  well-known 
people,  and  in  some  cases  several  envelopes  for 
one  person,  such  as  : 

JOHN  MORLEY  JOHN  MORLEY 

SPEECHES  LITER  AI  TIRE 

and  so  on.  He  should  also  type  a  series  of 
envelopes  bearing  -\11  the  familiar  names,  such 
as  Smith,  Jones,  Brown.  Into  these  envelopes 
all  the  Smiths,  Joneses  and  Browns  can  go,  unless 
in  any  case  the  Smith,  Jones  or  Brown  is  im- 
portant enough  for  an  envelope  to  himself. 

The  envelopes  bearing  common  names  should 
in  all  cases  be  placed  after  particular  names — 
that  is,  SIR  WILLIAM  BROWN  should  come  before 
BROWN.  In  putting  away  cuttings,  this  arrange- 
ment makes  it  clear  whether  Sir  William  Brown 
has  an  envelope  of  his  own  before  the  common 
Brown  envelope  is  reached. 

The  number  of  envelopes  bearing  common 
names  will  be  small,  and  the  great  mass  of  the 
personal  envelopes  will  at  first  be  marked  with 
only  the  initial  letters  of  names,  arranged 
so  as  to  receive  every  name  that  could  occur. 
The  journalist  who  is  in  earnest  in  building  up 
his  cabinet  will  be  wise  in  carrying  out  his 
"  splitting  up "  of  the  alphabet  on  these 
envelopes  to  the  third  letter.  He  will  find  that 
by  doing  this  he  will  use  some  hundreds  of 
envelopes,  many  of  which  will  be  empty  for  a 
long  time,  but  in  the  end  it  will  save  him  the 
trouble  of  having  to  rearrange  his  envelopes — a 
task  so  overwhelming  that  he  cannot  possibly 
afford  to  contemplate  it.  The  envelopes  in  the 
personal  section  will  begin  something  like  this  : 
Aba  Aberdeen,  Lord  and  Lady 

Abadie  Abl 

Abb  Sir  Wm.  Abney 

Edwin  Abbey,  R.A.        Abn 
Abbey  Abr 

Dr.  Lyman  Abbott         Wm.  Abraham,  M.P. 
Sir  Jos.  Abbott  Abs 

Abe  Abyssinia:    Emperor  of 

Abd  Abyssinia :    Royalties 

Abe  Abyssinia :  Ras  Makunnen 

Abeokuta,  Alake  of        Abyssinia :  Notables 
Abercorn,  Duke  of          Ac 

When  this  arrangement  is  followed  through 
the  alphabet  there  will  be  no  name  that  cannot 
be  placed,  and  the  journalist  will  then  be  able 
to  store  a  cutting  about  anybody  so  as  to  be 
able  to  find  it  at  once.  He  must  go  through 
these  envelopes  periodically,  and  when  he  finds 
them  growing  bulky  he  will  take  out  all  cuttings 
referring  to  one  person  and  give  that  person  a 
special  envelope.  As  a  rale,  it  may  be  con- 
sidered worth  while  to  have  a  special  envelope 
if  there  are  three  cuttings  under  one  name. 


In  nearly  all  cases  in  the  personal  section, 
envelopes  should  be  marked  with  names.  There 
are,  however,  a  few  desirable  exceptions,  as 
in  the  case  of  countries  where  the  names  of 
public  men  are  not  familiar.  The  German 
Emperor  will,  of  course,  come  under  GERMANY — 
EMPEROR,  and  Prince  Buelow  under  BUELOW  ; 
Herr  Bebel  under  BEBEL,  and  so  on.  It  is  not  so 
simple,  however,  in  Liberia  or  Abyssinia,  where 
the  important  names  are  less  familiar,  and  in 
these  cases  envelopes  marked  ABYSSINIA — 
NOTABLES,  ABYSSINIA — ROYALTIES,  and  so  on, 
will  save  much  confusion  and  difficulty. 

Index  as  You  Read.  The  arrangement 
of  the  general  envelopes  is  not  so  easy,  and 
we  have  already  considered  some  of  its 
difficulties.  The  cuttings  themselves,  however, 
must  determine  these  arrangements,  and  ex- 
perience will  make  the  matter  easier  as  the 
cuttings  grow.  It  is  a  safe  rule  not  to  be  afraid 
of  divisions  and  subdivisions,  but  to  exercise 
foresight  and  prepare  for  great  developments. 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  a  cabinet  is 
merely  a  receptacle  for  cuttings  from  newspapers. 
It  must  be  a  cabinet  of  general  information. 
The  cabinet  we  have  mentioned  has  in  it  many 
thousands  of  references  made  from  books,  with 
jottings  of  interesting  facts  picked  up  in  many 
ways  and  places,  so  that  its  material  on  any  given 
subject  may  have  been  gathered  from  three 
main  sources  :  (1)  Magazines  and  newspapers, 
(2)  books,  (3)  personal  knowledge.  No  journalist 
should  read  books  without  making  notes.  He 
should  always  have  by  him  slips  on  which  to 
make  notes,  and  should  make  his  own  indexes 
of  books  as  he  reads  them.  There  are  very 
few  books  with  satisfactory  indexes,  and  fewer 
indexes  still  that  are  satisfactory  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  journalist  to  whom  a  book  is  a  tool. 
Let  us  dip  into  our  cabinet  again,  and  we  find 
thousands  of  such  notes  as  these. 
WITNESS  Box 

A    witness    afraid    of     dying    in   the    box.      Life   of 
Lord  RUSSELL,  145 
AGE 

LINKS  WITH  THE  PAST 

Witness    giving   evidence     of     events   of    which     he 
had  been  a  spectator  120  years  before.     Remarkable 
case.      1.  History  of  YORKSHIRE,  201. 
POLITICS 

UNCERTAINTIES 

Difficulty    of    predicting  with    certainty    in.    politics. 
Cobden  on  the  Com  Laws,  DUFF,  D.  247. 
Recall  story  of   Melbourne,   who  told  Disraeli    there 
was  no  chance  of  his  being  premier. 
SECRETS 

STATE 

Lord  Granville  repeating  Queen  Victoria's  words  to 
the  TIMES.       2.  Paul's  HISTORY  of  England,  215. 

Such  entries  as  these,  made  constantly  through 
years  of  reading,  add  enormously  to  the  value 
of  the  cabinet.  Though  the  books  in  the 
library  may  be  duplicated,  it  is  almost  impossible 
that  entries  such  as  these  should  be  duplicated, 
and  the  journalist  who  has  such  things  available 
is  not  likely  to  want  for  something  to  write  about. 

How  to  Use  a  Book.  There  is  no  space 
here  to  go  closely  into  the  arrangement  of 
the  library,  but  the.  journalist  will,  of  course, 
have  a  system  making  each  book  accessible 
without  delay.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the  entries 


JOURNALISM 

above  that  a  word  from  the  title  of  each 
book  is  in  capital  letters,  an  arrangement 
which  is  part  of  the  system.  In  the  AGE 
entry,  for  example,  the  printing  of  YORK- 
SHIRE in  capitals  means  that  the  book  will  be 
found  in  the  topographical  part  of  the  library 
under  "Yorkshire."  In  the  entry  under  POLITICS 
the  use  of  capital  letters  for  DUFF  means  that 
the  book  from  which  the  note  is  made,  one  of 
Sir  M.  Grant  Duff's  diaries,  is  under  "  Duff "  in 
the  biographical  part  of  the  library. 

It  will  be  clear  to  all  that  in  indexing  a  library 
many  references  will  occur  which  cannot  con- 
veniently come  into  our  cabinet.  It  is  un- 
desirable, for  instance,  to  have  an  envelope 
for  William  Pitt  or  for  the  French  Revolution. 
There  are  weighty  arguments  against  allowing 
the  cabinet  to  be  used  for  "  dead  "  as  well  as 
living  matter,  and  historical  things  should  not 
loom  large  in  a  cabinet  of  subjects  of  contemporary 
interest.  As  far  as  such  things  may  be  indexed 
under  subject  headings,  they  may,  of  course,  be 
admitted  into  the  cabinet,  but  there  are  many 
matters  which  could  only  be  indexed  under 
names  having  no  relation  to  any  particular 
subject  heading. 

The  Card  Index.  There  is,  let  us  say, 
an  important  anecdote  of  Lord  Castlereagh  in 
the  CREEVEY  PAPERS,  and,  as  the  CREEVEY 
PAPERS  do  not  come  under  CASTLEREAGH  on 
the  bookshelves,  it  is  important  that  this 
anecdote  should  be  introduced  somewhere,  so 
that  in  writing  of  Lord,  Castlereagh  it  may  not 
be  overlooked.  The  best  way  of  registering  such 
things  is  by  a  card-index.  In  the  library  in 
which  this  is  written  is  a  card-index  covering, 
more  or  less  roughly,  2,000  books  of  biography. 
It  does  not  contain  a  full  list  of  the  names  01 
titles  of  books,  because  the  proper  arrange- 
ment of  a  library  makes  it  quite  unnecessary 
to  index  these.  The  biographical  books  are 
arranged  on  the  shelves  in  the  alphabetical 
order  of  names,  and  the  index  is  a  contents 
index  to  the  books — in  some  cases  a  full  index, 
made  when  reading  the  book,  in  others  a  rough 
index,  made  either  in  glancing  through  the  book 
or  from  the  index  in  the  book.  In  the  latter 
case  the  index  is  not,  of  course,  thorough, 
though  .full  enough  to  be  helpful,  and  quite  worth 
the  time  it  took  to  make  it.  Under  C  in  this 
card -index  occurs  the  entry  : 
LORD  CASTLEREAGH 

Extremely  interesting  anecdote 

2  CREEVEY  PAPERS,  p.  38 

Books  Within  Reach.  There  is  no 
room  here  to  consider  the  kind  of  books 
that  are  most  useful  to  the  journalist,  but 
he  should  have  within  reach  all  the  familiar 
dictionaries,  concordances,  encyclopaedias,  and 
year  books.  He  cannot  be  satisfied  with  the 
completeness  of  his  system  unless  he  has  on  his 
desk,  or  on  his  shelves,  WHITAKER'S  ALMANACK, 
HAZELL'S  ANNUAL,  the  DAILY  MAIL  YEAR 
BOOK,  WHO'S  WHO,  CHAMBERS'S  BOOK  OF  DAYS, 
HAYDN'S  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES,  BARTLETT'S 
FAMILIAR  QUOTATIONS,  CHAMBERS'S  DICTIONARY 
OF  BIOGRAPHY,  HARMS  WORTH  and  CHAMBERS'S 
ENCYCLOPEDIAS,  the  ENCYCLOPEDIA  BRITAX- 

4819 


JOURNALISM 

NICA,  the  MUNICIPAL  YEAR  BOOK,  the  LONDON 
MANUAL,  the  DICTIONARY  OF  NATIONAL  BIO- 
GRAPHY, ANNALS  OF  OUR  TIME,  BURKE'S  PEER- 
AGE AND  LANDED  GENTRY,  WHITAKER'S  PEER- 
AGE, MULHALL'S  STATISTICS,  BREWER'S  DIC- 
TIONARY OF  PHRASE  AND  FABLE,  the  STATES- 
MAN'S YEAR  BOOK,  the  COLONIAL,  INDIA,  AND 
FOREIGN  OFFICE  LISTS,  a  full  gazetteer  and 
atlas,  a  good  collection  of  guides  and  histories,  a 
good  dictionary,  and  all  the  poets  and  standard 
authors.  That  does  not  mean,  of  course,  that 
a  library  without  some  of  these  may  not  be 
excellent,  but  the  ideal  library  contains  all  these 
foundation  books.  Only  a  journalist  constantly 
using  them  is  able  to  appreciate  adequately  the 
great  mass  of  good  work  that  is  done  nowadays 
for  the  pure  love  of  doing  it,  without  any 
likelihood  of  gain.  Mr.  Stead's  "Indexes  to 
Periodicals,"  now  unhappily  stopped,  is  an 
example,  and  for  such  things  the  journalist 
cannot  be  too  thankful. 

A  System  to  Build  On.  The  journalist 
who  builds  up  a  system  on  the  lines  we 
have  suggested  will  find  many  splendid 
corner-stones  already  erected  for  him.  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  the  full  extent  of  the  work 
on  which  he  may  build.  The  finger-posts  to 
knowledge  in  the  library  in  which  we  are  writing 
must  be  counted  in  millions — there  must  be, 
that  is,  millions  of  keys  to  facts.  The  index  to 
the  ENCYCLOPAEDIA  BRITANNICA  has  600,000 
entries  ;  the  index  to  the  full  set  of  the  REVIEW 
OF  REVIEWS  has  25,000  entries  to  the  events  of 
the  last  sixteen  ye^.rs.  Another  index  has  about 
27,000  entries  to  the  events  of  the  Victorian  era  ; 
the  DICTIONARY  OF  NATIONAL  BIOGRAPHY  con- 
tains the  lives  of  30,000  of  the  most  important 
people  who  have  figured  in  our  history,  and 
2,000,000  facts  of  biographical  interest.  A  single 
index  exists  to  30,000  poems,  and  two  others 
have  a  total  of  70,000  guides  to  quotations 
from  poems.  The  GUIDE  TO  THE  BEST  FICTION 
describes  the  contents  of  4,500  books,  and  has 
an  index,  with  5,000  entries,  to  the  subjects  of 
novels.  In  another  work  are  4,500  references  to 
speeches,  lectures,  and  anecdotes,  and  another 
index  has  over  20,000  entries  dealing  with 
folk-lore.  WHO'S  WHO  gives  the  biographies 
of  21,000  people,  and  the  American  WHO'S  WHO 
does  the  same  for  15,000  people  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Atlantic.  CANADIAN  MEN  AND  WOMEN, 
and  similar  books  for  India  and  South  Africa, 
deal  with  people  of  importance  in  the  British 
Empire,  and  a  few  pounds  invested  in  a  year's 
supply  of  Blue  Books  puts  the  journalist  in 
possession  of  first-hand  facts  from  every  part  of 
the  world.  MULHALL'S  STATISTICS  gives  valuable 
information  on  about  8,000  subjects.  HAYDN'S 
DICTIONARY  OF  DATES  has  several  million  words 
of  concise  historical  information.  The  CONCORD- 
ANCE TO  SHAKESPEARE,  a  woman's  labour  of 
Jove  for  sixteen  years,  has  300,000  entries.  The 
RAILWAY  AND  COMMERCIAL  GAZETTEER,  also,  is  an 
excellent  work  from  which  a  word  of  public  recog- 

JOURNALISM  concluded  ; 


nition  should  not  be  withheld.  With  these  works 
to  build  on  and  encourage  him,  no  journalist 
need  despair  of  being  able  to  create  a  system. 

Personality  in  System.  It  ought  not 
to  be  necessary  to  emphasise  the  fact  that 
the  organisation  of  a  system  of  this  kind 
does  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the 
expression  of  personality  and  originality  in  the 
journalist's  work,  but  it  is  said  sometimes,  by 
those  who  do  not  properly  appreciate  the  purpose 
of  such  a  system,  that  it  is  a  form  of  trading 
on  other  people's  work.  Nothing  could  well  be 
more  absurd.  Until  men  cease  to  keep  books  of 
reference  no  journalist  need  greatly  trouble  about 
criticism  such  as  this.  If  we  could  remember 
everything  in  the  world  there  would  be  no  need 
for  systems.  The  journalist's  cabinet  of  infor- 
mation serves  the  purpose  of  a  sign-post  at 
cross-roads,  of  a  diary  on  a  busy  man's  desk,  of 
an  index  in  a  book — that  purpose  and  no  other. 
It  puts  a  man  in  possession  of  information 
which  he  has  had  the  foresight  to  realise  as 
valuable,  the  patience  to  collect,  and  the  ability 
to  arrange,  and  he  is  entitled  to  use  his  facts  as 
much  as  any  man  is  entitled  to  write  any  book 
from  knowledge  such  as  could  be  obtained 
only  from  other  books.  The  journalist  who 
creates  a  system  such  as  this  may  be  safely 
relied  upon  to  maintain  the  honour  and  dignity 
of  journalism,  and  not  to  "  live  upon  other 
men's  brains." 

The  Mission  of  Journalism.  He  may 
be  relied  upon  to  fulfil  the  great  mission  of 
journalism  as  Carlyle  conceived  it :  to  make 
some  corner  of  the  world  a  little  hopefuller,  a 
little  wiser,  manfuller,  and  happier.  Somewhere, 
behind  the  papers  we  buy  lightly  and  read  quickly 
and  throw  away,  is  the  effort  of  a  man  to  do  the 
best  he  can.  In  the  top  room  of  a  newspaper 
office  in  a  Midland  town  there  sat  for  years, 
until  not  long  ago,  a  man  who  wrote  hard  day 
after  day,  week  after  week,  for  a  great  paper 
with  a  name  known  all  over  England.  Nobody 
knew  him,  his  name  was  never  printed,  he  sat 
quietly  in  his  top  room  with  a  heap  of  copy  at 
his  elbow.  Each  night  he  walked  two  miles  into 
his  office  ;  at  two  o'clock  each  morning  he 
walked  two  miles  home  again,  to  the  rooms  where 
he  lived  alone  with  a  fatherless  boy  who  was  all 
his  care.  One  bitter  winter  midnight  he  reached 
home  without  his  key,  and  such  was  the  manner 
of  this  scribbler  that  he  walked  two  miles  back 
to  his  office  and  two  miles  home  again  rather  than 
wake  up  the  little  fellow  who  must  be  ready  to 
start  work  at  six  o'clock.  They  found  him  one 
day  bending  over  his  desk,  writing  his  paragraphs 
with  pain.  "  It  is  dropsy,"  he  said.  "  It  has 
come  up,  and  up,  and  when  it  is  up  to  here,  I 
suppose  it  will  be  all  over  ;  but .  .  .  don't  tell 

Mr. ."  They  took  him  from  his  desk  and 

from  his  paragraphs,  and  the  readers  of  the 
paper  knew  nothing  of  the  hand  that  was  still. 

He  was  just  a  maker  of  papers,  what  we  should 
all  try  to  be — a  journalist  and  a  gentleman. 

followed  by  PRINTING 


4xi>0 


THE  PURIFICATION  OF  SEWAGE 

Group  11 

CIVIL 
ENGINEERING 

Distributing  and  Sprinkling  Apparatus  for  the  Bacterial 
Treatment  of  Sewage.    Method  of  Testing  Purification 

34 

SEWKUAGK 

continued  from  page  4745 

By  Professor  HENRY  ROBINSON 


A  PAPER  on  the  bacterial  treatment  of 
^*  sewage  was  read  before  the  Royal  Society 
on  May  llth,  1905,  by  Professor  Marshall  Hall, 
F.R.S.,  giving  the  results  of  a  long  series  of 
experiments  by  Dr.  Chick.  These  were  made 
by  treating  the  same  seAvage  on  bacterial  beds 
both  on  the  "  contact "  and  "  percolating " 
systems,  and  the  following  conclusions  deserve 
recording : 

J.  The  advantages  of  the  continuous  method  would 
seem  to  lie  in  the  much  more  complete  aeration  and 
efficient  diffusion,  and  also  in  the  stratified  distribu- 
tion in  the  filter  of  the  different  stages  of  the  sewage 
purification. 

2.  In  the  case  of  contact  beds,  however,  clogging 
necessitates  the  cleaning  of  the  whole  bed,  an  exceed- 


their  working  with  that  of  double  contact  beds, 
some  percolating  beds  have  been  made  9  ft. 
deep  and  even  more.  Experience  has  proved 
that  shallow  beds  give  as  good  results  as  double 
contact  beds,  and  with  a  smaller  area  of  land 
required,  which  is  in  many  cases  a  most  im- 
portant consideration. 

Purification  at  Various  Depths.  As 
it  has  been  the  custom  of  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board  to  insist  that  the  quantity  of  sewage 
discharged  on  to  percolating  beds  shall  be 
governed  by  the  cubical  contents  of  the  bed, 
the  surface  area  being  reduced  as  the  depth  is 
increased,  the  following  table  of  experiments 


1  L_ 

42.    STODDART   SEWAGE   FILTER  43.    DETAIL   OF   STODDART   SEWAGE    DISTRIBUTOR 


ingly  costly  process.  From  these  considerations,  and 
as  a  result  of  the  present  experimental  study,  the 
method  of  continuous  filtration  would  appear  to  be  a 
most  advantageous  method  of  purifying  sewage. 

3.  The  contact  filters  did  not  yield  nearly  such 
good  results  as  the  continuous  filters. 

The  depths  of  percolating  beds  must  be  largely 
governed  by  the  level  at  which  the  sewage  is 
discharged  on  to  them,  and  at  which  the  effluent 
has  to  be  carried  off ;  also  as  to  the  shape  and 
level  of  the  land  to  be  prepared  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  beds.  For  the  purpose  of  comparing 


carried  out  by  Dr.  Reid,  of  Stafford,  are  of  im- 
portance as  showing  the  purification  effected 
at  varying  depths  of  shallow  percolating  beds. 

We  shall  now  deal  with  the  various  methods 
employed  to  deliver  the  sewage  to,  and  distribute 
it  over  the  surface  of,  a  percolating  bed.  As 
uniformity  of  distribution  is  a  point  to  be  aimed 
at,  the  writer  designed  an  automatic  arrange- 
ment [47]  to  regulate  the  flow  of  sewage  from 
the  outfall  sewer  (after  the  sewage  had  passed 
through  a  sedimentation  chamber). 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  SEWAGE  PURIFICATION  AT  VARIOUS  DEPTHS    (Parts  per  100,000) 

§ 

1 

1 

2 

S    . 

CS 

S 

S* 

11 

=  1 

ill 

!s 

S, 

1| 

II 

ii 

Sample. 

No.  of  Record 

Total  Solids. 

3. 
1 

a.    • 

p 

1 

1 

Chlorine. 

§ 

2 

I 

Albuminoid  J 
inonia. 

11 

II 

II 

11! 
IF 

Oxyg»n  absor 
tliri-i-  ininiito 
iiH-iibation  (S 

Mtri.'iiitrozi 
day  of  collecti 

if 

«l 
z 

!1 

•si 

p 

Nitrous  nltro 
day  after  coll 

Column  neces 
obscure  test 
(inches) 

Sewage 

18 

170-9 

63-5 

28-5 

34-9 

11-0 

2-154 

0-972 

5-019 

1-862 

2-176 

0-02 

o-io 

0-029 

0-029         0-5 

Detritus  tank 

13 

118-1 

17-0 

6'8 

10-1 

10-0 

1-643 

0-486 

2-726 

0-975 

l-ii<).-,    n-02    (1-09 

0-014 

0-022          1-6 

Septic  tank   . 
Filter  1  ft.     . 

1(1 

107-8 
10  IT) 

7-6 
0-25 

3-8 
0-16 

3'8 
0-08 

9-9 
9-4 

1-716 
0-036 

0-340 
0-052 

2-184 
0-328 

0-836 
0-093 

1-571 

0-067 

nil   I  0-09 
1-tU    2-!)7 

nil 

0-003 

nil            To 
(roil:;    Over  24 

„      2  ft,     . 

16 

101-1 

0-09 

O'Oo 

0-03 

9-5 

0-020 

0'037 

0-286 

0-077 

0-060 

1-82 

1-99 

O'Oll 

(  |-()()7 

.,       3  ft.     . 

16 

101-8 

0-14 

0-06 

0-08 

9-4 

0-009 

0-031 

0-244 

0-060 

0-052 

1-75 

1-85 

0-005 

0-008 

„    4-5  ft.      . 

16 

103-5 

— 

9'5 

0-043 

0-0*27 

0-259 

0-070 

0-039 

1-70 

1-99 

0-005 

0-002 

" 

4*21 


CIVIL     ENGINEERING 


44.    THE    FIDDIAN    DISTRIBUTOR 

The  regulator  is  worked  by  the  flow  of  water 
actuating  a  small  water-wheel,  which  causes  the 
basin  to  revolvfc.  The  re- 
volving basin  is  provided 
with  orifices  for  delivering 
the  water  into  the  fixed 
basin  below,  which  has  divi- 
sions at  the  bottom,  each 
division  being  connected  with 
a  trough  or  pipe,  which, 
according  to  the  number  of 
revolutions  per  hour,  is  fed 
with  the  water  flowing  into 
the  revolving  basin. 

The  regulator  can  be  made 
of  any  convenient  size  or 
capacity,  and  geared  to  any 
speed  desired,  according  to 
the  volume  to  be  dealt  with,  and  distributed 
into  the  different  pipes  or  channels  to  give 
a  supply  of  water  for  any  period  and  to  any 
number  of  places  or  areas. 

The  Candy=Whit= 
taker  Sprinkler. 
The  distribution  of 
sewage  over  percolating 
beds  by  this  apparatus 
is  effected  by  utilising 
.the  principle  of  the  jet. 
Fig.  46  shows  one  in 
position. 

The  sewage  is  delivered 
from  below  into  a  fixed 
vertical  hollow  standard, 
which  projects  above  the 
surface  of  the  bed  ;  from 
this  is  hung  a  central 
basin  or  cylinder  to  which 
the  arms  are  attached, 
and  which  are  perforatad 
down  one  side.  The 
sewage  issues  from  the 
perforations  under  a  head 
of  about  6  in.,  and,  o  \ving 
to  the  special  construc- 
tion of  the  bearings,  this 
is  sufficient  to  make 

48-22 


the  bed. 


the  sprinkler  rotate.  The  ends  of 
these  arms  are  supported  by  means 
of  tie  rods  fixed  to  the  central 
column. 

A  special  device  is  provided  by 
which  the  sprinkler  can  deal  auto- 
matically with  a  flow  of  sewage  vary- 
ing very  considerably  in  quantity. 
This  is  accomplished  by  providing  one 
set  of  arms  to  deal  with  the  minimum 
flow,  and  another  set  to  deal  with  the 
maximum,  the  latter  coming  auto- 
matically into  operation  after  the 
first-named  are  working  at  their 
full  capacity. 

For  large  beds,  exceeding,  say,  80  ft. 
in  diameter,  the  company  make  a 
special  buoyant  sprinkler  in  which  the 
whole  weight  of  the  moving  parts  is 
supported  by  a  buoy  floating  in  a 
chamber  of  water  at  the  centre  of 
The  sprinkler  is  made  for  beds  varying 


in  size  from  15  ft.  to  200  ft.  in  diameter 


AVERAGE  RESULTS  OF   VVILCOX  &  B  AIRES'  DISTRIBUTOR. 

Solid 

j 

lu  -^ 

a 

Sample  of 

0 
1 

£ 

|| 

£  3 

i 

£ 

Chlorine 

Free  Am  mom 

c 

Ijj 

I1 

li 
HI 

OX 

2 
2 

Column  neccs 
sary  to  obscur 
test  lines 
(inches). 

Sewage 

129-8 

58'9 

188-7 

8-6 

2-009 

0-709 

3-814 

0-04 

0'79 

Septic  tank 

effluent 

101-0 

3-9 

104-9 

8-8 

1-891 

0-280 

1-851 

O'll 

1-8 

Rectangular  filter 

(fine  portion).  . 

105-6 

0'6 

106-2 

8T> 

0-233 

0-035 

0-327 

1-55 

over  2  ft. 

Rectangular  filter 

(coarse  portion^ 

97-9 

0-3 

106-0 

8-4 

0-268 

0*039 

0-339 

1-50 

over  2  ft. 

The    Stoddart     Sewage    Distributor. 

This  is  a  form  of  distributor  on  the  percolating 
principle,  and  has  been  successfully  used  at  the 


45.    THE   HAM-BAKER   AUTOMATIC   DISTRIBUTOR 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 


outfall  works  of  the  Hortield  Urban 
District  Council,  Bristol,  where  experi- 
ments were  carried  out.  Fig.  42  shows 
thj  filter  with  the  distributor  on  the  top 
at  A  and  the  collecting  channel  C  at 
the  bottom.  Fig.  43  shows  the  special 
arrangement  of  the  distributor  in  detail. 
The  distributor  A  receives  the  sewage 
from  the  supply  channel  B.  The  recesses 
to  receive  the  distributor  are  shown  at 
X,  Y,  and  Z.  The  principle  on  which 
the  distributor  acts  is  as  follows.  The 
liquid  is  brought  into  a  gutter,  over- 
flows the  margins  provided  with  diamond- 
shaped  holes,  and  on  reaching  the  under 
surface  it  meets  with  a  series  of  drip 
points,  from  which  it  drops  upon  the  filter. 

Wilcox  and  RaiKes  Distributor. 
Another  distributor  is  known  as  the  Wilcox 
and  Raikes  [49],  and  has  been  used  at  the 


CANDY- WHITTAKER   REVOLVING   SPRINKLER 


of  saggers  4  ft.  6  in.  deep,  the  material  of  which 
was  between  J  in.  and  |  in.  in  size.  The  effluent 
from  the  filter  contained  about  0'025  of  albu- 
minoid ammonia,  and  1  '5  of  nitrogen  as  nitrates  ; 
the  purification  effected,  as  measured  by  the  re- 
duction of  albuminoid  ammonia,  was  over  91 
per  cent. 

Other  Rotary  Distributors.  Fig.  44 
shows  the  Fiddian  distributor,  which  consists  of  an 
elongated  water-wheel  of  from  9  in.  to  18  in.  dia- 
meter, moving  in  a  horizontal  plane,  fed  from  a 
tubular  radial  arm  which  encircles  it,  and  connects 
it  to  the  vertical  centre  stand-pipe  through 
which  the  sewage  is  delivered  from  the  tank. 


47.   AUTOMATIC   DISTRIBUTOR 

Hanley  outfall  works.  This  arrangement  con- 
sists of  a  trough,  carried  on  tram  lines,  running 
up  the  two  sides  of  a  rectangular  filter.  The 
trough  is  propelled  by  an  electric  motor,  the 
sewage  overflows  on  to  one  half  of  the  filter 
while  the  trough  is  travelling  in  one  direction, 
and  on  to  the  other  half  of  the  filter  while 
it  is  travelling  in  the  opposite  direction.  The 
effluent  from  the  septic  tank  at  Hanley,  which 
yielded  0'28  parts  per  100,000  of  albumin- 
oid ammonia,  was  distributed  over  a  filter 


THE    WILCOX    AND    RAIKES    DISTRIBUTOR 


48.  ADAM'S  REVOLVING  SPRAY  DISTRIBUTOR  , 

The  water-wheel  is  made  to  travel  around  the 
bed  on  wheels  at  its  ends  by  the  sewage  falling 
into  the  buckets  of  the  water-wheel  a  little  above 
the  level  of  its  axis.  The  weight  of  the  water 
in  the  bucket  is  the  motive  power.  As  the  buckets 
approach  the  sur- 
face of  the  bed  the 
contents  are  de- 
livered thereon  in 
fine  films,  and  as 
they  rise  dripping, 
they  form  a  spray, 
thus  sprinkling  the 
sewrage  for  the  whole 
width  of  the  wheel 
at  each  revolution, 
and  aerating  it. 

Fig.   45  shows  an 
automatic  distributor 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING 

(made  by  Ham,  Baker  &  Co.)  for  rectangular 
sewage  filter  beds. 

The   revolving   distributor   made   by   Messrs 
Ham,  Baker  &  Co.  is  shown  in  52. 

The  sewage  is  conducted  to  the  distributor 
by  means  of  a  horizontal  cast-iron  pipe,  A,  and 
issues  from  the  central  pillar,  B,  through  fixed 
pipes,  C,  into  a  trough,  D,  fitted  with  distributing 
pipes,  E.  The  trough  and  pipes  are  connected 
by  means  of  steel  suspension  rods,  F,  to  a  head  of 
cast  iron,  G,  that  rests 
on  the  top  of  the  pillar, 
B,  and  is  provided 
with  ball  bearings,  H, 
suitably  lubricated  to 
allow  the  distribu- 
tion to  revolve  freely 
on  the  fixed  pillar. 
This  distributor  has 
been  designed  with  the 
object  of  obtaining  the 
full  advantage  of  the 
initial  head  of  sewage, 
in  order  to  start  the 


Mr.  Scott-Moncrieff  devised  an  apparatus  [50]. 
The  object  of  it  is  to  enable  information  to  be 
obtained  as  to  the  best  depth  for  the  filtering 
material,  and  the  amount  of  air  required  to 


50.    THE    SCOTT  -MONCRIEFF 
TESTING   APPARATUS 


51.  SECTION  OF  FIG.  48 

rotary  motion,  and 
this  is  effected  by  the 
incoming  sewage 
striking  upon  blades 
J,  fixed  on  the  central 
trough,  and  it  is  con- 
tinued by  the  sewage 
issuing  from  the  distributing  pipes,  and  being 
sprinkled  on  to  the  filter  bed.  The  distributing 
pipes,  E,  have  sparge  holes,  K,  spaced  to  give 
an  equal  distribution  to  the  sewage  over  the 
whole  area  of  the  bed. 

Fig.  48  shows  an  Adam's  Revolving  Spray 
Distributor  applied  to  a  percolating  bed.  The 
construction  and  working  of  this  apparatus  is 
shown  in  51. 

Testing  Apparatus.  Mr.  W.  D.  Scott- 
Moncrieff  has  devoted  much  time  and  care  to 
study  the  best  conditions  under  which  sewage 
or  polluted  water  can  be  purified  in  filters  by  the 
intelligent  utilisation  of  the  micro-organisms 
which  nature  develops  in  them,  so  as  to  ensure 
the  organisms  working  under  favourable  circum- 
stances and  environment.  This  involves  the 
adoption  of  means  to  prevent  the  development  of 
fibrous  and  gelatinous  growths  which  are  inimical 
to  the  changes  which  the  bacteria  can  effect,  and 
which  at  the  same  time  choke  up  and  diminish 
the  efficiency  of  the  filter.  To  prevent  the 
formation  of  these  growths,  or  to  cause  their 
disappearance  if  they  have  formed,  oxidation 
is  essential  either  by  resting  the  filter  or 
l.y  ivgulating  the  amount  of  fluid  that  is 
through  ;t  After  many  experiments 


52.    THE    HAM-BAKER   REVOLVING    DISTRIBUTOR 

oxidise  any  particular  sewage.  The  sewage 
is  discharged  on  to  the  top  layer  of  filtering 
medium  by  means  of  a  tipper  which  is  fed  by 
a  regulating  tap.  This  tipper  can  be  adjusted 
to  regulate  the  rates  of  flow  and  discharge. 

The  unit  of  surface  adopted  in  this  appa- 
ratus is  3  sq.  ft.,  as  it  is  considered  that 
this  ensures  a  practicable  arrangement  for 
the  measurement  of  the  air,  and  a  suffi- 
cient flow  of  sewage  to  be  capable  of  accurate 
regulation.  A  shallow  box,  1  ft.  square,  is 
placed  upon  any  part  of  the  filter  bed  to  be 
dealt  with.  If  the  distribution  of  the  sewage 
over  the  bed  is  at  the  rate  of  1,000,000 
gallons  per  acre  in  24  hours,  the  apparatus 
must  discharge  into  the  box  one  pint  eight 
times  an  hour.  This  box  and  a  pint  pot 
are  all  that  is  required  to  enable  accuracy 
of  distribution  to  be  tested.  The  depth 
of  the  filter  represented  by  the  apparatus  is 
taken  at  6  ft.,  so  that  there  will  be  a  unit  of 
18  cubic  ft.  of  filtering  material  with  3  sq.  ft. 
surface. 

Samples  of  the  fluid  passing  through  the 
apparatus  can  be  taken  from  the  taps  as  shown. 
They  are  fixed  in  echelon  so  that  samples  can 
be  drawn  off  simultaneously  for  every  foot  from 
one  to  six. 

By  employing  this  apparatus  it  is  claimed  that 
the  depth  of  filter  needed  for  any  required 
standard  of  purity  can  be  determined  by  simul- 
taneous analyses  from  all  the  sampling  taps. 
The  rate  of  air  supply,  of  the  flow  of  the  liquid, 
and  the  periods  between  the  discharges,  can  be 
noted,  and  plotted  on  a  diagram,  from  which 
conclusions  can  be  deduced  to  determine  the 
four  principal  factors — namely ; 

(a)  The  depth  of  filter  required  to  produce  the 
necessary  standard  of  purity  in  the  effluent. 

(6)  The  quantity  of  air  necessary  for  the  life  pro- 
cesses of  the  organisms. 

(c)  The  proper  rate  of  flow  per  unit  of  filter-bed 
surface  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results. 

(d)  The    best    period    of    rest    between   each    dis- 
charge to  prevent  gelatinous  growths  in  the  filtering 
material. 


Si;  WE  RAGE  concluded;  followed  by  REFUSE  DESTRUCTION 


4824 


WOMAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE  WORLD 

Woman  and  the  Survival  Value  of  Societies.    How  Society  Would  Disappear 
in   One  Generation.     What  Woman  May  Gain  and  What  She  May  Lose 


Group  3 

SOCIOLOGY 

8 

Continued    from 
page  4667 


By  Dr.  C.  W.  SALEEBY 


(CLOSELY  allied  to  the  study  of  the  funda- 
mental  social  institution  of  marriage  is  that  of 
the  place  and  functions  of  women  in  society. 

Past  sociological  theory  has  shown  two 
extremes  in  its  analysis  of  this  question,  while 
the  more  modern  view  is  that  the  truth  lies 
somewhere  between  these  extremes.  On  the  one 
hand  we  have  what  may  be  called  the  theory  of 
matriarchy,  which  we  owe  to  the  sociologist 
Bachofen.  Arguing  from  the  known  fact  that 
among  certain  contemporary  peoples  descent  is 
often  traced  through  the  mother  alone,  this 
thinker  inferred  that  at  one  stage  in  the  past 
societies  were  dominated  by  women,  as  the 
word  matriarchy  suggests.  In  this  theory  be  is 
supported  at  the  present  day  only  by  Dr.  Lester 
Ward,  the  distinguished  American  sociologist. 
We  have  not  room  here  for  a  full  discussion 
of  this  subject.  We  can  only  say  that  contem- 
porary sociological  opinion  has  condemned  the 
matriarchal  theory — a  theory  which  certainly 
seems  contrary  to  all  probability  and  experience. 

The  Saddest  Thing  in  History. 
At  the  other  extreme  is  the  view  that  in  the 
earliest  and  rudest  communities  the  place  of 
•woman  was  hopelessly  degraded  ;  that  she  did 
all  the  drudgery,  and  was  regarded  by  primitive 
man  as  little  better  than  a  beast  of  burden.  It 
Beems  true  that  the  subjection  of  woman  has 
been  less  extreme  than  some  harve  supposed, 
but  we  may  here  quote  three  classical  expres- 
sions of  the  older  view.  In  his  "  Descent  of 
Man  "  Darwin  says  :  "  Man  is  more  powerful 
in  body  and  mind  than  woman,  and  in  the 
savage  state  he  keeps  her  in  a  far  more  abject 
state  of  bondage  than  does  the  male  of  any 
other  animal."  Letourneau  says  :  "  Almost  at 
the  origin  of  human  society  woman  was  sub- 
jugated by  her  companion.  We  have  seen  her 
become  in  succession  beast  of  burden,  slave,  minor, 
subject,  held  aloof  from  a  free  and  active  life, 
often  maltreated,  oppressed,  punished  with  fury 
for  acts  that  her  male  owner  would  commit  with 
impunity  before  her  eyes."  Lastly,  xsemay  quote 
from  Herbert  Spencer's  "  Principles  of  Ethics  "  : 

"  In  the  history  of  humanity  as  written  the 
saddest  part  concerns  the  treatment  of  women  ; 
and  had  we  before  us  its  unwritten  history  we 
should  find  this  part  still  sadder.  I  say  the 
saddest  part  because,  though  there  have  teen 
many  things  more  conspicuously  dreadful — 
cannibalism,  the  torturings  of  prisoners,  the 
sacrificings  of  victims  to  ghosts  and  gods — these 
have  been  but  occasional ;  whereas  the  brutal 
treatment  of  woman  has  been  universal  and 
constant.  If,  looking  first  at  their  state  of  sub- 
jection among  the  semi-civilised,  we  pass  to  the 
uncivilised  and  observe  the  lives  of  hardships 


borne  by  nearly  all  of  them — it  we  then  think 
what  must  have  gone  on  among  those  still  ruder 
peoples,  who  for  so  many  thousands  of  years 
roamed  over  the  uncultivated  earth,  we  shall, 
infer  that  the  amount  of  suffering  which  has  been, 
and  is,  borne  by  women  is  utterly  beyond  imagina- 
tion. .  .  .  Utter  absence  of  sympathy  made 
it  inevitable  that  women  should  suffer  from  the 
egoism  of  men,  without  any  limit  save  their 
ability  to  bear  the  entailed  hardships.  Passing 
this  limit,  the  ill-treatment,  by  rendering  the 
women  incapable  of  rearing  a  due  number  of 
children,  brought  about  disappearance  of  the 
tribe  ;  and  we  may  safely  assume  that  multitudes 
of  tribes  disappeared  from  this  cause,  leaving 
behind  those  in  .which  the  ill-treatment  was  less 
extreme." 

Man's  Abuse  of  Power.  On  this  Dr. 
Lester  Ward  remarks  that  he  must  protest 
against  the  term  brutal,  "  since,  as  has  been 
seen,  no  male  brute  maltreats  the  female,  and 
the  abuse  of  females  by  males  is  an  exclusively 
human  virtue." 

Professor  Westermarck,  however,  has  lately 
made  an  exhaustive  study  of  this  subject,  and 
he  has  shown  that  while  it  is  doubtless  true 
that  the  position  of  women  among  the  lower  races 
is  often  one  of  abject  slavery,  yet,  on  the  whole, 
the  position  of  woman  has  been  much  less 
degraded  than  earlier  sociologists  and  popular 
opinion  imagine.  That  is,  of  course,  by  no  means 
to  suggest  for  a  moment  that  the  treatment  of 
woman  in  society  in  the  past  has  been  just. 
There  is  abundant  warrant,  even  in  the  light  of 
the  most  recent  researches,  for  the  fine  words  of 
the  great  French  sociologist  Condorcet : 

"  Among  the  advances  of  the  human  mind 
most  important  for  the  general  welfare  we 
should  number  the  entire  destruction  of  the  pre- 
judices which  have  produced  between  the  sexes 
an  inequality  of  rights  injurious  even  to  the 
favoured  sex.  In  vain  is  it  sought  to  justify  it  by 
differences  in  their  physical  organisation,  in  the 
strength  of  their  intellects,  in  their  moral  sensi- 
bilities. This  inequality  has  had  no  other  origin 
than  the  abuse  of  power,  and  it  is  in  vain  that 
men  have  since  sought  to  excuse  it  by  sophisms." 

The  Injustice  of  the  Church  towards 
Woman.  Whereas  it  is  the  tendency  of  the 
highest  forms  of  religion  to  elevate  the  status  of 
•woman,  it  is  the  lamentable  truth  that  most  of 
the  prominent  religions  of  the  world  have  had 
a  tendency  to  treat  women  as  inferior ,  beings. 
Unfortunately,  the  Early  Christian  Fathers  con- 
curred in  this  view,  many  of  them  holding  that 
woman  did  not  possess  a  soul.  Few  more 
horrible  and  disgusting  things  have  been  said 
about  woman  than  stand  to  the  record  of  some 

4825 


SOCIOLOGY 

of  these  writers.  Woman  has  been  in  all  ages 
the  great  upholder  of  religion,  but  it  has  done 
her  little  temporal  service. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  may  point  the  im- 
measurable contrast  between  the  corruptions  of 
Christianity  and  the  first  and  supreme  assertion 
of  justice  to  woman  that  is  to  be  found  in  the 
8th  chapter  of  St.  John:  "He  that  is  without 
sin  among  you,  let  him  first  cast  a  stone  at  her." 
Hero  we  have  expressed  in  the  teaching  of  the 
Founder  of  Christianity  the  doctrine  which 
Christianity  itself,  like  other  religions,  has  un- 
fortunately failed  to  live  up  to,  but  to  which  in 
this  age  we  are  slowly  approaching — the  doc- 
trine that  the  code  of  justice  and  of  morality 
can  make  no  distinction  in  man's  favour  as 
against  woman.  The  study  of  English  law  shows 
that  we  are  still  far  from  realising  this  ideal,  but 
we  are  beginning  to  offer  it  formal  recognition. 

We  must  now  leave  the  historical  aspect  of 
this  question,  but  in  doing  so  we  would  remind 
the  reader  of  the  extreme  significance  which  is 
to  be  attached  to  the  last  sentence  of  our 
quotation  from  Herbert  Spencer.  It  is  there 
suggested  that  when  the  condition  of  woman 
becomes  too  hard,  rendering  her  unfit  for  her 
supreme  function,  the  society  in  which  this 
occurs  must  disappear.  Here,  again,  in  another 
form,  is  an  assertion  of  the  principle  of  survival- 
value,  which  we  invoked  in  our  study  of  marriage 
and  its  various  forms.  It  will  be  well  for  us  to 
look  a  little  more  closely  at  this  principle  of 
survival-value,  one  of  the  few  fundamental 
principles  of  all  sociological  theory. 

The  Right  to  Live.  If  we  survey  the 
whole  world  of  living  things  merely  as 
individuals,  we  discover  that  everything  that 
lives  lives  because  it  can.  Nature  knows  no 
other  right  than  might,  and  until  we  enter  the 
moral  sphere  of  civilised  human  life  we  find  that 
the  right  to  live  depends  upon  the  might  to  live. 
Now,  all  living  species,  animal  or  vegetable,  tend, 
in  anything  like  favourable  circumstances,  to 
multiply,  and  as  the  supply  of  food  and  standing 
room,  though  large,  is  finite,  it  follows  that  of 
the  new  generation  of  any  species  the  fittest 
tend  to  survive — Nature  selects  them.  This  is 
the  great  biological  principle  that  Darwin  called 
Natural  Selection,  and  which  he  adduced  in 
explanation  of  organic  evolution.  As  he  himself 
recognised,  the  term  is  not  satisfactory,  since  it 
suggests  an  active  choice  on  the  part  of  Nature, 
and  since  it  does  not  explain  the  principle  of 
survival.  Herbert  Spencer  introduced  the  term 
"  Survival  of  the  Fittest,"  which  Darwin  was 
.glad  to  insert  in  the  second  edition  of  "The 
Origin  of  Species."  The  rule,  then,  is  that  the 
fittest  survive,  and  they  do  so  in  virtue  of 
characters  that  have  survival-value.  In  the 
tiger  these  are  teeth  and  claws  ;  in  the  horse, 
strong  muscles  and  a  tough  stomach  ;  in  the 
bird,  feathers  ;  in  the  microbe,  poisons  or  toxins  ; 
in  the  oak,  a  waterproof  coat  and  green  leaves. 

But  what  is  true  of  the  individuals  of  any 
race  or  species  is  also  true  of  any  species  as 
against  any  other  species,  or  of  any  society  as 
against  any  other  society.  The  principle  of  natural 
select  ion  prevails  here.  In  studying  the  characters 

4826 


of  any  society,  therefore, we  have  to  recognise  that 
the  social  organism,  like  the  individual  organism, 
depends  upon  its  might  for  its  right  to  live,  and 
its  might  depends  upon  the  possession  of 
characters  that  have  sufficient  survival-value, 
both  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  contest  of 
society  against  the  conditions  of  its  environment, 
and  its  contest  with  societies  around  it.  Just 
as  the  fundamental  principle  of  individual 
evolution  or  organic  evolution  has  been  this 
principle  of  an  automatic  process  by  which  the 
fittest  survive,  so  also  this  has  been  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  social  evolution  and  of  the 
evolution  of  social  institutions. 

The  Value  of  Woman  to  Society. 
Every  competitor  for  existence  or  for  persistence 
as  a  character  of  living  things,  or  societies  of 
living  things,  has  to  pass  through  the  ordeal  of 
natural  selection.  We  saw  how  the  dominant 
form  of  marriage  has  succeeded  in  being 
dominant,  despite  its  lack  of  attractiveness  to  a 
very  large  proportion  of  men,  simply  because  it 
has  supreme  survival-value  for  the  society  in 
which  it  flourishes,  and  because  societies  in  which 
other  forms  of  marriage  prevailed  have  proved 
less  fit.  Thus  we  have  a  simple  but  universally 
applicable  criterion  by  which  we  should  be 
enabled  to  judge  of  any  social  character  or 
institution,  and  in  considering  the  woman  question 
we  must  not  lose  sight  of  this  principle. 

Suppose,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that 
women,  as  a  whole,  desired  to  devote  their 
lives  to  the  same  activities  as  men ;  suppose, 
also,  that  in  doing  so  they  achieved  great 
personal  happiness  and  the  utmost  success  ; 
suppose  that  they  added  incredibly  to  material 
wealth,  to  invention,  scientific  discovery,  and  art, 
and  more  than  proved  their  title  to  rank  as  the 
equals  of  man  in  these  respects.  From  the  point 
of  view  of  the  individual,  such  activities  would  be 
justified  ;  but  our  business  is  to  hold  fast  to  the 
fundamental  truths  of  biology,  and  therefore,  as 
sociologists,  we  should  be  compelled  to  condemn 
without  any  qualification  such  a  prospect.  Mag- 
nificent though  these  achievements  might  be, 
they  would  have  no  survival-value  for  the 
society  that  displayed  them,  for  where  would  the 
babies  come  from  ?  Such  a  society,  though 
wealthy,  learned,  cultured,  would  utterly  dis- 
appear in  one  generation.  Its  place  would  be 
taken  by  some  savage  horde,  the  women  of  which 
were  mothers,  and  in  a  few  years  all  its  store  of 
learning  and  art  would  utterly  disappear.  Its 
civilisation  would  have  stultified  itself.  This,  of 
course,  is  all  perfectly  self-evident,  and  yet 
sometimes  it  is  the  most  self-evident  truths  that 
are  the  most  forgotten.  Now,  having  firmly 
grasped  our  first  principles,  let  us  turn  to  the 
question  of  woman's  place  in  society  to-day. 

The  First  Condition  of  Survival. 
The  first  condition  of  the  survival  of  any  race 
or  society  is  evidently  that  its  individuals  shall 
be  capable  of  leaving  descendants  to  establish 
the  continuity  which  is  the  meaning  of  survival. 
Now,  it  is  a  permanent  and  ultimate  fact  of 
biology  that  woman's  part  in  this  function  is 
necessary  and  difficult.  In  fact,  we  have  to  face 
in  the  case  of  every  woman — assuming  that  she 


docs  the  work  for  which  Nature  intended  her — 
an  "  antagonism  between  individuation  and 
genesis."  This  phrase  was  used  by  Spencer  in 
elucidating  his  wonderful  discovery  of  the  law 
of  multiplication  in  living  things.  The  phrase 
simply  means  that  since  the  total  stock  of  energy 
possessed  by  any  individual  is  finite,  if  that 
individual  spends  all  its  energy  upon  its  own 
development  or  individuation,  it  will  leave  none 
for  reproduction  or  genesis.  Whereas,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  it  devotes  all  its  energy  to  genesis, 
as  microbes  do,  none  will  be  left  for  its  own 
individuation.  Now,  in  the  case  of  man  the 
biological  aspect  of  this  antagonism  has  been 
extremely  simplified.  The  facts  are  such  that 
scarcely  any  appreciable  expenditure  of  energy 
is  required  from  him  for  any  but  the  purpose  of 
individuation.  He  is  free  to  expend  practically 
his  whole  physiological  income  upon  himself  ; 
there  are  no  other  claims  which  interfere  appreci- 
ably with  the  claims  of  his  individual  business 
in  life,  whatever  that  may  be. 

The  Output  of  Human  Energy.  But 
when  we  consider  the  case  of  woman  we  find 
that  this  "  antagonism  between  individuation 
and  genesis  "  becomes  acute  and  critical.  We 
find  also  that  the  female  organism  normally 
shows  a  definitely  different  tendency  to  that 
of  the  male  organism.  Woman's  actual  output 
of  physical  energy  is  definitely  less  than  that 
of  man  hi  the  proportion  of  about  five  to  eight. 
But  there  are  two  kinds  of  energy,  potential 
and  kinetic ;  and  this  estimate  is  concerned 
only  with  kinetic  energy — the  energy  of  move- 
ment and  action.  It  is  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  female  organism  that  it  tends  towards  the 
accumulation  of  potential  energy  rather  than 
towards  the  output  of  kinetic  energy.  Biolo- 
gists speak  of  the  chemical  functions  of  the 
body  as  metabolism.  Those  which  involve  the 
breaking  down  or  analysis  of  complex  chemical 
compounds  with  the  liberation  of  kinetic  energy 
are  described  as  katabolism  ;  while  those  pro- 
cesses which  tend  towards  the  accumulation  of 
potential  energy  in  the  form  of  complex  com- 
pounds— processes  more  extensively  illustrated 
in  the  vegetable  than  in  the  animal — are  de- 
scribed as  anabolism.  This  distinction  has  already 
been  discussed  in  the  course  on  Chemistry. 

The  "  Gain  and  Loss  "  Account.  Now, 
it  is  a  demonstrable  fact  that  the  female  orga- 
nism is,  on  the  whole,  i  anabolic  rather  than 
katabolic  in  tendency,  as  was  brilliantly  proved 
by  Professors  Geddes  and  Thompson  in  their 
famous  book  "  The  Evolution  of  Sex."  They 
summarise  their  main  proposition  as  follows  : 

"  In  all  living  creatures  there  are  two  great 
lines  of  variation,  primarily  determined  by  the 
very  nature  of  protoplasmic  change  (metabolism) ; 
for  the  ratio  of  the  constructive  (anabolic) 
changes  to  the  disruptive  (katabolic)  ones—- 
that is,  of  income  to  outlay,  of  gains  to  losses — 
is  a  variable  one.  In  one  sex,  the  female,  the 
balance  of  debtor  and  creditor  is  the  more 
favourable  one  ;  the  anabolic  processes  tend  to 
preponderate,  and  this  profit  may  be  at  first 
devoted  to  growth,  but  later  towards  offspring, 
of  which  she  hence  can  afford  to  bear  the  larger 


SOCIOLOGY 

share.  To  put  it  more  precisely,  the  life  ratio 
of  anabolic  to  katabolic  changes,  g,  in  the 
female  is  normally  greater  than  the  correspond- 
ing life  ratio,  -|-,  in  the  male.  This,  for  us, 
is  the  fundamental,  the  physiological,  the  con- 
stitutional difference  between  the  sexes  ;  and  it 
becomes  expressed  from  the  very  outset  in  the 
contrast  between  their  essential  reproductive 
elements,  and  may  be  traced  on  into  the  more 
superficial  secondary  sexual  characters." 

A  Definite  Limit  to  Woman's 
Activity.  Therefore,  if  woman  is  to  continue 
to  discharge  those  anabolic  functions,  consisting 
in  the  accumulation  of  potential  energy  for  her 
unborn  children,  or  the  provision  of  their  nutri- 
ment after  birth,  upon  which  the  continuance  of 
the  race  depends,  there  is  a  definite  and  necessary 
limit  set  to  her  external  activities — to  that 
output  of  kinetic  energy  which  depends  upon 
what  the  physiologist  calls  katabolism.  She 
cannot  both  eat  her  cake  and  have  it  ;  cannot 
both  accumulate  energy  for  the  racial  life  and 
expend  it  for  her  individual  life.  Suppose,  for 
the  sake  of  argument,  that  man  and  woman 
have  each  one  hundred  units  of  energy  to 
utilise.  Man,  who  does  not  bear  the  brunt  of 
the  reproductive  function,  can  afford  to  spend 
his  energy  on  external  activities.  Woman  may 
spend  all  her  energy  similarly,  and  may  success- 
fully compete  with  man  as  an  economic  unit ; 
but,  if  she  does  so,  she  will  have  no  energy  left 
for  the  supremely  important  function  which  she, 
and  none  other,  can  discharge.  //  woman  is 
to  continue  to  be  woman  she  cannot  compete  on 
equal  terms  with  man  so  far  as  external  activities 
are  concerned.  If  she  attempts  to  become  man 
and  woman  too,  she  is  apt  to  end  by  failing  to 
be  either.  But  if  woman  does  not  continue  to 
be  woman,  there  is  an  end  of  human  history, 
the  resources  of  science  notwithstanding. 

The  Supreme  Function  in  Life.  The 
problem  for  woman,  then,  is  to  expend  her 
finite  stock  of  energy  so  as  to  discharge  without 
mutual  injury  both  her  duty  to  the  race  and 
her  duty  to  herself.  It  is  true  that  she  can  enter 
into  economic  competition  with  man,  but  in  so 
doing  she  is  bound  to  neglect  her  duty  to  the 
race.  This  is  conspicuously  true  of  the  married 
woman  who  is  also  a  wage-earner.  As  the 
present  writer  has  said  elsewhere,  she  spends  all 
her  physiological  capital  for  that  which  is  not 
bread  ;  and  there  is  none  left  to  endow  her 
children,  born  or  unborn.  Our  criterion  of 
survival- value  will  enable  us  to  recognise  that, 
in  declaring  an  economic  equality  of  the  sexes 
to  be  unattainable,  we  are  not  decrying  but 
are  exalting  woman's  value  to  society.  Her 
characteristic  powers  are  not  of  economic  value 
in  the  narrow  and  stupid  sense  of  that  term  ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  since  these  characteristic 
powers  of  hers  are  absolutely  indispensable 
to  society,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  conserva- 
tion of  them  in  the  fullest  degree  is  the  conserva- 
tion of  a  factor  which  is  of  supreme  survival- 
value.  It  has  often  been  said  that  woman 
lowers  herself  and  loses  her  dignity  by  her 
anxiety  to  enter  into  economic  competition  with 

4827 


SOCIOLOGY 

man.  Here,  however.  AVC  are  not  concerned 
•with  any  questions  of  dignity  or  chivalry  ;  our 
business  for  the  moment  is  to  discover  the 
nm.lumental  conditions  which  are  necessary 
for  the  continuance  of  any  society,  and  the 
first  discovery  we  make  is  that  there  is  no  male 
function  which  can  rank  in  practical  importance 
beside  woman's  functions  in  respect  of  the 
production,  the  nourishment  and  the  up- 
bringing of  children.  It  is,  therefore,  properly 
hpeaking,  a  degradation  of  function  for  woman  to 
leave  this  supreme  work,  which  she  alone  can  do, 
and  to  concern  herself  with  lower  functions  which 
others  can  do.  We  advisedly  call  them  lower, 
and  the  adjective  is  justified  on  every  ground. 

Women's  Functions  are  Higher  than 
Men's.  The  functions  which  men  can  discharge 
are  lower  than  those  of  woman,  and,  in  the  first 
place,  because  they  are  ethically  inferior.  Whereas 
man's  business  is  essentially  selfish  unless  he 
be  a  husband  and  father,  the  characteristic 
business  of  a  woman  is  essentially  unselfish. 
But  man's  functions  are  lower  than  woman's 
even  from  the  mere  standpoint  of  political 
economy.  As  Mr.  Sidney  Webb  has  lately 
said :  "  We  may  at  last  understand  what  the 
modern  economist  means  when  he  tells  us 
that  the  most  valuable  of  the  year's  crops,  as 
it  is  the  most  costly,  is  not  the  wheat  harvest  or 
the  lambing,  but  the  year's  quota  of  adolescent 
young  men  and  women  enlisted  in  the  pro- 
ductive service  of  the  community  ;  and  that 
the  due  production  and  best  possible  care  of 
this  particular  product  is  of  far  greater  conse- 
quence to  the  nation  than  any  other  of  its 
occupations."  As  the  present  writer  has  said 
elsewhere,  "The  only  material  of  which  empires 
have  ever  been  or  ever  will  be  built  is  human. 
When  there  fails  an  adequate  supply  of  such 
material,  or  when  it  ceases  to  be  of  the  stuff  of 
which  empires  are  made,  the  fiat  of  doom  has 
gone  forth — the  *  decline  and  fall '  are  at  hand." 

Economic  Competition  Degrades  the 
Sexes.  Experts  may  talk  of  exports  of  cotton 
or  wool  or  what  not,  and  may  appraise  by  this 
means  our  Empire's  life  and  vitality,  but  the 
state  of  its  human  produce,  whether  retained 
for  home  consumption  or  exported  across  the 
seas,  is  the  sole  valid  criterion  which  the  serious 
student  can  admit. 
"  111  fares  the  land,  to  hastening  ills  a  prey, 

Where  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay." 

But  no  finer  and  more  convincing  passage  can 
b«  quoted  than  this  from  Ruskin:  "In  some 
far-away  and  yet  undreamt-of  hour,  I  can 
illumine  that  England  may  cast  all  thoughts 
of  possessive  wealth  back  to  the  barbaric  nations 
among  whom  they  first  arose  ;  and  that  she, 
as  a  Christian  mother,  may  at  last  attain  to  the 
virtues  and  the  treasures  of  a  heathen  one, 
and  be  able  to  lead  forth  her  sons,  saying, 
'  These  are  my  jewels.'  :; 

These,  of  course,  are  merely  various  ways  of 
saying  that  the  survival- value  for  society  of  the 
functions  peculiar  to  women  is  greater  than  that 
of  any  fund  ion-  wh'ch  can  be  discharged  by  men. 
Thi-  assertion  of  the  dignity  and  importance  of 


Continued 


motherhood  is,  of  course,  no  novelty.  It  has  been 
preached  by  poets  and  moralists  for  ages,  and  is 
certainly  independent  of  the  assertions  of  any 
science;  but  the  fact  remains  that  it  can  be 
verified  on  purely  biological  grounds,  and  quite 
apart  from  any  sentiment  on  the  part  of  the 
sociologist.  There  is  abundant  warrant,  therefore, 
for  the  assertion  that  the  economic  competition 
of  women  with  men  constitutes  a  degradation  of 
their  sex.  It  is  true  that  this  competition  tends 
to  make  the  struggle  for  life  harder  for  man, 
arid  his  opinion  on  the  subject  may  be  sometimes 
due  to  his  desire  to  free  himself  from  an  unwel- 
come competitor.  But  it  is  certain  that  in  the 
last  resort  such  competition  injures  both  sexe.-- 
and  society  at  large. 

The  Verdict  of  Physiology.  Now,  it 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  physiology  records  in 
woman's  person  its  verdict  upon  this  matter. 
The  bodily  or  physical  characters  which  give 
woman  her  distinctiveness  and  charm  depend 
upon  an  adequate  preponderance  of  anabolism 
in  her  functions.  If  the  due  balance  be  upset,  it 
is  found  that  the  woman  approximates  to  the 
masculine  type.  The  change  is  shown  in  the 
figure  and  in  the  physiognomy.  The  functions 
characteristic  of  her  sex  are  no  longer  discharged 
— this  statement  being  true  alike  of  the  woman 
who  devotes  herself  to  hard,  intellectual  Avork, 
and  the  woman  who  devotes  herself  to  athletics. 
It  is  a  someAvhat  remarkable  fact  that  the  same 
physiological  results  should  folloAV  from  occupa- 
tions so  utterly  different.  Their  point  of  agree- 
ment lies  in  this — that  they  both  interfere  Avith 
the  physiological  balance  of  the  female  organism. 
It  is  to  be  observed,  further,  that  the  character- 
istic psychology  of  woman  depends  upon  her 
Avomanliness,  and  disappears  Avhen  she  loses  it. 
She  may  gain  in  the  power  of  abstract  reasoning, 
and  in  a  sentiment  for  justice  rather  than  mercy; 
but  she  loses  in  intuition,  in  sympathy,  and  in 
other  feminine  characters  of  mind  which  are 
of  Aralue  both  to  the  individual  and  to  the  race. 

The  Just  Claims  of  Woman.  The 
question  then  is,  what  are  the  just  claims  of 
Avoman — that  is  to  say,  claims  the  granting 
of  which  is  compatible  with  her  Avomanliness  and 
with  the  preservation  of  that  survival- value 
Avhich  depends  upon  it  ?  The  very  last  thing 
Avhich  may  rightly  be  inferred  from  Avhat  we 
liaA*e  said  is  that  it  is  AA'oman's  duty  to  giA'e 
herself  up  exclusively  to  the  reproductive  func- 
tion. We  desire  a  due  balance  between  anabolism 
and  katabolism — not  the  performance  of  the 
one  to  the  total  exclusion  of  the  other.  That 
any  indiATidual  shall  give  herself  up  entirely  to 
"  genesis,"  and  ignore  "  indiA'iduation  "  alto- 
gether is  to  reduce  herself  to  the  level  of  the 
microbe.  Merely  we  assert  that  the  differentia- 
tion of  living  organisms  of  the  higher  species  into 
two  sexes  is  evidently  Avarranted  by  Nature, 
the  "  evolution  of  sex  "  being  a  biological  fact 
Avhich  plainly  must  have  some  survival-Aralue 
for  every  species  that  exhibits  it  ;  and  AVC  shall 
not  safely  flout  Nature  by  any  attempt  to  abolish 
this  differentiation  and  make  Avoman  only  a 
smaller  variety  of  man. 


4S-2S 


OILS,  FATS,  WAXES,  &  CANDLES 

Chemical  Constitution  and  Industrial  Treatment  of  Oils, 
Fats,     and    Waxes.        Modern    Candle    Manufacture 


L Group  5 

APPLIED 
CHEMISTRY 


Continued  from 

pnge  47S-J 


By  JOHN    McARTHUR 


oils  and  fats  are  very  widely  dis- 
^  tributed  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms, 
and  are  present  in  great  variety  and  abundant 
quantity.  From  even  the  earliest  times  man  has 
not  been  slow  in  recognising  their  valuable  pro- 
perties. and  with  the  advance  of  scientific  know- 
ledge and  the  improvement  in  mechanical  appliances 
he  has  been  able  to  extend  their  use,  so  that  at  the 
present  time  they  form  the  basis  of  some  of  the 
mos:  important  industries  of  the  world. 

It  is  impossible  to  draw  any  strict  dividing 
line  between  an  oil  and  a  fat,  but,  speaking  generally, 
the  term  oil  is  applied  to  such  glyceri  !es  as  are 
liquid  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  while  the  term 
fat  is  used  to  describe  those  which  are  solid.  It 
will  be  readily  understood,  however,  that  as  the 
consistency  of  these  substances  is  readily  susceptible 
to  any  change  in  temperature,  a  given  oil  which 
liny  D3  liquid  under  certain  climatic  conditions 
may  become  solid  under  others.  In  the  same  way, 
also,  a  solid  fat  may  become  a  liquid  oil  when  sub- 
jected to  even  a  natural  increase  in  temperature, 
and  may  also  assume  a  "  buttery  "  consistency 
intermediate  between  that  of  an  oil  and  a  fat. 
.Many  attempts  have  been  made  likewise  to  classify 
oils  and  fats  into  groups  having  physical  or  chemical 
properties  common  to  each,  but  these  attempts 
have  not  always  proved  successful. 

Chemical  Constitution.  Considered 
chemically,  oils  and  fats  are  mixtures  of  certain 
organic  compounds  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  called  glycerides,  or  esters  of  the 
higher  fatty  acids.  The  glycerides  which  form 
the  various  oils  and  fats  are  principally  those 
of  stearic,  palmitic,  and  oleic  acids,  and  also  of 
other  less  important  fatty  acids  such  as  butyric, 
caproic,  etc.  Prior  to  the  well-known  researches 
of  Chevreul,  published  in  1823,  fatty  bodies  were 
supposed  to  be  simple  substances. 

A  glyceride  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  compound 
of  fatty  acid  and  glycerol  or  glycerin.  The  latter 
being  a  tri-hydric  nlcohol,  and  behaving  chemically 
as  a  base,  is  capable  of  combining  with  three  radicles 
of  fatty  acid,  forming  a  2r*-glyceride. 

Thus  : 


njj i  °s+  3(ci8H3oO,)  =  (c.X-'b),) ' 

glycerol  stearic  acid  tri-stearine  water 
and  in  a  similar  manner,  with  the  radicles  of  palmitic 
and  oleic  acids,  tri-palmitin  and  tri-oleiu, 


respectively,  are  formed.  Mono-  and  di-glycerides 
—  that  is,  compounds  containing  either  one  or  two 
acid  radicles,  c:in  be  formed  synthetically,  but,  as 
a  rule,  the  tri-glycerides  only  are  present  in  fresh 
neutral  oils  and  fats. 

When  oils  and  fats  are  heated  with  water  under 
pressure,  hydrolysis  takes  place,  with  formation 
of  fatty  acids  and  glycerol;  and  on  treatment  with 
alkalies  an  analogous  reaction  occurs,  glycerol  is 
also  formed,  and  the  fatty  acids  combine  with  the 
alkali  to  form  soap. 


The  natural  oils  and  fats  often  contain  large 
proportions  of  free  fatty  acids,  due  to  decom- 
position caused  by  certain  natural  ferments,  or 
enzymes,  present  in  the  accompanying  vegetable 
or  animal  matter,  as  well  as  small  quantities  of 
colouring,  odorous,  and  other  substances. 

General  Properties.  As  already  indicated, 
neutral  oils  and  fats  may  be  liquid,  "  buttery," 
or  solid  at  normal  temperatures,  but  even  the 
hardest  fat  becomes  fluid  at  a  temperature  under 
100°  C.,  and  it  is  not  until  a  temperature  of  over 
300°  C.  is  reached  that  they  undergo  any  marked 
change.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  these  bodies  are 
described  us  fixed,  to  distinguish  them  from  essential 
and  mineral,  or  hydrocarbon,  oils,  which  can  be 
volatilised.  At  the  higher  temperature  named  above, 
glycerideo  suffer  decomposition,  the  most  charac- 
teristic product  being  acrol-e'rn,  an  intensely  acrid 
body  formed  by  the  destruction  of  the  glycerol. 

The  pure  oils  and  fats  are  colourless,  tasteless, 
and  odourless,  but  the  commercial  products  vary 
in  colour  from  pale  yellow  to  red  and  dark  brown  ; 
and  each  generally  possesses  a  taste  and  odour 
peculiar  to  itself,  due  to  the  presence  of  certain 
foreign  organic  substances.  They  are  all  lighter  than 
water,  the  specific  gravity  at  15'5°  C.  ranging  be- 
tween about  0*875  and  0'9.0. 

All  the  oils  and  fats  are  quite  insoluble  in  water ; 
they  are  soluble  to  a  certain  extent  in  alcohol, 
especially  when  hot,  and  are  readily  soluble  in 
ether,  carbon  bisulphide,  chtyroform,  benzene, 
petroleum  spirit,  and  certain  other  volatile  oils ; 
castor  oil,  however,  behaves  somewhat  exceptionally. 
They  possess  the  property  of  penetrating  dry 
substances,  such  as  paper,  textile  fabrics,  etc., 
causing  these  to  appear  transparent,  and  forming 
the  well-known  li  greasy  stain."  They  are  not 
inflammable  under  ordinary  conditions,  although 
by  means  of  a  wick  they  burn  readily  with  a  bright 
flame.  When  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  oils 
and  fats  become  oxidi  ed,  acquiring  a  rancid  taste 
and  a  disagreeable  odour.  This  change  is  more 
marked  in  the  case  of  certain  "  drying "  oils, 
such  as  linseed  and  hempseed,  which,  when  ex- 
posed in  a  thin  layer,  rapidly  absorb  the  atmo- 
spheric oxygen,  forming  a  solid  varnish. 

Methods  of  Production.  The  processes 
employed  for  obtaining  oils  and  fats  from  the 
seed,  kernel,  fruit,  or  animal  tissue  in  which  they 
are  contained  depend  largely  upon  the  particular 
nature  of  the  material  to  be  treated  and  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  product  is  required.  Great 
advance  has  been  made  upon  the  primitive  methods 
of  earlier  times,  although  in  some  countries  those 
in  use  are  still  somewhat  crude,  resulting  often  in 
considerable  loss  of  the  product,  and  in  the  deteriora- 
tion of  its  quality.  By  simple  heating  it  is  possible 
to  effect  the  separation  of  much  of  the  fatty  matter 
contained  in  certain  materials :  but  the  methods 
iivii'.Tally  employed  depend  upon  the  removal  of 
the  oil  or  fat  by  pressure,  and  by  extraction  by 
means  of  volatile  solvents.  In  the  case  of  animal 
products,  the  process  of  rcnd<  riny  is  employed. 

4829 


1.   EXTRACTION 
APPARATUS 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

As  a  preliminary  to  the  treatment  by  pressing 
or  by  solvents  the  seed  or  kernel  is  ground  finely 
by  passing  it  between  powerful  stone  or  iron  rollers, 
or  it  is  broken  up  in  disintegrators. 

Pressing.  The  hydraulic  press  is  now  em- 
ployed in  the  most  modern  oil-mills,  the  earlier 
forms  having  been  now  almost  entirely  superseded. 
If  the  colour  and  taste  of  the  oil- 
product  have  to  be  considered,  as  in 
the  case  of  castor  oil,  or  of  salad  oil 
from  cottonseed,  the  crushed  seed,  in 
the  form  of  meal,  is  placed  in  bags, 
and  pressed  in  the  cold  at  a  pressure 
of  about  two  tons  per  square  inch. 
The  pressed  cake  still  contains  a 
considerable  proportion  of  oil,  the 
bulk  of  which  is  removed— as  a 
product  of  lower  quality,  to  be  used 
for  manufacturing  purposes — by 
disintegrating  the  cake  and  pressing 
it  hot. 

When  the  maximum  yield  of  oil 
is  the  main  object  in  view,  and  the 
product  is  not  required  for  edible 
purposes,  the  meal,  which  is  mean- 
while kept  moist  by  steam,  is  heated 
to  about  70°  to  80°  C.  in  a  steam- 
jacketed  vessel  provided  with  a 
mechanical  stirrer.  It  is  delivered 
into  a  measuring  box,  then  placed 
in  cloths  in  a  moulding  machine, 
and  gently  pressed  into  shape.  The 
cakes  thus  formed  are  then  subjected 
to  high  pressure  and  the  expressed  oil  collected. 
The  cakes  are  removed  and  the  oily  edges  trimmed 
off  to  be  ground  and  re-pressed.  The  cake  still 
contains  about  10  per  cent,  of  oil,  and  in  the  case 
of  certain  seeds  is  largely  used  as  a  food  stuff  for 
cattle.  Fig.  2  shows  the  Anglo-American  form  of 
press  now  largely  employed. 

Extraction.  In  the  process  of  extraction 
by  means  of  solvents  the  agents  employed  are 
generally  petroleum  spirit  and  carbon  bisulphide. 

Various  forms  of  apparatus  are  used  for  the  pur- 
pose. If  the  extraction  is  carried  out  in  the  cold, 
the  solvent  is  made  to  percolate  through  the  ground 
seed  contained  in  a  series  of  closed  vessels.  Other 
forms  are  constructed  on  the  principle  of  the 
Soxhlet  apparatus  [1],  where  a  condenser  is  con- 
nected at  b.  These  allow  of  continuous  extraction 
with  a  reduced  quantity  of  the  solvent,  which  is 
heated.  When  the  mass  has  been  completely 
extracted,  the  solution  is  withdrawn,  the  solvent 
distilled  off  and  condensed,  to  be  used  over  again, 
while  the  extracted  oil  remains. 

Rendering.  In  this  process,  which  is  applied 
to  the  rough  fate  of  animal  origin,  whereby  the  tallow, 
lard,  or  other  fat  is  separated  from  the  tissue  of 
nitrogenous  non-fatty  matter,  the  materials  are 
sometimes  simply  exposed  to  dry  heat,  when  the 
tatty  matter  melts  away;  but  generally  they  are 
I xiiled  with  water,  and  subsequently  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  when  the  clean  fat  rises  to  the 
surface  and  is  skimmed  off. 

The  heating  of  the  materials  with  water  under 
j»res>ure  in  a  digester  fitted  with  a  false  bottom, 
as  shown  in  3,  is  now  becoming  more  general. 

This  method  is  the  most  effective,  and  obviates 
the  production  of  the  disagreeable  odours  which 
prove  so  objectionable  in  the  other  forms  of  the 
process. 

Methods  of  Purification.  The  oil 
o;-  fat.  having  been  separated  from  the  seed  or 
animal  tissue  by  one  or  other  of  the  processes 

4830 


described,  contains  some  water  as  well  as  albumin- 
ous or  fibrous  matter ;  for  the  removal  of  these 
it  is  generally  passed  through  a  filter-press  [4],  from 
which  it  flows  in  a  bright  and  clear  condition. 
The  agitation  of  the  heated  oil  or  fat  with  such 
agents  as  fullers'  earth  and  animal  charcoal  often 
effects  a  marked  improvement  in  colour. 

Treatment  with  chemicals  for  the  removal  of 
foreign  dark-coloured  substances  requires  to  be 
applied  with  care.  Agitation  with  from  1  to  2  per 
cent,  of  comparatively  strong  sulphuric  acid  at 
about  70°  C.  is  employed  with  advantage  in  the 
case  of  such  oils  as  rape  and  linseed  ;  the  foreign 
matters  become  charred,  and  settle  out,  when  the 
clear  oil  can  be  separated  and  washed  with  warm 
water. 

Cottonseed  oil  is  refined  by  agitation  with  a 
solution  of  caustic  soda  of  T05  to  I'lO  specific 
gravity,  at  about  50°  C.  ;  the  minimum  quantity 
only  is  used,  but  sufficient  to  combine  with  the 
free  fatty  acids  and  the  colouring  matter.  The 
d?colorised  oil  rises  to  the  surface  and  is  removed 
and  washed,  while  the  soap  and  mucilage  remain 
underneath.  This  process  is  employed  also  for 
the  refining  of  other  oils  and  fats,  where  a  per- 
fectly neutral  (fatty  acid  free)  product  is  required. 

Bleaching  by  such  agents  as  manganese  dioxide 
and  potassium  bichromate,  in  presence  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  depends  upon  the  action  of  the  nascent 
oxygen  formed  ;  the  use  of  ozone  has  been  recom- 
mended. The  bleaching  of  palm  oil  is  generally 
effected  by  treatment  with  potassium  bichromate 
and  hydrochloric  acid,  and  sometimes  by  air. 

We  shall  now  briefly  describe  the  origin,  proper- 
ties, and  applications  of  the  principal  oils  and  fats. 
Olive  Oil.  This  oil  is  obtained  from  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  fruit  of  the  olive-tree  (Glea 
Europtxa  species)  by  pressing  and  by  extraction. 
There  are  many  commercial  varieties  of  the  oil. 
Those  from  Provence  and  Tuscany  are  considered 
the  finest ;  other  qualities  are  obtained  from 
the  fruit  grown  in  Spain,  Turkey,  Greece,  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  in  South  Australia, 
etc.  The  quality  of  olive  oil 
depends  upon  the  origin  of 
the  fruit,  and  other  circum- 
stances ;  the  finest  is  pale 
yellow  in  colour,  almost 
odourless,  and  pleasant  to  the 
taste,  while  the  lower  quali- 
ties are  green  in  colour,  and 
have  a  nauseous  odour  and 
acrid  taste. 

Olive  oil  is  composed  mainly 
of  olein,  with  smaller  propor- 
tions of  linolin  and  palmitin. 
It  may  be  looked  upon  as  an 
example  of  a  non-drying  oil. 
The  proportion  of  free  fatty 
acids  present  in  the  commer- 
cial oils  depends  upon  the 
care  with  which  they  have 

2.  ANGLO-AMERICAN   been     prepared,    and    ranges 
OIL  PRESS  from  less  than  1  percent;  to 

fi%£3*L*)  ftboui 25  IT;  cew he  sp?cific 

gravity  of  the  oil  diminishing 
as  the  fatty  acids  increase. 

The  finest  qualities  are  reserved  for  edible 
purposes:  other  varieties  are  used  for  burninv.  for 
the  lubrication  of  machinery,  in  the  manufacture 
of  woollen  goods,  in  dyeing,  and  for  soap-making. 

Olive  oil,  on  account  of  its  relatively  high  price, 
is  very  frequently  adulterated,  cottonseed,  arachis, 
rape  seed,  and  other  oils  being  used. 


Olive=Kernel  Oil,  as  its  name  implies, 
is  obtained  from  the  seeds  in  the  olive  stones ; 
it  closely  resembles  olive  oil,  but  is  higher  hi  specific 
gravity. 

Almond  Oil.  Almond  oil  is  expressed 
from  either  bitter  or  sweet  almonds,  and  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  essential  oil  of  bitter  almonds. 
It  has  little  odour,  a  mild  taste,  and  is  pale  yellow 
in  colour.  It  withstands  a  very  low  temperature 
without  becoming  solid,  and  is  employed  largely 
in  pharmacy. 

Arachis  Oil.  Arachis  (earthnut,  ground- 
nut, peanut)  oil  is  obtained  from  the  nuts  of  Ara~ 
chis  hypogffa,  a  plant  indigenous  to  America, 
but  cultivated  in  Africa,  India,  and  other  countries. 
The  oil  is  pale  yellow  in  colour,  and  possesses  a  nut- 
like  odour  and  taste.  The  finer  qualities  are  used 
a.s  salad  oil  and  for  the  adulteration  of  olive  oil, 
and  the  inferior  qualities  for  soap-making. 

Cottonseed  Oil.    Cottonseed  oil  has  recently 
become   a   product   of   much    commercial    import- 
ance, and  is  expressed  in  large  quantities  in  America, 
Europe,  and  Great  Britain  from  the  seeds 
of  various  cotton  trees  of  the  Gossypium 
species  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  in 
Egypt,  East  India,  etc.    The  seeds  yield 
from  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  oil. 

The  crude  oil  is  dark  brown,  or  nearly 
black,  in  colour,  and  is  refined  by  treat- 
ment with  alkali.  The  refined  product 
is  pale  or  golden  yellow  in  colour  and  has 
little  taste  or  smell. 

Coltonseed  oil  may  be  considered  as  a 
type  of  a  semi-drying  oil.  When  air  is 
through  the  heated  oil  oxygen  is  absorbed,  and  the 
specific  gravity  and  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  are 
raised  ;  the  resulting  blown  oil  is  employed  in  ad- 
mixture with  mineral  oils  for  lubricating  machinery. 

Refined  cottonseed  oil  is  used  to  some  extent 
for  edible  purposes,  and  for  the  adulteration  of 
olive,  lard,  and  other  oils ;  very  large  quantities 
are  employed  in  soap-making  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  margarine. 

Maize    Oil.     M^ize    (corn)    oil    is    obtained 


3.    DIGESTER   FOR   RENDERING 
FATS 

blown 


4>.    HYDRAULIC  FILTER  PRESS  WITH   STEAM  PUMP 
(Rose,  Downs  &  Thompson,  Ltd.) 

from  the  seeds  of  Zea  mays,  and  is  imported  from 
the  United  States  of  America  in  large  quantities. 
It  is  golden  yellow  in  colour  and  has  a  peculiar 
taste.  It  is  employed  principally  in  the  making  of 
soft  soap,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  for  edible 
purposes,  and  for  burning. 

Rape  Oil.     Rape    or    colza    oil    is    obtained 
from  the  seeds  of  Brassica  campestris,  and  from 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

many  varieties  of  this  plant  grown  in  France, 
Germany,  Russia,  and  India.  The  seed  contains 
from  33  to  43  per  cent,  of  oil,  and  the  quality  of 
the  latter  varies  with  the  origin  of  the  seed.  The 
crude  oil,  obtained  by  the  pressing  or  extraction 
of  the  seed,  is  dark  brown  in  colour,  and  is  refined 
by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  refined 
product,  as  it  occurs  in  commerce,  is  light  yellow 
in  colour,  and  has  an  unpleasant  taste  and  charac- 
teristic odour. 

Rape  oil  behaves  like  cottonseed  oil  when  sub- 
jected to  air  blowing,  and  stands  between  drying 
and  non-drying  oils.  Chemi- 
cally, it  consists  mainly  of 
stearine,  olein,  and  erucin,  and 
is  peculiar  in  possessing  a  some- 
what low  saponification  value. 
Large  quantities  of  rape  oil 
are  used  for  lubricating  pur- 
poses, and  smaller  proportions 
for  burning  and  in  the  making 
of  soft  soap. 

Linseed  Oil.  Linseed 
oil  is  obtained  by  pressing  the 
seeds  of  the  flax  plant  (Linum 
usitatissimum),  which  is  grown 
principally  in  India,  Russia, 
the  United  States,  and  Brazil. 
The  seeds  are  liable  to  ad- 
mixture with  the  seeds  of 

°ther    Plants'  .and  %™  SOme' 
times     seriously     affects     the 

quality  of  the  oil ;  the  propor- 
tion of  oil  present  ranges  from  32  to  40  per  cent. 

The  crude  oil  is  generally  refined  by  means  of 
sulphuric  acid.  The  purified  oil  is  yellow  or 
light  brown  in  colour,  and  possesses  an  acrid 
taste  and  somewhat  strong  odour.  The  chemical 
composition  of  linseed  oil  is  not  definitely  known, 
but  the  glyceiides  of  linolic  acid,  C,sHSoOu,  and 
linolenic  acid,  C18H:JOO-_.,  predominate. 

Linseed  oil  is  the  most  important  of  the  drying 
oils ;  it  combines  readily  with  oxygen,  drying 
on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  it  is  to  this  property 
that  its  extensive  use  in  the  manufacture  of  paints 
and  varnishes,  and  of  linoleum  is  due,  the  "boiled  " 
or  partly  oxidi-ed,  oil  being  generally  employed. 
In  combining  with  oxygen  heat  is  evolved,  which 
sometimes  causes  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  cotton- 
waste  and  other  inflammable  materials  saturated 
with  the  oil.  Linseed  oil  is  also  largely  employed 
in  the  making  of  soft  soap. 

Castor  Oil.  Castor  oil  is  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  the  castor  oil  plant,  Ricinus  communis, 
these  containing  from  46  to  53  per  cent,  of  oil ; 
the  plant  is  a  native  of  India,  but  is  cultivated 
also  in  the  United  States,  France,  Italy,  etc.  The 
best  variety  of  the  oil  is  the  cold-draivn,  which  is 
expressed  in  the  cold ;  this  quality  is  pale  yellow 
or  nearly  colourless,  and  has  little  objectionable 
taste  or  odour ;  thes  lower  qualities,  however, 
have  a  nauseous  odour  and  disagreeable  taste. 

Castor  oil  possesses  a  higher  specific  gravity 
and  viscosity  than  any  of  the  natunil  fatty  oils, 
and  is  distinguished  also  by  its  solubility  in  alcohol, 
and  insolubility  in  certain  proportions  of  petro- 
leum spirit.  Chemically  it  is  composed  mainly 
of  the  glyceride  of  ricinoleic  acid.  The  cold-drawn 
oil  is  used  in  medicine,  and  the  inferior  qualities 
in  the  making  of  Turkey-red  oil  and  in  other  manu- 
factures, for  lubrication,  and  in  India  for  burning. 

Palm  Oil.  This  fat  is  obtained  from  the 
fleshy  coating  of  the  fruit  of  several  species  of  palm, 
chiefly  Elais  guineensis  and  Elotis  melanococca, 

4831 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

\\hieh  grow  extensively  along  the  West  Coast  of 
Africa. 

The  methods  employed  by  the  natives  for  the 
recovery  of  the  oil  are  very  crude  ;  they  generally 
consist  in  storing  the  fruit  in  holes  in  the  ground 
until  decomposition  takes  place,  when  the  pulp 
Incomes  softened,  and  the  oil  rises  to  the  surface 
or  in  bruising  the  fruit  with  wooden  pestles,  and 
boiling  with  water. 

Palm  oil  varies  in  colour  from  bright  orange- 
yellow  to  dirty  red,  and  in  consistency  from  that 
of  butter  to  that  of  hard  tallow.  The  propor- 
tion of  fatty  acids  also  varies  with  the  particular 
quality  of  oil,  Lagos  and  Bonny,  for  instance, 
containing  from  13  to  20  per  cent.,  and  Congo 
and  Salt- Pond  from  80  to  90  per  cent.  The  com- 
mercial oils  often  contain  very  large  percentages 
of  water  and  solid  impurities  due  to  the  methods 
of  extraction.  The  odour  of  the  better  qualities, 
fmch  as  Lagos  and  Bonny,  is  pleasant,  but  that  of 
the  inferior  varieties  is  disagreeable. 

The  principal  constituents  of  palm  oil  are  the 
glycerides  of  palmitin  and  olein,  with  free  palmitic 
acid.  Palm  oil  is  extensively  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  candles  and  of  soap ;  the  bleached 
oil  is  generally  used  for  the  latter  purpose. 

Palm-kernel  (Palmnut)  Oil,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  obtained  from  the  kernels  of  the  fruit  of 
those  palm  trees  which  yield  palm  oil.  It  is  quite 
different  in  its  physical  and  chemical  properties  from 
palm  oil,  and  more  closely  resembles  coconut  oil. 

It  is  largely  used  in  soap-making. 

Coconut  Oil.  Coconut  oil,  as  it  appears 
fn  this  country,  is  a  white  fat  of  the  consistency  of 
lard.  It  is  extracted  from  the  kernels  of  the  coco- 
nut (Cocos  nucifera  and"  Cocos  butijracea),  and 
possesses  the  characteristic  taste  and  odour  of 
coconut.  Three  varieties  of  the  oil  occur  in 
commerce :  Cochin  oil,  the  finest  in  colour  and 
quality  ;  Ceylon  oil,  imported  from  Ceylon  ;  and 
copra  oil,  the  fat  obtained  from  the  sun-dried, 
imy>orted  kernels.  Coconut  oil  is  very  complex  in 
composition ;  it  contains  the  glycerides  mainly  of 
myristic  acid  (C14H.2,sOo),  lauric  acid  (C12H24Oo), 
and  smaller  quantities  of  the  glycerides  of  palmitic, 
stearic,  and  oleic  acids,  and  of  the  volatile  acids 
capric,  caprylic,  and  caproic. 

Coconut  oil  is  extensively  used  in  soap-making, 
while  the  purified  and  deodorised  oil,  under  certain 
fancy  names,  is  sold  for  edible  purposes. 

Coconut  oil,  when  pressed,  yields  coconut 
stearine,  which  is  employed  in  chocolate-making  as  a 
substitute  for  the  more  expensive  cacao  butter  :  the 
latter  fat  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  or  beans  of 
the  cacao- tree  (Thcobroma  cacao). 

Chinese  Vegetable  Tallow.  This  fat 
forms  the  coating  of  the  seeds  of  the  Chinese  tallow 
tree  (Stillingia  sebifera),  cultivated  largely  in  China 
and  in  .some  parts  of  India.  It  consists  mainly  of 
palmitin,  with  a  smaller  proportion  of  olein.  It  is 
used  in  candle-making. 

Minor  Seed  Oils.  Mowrali  Seed  Oil,  or 
M(»rrah  Butter  (Eassia  lonyifolia)  ;  Mahua  Butter, 
or  Illipe  Butter  (Bassia  latifolia)  ;  and  Shea  Butler, 
or  Galam  Buffer  (Rnssia  Parkii),  are  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  the  respective  varieties  of  the  Ba-^irr 
tree.  The  glycerides  present  are  mainly  those  of 
stearic  and  oleic  acids  ;  a  notable  quantity  of  non- 
saponifiable  matter  is  also  present  in  some  of  them, 
besides  varying  proportions  of  fatty  acids.  These 
fa  Is  an-  employed  in  candle-making,  and  occasion- 
ally in  Boap-making. 

Tallow.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  animal  fats,  and  is  obtained  from  the  membrane 

4832 


of  the  tissue  of  certain  ruminants  by    melting  or 
by  rendering. 

The  tallow  of  commerce  is  distinguished  as  beef 
and  as  mutton  tallow ;  the  former  is  the  product 
from  oxen  and  cows,  and  the  latter  from  sheep  and 
goats :  mixed  tallow  is  a  mixture  of  the  two 
products. 

Tallow  is  imported  in  large  quantities  from 
Australia  and  from  North  and  South  America,  while 
the  market  is  supplied  also  with  the  home  tallow  of 
the  local  melter.  The  better  qualities  of  tallow  are 
white,  and  have  little  taste  or  odour ;  but  the 
inferior  qualities  are  more  or  less  yellow  in  colour, 
and  have  a  disagreeable  and  sometimes  rancid  odour. 

Tallow  is  composed  mainly,  although  not  ex- 
clusively, of  the  glycerides  stearine,  palmitin,  and 
olein.  The  value  of  a  tallow  depends  upon  the 
colour,  odour,  proportion  of  free  fatty  acids,  and  the 
Hire,  or  solidifying-point  of  the  fatty  acids.  The 
highly-priced  Australian  tallows  contain  less  than 
0*5  per  cent,  of  fatty  acids ;  the  titrc,  of  mutton 
tallow  may  be  as  high  as  49°  C.,  while  that  of  beef 
is  considerably  lower.  Many  low-class  tallows- 
contain  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  of  free  fatty  acids. 

Tallow  is  principally  employed  for  soap-making, 
in  the  manufacture  of  margarine,  of  stearine  foi 
candles,  and  for  lubrication. 

When  tallow  is  subjected  to  mechanical  pressure 
a  separation  of  the  solid  and  the  liquid  portions  takes 
place  ;  the  former  is  known  as  tallow  stearine,  and  is 
used  for  candle  and  soap  making,  and  the  latter  as 
tallow  oil,  chiefly  employed  for  lubrication  in  ad- 
mixture with  mineral  oils. 

Lard.  Lard  is  the  fat  of  the  hog,  and  varies  in 
quality  according  to  the  particular  part  of  the 
animal  from  which  it  has  been  rendered  ;  the  best 
quality  is  known  as  bladder  lard,  and  is  obtained  from 
the  fat  surrounding  the  kidneys.  Lard  is  white 
in  colour,  and  has  a  pleasant  taste  and  odotir. 
It  resembles  tallow  in  its  chemical  constitution,  but 
contains,  besides  the  glycerides  present  in  tallow, 
those  of  lauric,  myristic,  and  linolic  acids.  Lard 
is  very  liable  to  adulteration  by  admixture  with 
cheaper  fats.  It  is  used  as  a  butter  substitute  in 
cooking,  and  in  the  making  of  margarine.  When 
pressed,  lard  oil  is  obtained,  which  is  also  employed 
for  edible  purposes  and  as  a  lubricating  oil. 

Other  Animal  Fats.  Bone  fat  is  obtained 
from  bones  by  (a)  boiling  with  water,  and  (h) 
extracting  with  petroleum  spirit.  The  product  ol 
the  former  process  is  generally  superior  to  that  of 
the  latter.  The  better-coloured  qualities  art 
employed  in  soap-making,  and  the  darker  in  candle- 
making. 

Under  the  general  terms  melted  fat,  grease,  etc., 
are  included  a  number  of  somewhat  soft  animal 
fats  of  varying  quality,  more  or  less  d.irk  in  colour, 
and  strong  in  odour,  employed  as  substitutes  for 
tallow  in  soap  and  in  candle-making. 

Butter  fat  is  the  fat  present  in  cows'  milk,  normal 
butter  of  good  quality  containing  about  90  per  cent, 
of  fat.  Butter  fat  is  very  complex  in  constitution, 
but  consists  largely  of  the  glycerides  of  palmitic  and 
oleic  acids,  and  those  of  such  soluble  fatty  acids  as 
butyric,  caproic,  caprylic,  etc.,  the  presence  of  the 
butyric  radicle  being  highly  characteristic. 

Margarine.  In  England,  and  in  some  other 
countries,  the  name  margarine  is  applied  to  arti- 
ficially coloured  mixtures  of  certain  animal  fats  and 
\i"_:etable  oils  employed  as  substitutes  for  butter; 
formerly  they  were  designated  as  buttcrine,  and  as 
Dutch  butter.  In  America  they  are  sold  under  the 
name  oleo-margarinc. 


The  earliest  manufacturing  process  dates  from 
the  year  1870,  and  was  the  result  of  the  experiments 
of  M.  Mege-Mouries.  Since  then  the  industry  of 
artificial  butter-making  has  assumed  enormous  pro- 
portions. When  the  manufacture  is  carefully  and 
scientifically  carried  out,  and  with  due  regard  to 
the  selection  of  the  purest  and  freshest  materials, 
as  well  as  to  the  observance  of  the  greatest  cleanli- 
ness in  the  various  operations,  a  product  is  obtained 
which  forms  a  good  substitute  for  butter,  and  a 
valuable  article  of  food. 

The  fat  of  the  ox  and  cow  (beef  suet)  is  preferred 
and  is  exclusively  employed  in  England  as  the  raw 
material  of  animal  origin ;  on  the  Continent  the  fat 
of  the  sheep  is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
in  America  that  of  the  hog  is  largely  employed. 
The  components  of  vegetable  origin  are  refined 
cottonseed,  arachis,  and  sesame  oils ;  coconut  oil 
and  cottonseed  stearine  are  also  sometimes  used. 

For  the  manufacture,  the  selected  parts  of  the 
fatty  tissue  are  removed  as  quickly  as  possible  from 
the  slaughtered  animal,  and,  after  having  been  cooled, 
are  exposed  to  a  temperature  not  exceeding  50°  C., 
which  effects  the  separation  of  the  more  readily 
fusible  portions  of  the  fat.  The  melted  fat  is  then 
allowed  to  cool  gradually  in  shallow  tins,  and  the 
crystallised,  or  "  grained "  material  pressed  in 
canvas  cloths.  When  beef  suet  is  used,  the  pressed 
cake  is  known  as  stearine  or  oleo-stearine,  and  the  oil 
as  oleo- margarine  or  olio-oil,  the  latter  forming  the 
principal  component  of  the  margarine  of  commerce. 
The  oleo-oil  is  afterwards  mixed  with  the  desired 
proportion  of  vegetable  oil,  and  with  fresh,  or  some-- 
times sour,  milk,  and  the  mass  churned  at  a  uniform 
and  carefully  regulated  temperature,  which  not  only 
effects  the  intimate  mixture  of  the  materials, 
but  also  prevents  the  graining  of  the  harder  fat 
present.  The  product  is  then  quickly  cooled  in 
tanks  by  means  of  ice-cold  water,  removed  to  an 
inclined  table  to  allow  the  bulk  of  the  water  to 
drain  away,  and  taken  to  kneading  machines,  which 
remove  a  further  quantity  of  water,  and  produce  a 
homogeneous  mass.  The  desired  quantity  of  salt 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

is  then  added,  with  a  little  annatto  or  other  colouring 
matter,  the  margarine  again  kneaded,  and  put  up 
into  rolls  or  pats  for  the  market. 

The  proportions  of  the  ingredients  used  in  the 
making  of  margarine  vary  considerably.  The 
following  has  been  given  as  a  general  working 
recipe  (Lewkowitsch) :  Mix  65  parts  of  oleo- 
margarine, 20  parts  of  vegetable  oils,  and  30  parts 
of  milk  ;  100  parts  of  finished  product  are  obtained, 
15  parts  of  water  being  eliminated.  Margarine  is 
largely  employed  for  the  adulteration  of  butter, 
although  its  presence  can  be  detected  with  some 
certainty  by  the  improved  methods  of  chemical 
analysis.  In  England  no  butter  substitute  is 
allowed  to  be  sold  without  a  declaration  of  its  real 
nature. 

Marine  Oils.  Sperm  oil  (Southern  sperm)  is 
the  oil  obtained  from  the  head  cavities  and  blubber 
of  the  cachelot  or  sperm  whale  (Physeter  macro- 
cephalus).  The  oil,  after  separation  of  the  sperma- 
ceti, and  purification,  is  pale  yellow  in  colour,  with 
little  odour,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  low  specific 
gravity  and  viscosity. 

Sperm  oil  contains  no  glycerides,  but  consists  of 
the  esters  of  monohydric  alcohols,  and  should, 
chemically,  be  looked  upon  as  a  liquid  wax.  It  is 
much  valued,  and  is  extensively  used  as  a  lubricant 
for  spindles  and  light  machinery.  On  account  of 
its  high  price,  sperm  oil  is  often  adulterated. 

Arctic  sperm  oil  (Bottlenose)  is  obtained  from  the 
bottle-nose  whale  (Hypercodon  rostratus).  This  oil 
very  closely  resembles  Southern  sperm  oil  in  its 
physical  and  chemical  characteristics,  but  differs  in 
taste,  and  is  more  liable  to  "  gum  "  on  exposure  to 
the  air.  On  account  of  the  latter  property,  its 
commercial  value  is  generally  considerably  less  than 
that  of  Southern  sperm,  and  it  is  often  employed 
for  the  adulteration  of  the  more  expensive  oil. 

Whale  oil  is  extracted  from  the  blubber  of  the 
Greenland,  or  "  right "  whale  (Balwna  mysticetus), 
and  from  that  of  various  species  of  Balcena  and 
Bdlcenoptera. 

Whale  oil  is  a  glyceride  of  uncertain  composition, 


PHYSICAL    AND    CHEMICAL    CONSTANTS    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    OILS    AND    FATS 

VEGETABLE    OILS    AND    FA1S 

Oil  or  Fat. 

Specific  Gravity, 
15°  C. 

Melting 
Point,  °  C. 

Solidifying 
Point,  °  C. 

Sapon.  Value 
(mgs.  KHO 
pr.  1  gm.  oil). 

Iodine 
Value, 
Per  cent. 

Titre, 
0  C. 

Olive  oil  .... 
Olive-kernel  oil 
Arachis  oil 
Cottonseed  oil 
Maize  oil 
Rape  (colza)  oil 
Linseed  oil 
Castor  oil 
Palm  oil  .  . 
Palm-kernel  oil        ... 
Coconut  oil                ... 
Chinese  vegetable  tallosv 

0-915   to   0-918 
0-918  to  0-920 
0-917   to  0'921 
0-922   to  0-925 
0-921   to   0-925 
0-913   to  0-917 
0-931    to   0-935 
0-960  to  0-968 
0-921    to   0-925 
0-952 
0-925 
0-918 

27  to  43 
23  to  28 
20  to  26 
36   to   46 

-    5  to   +   2 

-   3  to     0 
0  to    +10 
-10  to    -20 
-    2  to    -10 
-  20  to    -  27 
-10  to    -18 
18  to  46 
20  to  26 
15  to  22 
25   to   33 

185  to  196 
182  to  184 
190  to   196 
192   to    196 
188  to   193 
170   to   178 
188   to   195 
178  to   186 
196  to   202 
242  to   250 
246   (o   264 
196  to  201 

79  to  88 
87  'to  88 
83  to   103 
105   to   110 
112  to   125 
94  to   105 
170  to  195 
83  to  86 
50  to  53 
13  to  15 
8  to  9-5 
28  to  38 

17  to  26 

28  to   29 
33   to   35 
18  to  20 
12  to   14 
19   to   21 

43  to   47 
20   to   25 
22  to   25 
51   to   54 

ANIMAL    OILS    AND    FATS 

Tallow  (mutton) 
Tallow  (beef) 
Lard        
Lard  oil   
Bone  fat  
Butter  fat       

0-S37   to  0-953 
0-943   to   0-953 
0*933   to  0-938 
0-916  to   0-918 
0-914   to  0-916 
0-926   to   0-940 

43  to   48 
41   to.  46 
36  to   46 

21   to   22 
28  to   34 

35   to   43 
27  to   35 
27  to  30 

-    4  to    +   5 
15  to   17 
20   to   26 

192   to    197 
192   to   199 
194   to   197 
191   to   196 
190   to   196 
221   to   232 

34  to  48 
36  to  47 
50  to  70 
67  to  82 
46  to  56 
25  to  38 

43   to   49 
43   to   45 
39   to  42 

40  to  42 
35   to   38 

MAHINE    OILS 

Sperm  oil  (Southern) 
Arctic  sperm  oil 
Whale  oil         
Cod-liver  oil    

0-879   to   0-884 
0-878   to   0-882                — 
0-920   to  0-925 
0-924  to   0-931 

4  to  7 
3  to  5 

-    6   to    -t-    2 
-10  to  0 

123   to   132 
123  to   135 
188   to   194 
177  to  195 

81    to   86 
76   to   84 
120   to   130 
154  to   170 

11   to  12 
8  to   9 
23   to  24 
17   to   18 

1G 


4833 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

and  differs  in  this  respect  and  in  its  higher  specific 
gravity  from  the  sperm  oils.  It  is  also  more  liable 
to  gum,  and,  in  consequence,  is  not  so  suitable 
as  a  lubricant.  The  refined  oil  is  used  in  soap- 
making,  and  tlio  inferior  qualities  for  the  dressing 
of  leather. 

Cod-liver  oil,  as  indicated  by  its  name,  is  obtained 
from  the  liver  of  the  cod  (Oadus  morrhua).  Several 
qualities  occur  in  commerce.  The  pale  and  light 
brown  are  used  in  medicine,  and  the  dark  brown 
in  the  leather  industry.  Cod-liver  oil  consists  of 
a  complex  mixture  of  various  glycerides. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Tests  for 
Oils  and  Fats.  For  a  description  of  the 
methods  employed  reference  should  be  made  to 
analytical  works  on  the  subject,  but  the  following 
outline  will  serve  to  indicate  the  principal  points 
of  the  examination  generally  adopted  : 

( 'ofour,  odour,  taste,  consistency. 

Specific  gravity  at  some  definite  temperature, 
15°  C.  being  commonly  taken. 

M:  III  IK]  -I ml  solidifying  point*. 

Viscosity,  or  liquid  friction  of  an  oil,  indicated 
by  the  rate  of  flow  through  an  aperture  of  definite 
size,  at  a  recognised  temperature  and  pressure,  the 
result  being  generally  given  in  comparison  with 
rape  oil. 

Saponifi  cation  value  (or  Kottstorfer  value), 
indicating  the  amount  of  alkali  required  for  the 
saponification  of  a  definite  quantity  of  oil  or  fat, 
and  generally  expressed  in  milligrammes  of  potas- 
sium hydrate  (KHO)  per  1  gramnj  of  substance. 

Iodine  (or  Bromine)  value,  giving  the  percentage 
of  iodine  (or  of  bromine)  absorbed  by  an  oil  or  fat, 
and  indicating  the  proportion  of  unsaturated  fatty 
acids  present. 

Titrc,  or  solidifying  point  of  the  fatty  acids  of  an 
oil  or  fat,  generally  determined  by  Dalican's  method. 

Among  other  physical  points  there  may  be 
mentioned:  microscopic  appearance,  refractive  index, 
absorption  spectra :  and,  among  chemical  points, 
acid  value;  Reichert  value,  Hehner  value,  acetyl 
mil  in  :  ifnitliii  /»•<  and  Hurnial  and  colour  tests  with 
various  chemical  agents. 

BiWio^-aphy.  The  following  works  may 
be  consulted  ;'  some  of  them  give  information  also 
on  the  allied  subjects— waxes,  candles,  soap,  and 
glycerin  —to  be  dealt  with  later : 

"  Chemical  Technology  and  Analysis  of  Oils, 
Fats,  and  Waxes"  (J.  Lewkowitsch,  1SJ04). 

"  Animal  and  Vegetable  Fixed  Oils,  Fats, 
Butters  and  Waxes"  ^C.  R.  A.  Wright  and 
C.  A.  Mitchell.  UXW). 

"  Commercial  Organic  Analysis,"  Vol.  II.,  Part  1 
(A.  H.  Allen  and  H.  Leffmann,  18W). 

4  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetable 
FaN  and  Oils"  (Wm.  T.  Branut.  1SSS). 

"Lubrication  and  Lubricants"  f  L.  Archbutt 
and  R.  M.  Deeley,  1900). 

"Soap  and  Candles,  Lubricants  and  Glycerin" 
(Wm.  Lant  Carpenter  and  H.  Lea-k,  1885). 

"Oils  and  Varnishes."  "Soaps  and  Caudles" 
(J.  Cameron.  Churchill's  Technological  Handbooks). 


WAXES 

Waxes  are  substances  of  animal  or  vegetable 
origin,  composed,  like  oils  and  fats,  of  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, and  oxygen,  but  differing  from  them  in 
some  of  their  physical  properties,  and  essentially  in 
their  chemical  constitution. 

The  true  waxes  consist  of  esters  of  the  higher 
fatty  acids  and  mono-  or  di-hydric  alcohols,  and, 
unlike  oils  and  fats,  they  do  not  yield  glycerol  on 
treatment  with  alkalies.  The  term  wax,  however, 
has  popularly  a  wider  significance,  and  is  applied 
to  certain  substances  which,  while  possessing  the 
physical  properties  of  waxes,  are  different  from 
them  in  chemical  constitution. 

Thus,  solid  paraffin  is  sometimes  called  a  wax, 
although  it  is  a  hydrocarbon,  and  contains  no 
oxygen ;  and  Japan  wax,  while  possessing  the 
physical  properties  of  a  wax,  behaves  chemically 
as  a  glyceride.  As  regards  chemical  constitution, 
certain  oils,  like  sperm  oil,  should  be  classed  as 
waxes,  although  they  are  liquid  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures. 

Waxes  behave  like  oils  and  fats  with  such  solvents 
as  water,  alcohol,  ether,  petroleum  spirit,  etc. 
When  heated,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  glycerol, 
waxes  do  not  evolve  the  characteristic  odour  of 
acrolein,  and  they  do  not  become  rancid  on  keeping, 
differing  in  these  respects  from  oils  and  fats. 

Beeswax.  Beeswax  is  a  secretion  of  the  com- 
mon bee  (apis  mi-llifcra)  and  is  used  by  this  insect 
in  the  formation  of  the  cells  of  the  honeycomb.  To 
obtain  the  wax,  the  combs,  after  removal  of  the, 
honey,  are  boiled  with  water,  the  impurities  strained 
off  or  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  clear  wax  run  into 
moulds.  The  product  is  more  or  less  yellow  in 
colour,  and  possesses  a  slight  taste  and  characteristic 
honey-like  odour.  It  is  brittle  when  cold,  but 
softens  readily  in  the  hand,  and  melts  at  a  higher 
temperature  to  a  clear  liquid.  Beeswax  consist* 
principally  of  a  mixture  of  myricin  (myricyl  palmi- 
tate,  C.H)H(il.  O.  C1HH:J1O),  and  free  cerotic  acid; 
the  latter  dissolves  when  the  wax  is  treated  with 
hot  alcohol. 

White,  or  bleached  beeswax  (Cera  alba,  Brit. 
Pharm.),  is  obtained  by  exposing  the  yellow  wax, 
in  the  form  of  ribbons,  to  the  action  of  sunlight 
in  the  presence  of  water ;  chemical  treatment  is 
also  sometimes  employed.  It  is  used  in  caiidlo- 
manufacture  and  for  modelling  purposes.  Both 
qualities  are  very  frequently  adulterated. 

Spermaceti.  Spermaceti  occurs  in  the  oil 
present  in  the  head  cavities  and  blubber  of  the 
sperm  whale  (Phys  ter  macrocephalus).  It  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  oil  by  cooling  and  by  repealed 
pressing,  and  is  further  purified  by  washing  with 
caustic  potash  solution.  The  product  appears  aa 
a  beautifully  white,  semi-transparent,  crystalline 
mass,  with  little  taste  or  odour.  Chemically,  it  iscom- 
posedmainlyof  cett/l /><tli>titate(C}  (iH;;;;.O.Cl(;H;. ,  0). 
Spermaceti  is  employed  in  the  making  of  sperm 
candles,  and  as  an  ingredient  of  certain  oiut- 
ments. 


PHYSICAL    AND    CHEMICAL    CONSTANTS    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    WAXES 

Wax. 

Speeilie  <ira\itv, 
!.-•    ('. 

Melting 

J'oilll,      C. 

Solidifying 
Point,     0. 

Sa  poii.  Value 
(inns.  KHO 
pr.  l.L'in.wux). 

V±:  !   *%• 

Per  cent.     ! 

Beeswax  (yellow)  .. 
Spermaceti       
Chinese  (insect)  wax 
Carmnilm  wax         ..      . 
•la  pan  wux       

G'962   to   0-'.>70 
0-905   to   0-960 
0-926  to  0-970 
<r:>U<)   to   0-999 

(i".'7()   to    ii'iisi) 

61-5   to   C,  t 
42   to   49 

81   to   s:? 

s:t    to   s;, 
r,<)  M  :,;, 

GOT.  to  63 
•!2   to  47 
80   to  81 
80  to  82 
45  to  52 

90  to  98 

12:!   to    130 
80  to  93 

so   to  85 
214   to    L'2-J 

8  to  11 

3-8 
1-4 
13-5 
4   to   7 

59  to  60 

Chinese  Wax.  Chinese  (insect)  wax  is 
secreted  by  an  insect  (Coccus  pda)  living  on  the 
twigs  of  a  tree  growing  in  Western  China.  It  is 
almost  white  in  colour,  and  resembles  spermaceti 
in  appearance,  but  is  much  harder  and  more  fibrous 
in  structure.  It  consists  mainly  of  ccryl  cerotate.! 
Insect  wax  is  used  in  China  and  Japan  as  a  candle 
material,  and  for  sizing  paper  and  textile  goods, 
but  it  is  not  of  much  commercial  importance  in 
Europe. 

Carnaxiba  Wax.  Carnaiiba  wax  is  obtained 
from  the  leaves  of  a  -Brazilian  palm  (Copernicia 
ccrifera)  It  is  yellowish  green  in  colour,  and  ex- 
tremely hard  and  brittle.  In  composition  it  is 
somewhat  complex,  .but  consists  principally  of 
rnvricyl  cerotate  and  myricy]  alcohol.  Carnaiiba 
\\ax  is  employed  in  small  quantities  in  caini'e- 
making  and  in  some  polishing  compounds. 

Japan  Wax.  Japan  wax,  although  posse.— inn- 
some  of  the  physical  properties  of  a  wax,  is  really 
a  fat,  consisting  mainly  of  palmitin,  and  yielding 
t'lvcerol  on  saponification.,  It  is  obtained  from  the 
fruit  of  certain  species  of  Rhus  growing  in  .Japan 
.ind  California,  japan  wax  is  pale  yellow  in  colour 
and  rather  unpleasant  in  smell.  It  is  employed  as 
an  ingredient  in  polishes. 

Myrtle  Wax.  Myrtle  (laurel)  wax  re- 
sembles  Japan  wax  in  chemical  composition.  Ifc 
is  obtained  from  the  berries  of  myrica  cerifera  and 
other  shrubs  of  this  species  in  America,  but  is  of 
little  importance  industrially. 

Paraffin  Wax.  Paraffin  wax,  ozokerit  and 
ceresin,  are  of  mineral  origin  and  are  not  true  waxes 
[see  Petroleum  and  Candles]. 

The  waxes  are  identified    by  the  same  tests  as 
those  mentioned  under  Fixed  Oils  and  Fats. 
CANDLES 

Of  the  illuminants  in  use  at  the  present  time 
there  are  few  that  possess  so  many  and  varied 
advantages  as  those  offered  by  the  candle.  In 
the  electric  light,  in  gas,  and  in  petroleum  we  have 
illuminants  with  which  the  candle  cannot  compete 
as  regards  intensity  of  light,  but  these  do  not  possess 
the  same  advantages  as  the  candle  in  its  ready 
portability,  in  the  softness  of  its  light,  and  in  its 
general  convenience  and  adaptability. 

To  the  ordinary  observer  the  candle  appears  to 
be  of  very  simple  construction — merely  a  cylinder 
of  wax  or  fatty  matter  with  a  central  wick — but  there 
are  indeed  few  illuminants  upon  the  production 
and  perfecting  of  which  there  has  been  expended 
the  same  amount  of  scientific  skill. 

The  candle  can  lay  claim  to  an  origin  of  great 
antiquity.  It  is  first  mentioned  by  Pliny  (in  the 
first  century),  who  states  that  the  candles  in  use  in 
Greece  and  Rome  were  composed  of  flax  threads 
coated  with  pitch  and  wax;  but  even  at  a  much 
earlier  date,  the  torch,  which  possesses  the  essential 
features  of  the  candle,  is  known  to  have  been  in  use. 
It,  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  in  King 
Arthur's  reign  the  time  of  day  was  observed  by  the 
burning  of  wax  candles  of  definite  length,  and  they 
were  then  employed  also  in  religious  (festivals. 
In  1484  a  wax  chandlers'  company  was  incorporated 
in  England,  showing  that  the  manufacture  had  then 
attained  to  some  importance.  The  subsequent 
development  of  the  industry  is  naturally  divided, 
by  two  memorable  events  into  two  distinct  stages, 
Avhich  may  be  distinguished  as  the  Stearine  and  the 
Paraffin  period  respectively.  The  first  was  due  to 
the  researches  of  Chevreul  on  fatty  bodies,  published 
in  1823,  followed  at  a  later  date  by  the  practical 
application  of  these  researches  by,  among  others, 
M.  dc  Milly,  in  France,  and  the  late  Mr.  G.  F.  Wilson, 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

F.K.S.,  of  Price's  Patent  Candle  Company  Limited, 
in  England.  The  second  was  due  to  the  production 
on  a  commercial  basis  of  paraffin  wax  by  the  late 
Mr.  James  Young,  in  1850,  and  the  obtaining  of 
petroleum  by  drilling,  in  America,  in  1859,  this 
material  yjelding  paraffin  wax.  The  modern 
improvements  in  the  methods  of  forming  candles 
have  also  contributed  very  materially  to  the 
development  of  the  industry. 

Candle  Materials.  In  the  earlier  days  of 
the  industry,  tallow,  beeswax,  and  spermaceti  were 
the  principal  materials  used,  but  these,  although 
still  employed,  have  now  a  very  limited  applica- 
tion compared  with  the  two  materials,  paraffin 
and  stearine,  of  which  the  great  bulk  of  the  candles 
of  the  present  day  is  composed. 

Stearine.  In  a  commercial  sense  the  term 
stearine  is  generally  applied  to  the  solid  fatty 
acids,  stearic  and  palmitic,  or  mixtures  of  these, 
obtained  from  animal  and  vegetable  fats,  although 
the  term  more  correctly  designates  the  solid  fat 
obtained  after  removing  the  liquid  oil  from  neutral 
fats  by  pressure. 

Stearine  is  known  as  saponified  and  as  distilled, 
the  former  being  generally  obtained  from  tallow 
by  saponification  or  hydrolysis,  and  the  latter  from 
fats  of  darker  colour  by  saponification  followed  by 
distillation,  or  by  acidification  and  distillation. 
The  raw  materials  employed  for  the  making  of 
stearine  are  principally  tallow,  palm  oil  and  greases. 
The  object  of  saponifying  the  fat,  which  is  the 
first  stage  in  the  manufacture,  is  to  effect  the  removal 
of  the  glycerin  and  thus  obtain  the  fatty  acids. 
Several  processes  are  in  use  for  this  purpose. 

Lime  Saponification.  This  is  one  of  the 
earliest  processes,  but  it  is  now  little  used.  The 
fat,  mixed  with  about  its  own  weight  of  watei%  is 
heated  in  a  wooden,  lead-lined  vat  by  means  of 
free  steam  supplied  through  a  perforated  coil. 
The  necessary  quantity  of  lime,  from  14  to  15  per 
cent.,  which  is  considerably  in  excess  of  that  theo- 
retically required  for  the  saponification  of  the  fat, 
is  then  added  in  the  form  of  a  cream,  and  the  boiling 
continued  until  the  saponification  has  been  com- 
pleted. The  lime-soap  formed  separates  from  the 
glycerin-water,  or  sweet  water,  as  it  is  technically 
called,  and  the  latter  can  be  drawn  off.  The  lime- 
soap,  after  having  been  washed,  is  decomposed  by 
boiling  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  when  the  sulphate 
of  lime  is  precipitated,  and  the 
liberated  fatty  acids  rise  to  the 
surface.  This  process,  although 
offering  the  advantage  of  simpli- 
city as  regards  the  plant  required, 
is  somewhat  costly  on  account  of 
the  large  percentage  of  lime  re- 
quired for  the  saponification,  and 
of  sulphuric  acid  for  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  lime-soap,  while  the 
sulphate  of  lime  is  liable  to  retain, 
mechanically,  part  of  the  fatty 
acids. 

Hydrolysis  Under  Pres= 
sure  by  Lime.  This  process 
was  first  carried  out  industrially  by 
M.  de  Milly,  in  1855,  and  is  now 
extensively  employed.  It  offer's 
the  advantage  of  enabling  the 
saponification  to  be  effected  by  a 
reduced  percentage  of  base.  The  vessel  used — the 
autoclave — is  made  of  strong  copper,  and  is  generally 
cylindrical  in  form,  as  shown  in  5.  The  fat,  mixed 
with  about  one-third  or  one-half  of  its  weight  of  water 
and  from  1  to  3  per  cent,  of  lime,  is  introduced 

4835 


5.     AUTOCLAVE 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

through  tho  funnel-tube,  the  opening  closed,  and 
high-pressure  steam  passed  through  a  pipe  ex- 
tending to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  The  usual 
working  pressure  is  about  eight  atmospheres,  or 
120  Ib.  per  square  inch,  which  is  maintained  for  from 
five  to  eight  hours,  when  the  saponification  of  the  fat 
becomes  practically  complete.  The  contents  of  the 
vessel  are  then  blown  into  a  tank,  the  sweet- water 
drawn  off  from  below,  and  the  mixture  of  fatty  acids 
and  lirne-soap,  after  washing,  boiled  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  to  eliminate  the  lime,  when  the  fatty 
acids  are  ready  for  further  treatment. 

A  base,  such  as  magnesia  or  oxide  of  zinc,  which 
yields  a  soluble  sulphate,  is  sometimes  substituted 
for  lime.  Various  forms  of  auto- 
clave are  employed.  Fig.  6  illus- 
trates one  constructed  so  as  to 
permit  the  mechanical  agitation  of 
the  contents ;  horizontal  and  spheri- 
cal autoclaves,  with  mechanical 
agitators,  are  also  in  use. 

Hydrolysis  Under  Pres= 
sure  by  Water.  It  is  possible 
to  effect  the  hydrolysis  of  the  fat 
under  pressure  by  water  alone,  with- 
out the  assistance  of  a  base.  The 
first  attempt  in  this  direction  was 
made  by  R.  A.  Tilghmann  (English 
Patent  No.  47,  1854),  and  more 
than  one  form  of  autoclave  has  been 
constructed  within  recent  years  with 
this  object.  In  L.  Hugues'  appara- 
tus (English  Patent  No.  6,562,  6.  AUTOCLAVE 
1885)  provision  is  made  for  the  in-  WITHMECHANI- 
timate  mixing  of  the  contents  of  CAL  AGITATOR 
the  vessel  by  allowing  steam  to 
escape  while  the  process  is  in  operation  ;  the  work- 
ing pressure  is  15  atmospheres. 

In  the  system  of  A.  Michel  (English  Patent 
No.  8,403,  1885)  there  are  two  cylindrical  auto- 
claves, in  which  the  fat  and  water  are  heated  by 
fire  only,  and  an  intimate  mixture  takes  place  ;  the 
pressure  is  maintained  at  15  to  16  atmospheres  for 
about  eight  hours. 

A  process  for  the  hydrolysis  of  the  fat  at  the 
ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  by  means  of  super- 
heated steam,  and  for  the  distillation  of  the  fatty 
acids  and  glycerin,  was  patented  by  G.  F.  Wilson 
and  G.  Payne  (English  Patent  No.  1,624,  1854), 
but  is  now  only  of  historical  interest. 

Hydrolysis      by       Sulphuric      Acid. 

The  immediate  effect  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  neutral 
fats  is  the  formation  of  sulpho-compounds,  which 
subsequently,  on  boiling  with  water,  are  resolved  into 
fatty  acids,  glycerin  and  sulphuric  acid.  In  practice 
the  dried  fat  is  heated  to  about  120°  C.,  sometimes 
to  a  considerably  higher  temperature,  from  3  to  6  per 
cent,  of  sulphuric  acid  of  1*82  to  T84  specific 
gravity  added,  and  the  acid  allowed  to  remain  in 
contact  with  the  fat  for  several  hours,  while  the  mix- 
ture is  agitated.  The  mass  is  then  boiled  in  a  vat 
with  water  for  some  hours,  and  after  settling,  the 
lower  layer,  containing  the  sulphuric  acid  and 
glycerin,  is  run  off,  while  the  dark-coloured  fatty 
acids  are  removed  for  distillation. 

This  process  is  now  generally  applied  only  to 
inferior  fats  capable  of  yielding  little  glycerin, 
and,  as  a  method  of  purification,  to  fatty  acids  from 
which  the  glycerin  has  been  already  separated. 
Although  it  involves  serious  loss  of  material,  ib 
pouenefl  certain  important  advantages.  These  arc 
(n)  a  higher  yield  of  solid  fatty  acids  (although 
of  lower  melting-point)  than  that  obtained  by  any 
of  the  processes  mentioned,  due  to  the  action  of 

4836 


the  sulphuric  acid  upon  the  oleic  acid ;  (b)  the 
decolonisation  of  dark-coloured  fatty  acids,  such 
as  those  from  palm  oil  and  low-class  animal  fats  ; 
and  (c)  the  destruction  of  foreign  substances,  which 
might  be  liable  to  affect  the  keeping  properties  of 
the  stearine. 

Hydrolysis  by  Twitchell's  Process. 
The  reagent  employed  is  prepared  by  treating 
a  mixture  of  oleic  acid  and  any  member  of 
the  aromatic  series,  such  as  benzol,  phenol,  naph- 
thalene, etc.,  with  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid 
(English  Patent  No.  4,741,  1898).  The  cleansed 
fat,  mixed  with  about  half  its  weight  of  water,  and 
from  0'5  to  2  per  ce~ht.  of  the  reagent,  is  boiled  in  a 
wooden  vat  with  free  steam  for  about  12  hours ; 
after  settling,  the  glycerin-water  is  drawn  off,  and 
the  fatty  matter  boiled  a  second  time  with  fresh 
water  as  before.  The  hydrolysis  of  the  fat  is  then 
practically  complete,  and  the  fatty  acids  are  ready 
for  distillation,  or  acidification  and  distillation. 
The  exact  nature  of  the  chemical  change  taking 
place  in  this  process  has  not  yet  been  fullv  explained, 
but  possibly  it  depends  upon  the  emulsifying  action 
of  the  reagent  upon  the  mixture  of  fatty  matter  and 
water. 

The  advantages  of  the  process  are  that  it  can  be 
carried  out  with  simple  and  inexpensive  plant,  and 
at  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure.  It  is  ex- 
tensively employed  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  also  in  Europe  and  elsewhere,  for  the  hydrolysis 
of  dark  oils  and  fats  for  the  making  of  stearine,  and 
is  recommended  also  for  obtaining  fatty  acids  of 
good  colour  from  tallow  and  other  fats  for  use  in 
soap-making. 

The  Distillation  of  Fatty  Acids.  Tin 
fatty  acids  resulting  from  the  hydrolysis  of  the  fat 
by  the  processes  described  are  often  too  dark  in  colour 
to  yield  a  satisfactory  stearine  on  pressing,  and  they 
have  therefore  to  be  distilled.  Various  forms  of 
stills  and  condensers  are  in  use ;  the  stills  are 
generally  made  of  copper,  and  are  spherical  in  form, 
with  a  capacity  of  from  one  to  six  tons  or  more. 
Fig.  7  represents  a  form  of  apparatus  with  vertical 
condensers  suitable  for  the  fractionation  of  the 


7.   APPARATUS  FOR  DISTILLATION  OP  FATTY  ACIDS 


distillate  ;  in  the  apparatus  shown  in  8  the  vapours 
are  passed  through  one  condenser. 

The  fatty  acids  are  heated  first  by  fire  under- 
neath the  still,  and  then  by  superheated  steam, 
which  enters  the  still  through  a  perforated  coil  near 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  As  the  temperature 
rises,  the  steam  and  the  vapour  of  the  fatty  acids 
pass  over  together,  and  are  condensed,  the  pro- 
ducts being  collected  in  wooden  vats,  and  the 
condensed  water  drawn  off.  The  temperature  of  the 
distillation  is  about  260°  C.,  or  over.  The  good 


voloured  distillate,  which  has  been  kept  apart  from 
the  dark  portion  coming  over  towards  the  end  of  the 
distillation,  is  then  transferred  to  shallow  trays 
arranged  in  racks,  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  crystallisation  of  the  fatty 
acids.  When  cold,  the  cakes  are  ready  for  the  final 
operation  of  pressing. 


8.    APPABATT 


FATTY  ACIDS 


The  dark  residuum  in  the  still  is  heated  by  fire 
and  superheated  steam  to  a  higher  temperature 
in  an  iron  vessel,  when  fatty  acids  of  inferior 
quality  distil  over,  and  a  residue,  known  as 
"  stearine  pitch,"  is  left.  This  pitch  is  jet  black 
in  colour,  and  varies  somewhat  in  consistency, 
but  it  is  generally  hard  and  brittle.  It  is  em- 
ployed for  the  insulation  of  cables,  as  a  varnish, 
as  a  lubricant  for  heavy  rollers,  and  for  other  puposes. 

Pressing  Fatty  Acids.  The  object  of  press- 
ing is  to  separate  the  liquid  oleic  acid  from  the  solid 
fatty  acids,  and  is  effected  generally  by  two  press- 
ings, one  being  cold  or  temperate,  and  the  other 
hot.  The  crystallised  cakes  of  fatty  acids,  obtained 
after  the  saponification  of  the  fat,  or  after  the  dis- 
tillation of  tlie  fatty  acids,  are  transferred  to  woollen 
bags,  and  placed  in  a  hydraulic  press  of  the  type 
shown  in  9.  The  pressure  is  applied  and  maintained 
until  the  oleic  acid  has  been  removed  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. The  cakes,  still  contained  in  the  bags,  are  then 
inserted  between  the  plates  of  the  hot  press  [10], 
and  pressure  again  applied.  These  plates  are 
covered  with  matting  made  of  horsehair,  and  are 
heated  by  steam.  A  further  quantity  of  oleic  acid  is 
removed  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  solid  fatty 
acids,  the  expressed  material  being  afterwards  mixed 
with  the  next  instalment  of  fatty  acids  coming 
forward  for  pressing.  The  cakes  of  hot-pressed 
stearine,  now  quite  white  in  colour,  are  then  taken 
from  the  bags,  the  oily  edges  broken  off,  and  these 
put  aside  to  be  re-pressed.  The  cold-pressed 
oil  is  generally  subjected  to  artificial  cooling,  and 
the  mass  filter-pressed,  to  separate  the  solid  acids 
and  obtain  the  oleic  acid  of  low  congealing-point. 

Oleic  acid,  or  b'  red  oil,"  is  known  as  ftaponification 
olcine,  or  as  distillation  oleinc,  according  to  the  pro- 


9.    HYDRAULIC    PRESS    FOR   COLD   PRESSING 
FATTY   ACIDS 

cess  employed  for  its  production.  It  is  dark  brown 
in  colour,  and  is  extensively  used  as  a  substitute 
for  the  more  costly  olive  oil  for  the  oiling  of  wool 
and  for  the  making  of  oil  soaps. 

Properties  of  Stearine.  Commercial 
stearin^  is  a  white,  more  or  less  crystalline,  hard 
solid ;  it  has  only  a  faint  characteristic  odour, 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

and  should  not  feel  greasy  to  the  touch.  The  solidi- 
fying point  of  saponified  stearine  ranges  from 
about  53 '5°  to  55 '5°  C.,  and  that  of  distilled  stearine 
from  about  48°  to  54°  C.  It  is  readily  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether,  and  petroleum  spirit.  For  the  purpose 
of  the  candle-maker,  it  is  preferred  to  be  close- 
grained  in  crystal,  and  be  capable  of  giving  a  candle 
of  good  "  snap  "  when  broken. 

Paraffin.  Paraffin  was  first  obtained  by 
Reichenbach,  in  1830,  from  wood- tar,  and  shortly 
afterwards,  and  independently,  by  Dr.  Christison,  of 
Edinburgh,  from  Rangoon  petroleum.  At  that  time 
it  was  merely  a  chemical  curiosity,  its  discoverers 
little  dreaming  of  the  great  future  that  lay  before 
it.  Its  manufacture  was  first  carried  out  indus- 
trially, as  already  observed,  by  Mr.  James  Young, 
in  1850,  from  crude  petroleum  obtained  from  a 
spring  in  Derbyshire,  to  which  Mr.  Young's  atten- 
tion had  been  called  by  the  late  Lord  (then  Dr.) 
Playfair.  This  supply  becoming  exhausted,  further 
experiments  were  made,  which  proved  that  a  similar 
crude  oil  could  be  obtained  by  the  low-temperature 
destructive  distillation  of  certain  kinds  of  coal,  the 
Torbane-hill  mineral,  or  Boghead  coal,  found  in 
West  Lothian,  proving  one  of  the  most  suitable. 
When  this  supply  also  failed,  bituminous  shale 
was  employed,  and  this  still  continues  to  be  used 
as  the  source  of  crude  paraffin  oil  in  Scotland. 
The  crude  oil  contains  about  14  to  15  per  cent,  of 
solid  paraffin,  which  is  obtained  by  filtration  and 
pressure,  in  the  form  of  "scale,"  from  the  heavy  oil 
separated  during  fractional  distillation — burning  oil, 
lubricating  oil,  and  naphtha  being  the  other  products. 

The    brown  coal,  or  lignite,  found  in  Prussian 


10.   HYDRAULIC    PRE 


HOT    PRESSING 


FATTY   ACIDS 

Saxony,  also  yields  a  considerable  quantity  of 
paraffin.  Paraffin  is  obtained  also  from  the  mineral 
ozokerit,  or  earth-wax,  found  in  Galicia  and  else- 
where. The  largest  source  of  supply,  however,  is 
American  petroleum,  which,  on  distillation,  leaves 
a  residuum,  and  this,  on  further  treatment,  yields 
lubricating  oil  and  paraffin  scale.  Rangoon,  Assam, 
Roumanian  and  Galiciati  petroleums  also  contribute 
to  the  production  of  paraffin. 

Refining  Crude  Paraffin.  The  crude 
paraffin  wax,  or  scale,  after  separation  from  the 
heavy  mineral  oils,  is  generally  yellow  or  brown 
in  colour.  In  order  to  make  it  available  for  the 
purpose  of  the  candle-maker,  it  must  be  refined, 
the  object  being  the  removal,  not  only  of  the  dark 
oil  associated  with  the  paraffin,  but  also  of  the 
lower  melting-point  paraffins  unsuitable  for  candles. 
Two  methods  are  employed  for  this  purpose. 

Treatment  with  Naphtha.  The 
melted  paraffin  scale  is  mixed  with  about  30 
per  cent,  of  naphtha,  or  petroleum  spirit,  the 
mixture  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  crystallised 
mass  pressed  in  hydraulic  presses.  The  naphtha 
removes  the  oil  and  the  softer  paraffins,  while  the 
harder  paraffins  are  left  nearly  white  in  colour.  The 
treatment  may  be  repeated  several  times  if  a  highly 

4837 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

refined  product  be  required.  The  cakes  are  then 
melted  np,  and  a  current  of  steam  passed  through 
the  material,  to  remove  the  remainder  of  th  • 
n.iphtha.  The  melted  paraffin  is  then  decolorised  by 
agitation  wit li  a  small  percentage  of  animal  charcoal, 
the  latter  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  paraffin  finally 
filtered  through  cloth  or  filter-paper,  and  allowed  to 
solidify  in  shallow  pans  to  be  ready  for  use.  The 
paraffin  dissolved  in  the  naphtha  is  recovered  by 
distilling  off  the  spirit,  and,  after  purification  by 
chemical  treatment,  it  is  pressed  to  remove  the  oil, 
when  a  product  of  low  melting-point  is  obtained, 
known  as  "  match  wax."  This  process  yields  a 
product  of  superior  quality,  but  is  costly,  and  on 
account  of  the  highly  inflammable  nature  of  the 
naphtha,  is  also  dangerous. 

Treatment  by  Sweating.  This  process, 
which  has  largely  displaced  the  one  just  described, 
IB  much  simpler,  safer,  and  more  economical, 
and  is  extensively  employed.  It  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Mr.  J.  Hodges,  of  Price's  Patent  Candle 
Company 'Limited  (English  Patent  No.  3,241,  1871). 
and  in  its  original  form  consisted  in  allowing 
the  melted  scale  to  cool  gradually  in  shallow  tins, 
in  order  to  obtain  good  crystallisation,  and  in 
subsequently  exposing  the  cakes  in  heated  ovens 
to  remove  the  oil.  It  is  customary  now  to  allow 
the  crystallisation  to  take  place  in  large  iron 
trays,  supported  in  racks,  within  a  brickwork 
chamber  fitted  with  steam-pipes.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  chamber  is  then  raised,  which 
causes  the  softer  paraffins  to  melt  away,  carrying 
the  oil  with  them.  When  the  sweating  has  reached 
the  desired  stage,  the  remaining  cakes  are  melted 
and  treated  with  charcoal,  as  already  described. 
The  "  sweatings,''  after  being  pressed  to  remove  the 
oil,  are  also  subjected  to  the  sweating  process,  and 
yield  a  paraffin  of  lower  melting-point  than  that 
obtained  from  the  original  scale,  but  also  suitable  as 
a  candle  material. 

Properties  of  Paraffin.  Paraffin,  when 
carefully  refined,  is  a  beautifully  white,  transparent 
substance ;  the  quality  known  as  "  semi- refined  " 
is  more  or  less  yellow  in  colour.  It  is  obtained 
of  varying  degrees  of  hardness,  according  to  the 
melting-point,  which  ranges,  in  the  case  of  candle 
material,  from  about  46°  to  57°  C. 

Paraffin  gives  a  greater  intensity  of  light  than 
stearine;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  on  account  of 
becoming  plastic  when  exposed  to  heat,  it  has  a 
tendency,  absent  from  stearine,  to  bend  in  a  warm 
atmosphere,  this  tendency  being  more  pronounced 
in  the  case  of  paraffins  of  comparatively  low  melting- 
point.  Paraffin  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  but  soluble 
in  ether,  petroleum  spirit,  etc. 

Blending  of  Candle  Materials.  One 
of  the  most  important  operations  of  candle-miking 
consists  in  the  judicious  blending  of  the  two  materials, 
paraffin  and  stearine,  and  of  other  materials,  so 
that  full  advantage  may  be  taken  of  those  properties 
of  each  of  the  individual  substances  which  will 
contribute  to  the  best  results  in  the  finished  candle. 
A  candle  composed  entirely  of  paraffin,  although 
attractive  in  appearance,  and  capable  of  affording 
a  brilliant  light,  is  unsuitable  for  ordinary  use,  on 
account  of  its  liability  to  bend  ;  the  addition,  how- 
ever, of  the  requisite  percentage  of  stearine  imparts 
to  it  increased  rigidity,  without  destroying  its  trans- 
parency. Thus,  ordinary  paraffin  candles  contain 
from  3  to  about  10  per  cent,  of  stearine;  while 
others,  sometimes  called  slzaro-paraffin  candles, 
which  are  intended  to  he  u>ed  in  heated  rooms  or 
in  warm  climates,  may  contain  20.  30,  or  40  per 
cent,  of  stearine.  The  addition  of  the  larger  per- 

4838 


centaues  of  stearine,  although  reducing  the  illumi- 
nating value  of  the  candle,  and  rendering  it  more 
opaque,  greatly  increases  its  stability. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  the  melting-point 
of  mixtures  of  paraffin  and  stearine  is  lower  than 
that  calculated  from  the  melting-points  of  the  two 
components,  so  that  the  melting-point  alone,  apart 
from  the  composition  of  a  candle,  does  not  always 
give  a  correct  idea  of  the  value  of  the  latter. 

On  the  Continent  of  Europe  stearine  candles  are 
largely  employed,  and  thess  are  to  be  recommended 
for  use  in  warm  climates.  For  use  in  churches, 
candles  composed  of  beeswax,  or  of  mixtures  of 
beeswax  and  ceresin  or  paraffin  are  employed. 

The  WicK.  Although  the  wick  bears  a  very 
small  relation  to  the  candle  in  actual  weight,  it 
nevertheless  forms  an  indispensable  part  of  it. 
What  the  mainspring  is  to  the  watch,  what  steam 
is  to  the  engine,  so,  in  point  of  importance,  is  the 
wick  to  the  candle.  Its  function  is  to  convey  a 
regular  and  constant  supply  of  liquid  combustible 
material  to  the  flame,  so  that  the  candle  may  burn 
freely  and  produce  the  maximum  quantity  of  light. 
Formerly,  the  wick  employed  for  all  kinds  of  candles 
consisted  of  twisted  strands  of  cotton,  this  form 
being  still  used  for  tallow  dips ;  it  proved  highly 
objectionable,  however,  on  account  of  the  erect 
position  which  it  maintained  in  the  flame,  becoming 
soon  coated  with  a  mass  of  unconsumed  carbon, 
which  caused  the  light  to  become  dull  and  necessi- 
tated frequent  "  snuffing."  Many  attempts  were 
made  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  by  causing  the 
wick  to  curl  slightly,  so  that  free  burning  might 
take  place.  In  1825,  a  Frenchman,  Cambaceres 
by  name,  discovered  that  by  plaiting  the  strands 
of  cotton  it  was  possible  to  obtain  a  wick  having 
the  desired  property.  Although  this  improvement 
was  introduced  into  this  country  shortly  afterwards, 
it  was  not  till  1840  that  its  value  became  generally 
realised,  when  the  late  Mr.  J.  P.  Wilson,  of  Price's 
Patent  Candle  Company  Limited,  employed  it  in 
the  manufacture  of  "  snuffless  composite  "  candles, 
which  were  first  used  in  the  illuminations  in  con- 
nection with  the  marriage  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria. 
The  plaited  wick  is  now  in  almost  universal  use  for 
all  kinds  of  candles.  It  is  composed  of  fine  threads 
of  cotton,  specially  selected,  the  plaiting  of  these 
being  carried  out  by  machinery  of  delicate  con- 
struction. 

Preparation  of  the  WicK.  Before  the 
wick  is  fit  for  use,  it  must  be  "  prepared "  by 
soaking  it  in  a  solution  of  certain  chemicals,  such 
as  borax,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  etc.,  and  afterwards 
thoroughly  dried.  The  object  of  this  treatment  is 
to  give  stability  to  the  wick,  and  at  the  same  time, 
by  forming  a  fusible  ash  with  the  mineral  matter  of 
the  cotton,  to  allow  the  wick  to  have  free  action. 

Great  care  requires  to  be  exercised  in  adjusting  the 
size  of  the  wick  to  that  of  the  candle,  and  to  the 
quality  of  the  candle  material.  If  the  wick  be  too 
large,  too  much  material  will  be  carried  to  the  flame 
in  a  given  time,  and  there  will  be  imperfect  com- 
bustion, resulting  in  a  smoky  flame  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  if  it  be  too  small,  it  will  fail  to  consume  all 
the  melted  material,  which  will  run  down  the  sides 
of  the  candle,  and  cause  "  guttering." 

Formation  of  Candles.  Three  methods 
are  still  in  use  for  making  candles.  The  method  of 
dipping,  on  account  of  its  simplicity,  has  been 
used  from  a  very  early  time.  Tallow  was  employed 
as  the  combustible  material,  and  still  is,  but  only  to 
a  limited  extent,  distilled  fatty  acids  of  com- 
paratively low  melting-point  being  now  generally 
employ  ed. 


One  of  the  most  important  forms  of  the  dipping 
machine  is  shown  in  11.  It  consists  of  a  trough 
for  containing  the  melted  fatty  acids  ;  above  it,  an 
iron  frame  is  suspended  by  chains  passing  over 
pulleys,  the  whole  being  counterbalanced  by  weights. 
The  wick  is  first  wound  upon  an  iron  frame,  which 
is  then  immersed  in  the  fatty  material,  in  order  to 
cause  the  wick  to  become  thoroughly  saturated. 
The  frame  is  then 
raised,  and  placed 
upon  a  rack  to 
allow  the  material 
to  solidify.  After 
several  dippings  in 
this  way,  the 
partially  -  formed 
candles  are  released 
from  the  frame 
cutting, 
trans- 
ferred  to 
wooden 
rods,  and 
the  alter- 
nate pro- 
cesses of 
dipping 
and  cool- 


11.    DIPPING   MACHINE 
(Price's  Patent  Caudle  Co.  Ltd.) 


ing    eon- 

t  i  n  u  ed 

until    the 

dips  have  acquired  a  sufficient  thickness,  which  is 

indicated  by  the  weights  on  the  machine. 

The  method  of  pouring  and  rolling  is  confined  to 
the  making  of  candles  composed  entirely,  or  mainly, 
of  beeswax.  The  wicks,  attached  to  a  wooden 
hoop,  are  suspended  over  a  bath  of  the  melted  wax  ; 
the  operator  pours  the  wax  over  the  wicks,  and  at 
the  same  time,  while  rotating  the  hoop,  he  brings 
each  wick  into  position.  In  order  to  obtain 
uniformity  in  shape,  the  partially-formed  candles 
are  inverted,  and  the  pouring  continued.  When  they 
have  become  sufficiently  thick,  they  are  placed  upon 
a  marble  slab,  and  rolled  to  and  fro,  under  a  wooden 


12.    CANDLE- MOULDING  MACHINE 

board,  which  produces  the  desired  smoothness  and 
regularity  of  surface.  The  candles  are  then  cut 
to  the  desired  length,  and  the  tips  formed  by  the 
fingers,  with  the  assistance  of  a  small  piece  of  wood. 
At  one  time,  wax  candles  were  rolled  only. 

The  method  of  moulding  was  introduced  by 
Sieur  de  Brez,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  but  since 
then  it  has  been  brought  to  its  present  state  of 


APPLIED  CHEMISTRY 

perfection  by  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  many 
inventors.  It  is  now  the  principal  mode  of  forming 
candles. 

The  modern  machine,  one  form  of  which  is 
shown  in  12,  and  another  and  larger  form  in  13, 
consists  of  an  oblong  metal  tank  containing  the 
moulds,  the  butt-ends  of  which  are  placed  upwards, 
and  communicate  with  a  trough ;  the  tips  are 
placed  downwards,  and  are  attached  to  hollow 
piston  rods,  these  resting  upon  a  plate,  which,  when 
raised  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pinion,  causes  the 
piston  rods  to  force  the  candles  from  the  moulds. 
The  tank  is  provided  with  a  pipe  for  conveying 
steam  to  heat  the  moulds,  and  with  another  for  cold 
water,  to  cause  the  material  to  solidify.  The  wicks 
are  supplied  from  bobbins  contained  in  a  box  under- 
neath the  frame,  and  pass  through  the  piston  rods 
and  moulds. 

The  candle  material — let  us  suppose  a  paraffin 
mixture — is  heated  in  a  steam-jacketed  pan,  and 
transferred  in  metal  pails  to  the  moulding  machine. 
The  moulds  are  first  heated,  the  steam  turned  off, 
and  the  material  poured  into  them  until  it  partially 
fills  the  trough  above ;  cold  water  is  then  passed 
through  the  tank,  until  the  candles  have  solidified. 
Before  they  are  raised,  the  candles  from  a  previous 


13.   SEXTUPLE  "  MULTIPLE  "   CANDLE-MOULDING 
MACHINE    (Edward  Cowles) 

moulding,  supported  meanwhile  by  a  wooden  clamp 
resting  upon  the  machine,  are  removed,  after  the 
wicks  have  been  cut  by  a  sharp  knife.  The  excess 
of  material  is  then  taken  from  the  trough,  the  rack 
handle  is  turned,  the  candles  being  forced  upwards 
and  supported  by  the  clamp,  and  so  the  operations 
are  repeated.  The  forcing  of  the  candles  from  the 
moulds  is  sometimes  done  by  mechanical  power. 

Stearine  candles  require  to  be  moulded  from  the 
material  in  a  semi-fluid  condition  :  the  moulds  are 
heated,  and  the  tank  must  be  filled  with  tepid, 
instead  of  cold,  water,  to  obviate  the  difficulty 
arising  from  the  crystalline  nature  of  the  material. 
In  order  to  improve  their  appearance,  stearine 
candles  are  generally  polished,  and  the  ends  cut  by 
special  machinery.  Sometimes  also  they  are  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  light  to  improve  their  colour. 

The  candle  manufacturer  may  be  called  upon  to 
supply  an  immense  variety  of  sizes,  from  the  tiny 
Christmas-tree  candle,  numbering  about  80  to  one 
pound,  to  the  tall  altar  candle,  weighing  several 
pounds,  but  the  sizes  most  commonly  used  are  4,  6, 
8,  and  10  candles  to  the  pound. 

Self  =  fitting  and  Fancy  Candles. 
An  improvement  in  candle-moulding  consists  in 
providing  candles  with  what  is  called  a  self-fitting 
(S.F.)  end,  which  permits  them  to  be  readily  fixed  in 

4839 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

:uiv  size  of  candlestick.  This  was  first  introduced 
by  J.  L.  Field,  in  18(>l,  and  since  then  many  different 
forms  have  been  employed.  The  conical  fluted 
"  cap  "  which  produces  the  self-fitting  end,  forms, 
as  a  rule,  a  separate  part  of  the  mould. 

Fancy  candles,  such  as  fluted,  and  spiral  or  cable, 
are  moulded  in  special  machines :  so  also  are 
perforated  candles,  which  are  provided  with  hollow, 
longitudinal  spaces  to  receive  any  excess  of  melted 
material,  to  prevent  "  guttering."  Fig.  14  shows 
candles  of  various  forms — a,  plain  ;  b,  with  S.F. 
end  ;  c,  and  d,  fluted,  with  S.F.  end  ;  e,  spiral  or 
cable,  with  S.F.  end  :  /,  spiral,  with  tapered  end  ; 
17,  perforated.  Candles  may  be  coloured  to  any 
desired  tint  by  dissolving  the  colouring  matter, 
generally  an  aniline  derivative,  in  the  candle 
material.  Many  also  bear  artistically  designed 
re  presentations  of  flowers,  etc.,  painted 
by  hand,  or  ornamented  by  transfers. 

The  Standard  Candle.  For 
measuring  and  recording  the  intensity 
of  light  of  different  illuminants,  it  is 
necessary  that  there  should  be  a  definite 
fixed  standard.  For  this  purpose,  the 
standard  candle  has  long  been,  and  still 
is,  in  use  ;  and,  although  it  has  b'een 
replaced  to  some  extent  in  this  country 
by  the  Harcourt  Pentane  Lamp,  which  has  been 
accepted  as  the  legal  standard  of  light  for  the 
metropolis  of  London,  it  is  customary  to  refer  to 
the  intensity  of  a  given  light  in  terms  of  the  standard 
candle. 

Thus,  we  speak  of  gas  of  15-candle  power — that  is, 
the  gas.  when  burned  in  a  recognised  manner,  and 
at  a  given  rate  of  consumption, 
possesses  an  illuminating  value 
equal  to  that  of  15  standard 
candles.  In  England,  the 
standard  candle  is  composed  of 
spermaceti,  containing  3  or  4 
pei1  cent,  of  white  beeswax,  the 
latter  being  added  with  the 
object  of  destroying  the  crystal 
of  the  spermaceti.  The  size  of 
the  candle  is  six  to  one  pound, 
and  the  wick  is  adjusted  so 
that  it  consumes  120  grains  of 
material  per  hour. 

Illuminating  Value. 
In  determining  the  illuminat- 
ing or  photometric  value,  two 
standard  candles  are  generally 
employed,  and  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  exact  consumption 
of  material,  and  thus  allow  for 
any  irregularity,  the  candles  a 
are  supported  during  the  opera-  14. 
tion  on  a  delicate  balance. 
The  photometer  employed  is  generally  some  form  of 
the  Letheby-Bunsen  system,  whereby  the  light  from 
the  ilium inant  under  observation  is  allowed  to  fall 
upon  one  side  of  a  paper  disc,  and  that  from  the 
standard  upon  the  other  side.  The  disc,  with  the 
exception  of  a  circular  spot  in  the  centre,  is  greased, 
and  is  placed  within  a  box  which  slides  upon  a  rod, 
graduated  so  that  the  relative  intensity  of  the  two 
lights  can  be  shown  by  reference  to  the  scale, 
the  box  being  moved  to  and  fro  until  a  point  is 
reached  when  the  whole  of  the  disc  becomes 
equally  illuminated. 

The  following  table  gives  the  illuminating 
value,  etc.,  of  candles  of  the  same  size,  composed 
of  the  two  principal  candle  materials,  paraffin 


and  stearine  in  comparison  with  the  standard 
spermaceti  candle. 

Night  Lights  and  Illumination  Lights. 

These  are  really  small  candles,  but  their  delicate 
construction  demands  more  refined  methods  for  their 
manufacture  than  those  required  for  the  larger 
illuminant.  They  are  used  in  night  nurseries  and 
in  sick-rooms  for  giving  a  clear,  though  not  too 
strong  light ;  for  heating  food  at  night  for  infants 
and  invalids  ;  for  use  under  coloured  shades  for  table 
decoration ;  and  for  outdoor  illumination.  The 
materials  employed  are  generally  paraffin,  coco- 
nut stearine,  pressed  tallow,  distilled  fatty  acids, 
or  mixtures  of  these.  Night  lights  are  chiefly  of  two 
kinds — those  in  paper  cases  for  burning  in  a  saucer 
with  a  little  water,  such  as  the  well-known  "  Childs'," 
and  those  for  burning  in  glasses,  as  Price's  "  New 


— 

Standard 
Sperma- 
ceti. 

Paraffin. 

Stearine. 

Observed   relative   illuminating  value  (stand 
candles) 
Consumption  (grains  material  per  hour) 
Number  of  hours'  burning  per  1-lb.  candles   . 
Relative  illuminating  value  for  the  same  con 
sumption  (120  grains  per  hour) 

POO 
120-0 
58-33 

i-oo 

1-30 
124-2 
56-36 

1-25 

1-06 
147-6 
47-43 

0-86 

Patent"  (English  Patent  No.  2,317,  1853).  The 
material  is  moulded  in  frames  somewhat  similar  in 
principle  to  those  employed  for  candles,  but  the 
wick  is  introduced  in  a  separate  operation.  The  wick 
generally  consists  of  fine  cotton  threads  coated  with 
wax  ;  in  the  "  Pyramid  "  light  it  consists  of  the  pith 
of  a  certain  rush  with  part  of  the  outer  skin  remain- 
ing to  support  it,  and  this  light  is 
provided  with  a  plaster  bottom. 
In  the  making  of  case  night 
lights,  the  small  piece  of  wick  is 
first  secured  to  the  bottom  of 
the  case  by  a  little  wax,  a  piece 
of  perforated  tin  slipped  over 
to  act  as  a  support  to  it  when 
burning,  and  the  moulded 
material  then  fitted  into  the 
case,  the  wick  passing  through 
a  perforation  in  the  material 
formed  in  the  moulding  process. 
Night  lights  vary  in  size,  and 
are  made  to  burn  from  5  to  10 
or  12  hours. 

Lighting  Tapers.  These 
are  sometimes  known  as  drawn 
candles.,  or  lighting  u-iclcs.  The 
wick,  consisting  of  fine  strands 
of  cotton,  is  wound  from  a  large 
hollow  revolving  drum  to 
another  similar  drum.  Before 
it  reaches  the  second  drum 
it  is  made  to  pass  through  a  bath  of  the  melted  wax, 
and  from  there  through  a  small  perforation  in  a 
metal  plate  in  order  to  remove  the  excess  of  material. 
When. the  wick  has  been  transferred  from  the  one 
drum  to  the  other  the  winding  is  reversed,  and  the 
wick  thus  receives  a  second  coating  of  material, 
passing  afterwards  through  a  plate  with  a  larger 
perforation,  the  process  being  continued  until  the 
desired  thickness  has  been  attained.  The  coated 
wick  is  then  removed  from  the  drum,  cut,  and  the 
ends  of  the  tapers  feathered  to  enable  them  to  light 
rapidly.  (Some  of  the  illustrations  in  this  article  a  it- 
reproduced  from  Lewkowitsch's  "Chemical  Tech- 
nology and  Analysis  of  Oils  and  Fats"  by  arrange- 
ment with  the  publisher?,  Messrs.  Macmillan  &•  Co.) 


b  c         d         e  f  g 

VARIOUS   FORMS  OF   CANDLES 


Continued 


4840 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  STUART  KINGS 

James  II.  and  Religious  Toleration.    A  Notorious  Judge.    William 
and   Mary.      An   Important   Change  in  the  British   Constitution 


Group  15 

HISTORY 
34 


Continued  frc 
page  47»! 


By  JUSTIN  MCCARTHY 


'THE  reign  of  James  II.  is  a  turning  point  in 
the  history  of  England,  and  has  been,  and  is, 
the  subject  of  much  religious  and  political 
controversy.  James,  the  second  son  of  Charles  I., 
was  born  at  St.  James's  Palace  on  October  12th, 
1633,  and  was  immediately  created  Duke  of 
York.  He  accompanied  his  father  in  the  Civil 
War,  was  captured  by  Fairfax,  but  escaped  to 
Holland  in  1648  disguised  as  a  girl.  He  then  went 
to  France,  where  he  took  service  in  the  army 
under  Marshal  Turenne,  the  famous  French 
commander.  James  showed  much  courage  and 
military  skill  in  the  wars  with  Spain,  and  won 
the  favour  and  friendship  of  Turenne.  He  after- 
wards served  in  the  Spanish  army.  On  the 
Restoration,  he  returned  to  England,  and  was 
appointed  Lord  High  Admiral. 

James  was  both  soldier  and  sailor  ;  he  twice 
commanded  the  British  fleet  in  the  wars  with 
the  Dutch.  In  1660,  he  privately  married  Anne 
Hyde,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  She 
was  then  lady-in-waiting  to  the  Princess  of 
Orange.  Before  her  death,  Anne  became  a 
Catholic,  and  James  is  said  to  have  followed 
her  example  not  long  after,  although  the  exact 
date  of  his  reception  into  the  Church  is  not  known. 

Protestant  Feeling  in  England. 
James,  who  had  until  this  been  very  popular 
with  the  English  people,  now  became  unpopular, 
and  the  passing  of  the  Test  Act  compelled  him 
to  resign  office.  Indeed,  the  feeling  against 
Catholics  had  become  so  strong  that  it  was 
thought  advisable  for  him  to  retire  to  the  Con- 
tinent. The  Bill  of  Exclusion,  rejected  by  the 
Lords  in  1680,  failed  to  pass  in  the  following  year 
because  the  Parliament  was  dissolved.  James 
had  returned  in  the  meantime  to  England,  and 
had  been  sent  as  Lord  High  Commissioner  to 
Scotland,  where  he  was  very  popular,  except 
with  the  Covenanters,  against  whom  his  measures 
were  severe.  In  1684,  he  came  back  to  England 
and  resumed  the  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral. 

On  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  in  1685,  James 
was  proclaimed  king.  He  had  married  Mary, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Modena,  in  1673.  He 
then  opened  relations  with  Rome,  and  attended 
publicly  the  services  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
In  the  same  year  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  who 
was  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.,  and  who  had  a 
large  following  among  the  Protestants  of  Eng- 
land, led  a  rebellion  against  James,  whom  he 
refused  to  recognise  as  king.  He  asserted  that 
Charles  II.  had  married  his  mother,  Lucy 
Walters,  and  that  he  was  therefore  legitimate  and 
heir  to  the  throne.  He  had  been  banished  to 
Holland,  but  returned  to  England,  landing  at 
Lyme  Regis  on  June  llth,  1685.  He  had  at  first 
some  success,  but  was  entirely  defeated  at  the 


Battle  of  Sedgemoor  by  the  Royal  troops  under 
Feversham  and  Churchill.  Monmouth  escaped, 
but  was  discovered  after  a  few  days  in  a  dry  ditch 
in  Dorsetshire.  He  showed  great  fear,  and 
appealed  for  mercy  to  King  James.  He  was, 
however,  executed  on  Tower  Hill,  July  15th, 
in  the  same  year.  It  is  said  in  extenuation  of 
James's  unmerciful  treatment  of  Monmouth  that 
a  letter  written  by  the  latter  to  the  king  was 
kept  back  from  him. 

The  Infamies  of  Judge  Jeffreys. 
After  Monmouth's  rebellion  came  the  infamous 
"  Bloody  Assize."  Jeffreys,  who  was  made 
Lord  Chief  Justice  in  1683,  presided  at  the  trial 
of  Titus  Gates,  where,  as  in  all  other  instances 
he  was  conspicuous  for  cruelty.  He  was  raised 
to  the  House  of  Lords  as  Baron  Jeffreys  two  years 
later,  and  almost  immediately  sent  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Wells  to  try  the  insurgents  of 
Monmouth's  rebellion.  His  cruelty  was  excessive : 
three  hundred  and  twenty  of  the  rebels  were 
hanged.  It  is  stated  in  James's  memoirs  that 
these  atrocities  were  committed  without  the  know- 
ledge of  the  king,  who  was  inclined  to  clemency. 
Jeffreys  was  made  Lord  Chancellor  in  September, 
1685.  On  the  arrival  of  William  of  Orange  in 
England,  he  tried  to  escape,  but  was  captured 
and  sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  died  in  1689. 

James  was  willing  to  grant  religious  toleration 
to  the  Dissenters  as  well  as  to  the  Catholics,  and  if 
it  had  been  possible  in  the  state  of  public  feeling 
in  England  for  a  Catholic  to  be  sovereign,  it 
does  not  seem  that  he  would  have  been  intolerant 
to  his  Protestant  subjects. 

The  Seven  Bishops.  The  trial  of  the 
Seven  Bishops,  who  declined  to  read  the  King's 
Declaration  in  favour  of  liberty  of  conscience, 
which  ended  in  their  acquittal  in  1688,  aroused 
much  popular  feeling  against  the  king.  The 
Protestants  regarded  the  Declaration  as  intended 
to  restore  the  Catholics  to  an  equality  with 
those  belonging  to  the  Reformed  Church,  as  was, 
indeed,  the  king's  intention.  His  measures  would, 
in  more  modern  days,  have  been  considered  both 
wise  and  just,  but  the  passing  of  Catholic 
Emancipation  was  not  for  many  generations 
yet.  In  questions  of  religious  equality,  James 
was  in  advance  of  his  times.  His  policy  was 
regarded  as  an  outrage  on  the  rights  of  those  who 
belonged  to  the  Church  of  England.  James 
became  more  and  more  disliked  by  the  majority 
of  his  subjects,  and  some  of  his  leading  statesmen 
appealed  to  William  of  Orange,  his  nephew  and 
son-in-law,  to  intervene.  William  promptly  ac- 
cepted and  acted  upon  the  invitation.  He  sailed 
for  England  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  landed 
at  Torbay  on  November  4th,  1688,  and'  marched 
at  once  to  London.  He  was  welcomed  by  the 

4841 


HISTORY 

majority  of  the  people  all  along  the  way,  who 
regarded  him  as  their  deliverer  from  Catholicism, 
and  the  unfortunate  James  was  betrayed  or 
abandoned  by  most  of  his  Ministers  and  soldiers — 
Churchill  being  one  of  the  first  to  go  over  to  the 
enemy — and  even  by  his  daughter  Anne.  James 
made  many  efforts  to  regain  the  confidence  of 
the  people,  but  without  success;  and^finding  all 
efforts  useless,  he  sent,  his  wife  and  infant  son  to 
France,  where  he  attempted  to  rejoin  them  soon 
after.  He  went  through  many  adventures, 
was  captured  at  Faversham,  and  brought  to 
London,  and  then  to  Rochester.  But  eventually 
his  presence  in  England  being  found  rather  an 
embarrassment  to  William  and  his  party,  he  was 
allowed  to  escape,  and  joined  his  wife  and  child 
in  France,  where  he  was  warmly  welcomed  by 
Louis  XIV.,  who  settled  a  pension  on  him  and 
showed  him  unceasing  kindness. 

James  and  the  Irish.  James  did  not 
yet  consider  his  cause  hopeless,  and,  knowing  he 
had  many  sympathisers  in  Ireland,  determined 
to  make  a  venture  there.  He  gathered  together 
an  army  with  the  help  of  Louis,  composed  mainly 
of  French  officers  and  soldiers,  and  landed  in  1689. 
It  is  not  easy  to  understand  why  he  failed  so 
hopelessly  in  this  expedition.  His  cause  was  that 
of  all  the  Catholics,  the  large  majority  of  Ireland's 
population.  Yet  from  the  beginning  the  cause 
of  King  James  seemed  hopeless.  He  seems  to 
have  obtained,  most  unjustly,  the  reputation  for 
cowardice,  which  was  never  one  of  his  charac- 
teristics ;  but  he  was  not  fitted  to  be  a  leader  of 
men.  He  seemed  uncertain  what  course  to 
pursue,  and  thus  earned  in  Ireland  the  reputation 
of  wanting  courage  and  resolve.  On  the  other 
side,  William  of  Orange  had  impressed  the  Irish 
from  the  first  with  admiration  for  his  courage  and 
resolution  even  while  they  detested  his  cause  and 
himself.  The  Battle  of  the  Boyne,  July  1st,  1690, 
decided  the  whole  campaign.  James  was  defeated 
and  his  army  suffered  severe  loss,  while  the  loss 
to  the  army  of  William  was  comparatively  small. 
James  had  to  abandon,  even  to  fly  from  the 
field.  He  returned  to  France,  and  settled  at 
St.  Germains,  where  he  engaged  in  many  in- 
trigues to  regain  the  crown,  but  without  success. 
James  left  two  daughters  by  his  first  wife — Mary, 
married  to  William  III.,  and  Anne,  afterwards 
Queen  Anne.  His  son  by  his  second  wife  was  born 
on  June  10th,  1688.  He  also  left  several  ille- 
gitimate children,  of  whom  the  most  famous  was 
James,  Duke  of  Berwick,  son  of  Arabella  Churchill, 
the  sister  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  Berwick 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  French  army 
in  Spain,  and  in  1707  defeated  the  English  and 
the  Imperialists  at  the  great  Battle  of  Almanza. 

"James  III."  of  England.  James 
Edward,  the  Chevalier  de  St.  George,  was 
acknowledged  King  of  England  as  James  III., 
on  his  father's  deathbed,  by  Louis  XIV.  When 
he  was  about  twenty  he  entered  the  French 
army,  and  fought  at  the  Battle  of  Oudenarde. 
When  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  concluded  he 
was  compelled  to  leave  France,  and  went  to 
Lorraine.  At  this  time  he  was  much  urged  to 
become  a  Protestant  so  that  he  might  have 
a  better  chance  of  succeeding  to  the  throne  of 

4842 


England,  but  he  consistently  refused  to  change 
his  religion.  On  the  death  of  Queen  Anne  he  was 
proclaimed  king  at  Plombieres.  When  Boling- 
broke  was  at  the  head  of  the  Government  in 
England,  there  seemed  to  be  a  chance  for  the 
success  of  the  cause  of  the  Chevalier.  James  went 
to  Scotland  at  the  time  of  the  rising  headed  by 
the  Earl  of  Mar,  but  did  not  arrive  there  until 
after  the  Battle  of  Sherifmuir.  Though  brave, 
James  was  wanting  in  energy  and  decision.  The 
rising  failed,  and  James  and  Mar,  leaving  their 
followers,  fled  to  France.  When,  in  1717,  the 
English  Government  compelled  the  Regent  of 
France  to  expel  James  from  French  territory,  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  betrothed  to  Cle- 
mentina Sobieski,  granddaughter  of  the  King  of 
Poland,  whom  he  married  in  1719.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  Charles  Edward  was  born.  James's  life 
was  spent  in  unsuccessful  attempts  to  assert  his 
claim  to  the  crown  of  England.  He  died  in  1765. 

"  Bonnie  Prince  Charlie."  His  son, 
Charles  Edward,  is  the  hero  of  many  romances. 
He  made  a  better  fight  for  the  crown  than  his 
father  had  ever  done,  and  in  1745  he  raised  a 
rebellion  in  Scotland,  where  Edinburgh  sur- 
rendered to  him,  and  he  actually  held  court  at 
his  ancestral  palace  of  Holyrood.  He  won  a 
great  victory  over  Sir  John  Cope  at  Preston- 
pans  on  September  21st,  1745,  and  marched 
towards  London,  but,  after  one  or  two  victories 
on  his  way,  was  completely  defeated  by  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland  at  C\illoden.  Cumberland 
treated  the  defeated  Highlanders  with  such 
brutality  that  he  was  known  as  "the  butcher." 
Charles  escaped  to  France  by  the  help  of  Flora 
Macdonald,  who  saved  bis  life.  He  made  many 
efforts  to  get  assistance  from  some  of  the  Conti- 
nental States,  but  with  no  success.  He  had 
quarrelled  with  his  father  and  with  his  brother, 
Cardinal  York.  On  the  death  of  his  father  he 
went  to  Rome  and,  in  1772,  married  the  Princess 
Louisa  of  Stolberg ;  but  the  marriage  was  not  a 
happy  one,  for  she  eloped  with  Alfieri,  the  poet. 
Charles  sank  into  habits  of  utter  dissipation  and 
died  in  Rome  on  January  31st,  1788.  With  him 
may  be  said  to  have  ended  the  efforts  of  the 
jStuart  family  to  regain  the  crown. 

William  and  Mary.  On  February  13th, 
1689,  William  III.  and  Mary  were  proclaimed  by 
the  Convention  Sovereigns  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  after  the  Declaration  of  Right  had  been 
passed.  The  Bill  of  Rights  was  the  result  of 
the  deliberations  of  a  committee  appointed  by 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1689  after  the  Revo- 
lution to  consider  what  measures  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  principles  of  the  constitu- 
tion being  violated  by  any  future  sovereign,  and, 
further,  for  the  purpose  of  enacting  several  new 
laws.  After  much  discussion,  it  was  resolved  to 
fill  the  throne  immediately,  but  to  insert  in  the 
instrument  which  conferred  the  crown  on 
William  and  Mary  a  statement  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  Constitution.  It  was 
also  decided  that  all  questions  of  further  reforms 
or  the  making  of  new  laws  should  be  postponed 
to  a  more  convenient  time.  A  committee  pre- 
sided over  by  Lord  Somers  framed  a  Declara- 
tion of  Rights  which  the  Lords  accepted  after 


making  some  slight  alterations.  This  declaration 
was  read  to  William  and  Mary  before  the  crown 
was  tendered  them. 

The  Declaration  of  Right.  The  first 
section  of  the  declaration  stated  the  various 
acts  which  it  was  the  purpose  of  this  measure  to 
prevent  in  the  future  on  the  part  of  an}'-  sovereign 
of  England.  The  second  section  declared  the 
resolution  of  Lords  and  Commons  that  William 
and  Mary  should  become  King  and  Queen,  to 
be  succeeded  by  their  lawful  issue,  or,  failing 
such,  by  the  issue  of  the  Princess  Anne,  The 
fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  con- 
firmed this,  and  also  confirmed  the  power  of 
Parliament.  The  ninth  declared  that  no  member 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  or  one  married  to  such, 
could  be  sovereign  of  England,  and,  further, 
that  every  King  or  Queen  must  subscribe  and 
audibly  repeat  the  Test  Act  on  the  first  day  of 
their  first  Parliament.  In  the  twelfth  section 
it  is  declared  that  "  no  dispensation  by  non 
obstante  of  or  to  any  statute  shall  be  allowed, 
except  such  dispensation  be  allowed  in  the 
statute  or  be  specially  provided  for  by  one  or 
more  Bills  to  be  passed  during  the  present 
Session  of  Parliament." 

In  Ireland  the  followers  of  James  II.  were  still 
holding  out,  but  the  struggle  d  d  not  last  long. 
The  story  of  James's  campaign  in  Ireland  has 
been  already  told.  In  1691,  Ginkell  concluded 
the  Irish  war  by  taking  Athlone,  winning  the 
Battle  of  Aghrim  and  besieging  Limerick.  The 
famous  "  Violated  Treaty  "  was  made  by  the 
English  commanders,  but  was  afterwards  repu- 
diated by  the  Government.  In  Scotland  the 
crown  was  offered  to  William  on  his  accession, 
but  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  Viscount  Dundee, 
raised  the  Highlanders  in  the  Stuart  cause.  His 
death  at  the  Battle  of  Killiecrankie,  in  1689,  at 
the  moment  of  victory,  left  little  chance  for  the 
adh«^ents  of  James  II.  in  Scotland. 

The  Massacre  of  Glencoe.  The 
Massacre  of  Glencoe,  at  which  many  of  the 
adherents  of  the  Stuart  cause  were  killed  by 
treachery,  must  ever  be  a  stain  on  the  memory 
of  William,  though  it  is  said  that  he  signed  the 
order  without  reading  it.  When  the  rebellions  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland  were  suppressed,  William 
was  able  to  carry  out  that  foreign  policy  which 
was  always  his  chief  object.  He  was  a  man 
of  great  ability  and  of  many  great  qualities, 
but  he  was  never  able,  in  his  lifetime,  to  win 
the  full  sympathy  of  the  English  people.  His 
foreign  birth  was  against  him,  and  his  love  for 
war  was  believed  to  have  withdrawn  him  too 
much  from  promoting  the  domestic  improve- 
ment of  England.  His  cold,  unattractive 
manners  also  repelled  many  of  those  who  had 
to  act  with  him  in  affairs  of  State.  In  1672 
Marlborough  was  dismissed  from  office  in  con- 
sequence of  the  discovery  of  his  intrigues  with 
the  French  Jacobites.  Though  a  great  soldier, 
William's  campaigns  were  not  always  successful. 
Russell's  great  victory  off  La  Hague  prevented 
the  threatened  invasion  of  England,  but  William 
was  defeated  by  Luxemburg  in  August,  1692, 
at  the  Battle  of  Steinkirk. 


HISTORY 

An  Eventful  Year.  The  following  year 
was  also  made  unfortunate  for  William  by  the 
loss  of  the  Smyrna  Fleet  and  the  defeat  at 
Lauclen.  The  year  1694  was  an  eventful  one. 
The  death  of  his  wife,  on  December  28th,  was  a 
public  as  well  as  a  private  calamity.  The  Bank 
of  England  was  established  in  this  year  and  the 
Charter  of  the  East  India  Company  renewed. 
The  disastrous  failure  of  the  expedition  against 
Brest,  which  occurred  in  the  same  year,  was 
caused  by  the  French  Government  being  in- 
formed, through  a  letter  from  Marlborough  to 
King  James,  of  the  intentions  of  the  English 
which  were  meant  to  be  kept  a  profound  secret. 
Other  important  events  of  this  part  of  William's 
reign  are  the  establishment  of  the  National 
Debt  as  a  system  ;  the  handing  over  of  the 
control  of  the  Standing  Army  to  Parliament ; 
the  liberty  of  the  Press — at  least  in  princple — 
and  the  making  of  Ministerial  responsibility  a 
part  of  the  Constitution.  Indeed,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  British  Constitution  was  then 
established  on  the  basis  which  it  has  ever 
since  maintained. 

The  Assassination  Plot,  first  designed  in  1695, 
and  Berwick's  Plot,  both  of  which  were  dis- 
covered before  they  could  be  successful,  did 
much  for  the  popularity  of  William,  an  associa- 
tion being  promptly  formed  for  his  protection. 

The  King  and  Hi*  Dutch  Guards. 
In  1697  the  war  with  France  was  concluded 
by  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick.  In  the  same  year 
the  Bill  for  trie  reduction  of  the  Standing  Army 
was  introduced,  and  in  the  following  year  the 
Tory  Party  carried  a  Bill  which  compelled 
William  to  dismiss  the  Dutch  Guards.  He  was 
so  annoyed  at  this  that  he  wished  to  leave 
England,  but  abandoned  the  idea  on  the  advice 
of  Lord  Somers,  his  Lord  Chancellor.  William, 
displeased  by  the  action  of  the  majority  in  the 
Commons  in  1698,  prorogued  Parliament  on 
May  4th,  and  in  the  following  year  dismissed 
his  Ministry ;  and  the  Act  of  Succession,  necessi- 
tated by  the  death  of  the  heir  to  the  throne, 
Anne's  son,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  was  passed 
by  a  Tory  Government.  In  the  meanwhile  the 
failure  of  the  famous  Darien  scheme  had  caused 
great  discontent  in  Scotland.  The  Commons 
made  unsuccessful  efforts  to  impeach  the  late 
Ministry  for  their  share  in  the  Partition  Treaties. 
William  again  prorogued  Parliament  in  June, 
1701,  and  went  to  Holland  to  consolidate  the 
Grand  Alliance  between  England,  Holland,  and 
the  Emperor  Leopold  against  the  design  of  Louis 
XIV.  to  make  his  grandson  sovereign  of  Spain. 
When  King  James  died,  on  September  6th,  Louis 
declared  his  son,  James  Edward,  King  of  England. 

William's  career  was  cut  short  by  a  mere 
accident  when  he  had  not  long  passed  his 
prime.  He  had  returned  to  England  in  Novem- 
ber, 1701,  and  on  February  20th  in  the  following 
year  his  horse  stumbled,  and  he  died  from  the 
injuries  he  received.  Before  his  death  he  gave 
his  assent  to  the  Succession  Act,  and  as  he  had 
no  children  the  crown  passed  to  Anne,  the 
second  daughter  of  King  James  II.  by  his  first 
wife,  Anne  Hyde. 


Continued 


4845 


Group  16 

FOOD  SUPPLY 
13 

Continued  from  page  47£i 

FRUIT   PRESERVING 

Curing  and  Drying1.     Dried  Fruits.    Canning  and  Bottling.     Pulping.    Jam- 
making.     Fruit  Jellies.     Marmalade.    Candied  Fruit.     Equipment  of  Factory 

HPHE  importations  of  fruits  into  Great  Britain, 
•*•  after  deducting  re-exportations,  aggregate  about 
7,000,000  tons,  a  good  proportion  of  this  quantity 
being  used  in  making  jam.  To  this  import  supply 
must  be  added  the  fruit  which  is  produced  from  the 
77,947  acres  devoted  to  small  fruit-growing  in 
Great  Britain,  and  which  does  not  figure  in  any 
fiscal  statistics.  The  number  of  jam  factories  in 
Great  Britain  is  estimated  at  from  190  to  200,  and 
this  does  not  take  any  account  of  the  quantity  of 
jam,  large  in  the  aggregate,  that  is  made  in 
thousands  of  households,  especially  when  fruit  is 
cheap. 

The  Demand  for  Fruit.  The  public 
demand  for  fruit  and  preserves  is  enormous  and 
is  not  adequately  met ;  within  the  last  two  years, 
for  example,  very  large  quantities  of  bananas 
have  been  sold  without  appreciably  affecting 
the  sale  of  other  fruits.  Competent  authorities 
have  declared  that  fruit  and  hop-growing 
are  the  only  branches  of  agriculture  that 
really  pay  in  Great  Britain,  and  each  year  sees  an 
increase  in  the  acreage  devoted  to  fruit-growing. 
The  cultivation  of  apples  for  cider-making  is  also 
a  growing  industry  ;  but  the  increase  in  acreage 
already  alluded  to  is  accounted  for  almost  entirely 
by  land  devoted  to  other  varieties  of  fruit.  Jam- 
niakirig  is  really  the  result  of  cheap  sugar,  and 
many  of  the  larger  factories  have  grown  up  within 
the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years.  The  fruit  imported 
into  Great  Britain  comprises  the  dried  fruits,  such 
as  currants,  raisins,  and  prunes,  together  with 
fresh  fruits,  such  as  oranges,  lemons,  apples  and 
pears,  fruit  pulp  and  candied  fruits. 

Oranges  and  Lemons.  Oranges  and  lemons 
are  the  most  easily  marketed  fruits.  They  come 
from  the  Mediterranean  coast,  China,  the  Azores, 
Mexico,  Australia  and  California.  The  oranges 
are  gathered  when  not  quite  ripe,  those  fully 
formed  and  with  the  colour  just  turning  from  green 
to  yellow  being  selected.  Careful  handling  is 
essential  since  rough  handling  results  in  bruising. 
The  oranges  are  simply  wrapped  in  fine  paper 
or  in  the  husk  of  Indian  corn  and  put  into  boxes, 
the  sides  of  which  have  air  spaces.  Lemons  keep 
better  than  oranges  and  are  less  liable  to  injury 
during  the  voyage ;  the  greater  part  of  the  lemons 
grown  are  used  as  a  source  of  citric  acid. 

Currants  and  Raisins.  Currants,  the 
dried  seedless  fruit  of  a  dwarf  variety  of  grape  vine 
are  produced  in  the  Ionian  Islands.  The  currants 
when  sufficiently  ripe  are  gathered  and  placed  in 
layers  exposed  to  the  sun,  being  turned  from  time 
to  time,  and  swept  into  heaps.  When  drying  is 
complete  the  stalks  have  become  detached. 
The  currants  are  then  separated  from  the  debris 
and  packed  into  casks  for  exportation. 

Raisins  are  also  a  product  of  the  grape  vine, 
and  are  grown  in  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  the  South 
of  France,  and  California.  The  grapes  are  left 
on  the  vines  after  they  have  come  to  maturity, 
and  the  autumn  sun  is  relied  upon  to  do  the 
necessary  drying.  Another  way  and  one  prac- 
tised in  the  newest  raisin-growing  districts  is  to 

4844 


cut  the  bunches  of  grapes  from  the  vine  and 
place  them  in  shallow  trays  2  ft.  wide,  3  ft.  long 
and  1  in.  deep.  The  raisins  are  then  sun-dried, 
being  turned  from  time  to  time  by  inverting  a  full 
tray  on  an  empty  one.  The  average  time  of 
drying  is  three  weeks,  depending  obviously  upon  the 
weather.  After  the  raisins  have  been  dried  they 
are  stored  in  "  sweat "  boxes  until  ready  for 
packing.  To  avoid  delay  in  drying  and  any  risk 
of  getting  the  fruit  wet  through  showers,  some 
large  growers  have  curing-houses,  where  the  drying 
is  finished  after  the  raisins  have  been  partly  sun- 
dried.  Sun-dried  fruit  is  far  superior  to  that  partly 
dried  by  artificial  means.  The  drying-houses  in 
use  in  Spain  consist  of  a  chamber  25  ft.  long, 
15  ft.  wide  and  10  ft.  high,  the  heat  being  supplied 
from  a  furnace  outside  and  conveyed  throughout 
the  building  by  a  9  in.  flue.  There  is  a  vent  for  air 
at  each  corner.  The  temperature  must  not  exceed 
120°  F.,  the  most  suitable  for  ensuring  good  fruit 
being  100°  F.  It  should  be  noted  that  some 
exposure  to  sunlight  is  absolutely  necessary  in 
drying  raisins. 

Why  Raisins  Look  Glossy.  In  some 
parts  of  Spain  and  France  the  raisins  are  dipped, 
previous  to  drying,  in  a  weak  lye  from  wood  ashes 
to  soften  the  skin  and  give  the  raisins  a  clear, 
glossy  appearance.  Drying  is  much  facilitated  by 
the  preliminary  dip  in  alkali.  The  dipping  bath  used 
for  Valencia  raisins  is  made  by  mixing  the  following 
ingredients  :  Wood  ashes,  10  Ib.  ;  sulphur,  |  Ib.  ; 
olive  oil,  I  pint ;  water,  8  gall.  Stir  the  ingre- 
dients together  and  allow  to  settle.  The  solution 
is  then  transferred  to  a  cauldron  and  heated  to 
nearly  boiling  point  before  dipping  the  raisins. 
Occasionally,  the  dipping  is  dispensed  with,  the 
liquid  being  distributed  over  the  fruit  by  means 
of  a  whisk.  The  method  recommended  by  the 
Victoria  Department  of  Agriculture  for  making 
pudding  raisins  is  to  dip  the  grapes  as  soon  as 
gathered  into  a  boiling  lye  made  by  mixing  1  Ib. 
of  Greenbank  concentrated  lye  with  15  gall,  of 
water.  The  fruit  is  immersed  for  from  20  to  30 
seconds,  the  effect  of  the  lye  being  to  break  the 
skin  into  minute  cracks,  and  so  facilitating  the  escape 
of  moisture  in  the  subsequent  drying.  The  dipped 
fruit  dries  in  from  8  to  12  days  in  bright  weather. 
To  give  the  fruit  a  bright  amber  colour,  much 
preferred  by  the  housewife,  a  sulphuring  process  is 
employed.  The  trays  of  raisins  are  stacked  in  a 
small  chamber  and  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  burning 
sulphur  for  from  40  to  50  minutes.  The  sulphuring 
has  the  effect  of  bleaching  the  dark  colour  and  in- 
creasing the  value  of  the  fruit  in  the  market. 
Stemming  (removing  the  stalks)  and  grading  are 
performed  by  a  simple  machine,  but  two  home- 
made wire  sieves  of  £  in.  mesh  and  £  in.  mesh 
answer  perfectly  when  very  large  quantities  are 
not  being  treated. 

Dates.  Some  varieties  of  dates  require  prac- 
tically no  curing,  being  ready  to  pack  and  ship  as 
soon  as  they  have  ripened.  Other  varieties, 
however,  need  some  preparatory  treatment.  Dates 
are  borne  in  bunches  which  have  a  single  stem 
with  numerous  slender  twigs  to  which  the  fruit  is 


attached.  A  bunch  carries  from  10  to  30  pounds 
of  fruit.  It  is  very  rare  that  all  the  dates  on  a 
bunch  ripen  at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  case  of 
choice  varieties,  those  which  first  ripen  are  often 
hand-picked  and  shipped  at  once  in  order  to  get 
the  high  prices  paid  for  the  earliest  consignments. 
It  is  also  claimed  that  picking  the  outer  dates  of 
the  bunch,  which  usually  ripen  first,  permits  the 
inner  fruit  to  ripen  better.  Frequently  when  most 
of  the  dates  on  a  bunch  are  ripe  and  the  rest  are 
beginning  to  ripen  the  whole  bunch  is  cut  off  and 
hung  up  in  a  dry  and  shady  place.  In  a  few 
weeks  the  whole  bunch  is  ripe  and  ready  for  ship- 
ment. The  choice  varieties  of  dates  are  shipped 
from  the  Sahara,  either  in  bags  or  long,  wooden 
boxes,  and  afterwards  repacked  in  smaller  boxes. 
The  above  methods  apply  to  the  Deglet  Noor 
variety,  which  is  chiefly  exported  from  Algiers. 
The  Rhars  variety,  which  is  full  of  sugary  juice,  is 
not  so  easily  handled.  The  Arabs  usually  hang  up 
the  bunches  and  allow  the  juice  to  drain  off  into 
This  juice  is  called  date  honey,  and  when  it 


FOOD   SUPPLY 

round.  The  dried  apples,  or  apple  rings,  as  thej'  aro 
called,  have,  however,  the  advantage  of  cheapness, 
and  when  rejuvenated  by  soaking  in  water,  are  a 
really  passable  substitute  for  the  fresh  fruit  The 
apples  are  pared,  cored,  and  sliced  by  machinery, 
one  of  the  machines  being  illustrated  in  1.  As  soon 
as  peeled,  the  apples  are  dropped  into  salt  water, 
and  after  a  few  minutes'  immersion,  are  put  in  the 
sulphur  box,  and  fumed  for  from  30  to  35  minutes. 
The  slices  are  then  spread  on  trays,  and  placed  in 
the  sun  for  four  or  five  days,  being  turned  once. 
When  artificial  drying  is  employed,  a  chamber  or 
evaporator  supplied  with  a  current  of  air  at  240°  F. 
is  used.  The  trays  of  apple  slices  are  taken  through 
the  evaporator  on  an  endless,  chain,  moving  every 
three  or  five  minutes.  A  bushel  of  apples  makes 
5  Ib.  of  dried  fruit.  Apricots  and  peaches  must 
be  thoroughly  ripe  and  well  coloured  before 
being  gathered.  They  are  then  pared,  halved, 
and  stoned  by  simple  appliances,  and  placed  on 
wooden  trays  cut  side  up.  Drying  takes  five  or 
six  days  hi  the  sun,  and  is  often  preceded  by 


has  drained  off  the  fruit  is  ready  for  packing  into      sulphuring.    As  neither  of  these  fruits  are  grown  in 
boxes  or  skins.     When  packed  tightly  dates  keep 

ioratioi 

simply 


for_years  without  any  deterioration  in  quality. 

dried     plums 


Prunes.  Prunes 
The  best  kinds 
are  simply  sun- 
dried  after  care- 
ful selection  for 
quality.  The 
plums  are  allowed 
to  ripen  tho- 
roughly before 
being  gathered. 

The  alternative 
process  used  in 
soire  districts  in- 
volves the  use  of 
a  lye  bath,  as  for 
raisin-curing,  to 
soften  the  skins 
and  facilitate  dry- 
ing. The  soften 
ing  in  other  cases 
is  done  by  half 
cooking  the  dried 
plums  for  from 
two  to  three 

minutes  in  water  1-  EUREKA  APPLE-PARING  MACHINE 

to  which  glycerin,  (Sprague  Canning  Machinery  Co.,  Chicago) 

in  the  proportion  of  1  Ib.  to  20  gallons,  is  added. 
The  plums  are  then  dried  for  three  or  four  days, 
and  then  packed  in  glass  bottles  that  are  tightly 
sealed.  The  lighter  coloured  prunes  are  submitted 
to  a  sulphuring  process. 

Figs.      Figs  come  chiefly  from  Asiatic  Turkey, 


Great  Britain  to  any  extent,  there  is  considerable 
demand  for  the  dried  articles.  Passable  jam  can 
be  made  from  dried  apricots,  the  proportions  being 

2  Ib.  of  dried 
apricots,  5  Ib. 
of  sugar,  and  8 
pints  of  water. 
The  apricots 
are  covered  with 
water  for  five 
minutes  and 
drained,  8  pints 
of  water  being 
then  added  and 
allowed  to  remain 
in  contact  for 
12  hours.  Next 
transfer  to  an 
enamelled  pan, 
boil  "for  ~  five 
minutes,  add  the 
sugar,  again  boil 
for  fifteen 
minutes,  and  put 
into  pots. 

Canning 
and  Bottling. 

Canning    fruit    is 

distinctly  an  American  process.  The  English  term 
would  be  tinning,  but  as  the  association  of  a 
metal  with  a  food  is  apt  to  convey  a  bad  impression, 
it  is  perhaps  as  well  that  the  American  term 
canning  is  used.  Bottling  of  fruit  is,  of  course, 
merely  a  development  of  canning,  the  primary 


though    Portugal,    Spain    and    Greece    send    small      reason    doubtless    being    that    glass    is    preferable 

quantities.     The  figs  are  allowed  to  drop  from  the      to  tin  for  food  containers.    The  underlying  principle 

trees  ;  the  fruit  does  not  bruise  because  it  is  dry.  The 

h'gs  are  then  exposed  to  the  sun  on  dry  grass  for 

three  or  four  days.     Smyrna  is  the  centre  of  the  fig 

producing  district,   the  growers  bringing    in    their 

produce  in  sacks.     Damp  is  injurious  in  the  drying 

process,  and  the   pre-eminence   of   Asiatic   Turkey 

is  due  to  the  climate  being  perfect  for  fig-drying. 

[n  Spain  the  climate  demands  that  the  figs  must 

be  covered  up  with  boards  or  canvas  during  the 

night  or  they  would  spoil. 

Desiccated  Fruits.  Desiccated  fruits  in- 
clude dried  apples,  apricots,  and  peaches.  It  is 
questionable  whether  the  demand  for  dried  apples  is 
so  large  as  formerly,  as  the  preference  is  naturally 
given  to  the  fresh  apples  now  obtainable  t>l'  the  year 


of  canning  and  bottling  fruit  is  that  the  contents 
are  sterilised,  and  then  preserved  in  a  hermetically 
sealed  vessel.  The  temperature  of  170°  F.  has  been 
found  to  be  the  correct  one  to  use  in  sterilising, 
but  the  time  taken  for  this  temperature  to  penetrate 
to  the  centre  of  the  vessel  containing  the  fruit 
naturally  varies  according  to  the  size  of  the  vessel 
and  the  kind  of  fruit  which  is  being  sterilised.  The 
fruit  must  not  be  heated  sufficiently  long  to  cook 
it,  hence  care  is  necessary  in  the  temperature 
employed,  if  successful  bottled  or  canned  fruit  i.s 
to  be  produced.  The  "  A.  B.  H."  thermometer  [2] 
is  used  to  ascertain  the  sterilisation  point  of  the 
interior  of  a  bottle  of  fruit.  A  similar  thermometer  is 
also  applied  to  cans.  Fruit  is  canned  in  either  water 

4845 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

or  syrup.  If  syrup  be  employed,  it  is  poured  over  the 
fruit  as  it  boils,  and  consequently  the  time  taken 
for  sterilising  is  shorter.  The  general  formula 
for  canning  fruit  is  as  follows  :  Carefully  select  and 
prepare  the  fruit,  place  in  the  tins,  and  cover  with 
cold  or  boiling  water ;  seal  the  tin  so  that  it  is  air- 
tight, and  sterilise  (or  "  process,"  as  canners 
generally  call  it).  The  average  times  are :  For  small 
fruits,  such  as  cherries  and  small  plums,  pint  size 
cans,  8  minutes ;  quart  size,  10  minutes.  For 
large  fruits,  such  as  peaches  and  apricots,  pint  size, 
10  minutes  ;  quart,  12  minutes.  These  are  for  fruits 
with  the  stones  left  in.  When  the  stones  have 
been  removed  a  shorter  time  is  required,  as  the  heat 
is  conveyed  to  the  interior  in  a  shorter  time  ;  for 
pint  cans,  6  minutes,  and  for  quarts,  8  minutes  are 
average  times. 

Preliminary  Treatment  for  Preserv= 
ing.  Apples  and  similar  fruits  require 
paring  and  coring,  as  for  making  dried  apples, 
but  are  not  sliced.  Pack  as  tightly  as  possible 
in  the  containers,  fill  with  boiling  water, 
seal  and  process.  The  time  required  is  that 
given  for  stoned  fruit.  A  difficulty  met  with 
in  canning  apples  is  the  discoloration  of  the 
fruit.  To  obviate  this  some  makers  put  the 
apples,  after  peeling,  into  a  solution  of  sodium 
sulphite  (1  oz.  to  4  gallons  of  water),  or  a 
solution  of  alum  of  the  same  strength.  When 
syrup  is  used,  it  is  of  the  strength  of  18°  B., 
and  is  often  flavoured  with  lemon. 

Pears  are  treated  in  a  similar  manner  to 
apples,  but  are  often  more  difficult  to  keep 
white.  If  the  result  desired  be  not  obtained 
by  the  treatment  given  above  for  apples, 
the  peeled  and  cored  pears  are  exposed  to 
the  gas  given  off  from  burning  sulphur  for 
three  or  four  hours. 

Cherries  have  their  stones  removed  by 
means  of  a  pitting  machine,  are  then  put 
into  bottles,  covered  with  water,  sealed, 
and  processed.  The  cherries  used  should 
not  be  ripe,  and  the  water  employed  for 
filling  the  bottles  is  generally  coloured  with 
cochineal,  as  the  public  prefer  a  brightly 
coloured  product. 

Greengages  are  pricked  to  prevent  bursting, 
a  silver  or  copper  needle  being  employed. 
The  water  is  often  tinted  green  with  a 
little  emerald  green.  Plums  are  pricked, 
but  no  tint  is  needed. 

Gooseberries  are  bottled  when  green. 
Apricots  and  peaches  are   cut  into  halves 
and  pricked,  the  stones  also  being  removed.    2 


fruit  takes  about  two  hours  to  process,  at  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water,  on  account  of  its  bulk. 
Crushed  fruits,  so  much  used  for  soda  foimtains 
in  the  United  States,  are  prepared  by  crushing  or 
grating  the  fruit,  which  is  then  heated  with  boiling 
syrup  at  28°  B.  for  three  minutes,  then  transferred 
to  tins  or  bottles,  and  processed  for  a  time  varying 
from  10  minutes  for  pint  containers,  to  40  minutes 
for  gallon  tins. 

Pulping.      Fruit  pulp  is  fresh  pulp  preserved 
without  sugar  ;    it  is,  in  fact,  a  sterilising  process  of 
keeping  fruit.     Large  quantities  of  fruit  pulp  are 
imported  into  Great  Britain,  and  used  for  making 
jam.     All  the  apricot  jam  made  in  Great  Britain  is 
necessarily  made  from   imported  apricot  pulp,   as 
but  few  apricots  are  grown  in  this  country.     Pulped 
fruits   are   a  little   inferior   to  ripe  fruits  for  jam- 
making,  and  hence  pulps  are  only  used  in  medium 
and  cheap  jams.     The  difference,  however,  is 
mainly  in  appearance,  and  does   not   affect 
the    wholesomeness   of    the  product.       The 
addition  of  colouring  matter  to  jams  made 
from  pulps  is  required  to  give  a  nice  appear- 
ance.      Raspberry  pulp    is    imported   from 
Holland    in  casks,   but    the    comparatively 
recent   importations  of   raspberry  and  black 
currant  pulps  from  Tasmania  are  in  tins  and 
of   superior   quality.     Raspberry   pulp,  also, 
comes     from     Canada    and    New    Zealand, 
whilst  apricot   pulp  is   made    in    California, 
France,  Spain,   and  Italy,  where  the  sunny 
climate  makes  apricot  growing  in  the  open 
air   possible.     Plum    pulp   is   not   imported, 
owing  to  a  curious  anomaly  in  the  British 
Customs  classification  which  brings  it  under 
the  head  of  prunes,  a  dutiable  import. 

The  process  of  fruit  pulping  is,  in  outline, 
to  add  32  oz.  of  water  to  20  Ib.  of  the 
fruit,  boil  for  five  minutes,  put  into  sallon  or 
two-gallon  tins,  and  process  for  from  2 1  hours 
to  3|  hours  (for  gallon  tins)  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  boiling  water.  The  tin  should  be 
lacquered  to  prevent  possible  metallic  con- 
tamination and  discoloration  of  the  pulp. 

Apricot  pulp  is  made  from  ripe  fruit 
which  has  been  stoned,  and  a  little  more 
water  is  added  than  is  given  in  the  outline 
process  above.  The  stones  from  the  apricot 
are  used  for  flavouring  purposes,  and  should 
not  be  thrown  away.  Peach  pulp  is  similarly 
prepared.  Greengages  are  stoned,  and  in  the 
preliminary  boiling  should  not  be  violently 
stirred,  as  the  fruit  would  be  broken  up  too 
much.  Cherry,  strawberry,  and  black  currant 


Syrup    is    always     used     for    these    fruits.  THERMOMETER  PU^P  present  no   difficulties,  except  that  in 
Whole  apricots  are  also  canned. 

Rhubarb  is  bottled  when  tender  and  young.  It  is 
cut  into  pieces  about  1|  in.  long.  Water  "is  used 
in  the  bottles. 

Bananas  are  bottled  in  syrup  to  which  glucose 
has  been  added  in  place  of  sugar.  The  syrup  is 
generally  flavoured  with  vanilla  or  lemon,  and  to 
improve  the  taste,  a  little  citric  acid  is  added. 

Red  currants  are  removed  from  the  bunches  with 
a  nickel,  silver,  or  celluloid  comb. 

Blackberries  require  very  careful  picking  over  to 
remove  leaves  and  refuse.  For  this  purpose  they  are 
spread  out  on  a  table  in  front  of  the  operator,  a 
good  light  being  essential. 

Raspberries  and  strawberries  are  not  successfully 
canned  unless  they  have  been  previously  candied— 
that  is,  if  it  is  desired  to  retain  their  shape. 

Pineapples  are  peeled  by  machinery  and  sliced, 
care  being  taken  to  remove  all  the  "eves."  This 


the  case  of  strawberries  the  preliminary 
boiling  is  limited  to  two  minutes,  on  account  of 
the  soft  nature  of  the  fruit. 

Jam=maKing.  Jam  is  iisually  described  as  a 
conserve  of  fruit  boiled  down  with  sugar.  There 
is  no  standard  for  jam.  Each  jam-maker  has  his 
own  modification  of  the  old  formula — 1  Ib.  of  fruit 
to  1  Ib.  of  sugar — the  test  of  a  good  product  being 
the  appreciation  of  the  purchaser.  It  is,  of  course, 
understood  that  wholesome  ingredients  must  be  used 
in  every  case.  The  employment  of  wet  or  damaged 
fruit  for  jam-making  brings  in  its  train  a  multitude 
of  consequences  which  soon  injure  a  jam-maker's 
reputation.  The  solidifying  property  of  jam  is  due 
to  the  sugar  and  to  the  pectose  contained  in  ripe 
fruit.  The  pectose,  by  boiling  with  vegetable  acids, 
such  as  are  also  contained  in  the  fruit,  yields  a 
product  known  as  pectin,  which  possesses  solidifying 
power  like  gelatin.  Prolonged  or  violent  boiling 


4846 


destroys*  the  pectin,  and  hence  impairs  the  solidify- 
ing power  of  the  jam.  On  the  large  scale,  steam 
pans  [3]  are  used. 

The  general  formula  given  above  is  the  one  on 
which  the  manufactxirer  founds  his  process,  except 
that  the  boiling,  which  in  the  case  of  domestic  manu- 
factures may  be  up  to  two  hours,  is  by  steam  pan 
process  cut  down  to  15  or  20  minutes,  the  product 
being  superior  as  regards  flavour  and  appearance  to 
the    domestic    article.     Water    is 
added  in  the  same   proportion  as 
given     in     the     pulping     process 
above,   and   crystal    sugar,    equal 
in  quantity  to  the  fruit,  is  added, 
the  mixture  being  boiled   to   dis- 
solve  the   sugar.      The    contents 
of    the    pan    are    stirred,    and    if 
glucose   be    used,    it   is  added    in 
place  of  part  of  the  sugar.     The 
second   or   medium   grade  jam  is 
made    from    fruit    pulp,    and    a 
cheaper    grade    still    is   made    by 
boiling    fruit   pulp  100  lb.,    sugar 
.30  lb.,    and   glucose    70    lb.,    till 
dissolved,    and     adding    towards 
the   end  of   the   process   1   lb.   to 
1£  lb.  of    agar-agar    dissolved  in 
the  smallest   quantity    of   water. 
The  jam  is  poured  into  the  earthenware  or  glass 
pots  direct  from  the  pan,  and  when  the  product  has 
set,  the  surface  is  covered  with  a  disc  of  paraffined 
paper,  previously  dipped  in  brandy  or  solution  of 
salicylic  acid.     The  wet  parchment  cover  is  stretched 
over  the  top  and  fastened  so  as  to  exclude  air. 

The  Making  of  Special  Jams.  Straw- 
berry jam  is  made  from  the  freshest  fruit,  for  if 
the  strawberries  stand  over-night  the  colour  of 
the  jam  is  not  so  good. 
The  Wisbech  district, 
Kent,  and  Cornwall  are 
the  strawberry-growing 
parts,  the  Cornwall 
strawberries  being  the 
earliest  in  the  market. 
Raspberries  are  grown 
extensively  near  Yar- 
mouth, and  at  Blair- 
gowrie.  The  crop  of 
raspberries  of  late  years 
has  been  poor,  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  as  a 
hint  to  growers  that 
Maclaren's  Prolific  and 
the  Antwerp  raspberries 
are  the  ones  which  stand 
the  climate  best.  Rasp- 
berry jam  is  a  difficult 
one  to  set,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  necessary  to 
add  a  portion  of  goose- 
berry or  apple  jelly. 
Black  currants  come 
in  large  quantities  from 
France,  Holland,  and 
Belgium,  and  on  account 

of  the  ravages  of  the  black  currant  "  mite,"  im- 
ports of  the  fruit  are  necessary  to  meet  the  demand. 
Blackberries  are  preserved  with  apples,  and  such 
jam  is  in  increasing  demand.  The  blackberry  crop 
is  a  difficult  one  to  get  picked,  and  fetches  from 
£10  to  £20  a  ton.  As  regards  plum  jam,  although 
plum  pulp  is  not  imported,  for  reasons  stated  above, 
immense  quantities  of  plums  reach  this  country 
from  the  Continent,  hi  seasons  of  scarcity  coming 


3.  STEAM  PAN  FOR  JAM-MAKING 

(William  Brierley  Ltd.,  Rochdale) 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

even  from  so  far  afield  as  Hungary.     French  and 
German  plums  come  in  some  three  weeks  before  the 
English  plums  are  ripe  for  the  market,  but  are  not 
superior   to  English  fruit.     The  advantage  which 
foreign  fruit  enjoys  over  home  grown  is  that  large 
quantities  of  a  particular  kind  of  plum — such  as 
the  Zwetchen — can  be  obtained,  whereas  the  English 
plums   are   from   various    kinds   of   stock.     When 
home-grown  plums  are  plentiful  the  foreign  article 
cannot  be  profitably  imported,   as 
it  costs  £7  10s.   a   ton  to   import 
foreign    plums,    and    an    English 
grower    is    satisfied   to  get  £7   in 
times  of  plenty.    Greengages  nearly 
all    come    from     Cambridgeshire. 
Damsons  are   very  largely  grown 
near  Wrexham  for  jam  purposes, 
and    although    the   popular   taste 
has  shifted  from  damson  to  plum 
jam,  there  are  still  large  quantities 
of  damson  jam  sold  in  Lancashire. 
Kind  of  Sugar  Used.    In 
manufactured  jam  there   is  about 
55  per  cent,  of  sugar.     The  sugar 
may  be  either  the  product  of  the 
sugar     cane    or    the    beet.       [See 
SUGAR.]     There   is  practically  no 
difference  in  the  respective  values 
of  these   sugars,  so   that  the  cheapest   should    be 
used.       Glucose    has    been   used    by  some   manu- 
facturers since  1864,  but  it  is  only  in  comparatively 
recent   years    that   the    use    of   glucose    has    been 
recognised    as    beneficial    in    jam-making:       From 
10  to  20  per  cent,  of  glucose  in  jam  prevents  candy- 
ing or  granulating  of  the  sugar  when  jam  is  kept, 
and  besides  yields  a  jam  that  is  thinner  and  better 
liked  by  the  public.     When  sugar  is  boiled  with  a 
weak  solution  of  a  vege- 
table acid,  it  is  changed 
into     "  invert  "     sugar, 
then  into   dextrose  and 
levulose,  and  finally  into 
glucose. 

Jam  Colouring. 
As  has  been  noted  in  the 
section  devoted  to  pulp- 
ing, the  colour  of  the 
product  is  impaired,  so 
that  when  made  into 
jam  a  colouring  matter 
is  needed.  Pink  is  ob- 
tained by  the  use  of 
carmine  (the  active 
principle  of  cochineal) 
and  a  wine  red  by 
means  of  cudbear. 

Aniline  dyes,  rhoda- 
mine  and  rosaniline  are 
used,  the  quantity 
needed  being  but  5  or 
10  grains  in  a  hundred- 
weight of  jam.  The 
colour  is  added  in  solu- 

4.  HOME-MADE  MARMALADE  MACHINE  tion      durincr     the     earlv 

(William  Brierley,  Ltd.,  Rochdale)  part    of    th»    process    £ 

jam-making.  As  yellow  colours,  sometimes  added 
to  apricot  jam,  saffron  yellow  and  auramine 
(aniline  dyes)  are  used.  Iii  regard  to  the  use  of 
preservatives  salicylic  acid  is  employed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  i  oz.  to  1  cwt.  of  jam.  It  is  added  in  the 
form  of  powder  at  the  beginning  of  the  process,  the 
boiling  of  the  jam  being  sufficient  to  ensure  mixing. 
Owing  to  the  minute  quantities  of  the  aniline  dyes 
required  no  harm  results  from  their  use. 

4847 


FOOD  SUPPLY 

Fruit  Jellies.  Fruit  jellies  are  transparent 
preparations  of  the  juices  of  fruits,  and  are  used 
to  supply  or  make  good  the  deficiency  of  the  setting 
power  of  raspberry,  strawberry  and  black  currant 
jams.  Some  jellies  are,  however,  largely  used  in 
place  of  jams,  while  red  currant  jelly  has  a  special 
purpose  in  the  cuisine  as  an  adjunct  to  roast  mutton 
and  hare.  The  fruits  from  which  jellies  are  mostly 
prepared  are  apples,  gooseberries,  grapes,  black 
and  red  currants,  and  blackberries.  The  process 
is  to  mix  three  parts  of  fruit  with  one  part  of  cold 
water,  and  boil.  The  mass  is  then  transferred  to 
filter  bags  and  the  juice  is  finally  heated  to  boiling 
point  and  poured  into  stone  jars  which  have  been 
previously  scalded  to  destroy  fermentation  germs. 
Fruit  jellies  are  made  by  adding  to  each  pint  of 
juice  a  little  over  a  pound  of  sugar  and  boiling  till 
a  small  quantity  of  the  product,  removed  and 
cooled  on  ice,  sets  to  a  jelly. 

Marmalade.  Marmalade  is  an  orange  jam, 
although  originally  the  name  was  applied  to  a 
quince  jelty,  marmelo  being  the  Portuguese  for 
quince.  It  is  now  rarely  made  from  quinces, 
but  oranges,  lemons,  and  grapes  are  used.  Origin- 
ally marmalade  was  made  with  honey,  but  now 
sugar  and  glucose  are  the  bases  employed.  Orange 


trated,  the  process  being  continued  till  the  svrup 
registers  33°  B.,  when  it  is  drained  off  and"  the 
fruits  taken  out  and  dried  slowly  in  a  warm  room. 
Finally,  if  the  fruits  be  not  covered  with  fine 
crystals  of  sugar  they  are  crystallised  by  pouring 
over  them,  on  a  wire  tray,  a  syrup  of 
33°  B.  strength,  made  from  pure  sugar, 
drained  and  dried.  Glace  fruits  are  pro- 
duced by  giving  the  fruits  at  the  end  of 
the  syruping  process  a  few  minutes'  boiling 
in  syrup  and  removing  them  to  a  wire  tray 
to  dry  slowly.  A  small  proportion  of  glucose 
may  be  added  to  the  syrups  used  in  candying 
fruits,  and  colouring  matters  may  be  intro- 
duced if  needed.  A  hot  process  is  also 
employed  in  which  the  fruits  are  boiled 
with  the  successive  syrups.  Besides  being 
eaten  for  dessert,  candied  fruits  are  used 
for  preparing  superior  kinds  of  jam.  Candied 
strawberries  and  raspberries  are  excellent 
when  made  into  jam  with  apple  juice. 
Candied  cherries  are  covered  with  maras- 
chino-flavoured spirit  to  make  "  cherries  in 
maraschino,"  and  Wiesbaden  fruits  are 
candied  fruits  put  up  in  strong  syrup. 
For  testing  the  strength  of  the  syrups  a 


ilp  is  imported  from  Spain  for  the  use  of  marina-  HYDRO-  hydrometer  [5]  is  employed, 
ade  makers.     Machines  are  sold   for   the   special  METER     "The  Factory.     The  ideal  arrangement 


Ed 

purpose  of  cutting  up  the  orange  and  lemon  peel. 
A  good  domestic  marmalade  is  made  by  using  both 
bitter  and  sweet  oranges  with  lemons.  For  in- 
stance, 6  bitter  oranges,  3  sweet  oranges,  and  2 
lemons  may  be  taken,  the  peels  being  removed, 
with  a  minimum  of  white,  cut  up  and  boiled  with 
9  pints  of  water  until  soft.  The  rest  of  the  fruit 
is  pulped  and  the  juice  expressed,  and  in  the  mixture 
of  juice  and  peel  infusion  9  Ib.  of  sugar  is  dissolved, 
and  the  whole  boiled  until  jellying  takes  place  on 
cooling  a  little  of  the  mass.  For  making  marma- 
lade on  the  large  scale,  oranges  are  peeled,  freed 
from  pips,  the  peel  sliced  and  cut  up  in  pieces 
by  a  machine  [4],  and  the  rest  of  the  orange 
reduced  to  a  pulp ;  to  20  Ib.  of  this  pulp 
are  added  30  Ib.  of  sugar  and  \  gallon  of 
apple  juice,  the  cut-up  peel  introduced,  and 
the  whole  boiled  slowly  for  an  hour.  After  this 
further  boiling  is  given  at  a  more  rapid  rate 
till  the  product  jellies  on  cooling.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  oranges  may  be  mixed,  as  in  the  recipe 
for  domestic  marmalade.  Orange  marmalade,  of 
the  jelly  class  is  ma^e  by  excluding  the  orange 
pulp,  using  only  the  juice.  A  French  recipe  is  as 
follows :  orange  juice,  5  pints ;  apple  juice,  15 
pints ;  syrup,  10  pints ;  sugar,  5  Ib ;  finely 
sliced  orange  peel,  5  pints.  These  ingredients  are 
boiled  together  till  the  marmalade  sets  to  a  jelly 
on  cooling.  Grape  marmalade  is  really  a  fruit 
jelly,  and  is  made  according  to  the  method  described 
in  the  section  devoted  to  fruit  jellies. 

Candied  Fruits.  Candying  is  a  refinement 
of  the  preservers'  art,  and  is  applied  to  cherries, 
strawberries,  greengages,  small  oranges  and  pears, 
to  lemon,  orange  and  citron  peel,  and  to  angelica. 
The  fruits  are  prepared  as  for  bottling  and  finally 
dried  on  trays  made  of  white  willow.  A  stoneware 
tank  is  employed,  the  fruits  being  packed  in  it 
and  covered  with  weak  syrup.  After  being  in  the 
Byrup  over-night  the  syrup  is  withdrawn  by  means 
of  a  stopcock  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank  and  con- 
centrated by  boiling  and  adding  more  sugar  from, 
say,  20°  B.,  at  which  it  was  used  first,  to  22°  B. 
This  syrup  is  then  poured  over  the  fruit  and  left  for 
two  or  three  days,  drained  off  and  again  concen- 


of  a  factory  is  such  that  the  workmen  are  kept 
employed  all  the  year  round.  Hence,  factories 
which  make  jam  should  tin  vegetables  and 
make  pickles  to  fill  in  slack  months.  It  is,  con- 
sequently, difficult  to  give  trustworthy  estimate* 
of  the  cost  of  equipping  a  factory  until  the  extent 
of  the  trade  to  be  done  is  stated.  The  machinery 
for  a  small  factory  costs  from  £150,  the  capital 
outlay  depending  upon  whether  certain  branches 
of  the  canning  business  are  to  be  entered.  Can- 
making  machinery,  for  instance,  is  installed  in 
large  American  canning  factories,  such  installation 
costing  about  £100.  Some  of  the  costs  of  machinery 
used  in  canning  are  stated  below  to  give  the 
reader  an  idea  of  the  expenditure  in  fitting  up  a 
factory. 

Copper  jam-boiling  pans,  suitable  for  working  at 
a  pressure  of  70  Ib.,  and  with  a  capacity  of  45 
gallons,  cost  £15. 

Tanks  for  bottling  fruit  are  made  of  iron  with 
false  bottom  for  standing  the  bottles  on,  under 
which  is  the  heating  coil.  The  cost  of  a  tank 
7  ft,  long,  2  ft.  9  in.  wide,  and  18  in.  high,  is  £13. 

Apple-paring  machines  cost  £1  to  £5,  according  to 
the  pattern.  An  apple  slicer  of  simple  design  costs 
16s.,  the  more  complicated  varieties  running  to  £5. 

A  marmalade  machine  for  stripping  the  white 
from  orange  peel  and  cutting  into  strips  costs  from 
£10  to  £20. 

An  hydraulic  press  for  extracting  the  juice  from 
apple  pulp  by  hand  power  entails  an  outlay  of 
£50  ;  for  £5  extra  it  can  be  adapted  to  power. 

Platform  scales  for  weighing  large  quantities  of 
fruit  or  sugar  cost  £4. 

Horizontal  boiler  complete  costs  from  £100  for 
a  10  h-p.  boiler. 

Hydrometers  for  testing  the  strength  of  syrups 
cost  4s.  6d.  each. 

Thermometers  for  talcing  temperature  of  water, 
etc.,  cost  10s. 

Factory  trucks  cost  £1. 

Hoist,  of  a  capacity  of  1,000  Ib.,  costs  £10. 

X'/fdcring  irons  cost  from  2s. 

Peeling  knii'es  eost  3s.  Od.  a  dozen. 


FRUIT  PRESERVATION  concluded  ;  followed  by  FISHERIES 


4848 


THE  BRANCHES  OF  INSURANCE 

Fire,  Accident,  Burglary,  and  Marine  Insurance.      Employers'  Liability. 
History  of  Lloyd's.    The  Principles  of  Underwriting.    Treatment  of  Claims 


Group  7 

INSURANCE 


By    W.    A. 

FIRE    INSURANCE   • 

We  have  now  finished  with  Assurance  work 
and  must  turn  our  attention  to  the  Insurance 
branches  of  the  profession.  It  should  be 
explained  that  the  word  "  assurance  "  is  usually 
applied  to  life  policies,  while  "  insurance  "  is  used 
for  all  other  kinds  of  policies. 

A  company  called  the  Fire  Office  was  started 
in  1680,  with  premises  at  the  back  of  the  Royal 
Exchange,  provided  with  "  a  considerable  bank 
of  money  and  a  fund  of  free  land."  Since 
then  fire  insurance  has  steadily  grown  in  im- 
portance, until  there  are  now  many  companies 
doing  an  immense  business,  with  millions  of 
funds  held  in  reserve  against  any  possible  con- 
flagration. 

Settlement  of  Claims.  Fire  insurance 
on  payment  of  certain  premiums  is  strictly  an 
indemnity  for  actual  loss  sustained  through  fire 
and  lightning  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  the 
sum  insured.  The  amount  of  the  policy  is 
not  necessarily  the  figure  which  will  be  paid 
by  the  fire  office.  It  is  not  intended  that  the 
insured  should  make  a  profit  through  a  fire, 
the  object  being  rather  that  he  should  only 
make  good  his  monetary  loss.  It  is  a  great 
safeguard  for  the  fire  office  that  the  insured  is 
aware  that  he  himself  is  likely  to  suffer  incon- 
venience through  the  disturbance  which  a  fire 
must  involve.  The  amount  claimable  is 
regulated  by  the  value  of  the  property  at  the 
time  of  the  event,  irrespective  of  what  was  the 
original  cost. 

This  is  quite  a  different  practice  from  that 
which  holds  in  marine  insurance.  If  a  ship  is 
insured  for  £30,000  and  goes  to  the  bottom,  the 
underwriters  must  pay  for  a  total  loss,  even  if 
the  ship  had  depreciated  considerably.  If  a 
fire  office  paid  more  than  a  fair  indemnity  it  is 
held  that  the  practice  would  prove  a  source  of 
temptation  and  would  endanger  human  life 
and  property,  while  the  rates  of  premiums 
would  require  to  be  largely  increased.  Even  as 
it  is,  the  numerous  cases  of  arson  amongst  a 
doubtful  class  of  insurers  show  the  necessity  on 
the  part  of  the  offices  for  taking  stringent  means 
to  prevent  bogus  insurances. 

A  young  man  who  thinks  of  entering  a  fire 
office  may,  by  a  little  influence,  or  by  a  carefully 
written  and  well  expressed  reply  to  an  advertise- 
ment, secure  a  situation.  He  should  remember 
that  as  yet  he  knows  little.  Before  him  lie 
many  difficult  problems.  He  will  be  expected 
to  acquire  some  knowledge  of  building  construc- 
tion and  plan  drawing,  chemistry  and  electricity. 
He  must,  while  at  work  in  his  office,  learn  all  he 
can  about  fire  tariffs,  and  the  different  processes 
of  manufactures.  He  must  read  up  the  law 
relating  to  fire  insurance. 

1   H  27  o 


BOWIE 

Proposals  and  Policies.  Probably 
a  junior's  first  duties  will  be  to  write  out  in 
appropriate  forms  particulars  of  the  various 
fire  assurance  orders  which  arrive  each  day. 
This  will  make  him  acquainted  with  the  many 
forms  of  risk,  and  he  will  thus  get  to  know  the 
various  rates  of  premium  that  are  fixed  for  each 
kind  of  property.  He  may  then  be  set  down  to 
prepare  policies  for  the  more  simple  kinds  of 
risks,  such  as  insurance  on  private  houses  and 
furniture. 

Policies  covering  shops  will  be  somewhat 
more  difficult  to  undertake,  because  of  the 
various  hazards  incidental  to  each  trade. 
Special  clauses  require  to  be  inserted  in  the  case, 
for  instance,  of  an  oil  and  colourman  who  keeps 
paraffin  oil  and  turpentine  on  the  premises. 
Later  on  the  clerk  will  be  asked  to  write  flcating 
policies — that  is,  policies  covering  goods  which 
may  be  distributed  over  several  warehouses,  and 
be  constantly  moved  about  from  place  to  place. 
A  huge  factory  may  be  the  next  risk  to  be 
dealt  with,  and  here  there  may  be  a  very  ex- 
tensive schedule  with  varying  sums  and  rates 
of  premium  for  each  portion  of  the  risk.  And  so 
the  beginner  will  be  led  through  an  endless 
variety  of  work,  which  at  first  will  seem  be- 
wildering. Perhaps  after  a  year  at  these 
duties,  an  opening  will  occur  in  another  depart- 
ment, and  our  junior  will  pass  on  to  gain  further 
experience. 

Risk  Books.  The  property  of  the  central 
portions  of  a  great  town  will  be  set  out  in  books 
of  maps  and  streets.  It  will  be  the  duty  of  the 
Risk  Book  Clerk  to  watch  carefully  that  too 
great  sums  are  not  accepted  on  any  one  block, 
and  to  enter  every  risk  taken  up,  so  that  it  may 
be  seen  at  a  glance  how  much  insurance  has 
already  been  accepted  in  one  area.  When  an 
insurance  lapses  through  non-payment  of 
premium,  the  risk  must  be  deleted,  and  no 
effort  spared  to  see  that  the  company  is  not, 
through  oversight,  involved  in  heavier  claims 
than  were  ever  contemplated  in  the  case  of  one 
fire,  however  great. 

Tariff  Offices.  An  elaborate  system 
of  tariffs  has  been  arranged  by  combination 
among  the  great  fire  insurance  companies. 
A  knowledge  of  the  schedules  drawn  up  to 
govern  the  rates  for  docks,  warehouses,  and 
factories  will  take  years  to  acquire,  and  the 
student  will  need  all  his  powers  of  memory  to 
grasp  the  bearings  of  each  separate  tariff. 

Tne  following  questions  which  have  appeared 
in  the  examination  papers  of  the  Federation  of 
Insurance  Institutes  will  show  how  elaborate 
and  exhaustive  is  the  system  of  rating,  and  how 
necessary  it  is  that  the  chief  officers  should 
agree  upon  certain  guiding  principles  which  it 

4849 


INSURANCE 

will  be  the  duty  of  younger  members  of  the 
staff  to  acquire  and  apply  in  the  infinite  rariety 
of  fire  risks  which  will  come  before  them. 

(1)  What    rate    would    you    charge    a    cycle 
dealer  (a)  with,  and  (6)  without  oils  ?    Give  the 
warranties  in  full. 

(2)  What  rate  would  you  charge  a  chemist 
and  druggist   (a)  with,    and   (6)  without   oils  ? 
Give  the  warranties  in  full. 

(3)  What  rate  would  you   charge  a  draper, 
other  than  woollen,  with  one  hundred  assistants 
(ten  of  whom  are  employed  in  the  restaurant 
or  tea-room),  and  what  extra  would  you  charge 
if  he  also  carried  on  the  trade  of  a  chemist  and 
druggist  ? 

(4)  A  draper  decides  to  carry  a  stock  of  house 
furnishings,   domestic   ironmongery,   and  hard- 
ware.    State    what    extra    rate    is    chargeable, 
and  quote  the  tariff  on  the  point. 

(5)  Large  premises  in  which  there  are  com- 
bined trades  in  one  tenure  communicate  through- 
out.    Insured  desires  to  reduce  the  rate,  but 
wishes    to    preserve    a    communication.     What 
would  you  recommend  ? 

(6)  In  the  case  of  a  sprinklered  building,  state  : 

(a)  The  discount  for  automatic  sprinklers. 
(6)  Does  this  include  discount  for  ordinary 
fire  appliances  ? 

(c)  What  is  the  minimum  net  rate  ? 

(d)  To   what   items   would   the   average 

clause  apply  ? 

(7)  What  is  the  rule  as  regards  payment  of  a 
fixed  percentage  for  interest  on  pledges  in  a 
pawnbroker's  shop  in  the  event  of  fire  ? 

(8)  What  is  the  rule  for  goods  in  a  strong-room  ? 
And  define  the  term  "  strong-room." 

(9)  What  discount  may  be  allowed  on  standard 
fire-resisting  buildings  and  on  what  conditions  ? 
Give  the  minimum  net  rate  for  such  buildings. 

(10)  Mention    some    combinations   of  trades 
which  entail  an  additional  rate  of  2s.  6d.  per  cent. 

The  Surveying  of  Properties.  Every 
fire  office  has  its  chief  surveyor  and  assistants, 
who  are  called  upon  to  visit  factories  and  other 
dangerous  risks.  No  experience  could  be  more 
valuable,  and  if  a  young  man  is  fortunate 
enough  to  be  drafted  for  a  time  into  the  Survey- 
ing Department,  it  will  be  one  of  the  best  chances 
in  his  life.  Accompanied  by  his  chief  he  may 
have  opportunities  of  visiting  such  risks  as 
bleaching  works,  cotton  spinning  mills,  collieries, 
and  boot  and  shoe  factories.  He  may  assist  in 
preparing  a  plan  of  a  mill  accompanied  by  a 
report  giving  full  details  as  to  height  and  occupa- 
tion of  buildings,  and  also  as  to  any  surrounding 
hazard. 

It  will  be  his  duty  to  learn  from  his  principals, 
and  later  on  to  be  able  to  fix  for  himself,  the 
rate  which  is  considered  adequate  to  cover  the 
various  risks.  Such  knowledge  and  practice 
will  be  of  immense  service  to  a  youth  if  later 
on  he  becomes  a  branch  manager  of  a  fire 
office,  or  if  on  some  memorable  day  of  his  life  he 
be  appointed  general  manager  of  one  of  the 
great  offices. 

An  earnest  student  of  his  profession  will 
lose  no  opportunity  of  visiting,  perhaps  as  one 
of  a  party  arranged  by  an  Insurance  Institute, 

4850 


factories  which  are  not  at  the  moment  brought 
before  him  for  insurance,  but  which,  at  any 
future  time,  he  may  be  called  upon  to  survey, 
or  to  insure  upon  the  report  of  some  surveyor. 

Here,  for  instance,  is  a  question  from  an 
examination  paper,  which  will  show  what  a 
wide  field  there  is  for  study  in  this  connection  : 
"  How  should  the  structural  arrangements  for 
a  steam  corn  mill  and  grain  warehouse  be 
planned  in  order  to  secure  the  most  favourable 
terms  under  the  corn  mill  tariff  ?  " 

Guarantee  Department.  It  being 
evident  that  a  company  securing  an  order  to 
insure  a  very  large  block  of  property  cannot 
cover  all  the  risk  itself,  it  is  necessary  that  a 
system  of  re-insurance  exist  between  the  offices. 
A  clerk  must,  therefore,  master  the  proper  mode 
of  procedure  in  giving  off  risks,  and  in  the 
acceptance  of  risks  from  other  offices.  He 
will  also  get  to  know  the  rules  governing  the 
issue  of  request  notes,  followed  by  formal 
guarantees.  He  will  find  that  a  code  of  honour 
is  in  vogue,  as  well  as  a  system  of  rules. 

The  practice  of  re-insurance  is  a  useful  one, 
whether  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  offices  or  their  clients.  In  addition  to  the 
obvious  benefit  of  having  a  limit  to  the  liability 
an  office  may  undertake  on  one  risk,  the  fact 
that  the  company  giving  off  risk  must  furnish 
full  knowledge  of  the  case  ensures  that  all  the 
i  uportant  companies  are  kept  in  possession  of 
the  current  tariffs  and  the  most  modern 
methods  adopted  by  each.  Again,  the  insured 
is  saved  trouble  by  getting  his  proposal,  how- 
ever large,  dealt  with  at  one  office  instead  of 
having  to  approach  several  with  portions  of  the 
risk ;  while  he  can  feel  confident  that  a  great 
fire,  which  might  ruin  any  one  office  and  so 
render  his  foresight  vain,  is  not  likely  to  have 
such  consequences  under  the  guarantee  system. 

The  office  accepting  portions  of  the  risk 
takes  cognisance  of  the  amount  for  which  the 
ceding  company  makes  itself  responsible,  and 
generally  is  careful  not  to  accept  more  than  is 
held  by  the  office  giving  off  the  risk.  An  offer 
of  business  coming  from  one  well-conducted 
office  to  another  is  usually  regarded  as  a  suffi- 
cient recommendation ;  but  each  company 
considers  itself  at  liberty  to  vary  its  acceptance 
as  it  thinks  proper.  A  la^ge  office  may  take 
up  double  the  amount  retained  by  the  original 
company  if  the  latter  be  a  small  one  working 
under  careful  limitations. 

Non=tariff  Offices.  There  are  a  few 
fire  companies  which  have  not  joined  the  .Tariff 
Association,  and  which  profess  to  do  business  by 
taking  each  risk  on  its  merits  without  reference 
to  the  rates  fixed  by  the  great  combination  of 
tariff  offices.  Many  companies  start  by  adopt- 
ing non-tariff  principles,  but  few  make  a  great 
success  on  this  basis.  The  tariff  offices  are  bound 
not  to  deal  with  the  non-tariff,  and  so  the  latter 
are  shut  out  from  the  great  benefit  and  con- 
venience of  being  able  to  re-insure  freely  or  to 
profit  by  the  experience  of  the  tariff  companies. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  non-tariff  offices'  rate  is 
often  fixed  by  finding  out  what  the  tariff  com- 
pany charges,  and  allowing  in  some  cases  a 


deduction  where  they  think  special  circum- 
stances justify  it. 

The  tendency  of  insurers  is  to  go  only  to  the 
non-tariff  offices  when  dissatisfied  with  the 
rates  of  the  tariff  companies,  so  that  there  is 
great  danger  of  the  former  not  getting  the  pick 
of  the  better  class  risks.  It  frequently  happens 
that  offices  outside  the  combine,  after  being 
established  for  some  years,  apply  for  admission 
among  the  tariff  companies,  and  the  loss  ex- 
periences of  the  non-tariff  offices  have  certainly 
not,  as  a  rule,  been  of  a  very  happy  nature. 

Insurable  Interest.  A  valid  insurance 
contract  presumes  a  real  risk  of  loss  in  all 
cases.  Mere  speculation  upon  events  by  which 
the  proposer  is  not  affected  will  not  suffice. 
Moreover,  the  matter  in  which  the  insured  is 
interested  must  in  itself  be  legitimate  or  the 
claim  will  not  be  sustained.  The  nature  of  the 
interest  in  the  risk  should  be  inserted  in  the 
policy,  and  where  this  is  short  of  sole  ownership 
the  facts  should  be  definitely  stated  also.  The 
extent  of  interest  is  confined  to  its  actual  amount 
or  value,  and  no  greater  sum  can  be  recovered. 

It  frequently  happens  that  three  separate 
parties  have  an  interest  in  one  building — the 
freeholder,  the  leaseholder,  and  the  mortgagee. 
It  is  sufficient  to  have  the  interest  of  each  party 
noted  on  the  policy  without  specifying  the  in- 
dividual amounts  at  risk. 

Fire  Claims.  An  important  department  of 
fire  insurance  work  is  connected  with  the  settle- 
ment of  claims.  Few  outsiders  can  realise  the 
immense  amount  of  trouble  which  must  be 
taken  to  arrive  at  the  sum  to  be  paid  by  way  of 
indemnity  in  connection  with  a  great  fire,  while 
even  small  claims  may  give  rise  to  questions 
requiring  careful  attention  and  the  exercise 
of  considerable  tact.  A  claim  register  is  kept 
in  which  all  claims  are  at  once  entered  on  the 
first  intimation  of  loss.  If  the  fire  is  at  all  of 
a  serious  nature  a  fire  assessor  will  probably 
be  appointed.  He  is  a  man — not  generally  in 
the  full  employment  of  any  one  company — • 
who  makes  it  his  profession  to  estimate  the  extent 
of  the  damage  and  bring  about  an  amicable 
settlement  with  the  insured.  Where  several 
fire  offices  are  interested  in  the  same  risk,  it  is 
usual  for  officials  from  each  office  to  meet  by 
appointment,  fixed  by  the  assessor  or  by 
the  leading  office — the  company  having  the 
largest  amount  at  risk.  The  proportion  pay- 
able by  each  company  is,  after  consideration  of 
the  assessor's  report,  agreed  upon  at  this  meeting. 

Arbitration.  Arbitration  is  resorted  to  in 
the  case  of  a  disputed  claim,  where  the  amount 
of  the  loss  cannot  be  agreed  upon.  There  may 
be  one  arbitrator,  acting  for  both  office  and 
claimant,  or  there  may  be  two,  one  chosen 
by  the  company,  and  the  other  by  the  insured. 
In  the  latter  case  an  umpire  must  be  appointed, 
so  that,  should  the  arbitrators  be  unable  to 
agree  on  a  figure,  he  may  give  his  decision. 
If  notice  of  election  of  arbitrator  for  either  party 
be  given,  and  none  other  be  appointed  within 
a  certain  time,  the  one  elected  can  act  alone  and 
as  if  agreed  on  by  both  parties.  The  award  is 
regarded  as  conclusive,  whether  given  by  a  sole 


INSURANCE 

arbitrator,  by  two  arbitrators  in  agreement,  or 
by  an  umpire. 

The  greater  part  of  the  profession  has  of 
necessity  to  be  learned  by  actual  experience, 
although  there  are  certain  books,  already  men- 
tioned, which  have  been  recognised  for  years  as 
the  leading  authorities  on  the  subject.  This 
being  so,  it  is  obvious  that  the  utmost  that  can 
be  attempted  in  these  articles  is  to  point  the 
road  along  which  the  student  has  to  travel,  mak- 
ing his  progress  by  the  way  as  easy  as  possible. 

One  of  the  best  tasks  an  intelligent  junior  can 
set  himself  will  be  to  pass — not  all  at  once,  but 
one  or  two  at  a  time — the  examinations  set  by 
the  Federation  of  Insurance  Institutes,  held 
annually  in  April.  As  these  examinations  are 
not  compulsory,  we  do  not  give  details,  but  in- 
tending candidates  may  obtain  full  particulars 
from  the  Federation,  9,  Albert  Sq.,  Manchester. 

Specimen  Examination  Questions. 
1.  Describe  the  various  stages  in  transacting 
guarantee  business  up  to  the  issue  of  the 
guarantee  policy. 

2.  What  openings  in  a  parting  wall  are  not  to 
be  regarded  as   communications,   and  what  is 
meant  by  the  term  "  fireproof  compartment "  ? 

3.  State  what  you  consider  to  be  the  main 
fire  hazards  of  tanneries. 

4.  What  special  danger  is  there  in  exposed 
iron  or  steelwork  of  so-called  fireproof  buildings, 
and  how  may  it  be  obviated  ? 

5.  Summarise  concisely  what  constitutes  in- 
surable  interest. 

6.  Give  a  brief  but  clear  statement  of  the 
reason  for  the  adoption  of  the  Average  Clause  in 
Mercantile  and  Industrial  Insurance. 

7.  What  are  the  chief  points  to  be  observed  in 
the  inspection  of  an  installation  of  electric  wiring 
in  a  private  residence  ? 

8.  Name  four  chemicals  in  extensive  use  that 
are  likely  to  cause  organic  substances  to  ignite 
or  explode,  and  give  short  details  as  regards 
two  of  them  ? 

9.  Reply  to  a  policy-holder  having  consider- 
able insurances   on  farm  buildings,  agricultural 
produce,  and  livestock  who  complains  that  no 
concession  in  premiums  is  made  to  him,  although 
his  premises  are  fitted  with  electric  light  (dynamo 
driven  by  oil  engines),  and  he  has  some  efficient 
extinguishing  appliances. 

ACCIDENT  INSURANCE 
Large  numbers  of  men  are  engaged  in  that 
branch  of  insurance  which  may  come  under 
the  term  Accident  Insurance.  Beginning  with 
insurance  for  the  purpose  of  giving  protection 
to  a  man  who  might  meet  with  injury  to  his  own 
person,  especially  through  railway  accidents — - 
at  one  time  a  much  more  serious  risk  than 
now — the  business  has  developed  in  many 
unlooked-for  directions. 

Accident  business  may  to-day  be  divided 
into  the  following  departments:  (1)  personal 
accident;  (2)  employers'  liability;  (3)  burglary; 
(4)  horse,  cattle,  and  carriages  ;  (5)  plate-glass  ; 
(6)  sickness  ;  (7)  general  contingency. 

The  junior  clerk  who  finds  himself  installed 
in  a  well-managed  accident  company  may  assure 
himself  that  there  are  great  possibilities  before 

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INSURANCE 

his  office.  The  introduction  of  steam  first 
brought  the  need  for  this  kind  of  insurance 
prominently  forward,  and  since  then  the  use  of 
electric  power,  and  the  risks  attendant  on  the 
driving  of  motor-cars  and  the  riding  of  motor- 
cycles of  all  kinds,  have  added  new  terrors  to 
life,  and  provided  a  fresh  field  to  be  exploited 
by  the  insurance  company. 

Personal  Accident.  Not  so  long  ago, 
a  personal  accident  policy  only  covered  a  sum 
at  death,  certain  sums  in  the  event  of  loss  of 
limb  or  sight,  and  a  weekly  allowance  in  case  of 
temporary,  total,  or  partial  disablement.  More 
recently,  a  long  catalogue  of  infectious  diseases 
and  certain  well-defined  forms  of  illness  have 
been  included,  until  an  accident  policy  can  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  one  for  general  sickness. 

The  experience  of  the  companies  confining 
themselves  to  granting  general  accident  policies, 
with  certain  defined  diseases  added,  seems  to 
show  that  the  field  is  somewhat  restricted ; 
yet  in  this  department  alone  there  is  scope  for 
the  exercise  of  great  wisdom  in  accepting 
suitable  classes  of  risk  and  keeping  careful 
watch  as  to  moral  hazard  and  cases  of  doubt- 
ful character.  Anyone  without  clear  means 
of  subsistence  should  be  refused  a  policy.  This 
action  may  save  the  company  a  great  deal  of 
future  trouble  from  a  man  who  might  be  guilty 
hereafter  of  malingering,  or  trying  to  secure  by 
false  pretences  compensation  to  which  he  was 
not  entitled. 

The  settlement  of  claims  is  sometimes  a 
matter  requiring  great  tact.  The  insured  may 
wish  to  be  paid  handsomely  for  the  pain  which 
he  has  suffered  rather  than  according  to  the 
amount  specified  in  his  policy.  If  a  clerk  is 
called  upon  to  settle  with  unfortunate  claimants, 
it  may  tax  his  ability  considerably  to  arrive 
at  a  sum  which  will  please  the  policy-holder 
and  at  the  same  time  satisfy  the  manager  of  his 
company  that  a  settlement  which  is  not  excessive 
has  been  made.  Here  brain  and  tact  come  once 
more  into  play. 

Burglary  Insurance.  Within  a  few 
years  burglary  insurance  has  developed  into  a 
branch  of  considerable  importance.  Every 
prudent  man  protects  himself  against  the  loss 
caused  through  burglary,  housebreaking,  larceny 
and  theft,  and,  in  the  case  of  business  premises, 
against  burglary  and  housebreaking  only,  in 
the  same  way  as  he  makes  provision  against 
loss  by  fire.  The  rates  of  premium  and  the 
methods  adopted  in  the  settlement  of  claims 
do  not  greatly  differ  in  the  two  departments. 
In  burglary  business,  however,  there  are  special 
hazards  which  directors  and  managers  are  some- 
times called  upon  to  consider,  such  as  the  in- 
surance of  jewellers'  shops  and  other  business 
risks  where  goods  of  considerable  value  in  small 
bulk  are  stored. 

The  moral  hazard,  too,  in  this  particular 
department  of  insurance  is  greater  than  in  any 
other  branch,  and  the  companies  accepting 
risks  have  to  exercise  considerable  discretion 
in  their  selection  if  profitable  underwriting  is  to 
be  the  result.  A  cautious  manager  will  no  doubt 
be  able  to  accomplish  this,  but,  on  the  other 

4852 


hand,  a  responsible  official  of  too  sanguine  tem- 
perament may,  by  expensive  management  and 
the  acceptance  of  doubtful  risks,  bring  his  com- 
pany into  such  a  position  that  amalgamation  with 
a  stronger  office  becomes  an  absolute  necessity. 

Employers'  Liability.  The  Workmen's 
Compensation  Act  of  1897  gave  an  immense 
impetus  to  this  class  of  business.  It  is  now 
the  law  of  the  land  that  an  employer  is 
liable  for  accidents  caused  by  his  machinery 
wh  ether  he  was  to  blame  or  no ;  and  workmen 
are  entitled  to  compensation  for  any  accident 
they  may  sustain  while  in  their  master's  employ, 
provided  no  gross  negligence  can  be  proved 
against  the  wrorker. 

After  a  period  of  a  great  deal  of  rate- 
cutting,  during  which  quite  a  number  of  small 
accident  companies  collapsed,  a  fair  basis 
for  rating  risks  has  been  somewhat  generally 
agreed  upon.  It  is  much  to  be  hoped  that 
a  still  closer  bond  of  union  will  prevail  among 
employers'  liability  companies.  The  business 
promises  to  be  almost  as  great  as  that  of  fire 
insurance  some  day,  as  the  tendency  is  for 
legislation  to  bring  more  and  more  kinds  of 
occupation  within  the  scope  of  the  existing 
Acts.  At  the  present  time  certain  amendments 
to  include  domestic  servants  and  others  are 
under  consideration. 

It  will  be  the  aim  of  a  clerk  to  learn  the 
various  classes  of  hazard  to  which  people  of  all 
ranks — especially  workmen — are  liable.  As  the 
fire  insurance  clerk  will  visit  as  many  mills  and 
factories  as  possible  for  the  purpose  of  deciding 
for  himself  what  are  the  risks  of  fire,  so  the 
employers'  liability  man  will  endeavour  by  the 
same  means  to  estimate  the  risks  to  life  and 
limb  which  are  likely  to  result  from  the  use 
of  machinery  and  chemicals.  Some  specimen 
examination  questions  are  subjoined  which  will 
suggest  a  few  of  the  considerations  to  be 
reckoned  with  in  the  departments  of  Personal 
Accident  and  Employers'  Liability  Insurance. 

1.  State  what  general  principles    you    would 
lay  down  for  dividing  occupations  into  three 
classes  for  personal  accident  insurance. 

2.  Assuming  proposers    described    themselves 
as  under-mentioned,  what  further  information 
(if  any)  would  you  ask  for  before  classifying  the 
risks  :   master  baker,  licensed  victualler,  farmer, 
builder,  accountant,  cattle  salesman  ? 

3.  Give  reasons  why  most  accident  companies 
refuse    to   grant    personal   accident    policies   to 
jockeys,  steeplejacks,  divers,  coal  miners,  quarry- 
men,  experimenting  chemists,  etc.,  even  though 
the    persons    engaged    in    such    occupations   be 
willing  to  pay  a  higher  premium  than  that  charged 
Class  111.  risks. 

4.  (a)  Under  the  E.L.  Act,  1880,  a  workman 
is  defined  as  "  a  railway  servant,  and  any  person 
to  whom  the  Employers  Workmen  Act,   1875, 
applies."     What  is  the  definition  of  a  workman 
given  by  the  last-named  Act  ? 

(b)  What  is  the  definition  of  a  workman 
given  by  the  1897  Act  ? 

5.  Within  what  time  must  notice  of  an  accident- 
be  given  to  entitle  the  claimant  to  compensation : 

(a)  Under  the  E.L.  Act,  1880  ? 


(6)  Under  the  Workmen's  Compensation  Act, 
1897  ? 

6.  What  particular  circumstances  must  be 
present  in  any  particular  job  to  bring  a  builder 
under  the  Act  of  1897  ? 

MARINE    INSURANCE 

The  student  will  find  that  as  in  fire  so  in 
marine  insurance  there  are  radical  differences 
in  the  governing  principles  from  those  that 
were  brought  to  his  notice  in  life  insurance. 
Briefly  put,  marine  insurance  is  a  contract  by 
which  the  insuring  company,  or  underwriters,  as 
they  are  often  called,  undertake,  in  consideration 
of  a  certain  premium,  to  indemnify  the  insured 
against  any  loss  or  damage  from  some  specified 
risks.  In  a  life  assurance  contract,  if  it  be  con- 
tinued, a  payment  by  the  insurer  must  be  made 
eventually,  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  marine 
insurance.  If,  however,  an  element  of  certainty 
be  absent,  the  shrewdness  and  practical  experi- 
ence brought  to  bear  by  underwriters  and  marine 
company  officials  upon  statistics  covering  a  long 
period  of  years  result  in  the  fixing  of  reasonable 
rates  for  the  different  classes  of  risk.  When  it  is 
remembered  how  greatly  concerned  with  shipping 
our  country  is,  the  importance  of  marine  insur- 
ance must  be  apparent.  If,  further,  we  reflect 
that  our  oversea  commerce  is  world-wide,  and 
that  a  loss  may  occur  in  any  part  of  the  globe, 
it  will  be  seen  how  necessary  it  is  that  a  large 
mutual  trust  must  be  shown  by  all  the  parties 
concerned.  In  this  connection  the  reputation  of 
Lloyd's  for  prompt  and  honourable  dealing  has 
proved  of  great  influence  ;  and  as  their  name  has 
now  become  synonymous  with  maritime  business, 
this  influence  is  felt  all  over  the  world. 

History  of  Lloyd's.  A  coffee-house 
which  was  kept  by  Edward  Lloyd,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  greatly  in 
favour  with  seafaring  men,  partly,  perhaps,  on 
account  of  its  locality  and  partly,  no  doubt,  by 
reason  of  the  enterprise  of  its  proprietor.  A 
considerable  amount  of  business  used  to  be 
transacted  in  coffee-houses,  and  in  the  case  of 
Lloyd's  this  became  mostly  associated  with 
shipping.  Public  sales  of  ships  often  took  place 
at  his  tavern,  and  he  instigated  a  far-reaching 
system  of  correspondence  at  ports  in  this 
country  and  abroad,  by  which  means  he  was 
supplied,  for  the  benefit  of  his  customers,  with 
news  of  the  movements  of  vessels,  and  with  other 
maritime  information.  In  time,  as  one  result  of 
this  devotion  to  shipping  interests,  Lloyd's 
coffee-house  became  the  headquarters  of  marine 
insurance  business,  then  carried  on  solely  by 
private  underwriters.  Soon,  enlarged  premises 
were  needed,  and  in  1774  Lloyd's,  which  by  that 
date  had  become  an  association  of  underwriters 
governed  by  fixed  rules,  became  permanently 
established  at  the  Royal  Exchange.  The  influence 
exerted  by  Lloyd's  is  not  confined  to  marine 
insurance.  In  early  times  "  wager  policies," 
since  prohibited  by  law,  were  effected,  and 
recently  the  protection  of  bank  deposits,  such 
contingencies  as  the  birth  of  twins,  the  scratching 
of  a  racehorse,  th3  alteration  of  the  income  tax, 
have  been  insured.  Fire  risks  are  also  under- 
taken, generally  after  considering  the  rate  asked 


INSURANCE 

by  the  tariff  offices.  Even  life  insurances  for 
short  periods  only  are  accepted,  although  it  is 
doubtful  as  to  the  legality  of  members  of  Lloyd's 
so  doing ;  but  the  insurance  business  done  at 
Lloyd's  apart  from  marine  risks  is  very  small 
as  compared  with  maritime  insurance. 

Principles  of  Underwriting.  The  parties 
to  a  marine  insurance  contract  have  already 
been  mentioned.  The  services  of  a  broker  are,  as 
a  rule,  employed  to  bring  the  insuring  company 
and  insurer  together.  Underwriters  at  Lloyd's 
carry  on  business  in  their  own  individual  inter- 
ests, and  with  their  own  capital.  No  responsi- 
bility for  their  engagements  rests  upon  the 
corporation.  The  risk  in  a  case  is  undertaken 
by  several  members,  each  becoming  liable  for 
such  portions  as  he  sees  fit  to  take  up.  Brokers 
effect  insurances  with  the  undenvriters,  either 
on  their  own  account  or  for  third  parties.  As  a 
rule,  the  rates  at  Lloyd's  are  rather  cheaper  than 
those  of  the  marine  insurance  companies,  because 
the  expense  of  conducting  business  at  Lloyd's  is 
very  low.  Two  of  the  oldest  companies,  incor- 
porated with  peculiar  privileges  in  1720,  are  the 
London  Assurance  Corporation  and  the  Royal 
Exchange  Assurance  Corporation.  These,  with 
Lloyd's,  long  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  marine 
insurance,  but  the  vast  expansion  of  our  sea- 
going commerce  has  justified  the  appearance  of 
many  later  companies,  some  of  which  contrive 
to  do  a  large  and  profitable  business. 

The  Policy.  A  clerk  will  soon  make  himself 
familiar  with  the  usual  form  of  policy,  which  is 
based  upon  that  adopted  by  Lloyd's,  the  latter 
being  at  one  time  used  almost  exclusively.  There 
are  several  classes  of  polic}^.  Among  these  may  be 
stated  voyage  policies  and  time  policies,  in  which 
property  is  respectively  insured  for  transmission 
from  one  point  to  another,  or  for  a  certain  period 
of  time  not  exceeding  twelve  months ;  valued 
policies,  where  the  amount  at  which  the  object 
insured  is  valued  is  definitely  mentioned ;  open 
policies,  where  there  is  no  such  declaration,  and 
in  the  event  of  a  claim  the  burden  of  proof  of 
value  will  rest  on  the  insured.  Floating  and 
named  policies  are  also  in  contrast,  the  latter 
containing  the  name  of  the  vessel  on  which  the 
risk  is  taken,  the  former  furnishing  no  such  name, 
and  thus  enabling  an  owner  to  obtain  protection 
in  the  event  of  a  loss  occurring  before  he  knows 
what  vessel  or  vessels  may  carry  goods  shipped 
at  a  distant  port.  When  in  a  position  to  do  so, 
and  within  a  certain  time,  he  must,  however, 
declare  the  name  of  the  vessel  or  vessels. 

The  Policy  in  Detail.  The  wording  of 
a  policy  will  call  for  careful  scrutiny  by  the 
student,  since  the  fact  that  it  adheres  so  largely 
to  the  language  of  a  time  long  past,  very 
different  from  our  own,  makes  the  settlement  of 
complicated  cases  the  more  arduous  a  task. 
This,  however,  it  should  be  said,  throws  into 
bolder  relief  the  honourable  spirit  in  which  the 
principles  of  underwriting  are  conceived  and 
invariably  carried  out. 

Many  of  the  words  in  the  policy  will  be  quite 
unknown  to  the  beginner,  and  nearly  every 
phrase  will  require  study,  and  possibly  explana- 
tion, in  order  to  be  thoroughly  understood. 

4853 


INSURANCE 

"  Adventures  and  Perils,''  for  instance,  refer  to 
;'  perils  of  the  sea,"  the  definition  of  which  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  judicial  consideration. 
They  do  not  include  every  accident  liable  to  occur 
on  a  voyage,  nor  do  they  include  every  damage 
actually  caused  by  the  sea  itself,  since  there  is 
damage  that  is  inevitable  rather  than  accidental. 

"  Lost  or  not  lost  "  is  one  of  the  old  expressions, 
and  is  usually  inserted  in  the  case  of  insurance 
being  effected  while  the  vessel  is  at  sea,  the  under- 
writer accepting  the  risk,  no  matter  what  may 
be  the  condition  of  the  goods  or  ship  at  the  time. 
The  adoption  of  this  clause,  of  course,  presumes 
the  good  faith  of  both  parties,  for  the  assurer 
could  not  avail  himself  of  the  policy  if  lie 
knew  at  the  time  of  insurance  that  a  loss  had 
occurred,  and  the  underwriter  did  not ;  nor 
could  the  underwriter  retain  the  premium  if 
he  knew,  and  the  insurer  was  ignorant,  that 
the  risk  was  then  actually  at  an  end. 

The  little  words  "  at  and,  from,"  which  precede 
the  description  of  the  voyage,  have  considerable 
importance,  and  in  order  to  fully  apprehend  their 
meaning,  whether  in  regard  to  the  ship  or  to 
freight  and  cargo,  a  knowledge  of  mercantile; 
law,  so  far  as  it  applies  to  marine  insurance,  is 
necessary.  The  same  caution  must  be  observed 
with  reference  to  unusual  words  in  the  policy  or 
memorandum,  a  safe  interpretation  of  which  can 
be  ventured  only  writh  the  aid  of  the  law. 

The  voyage  must  be  made  in  the  proper  course, 
as  agreed  by  custom,  from  the  port  of  departure 
to  that  of  arrival.  Deviation  is  permissible  in 
special  circumstances,  such  as  to  save  human 
life,  or  to  gain  safety  for  the  ship,  and  is  pro- 
vided for  by  a  clause  in  the  policy,  and  covered 
at  a  premium  to  be  settled. 

The  term  jettison  means  to  throw  cargo  over- 
board, with  a  view  to  lighten  the  vessel  in  an 
emergency,  and  get  her  out  of  danger.  Loss  to 
the  underwriter  does  not  generally  ensue  in 
respect  of  any  cargo  other  than  that  carried 
under  deck,  unless  the  custom  of  the  particular 
trade  warrant  it.  The  jettison  must  be  performed 
in  good  faith,  under  real  danger,  otherwise  the 
loss  would  be  avoided  by  the  underwriter,  and 
the  act  come  under  the  definition  of  barratry. 
This  means  all  wrong  or  illegal  conduct  against 
and  to  the  injury  of  owners  by  master  or 
mariners,  even  if  done  with  no  intention  to 
injure  them,  or  benefit  master  or  mariners. 

Losses.  Losses  are  of  two  kinds — partial, 
when  the  subject  insured  is  but  partially  damaged 
or  an  obligation  to  contribute  to  general  average 
has  arisen ;  and  total,  where  the  subject  is  wholly 
destroyed,  or  so  damaged  as  to  justify  abandon- 
ment. Total  losses  are,  again,  divided  into  actual 
and  constructive.  The  former  takes  place  when 
the  subject  of  the  insurance  is  destroyed  or  so 
damaged  as  to  become  valueless,  or  practically 
so,  or  where  the  insured  is  irretrievably  deprived 
of  it. 

Constructive  total  loss  occurs  where,  although 
the  subject  is  still  in  existence,  it  has  suffered 
irreparable  damage,  or  is  in  such  a  position  as  to 
be  out  of  control  of  the  assured  or  his  representa- 


tives. Cases  in  point  would  be  a  vessel,  perhaps 
quite  sound,  stranded  on  a  desert  coast,  with  no 
appliances  for  getting  her  off,  or  so  damaged 
that  the  cost  of  repair  would  exceed  her  value 
when  repaired.  In  such  cases  the  owners  would 
give  notice  of  abandonment  to  the  underwriters, 
thereby  formally  giving  to  them  whatever  may 
lie  left  of  the  commodity  to  set  against  their 
payment  of  the  claim.  When  a  vessel  meets  with 
damage  not  too  serious,  if  repaired,  to  enable  her 
to  proceed  on  her  voyage,  the  captain  may  have 
to  raise  money  to  carry  out  the  repairs. 

Bottomry  consists  in  pledging  the  ship,  or  the 
ship,  freight,  and  cargo,  as  security  for  the 
amount  obtained,  which  is  to  be  repaid  when  the 
vessel  reaches  her  destination.  Should  further 
disaster  overtake  the  vessel,  necessitating  a  new 
loan  for  repairs,  the  last  bond  has  the  prior  claim  ; 
while,  should  a  ship  be  lost  subsequent  to  the 
giving  of  the  bond,  the  lender  loses  his  money. 
This  naturally  makes  the  interest  on  premium 
for  bottomry  very  high. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  general 
average.  This  arises  where  a  voluntary  sacrifice 
is  made  of  the  interests  of  one  or  more  parties 
for  the  benefit  of  all.  When  the  loss  is  not 
suffered  for  the  general  benefit,  the  term 
particular  average  is  employed.  A  little  thought 
will  show  that  the  distinction  between  these  is 
no  easy  matter,  and  this,  and  indeed  the  whole 
question  of  loss,  calls  for  a  great  degree  of 
technical  knowledge,  in  addition  to  experience 
and  ability.  The  adjustment  of  loss,  under  a 
claim,  to  the  merchant,  shipowner,  and  under- 
writer respectively  is  entrusted  to  men  of  expert 
knowledge  known  as  average  adjusters  or  average 
staters,  assisted  by  surveyors.  The  result  is 
embodied  in  a  document  drawn  up  by  the 
adjuster,  and  called  the  average  statement. 

An  Insurance  Clerk's  Career.  A  pro- 
mising junior  can  now  see  that  there  is  enough 
in  marine  insurance  to  demand  the  exercise  of 
all  his  talent.  It  will  take  a  lifetime  to  acquire 
all  the  knowledge  necessary  to  make  a  first- 
class  expert.  By  diligence  and  enthusiasm  in 
his  work  he  should,  however,  be  a  valuable 
clerk  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  and  may  hope 
some  day  to  become  an  underwriter  at  Lloyd's, 
trusted  by  a  number  of  well-to-do  men  with  the 
use  of  their  names  as  guarantors  in  connection 
with  most  of  the  risks  which  he  cares  to  Accept ; 
or,  he  may  eventually  secure  a  position  as  under- 
writer to  one  of  the  great  insurance  companies, 
and  have  decisions  to  make  regarding  risks  that 
may  run  to  millions  of  pounds  in  a  year.  To  sum 
up  the  whole,  each  junior  must  make  himself 
well  acquainted  with  every  clause  in  a  marine 
insurance  policy,  with  the  names  of  all  the  boats 
in  the  great  steamship  lines,  and  have  a  general 
idea  as  to  which  class  of  ship  any  one  boat 
belongs  on  hearing  her  name  and  tonnage 
mentioned.  He  must  train  to  become  expert  in 
the  settlement  of  claims,  and  get  familiar  with 
the  principles  which  underlie  the  treatment  of 
the  great  variety  of  risks  which  are  continually 
coming  up  for  consideration. 


INSURANCE  concluded;  followed  by  AUCTIONEERING  AND  VALUING 


4854 


THE   ART    OF    BREEDING 

The  Important  Points.   Improvements  Effected  in  Breeding.  Examples  of  Per- 
fect Exhibition  Birds.   The  Tendency  to  Degeneration.    Salection  of  the  Fittest 


Group  1 

AGRICULTURE 
34 

POULTRY 

continued  from  page  4662 


"THE  British  poultry  fancier,  to  give  him  his 
proper  designation — that  is,  the  man  who 
breeds  for  fancy  points,  the  real  promoter  and 
supporter  of  exhibitions  of  ornamental  poultry, 
such  as  the  White -crested  Polish  [6],  as  distin- 
guished from  utilitarian   poultry,  such  as   the 
Silver-grey  Dorkings  [7] — has 
evolved     from     very     pooi1 
material  a  variety  of  colours, 
markings  almost  mathemati- 
cal  in  character,  and   other 
points  of   beauty  which  are 
high  testimony  to  his  skill. 

Poultry  Exhibiting  a 
Cheap   "Sport."      There 
is  a   love  of   sport   inherent 
in  most  of  us,  and  those  who 
are  unable  to  breed  race  and 
other  horses,  to  exhibit  cattle, 
to    run    greyhounds,    or    to 
adopt    one     of     the     many 
other      sporting      or     rural 
hobbies,  in  tens  of  thousands 
of    cases    keep    poultry    or 
pigeons,  which  they  exhibit 
for  prizes  with  some  constancy,  and  thus  gratify 
their  taste  for  one  form  of  innocent  excitement. 
There  are  many  with  little  knowledge  of  the  art 
of  breeding  who  make  a  practice  of  purchasing 
specimens  from  more  capable  persons  than  them- 
selves.    It  is  the  comparatively  few  who  breed 
with  success,  and  who  consequently  win  large 
mimbers  of  prizes,  and  are  enabled  to  sell  their 
stock  at  advantageous  prices,  as  much  as  £1  0 
not    infrequently 
being    obtained    for 
a  single  fowl.    There 
is  no    reason,    how- 
ever,   why    success- 
ful  breeders  should 
not   be  more  nume- 
rous,  and    therefore 
greater  gainers,  both 
by  sales  and  prizes, 
whether  in  the  prize 
pen   or   in   the    sale 
of  their  stock. 

Attending  the 
Best  Shows. 
Breeding  is  an  art, 
a-nd  it  may  practi- 
cally be  based  upon 
the  principle  that 
"  like  produces  like." 
It  is  first  essential 
that  an  intending 
breeder  of  prize 
poultry  should  thoroughly  understand  what 
he  requires.  He  must  learn  to  recognise  to 


By  Professor  JAMES   LONG 

a   nicety  every  point    in   both    the    male    and 
the    female    variety    which    he  selects    for   his 
purpose,  and  there  is  no  better  plan  in  order 
to  master  this  detail  than  that  of  attending  a 
number  of  the  best  poultry  shows  and  of  com- 
paring every  point  in  the  prize  specimens,  not 
only  with  each   other,   but 
with    the    birds   which   are 
unnoticed  by  the  judge,  and 
especially  with  birds  owned 
by  himself,  which   he   may 
take   the  precaution  of  ex- 
hibiting  for  this   particular 
purpose. 

It  may  be  essential  to  ask 
the  advice  and  help  of  judges 
from  time  to  time,  and  he 
may  rest  assured  that  both 
will  be  cheerfully  given.     It 
iZ  is    essential,    too,    to   learn 
-    which  points  are  most  easily 
lost,    and   which    are    most 
difficult  to  obtain  and  to  fix. 
Nor  must  a  novice  be  dis- 
heartened   if   he    find    that 
for  a  year  or  two,  however  good  the  specimens 
he    obtains   to   form  his  breeding  pen,  a   large 
proportion    of    his   chickens    are    inferior,   or, 
indeed,  practically  valueless  for  exhibition  pur- 
poses.    Loss  of  time  and  vexation,  however,  will 
be  minimised  if  the  greatest  care  is  exercised 
in  learning,  either    through 


6.    WHITE-CRESTED  BLACK  POLISH 


7.    SILVER-GREY    DORKINGS 


the  Press  representing  the 
poultry  fancier  or  through 
judges  of  known 
integrity,  from  what 
quarter  to  obtain 
his  first  lot  of 
breeding  stock,  for 
practically  all  de- 
pends upon  its 
selection. 

Obtaining  Ac- 
curate Advice. 
Most  men  are 
anxious,  if  they  are 
owners  of  poultry, 
to  effect  sales  to 
everyone  seeking 
their  aid ;  hence  the 
importance  of  ob- 
taining the  counsel 
of  independent 
judges  who  have 
nothing  to  sell,  or 
who,  still  being 
breeders,  are  above 


taking  any  advantage  of  the  ignorance  of  the 
novice.      The     common     fault,     even     among 

4855 


AGRICULTURE 

exhibition  specimens,  is  that,  however  good  some 
points  may  be,  there  are  defects  of  a  more  or 
less  marked  character.  In  a  yard  of  birds  of  a 
pure  breed  some  specimens  will  possess  one,  two, 
or  three  points  of  great  excellence,  while  others 
are  sadly  deficient.  Again,  some  birds  possess 
first-rate  combs  and  good  colour,  but  are  defec- 
tive in  marking  or  deficient  in  size  ;  or  it  may  be 
that  all  these  points  are  excellent,  and 
that  the  feathering  of  the  leg,  as  in  the 
Cochin  [9]  or  Brahma,  may  be  imperfect, 
or  the  form  unsymmetrical,  and  con- 
sequently distaste- 
ful to  the  eye. 

The  object  of  the 
breeder  is,  by  the 
practice  of  selec- 
tion, to  reproduce 
in  the  progeny  of 
his  stock  birds  from 
year  to  year  every 
point  of  excellence, 
so  that  they  come 
as  near  to  per- 
fection as  possible. 
It  is  needless  to 
say,  however,  that 
perfection  has 
never  been  obtained,  and  that  it  never  will 
be.  If  it  were  possible,  breeders  would  defeat 
their  own  object  by  their  extraordinary  prac- 
tice of  changing  the  fashion,  and  consequently 
one  or  more  points  in  the  different  varieties, 
from  time  to  time. 

Points  First  to  be  Aimed  at.  In 
starting  to  form  a  strain  from  a  group  of 
stock  birds  selected  for  the  purpose,  the  breeder's 
object  is  to  fix  every  point  which  is  demanded 
by  the  judge.  But  however  few  these  points 
niay  be,  he  cannot  secure  them,  even  approxi- 
mately, by  attempt- 
ing to  obtain  each 
and  all  from  the 
start.  He  should 
endeavour,  by  the 
adoption  of  a  pre- 
arranged rule,  to  fix 
two,  or  at  the  out- 
side three,  points  be- 
fore paying  too  much 
attention  to  others. 
We  may  take  a 
Pencilled  or  Spangled 
Hamburgh  [2,  page 
4661,  and  8]  as  an 
example.  The  chief  - 
points  in  these 
varieties  are  the  rose 
comb,  the  round  kid- 
like  white  ear,  the 
ground  colour  of  the 
plumage,  the  mark- 
ing, the  legs,  the  face,  and  the  form, 
attempt  to  obtain  all  these  points  at  once 
would  be  to  waste  time  and  to  court  failure. 
In  this  case  we  are  taking  old-fashioned 
varieties  in  which  the  various  points  are 
practically  fixed,  and  therefore  the  breeder 


SILVER-SPANGLED    HAMBURGH3 


lias  something  definite  to  work  upon.  Never- 
theless, as  the  comb  and  the  ear  are  of  high 
importance — for  unless  both  are  excellent  the 
chances  of  success  in  competition  are  very  poor, 
however  charming  the  colour  and  marking  may 
be — it  is  possible  to  obtain  breeding  stock  in 
which  both  are  sufficiently  good  for  the  purpose 
in  view  ;  and  therefore  the  breeder,  while 
taking  care  in  the  selection  of  his  future 
breeding  pens  from  his  own  chickens 
to  retain  birds  with  good  ears  and 
combs,  should  devote  extra  attention 
to  colour,  marking, 
and  symmetry. 
Like  the  comb  and 
the  ear,  the  colours 
of  the  legs  and  the 
face  are  practically 
fixed  in  all  good 
strains,  while  both 
colour  and  marking 
are  still  more  or 
less  imperfect. 

The  average 
breeder,  however, 
in  seeking  to  obtain 
these  points  in 
approximate  perfec- 
tion, much  too  frequently  includes  the  minor 
points  we  have  named,  and  loses  ground  in 
consequence. 

The  Silver=pencilled  Hamburgh. 
It  may  here'  be  -frorth  while  to  point  out 
that  pairs  of  birds  as  exhibited  are  not  always 
bred  from  the  same  type  of  parent.  We  take 
the  Silver-pencilled  Hamburgh  to  illustrate  our 
case.  The  exhibition  hen  possesses  a 
white  neck  hackle,  the  remainder  of 
the  plumage  being  marked  with  fine 
iridescent  black  bars,  or  pencilling, 
as  clear  and  mathe- 
matical as  possible ; 
her  comb,  ear,  and 
legs  match  those  of 
the  male  bird.  On 
the  other  hand,  the 
exhibition  cock  to 
mate  with  this  hen 
possesses  white  body 
plumage  —  we  refer 
if]  to  the  exposed 
P  plumage  only — with 
a  tail  of  metallic 
black,  each  curved 
feather  of  which  is 
edged  or  laced  as 
p^  accurately  as  possible 
"  with  white.  A  per- 
^>??^Fb=--  feet  specimen  of  this 

variety  is  one  of  the 
greatest  triumphs  of 
the  poultry  breeder's 

art.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  an  almost 
entirely  white  male  and  a  densely-marked  female 
could  hardly  be  bred  from  the  same  parents. 

The  Perfect  Exhibition  Birds.  How, 
then,  are  these  birds  produced  ?  For  the 
production  of  the  cockerels  the  male  bird 


WHITE    COCHINS 

To 


4« 

•*"• 

ROSE  COMB 


in  the  breeding  pen  should  be  one  of  the  most 

perfect  exhibition   birds    that    can    be    found, 

the  exposed   plumage    being    a   clear,  brilliant 

white,  the  sickle  feather  of  the 

tail  and  the  coverts  well  laced, 

the  comb  symmetrical,  the  ears 

round   and  Avhite,   the    face    a 

perfect    red,     and    the    minor 

points   accurate.     The  hens  to 

mate  with  such  a  bird  should 

be   bred  like  himself  from    an 

exhibition  cock  and  from  hens 

similarly  bred.      These  hens  are  identical  with 

exhibition  hens,  except  so  far  as  their  marking 

is  concerned.     They  are  naturally  imperfect  in 

this   respect,   containing  a  much  larger 

proportion    of    white    in    the    plumage, 

and  are  the  production  of  parents  which 

have  bred  exhibition  cocks  successfully. 

We  turn  to  the  exhibition  hens  with 
the  same  query. 
How  are  they  pro- 
duced ?  Simply 
by  mating  exhibi- 
tion hens  as  near 
perfection  as  pos- 
sible with  a  cock 
bred  in  the  same 
way.  This  bird, 
instead  of  being 
entirely  white,  the 
tail  excepted,  over 
the  whole  of  the 
exposed  body-, 
plumage,  displays 
a  large  proportion 
of  black  marking, 
which  closely  re- 
sembles the  pen- 
cilling of  the  hens, 
especially  on  the 
feathers  of  the 
thighs,  and  even 
on  the  breast  and 

tail.      In    a   word,    a   cock   used  for    breeding 
exhibition    hens   should    match    these   hens  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  marking  of  the  plumage, 
while  the  hens  used  in  breeding  the 
exhibition  cocks,  while  not  so  closely 
resembling    those   birds,    should    be 
correspondingly  lightly    marked   on 
the  plumage. 

The  Tendency  to  Inferior 
Birds.  The  breeder  may  always 
remember  with  advantage  that  just 
as  the  bull  is  half  the  herd,  so  is 
the  male  among  fowls  half  the 
flock.  A  single  hen  in  a  breeding 
flock  of  poultry  influences  the  progeny 
from  her  own  eggs  alone,  whereas 
the  whole  of  the  progeny  produced 
by  a  pen  of  breeding  hens,  which 
may  be  six  to  ten  in  number,  are 

influenced  by  the  prepotency  of  the        18.   SILVER-LACED 
cock.     Therefore,  however  good  the         WYANDOTTE  HEX 
hens    may    be,   a  faulty  or  inferior 
cock  may  spoil  the  whole  of  the  progeny,  and 
in  the  same  way,  superior   blood  may  improve 


12.    BARRED    PLYMOUTH    ROCKS 


AGRICULTURE 

its  entire  character,  although   the  tendency  in 
breeding   is,    under   all   circumstances,  to   pro- 
duce a   larger  proportion    of    inferior  than   of 
superior  birds. 

Reversion  to  Faulty  An= 
cestors.     We  must  not  forget. 
ho\vever,   that  in  the  process  of 
crossing  there  is  always  a  liability 
'i .,  KHjyxj     ^0  induce  reversion  to  faulty  an- 
il BRAHMA    cestors,  and  it  is  for  this  reason, 
PE4.  COMB      among  others,   that   the   greatest 
care   should   be  exercised   in  the 
selection    of   breeding  stock.     In  the  selection 
of  a  cock,  for  example,  the  purchaser    should 
ascertain,  if  possible,  how   he  was  bred,  and 
what  faults  and  excellences  exist  in  the 
strain  to  which  he  belongs.     The  owner 
of    an     existing     breeding    flock    may 
desire  to  correct  certain  faults  which 
his  birds  possess.     In  order  to  do  this, 
it  is  essential  that 
he   should   obtain 
from    some    other 
yard  of  poultry  a 
bird,      or      birds, 
which,     like     the 
family  from  which 
they     are      bred, 
possess    these 
points  in  unusual 
excellence.      It  is 
obvious  that  if  a 
purchase  be  made 
of  specimens  which 
are   intended    for 
the    improvement 
of      a     flock      of 
poultry,  but  which 
possess   the    same 
faults   that    exist 
in     the     yard    to 
which     they     are 
to  be  introduced, 
those  faults  would 

be  intensified.  There  are  points  which  are 
practically  fixed  in  all  the  leading  recognised 
breeds.  The  rose  comb  and  the  white  ears  of 
the  Hamburgh,  for  example,  are 
fixed  points,  but  they  are  sometimes 
found  in  otherwise  good  specimens 
in  a  very  imperfect  form.  The  comb 
may  be  wanting  in  symmetry  ;  it 
may  be  indented  on  the  surface, 
furnished  with  a  short  spike,  coarse, 
fixed  either  on  one  side  of,  or  too 
high  above,  the  head,  while  the  ear 
may  be  too  small,  insufficiently 
round,  tinged  with  red— a  feature 
which  is  not  uncommon — like  the 
appearance  of  white  in  the  face  of 
birds  of  two  years  old  and  up- 
wards. No  sane  man  would  breed 
from  a  Hamburgh  with  anything 
but  a  rose-comb,  or  from  birds 
with  Absolutely  red  ears,  even  if 
they  could  be  found,  for  he  would 
at  once  impart  these  characteristics  to  the 
chickens  he  produced. 

4857 


AGRICULTURE 


14.    BLACK   ORPINGTONS 

Let  us,  however,  take  an  example  from  a 
self-coloured  bird,  one  which,  in  fact,  possesses 
no  marking  on  the  plumage,  such  as  the 
Buff  Cochin.  This  is  a  bird  which  for 
the  purposes  of  exhibition  must  be  large — 
size  being  a  great  point — abundantly  feathered 
to  the  tip  of  the  middle  toe,  crested  with  a 
single  comb,  and  coloured  throughout 
the  whole  of  the  plumage — although  the 
tail  is  usually  very  faulty — with  a 
mellow  lemon  buff  tint,  the  pointed  and 
glossy  male  feathers  of  the  cock  being 
more  brilliant  than  the  remainder  of 
his  plumage  and  than  that  of  the 
plumage  of  the  hen. 


Where  birds  intended  for  breeding  are 
selected  from  the  chickens  of  the  year,  they 
should  always  possess  certain  leading 
features,  those  which  are  most  perfectly 
fixed.  Given  this  much,  the  breeder  can 
proceed  from  year  to  year  with  greater 
confidence  towards  the  fixation  of  points 
which  are  less  perfectly  fixed.  Let  us  add, 
however,  that  although  a  point  may  be 
fixed,  it  may  still  be  imperfect,  as  the  rose 
comb  in  the  Hamburgh  [10],  the  single 
comb  in  the  Cochin,  and  the  pea  comb  in 
the  Brahma  [11].  Size  and  form  are  con- 
stantly found  defective  in  the  very  best 
flocks  ;  hence  the  necessity  in  selecting 
breeding  stock  of  rejecting  specimens  which 
are  too  large,  too  small,  or  unsymmetrical. 
Where  birds  are  carefully  mated  from  year 
to  year  the  chickens  bred  will  systemati- 
cally improve,  the  number  of  good  speci- 
mens will  increase,  and  the  number  of 
inferior  specimens  decrease.  Thus  the 
breeder  is  enabled,  with  time  on  his  side. 

to  make  his    selections  for   breeding   purposes 

confident  of  achieving  success. 

Varieties  Obtained  by  Crossing.     The 

majority  of  the  existing  vaiieties  of  fancy  poultry 

have  been  produced  by  crossing,  and,  the  points 


they  possess  being  fixed,  they  are  now  recog- 
nised as  pure  in  blood.  The  Plymouth  Rock  [12], 
the  W7yandotte  [13],  and  the  Orpington 
[14]  are  cases  in  point.  The  first-named 
was  introduced  into  this  country  from 
America  over  thirty  years  ago,  while 
the  latter  are  much  later  productions. 
Some  breeders,  not  content  with  the 
points  of  certain  breeds,  have  attempted 
with  some  success  to  fix  others  upon 

We  may  first  regard  the  minor  points,   15.  LA  FLECHE    them,    and  it  would  not    be  surprising 
which  include  the  comb  and  the  yellow  HORNED  COMB    if  an  ingenious  person  were  to  introduce 


legs,  as  being  fixed,  often  found  alike  in 
good  and  bad  specimens,  and  yet  it  is  essential 
that  the  comb  should  be  symmetrical.  Given 
these  characteristics,  the  breeder  will  take  the 
precaution  to  select  his  breeding  stock  for  their 
size  and  form,  choosing  specimens  which  are  as 
heavily  feathered  and  as  perfectly  coloured  as 
possible.  If  large  prices  are  paid,  specimens 
which  are  excellent  in  all  these  points  may  be 
obtained,  but  there  are  few  persons  who  can 
begin  in  this  extravagant  way. 

Selection  of  the  Fittest.  Having,  then, 
secured  size  and  feather,  future  selection  for 
breeding  purposes  will  be  made  from  the  best 
coloured  specimens,  and  here  again  it  becomes 
highly  essential  that  the  beginner  should 
ascertain  precisely  what  tint  is  demanded  by 
the  fashion  of  the  day,  and  what  to  reject. 
The  variations  are  so  great  that  it  will  at  all 
times  be  found  difficult  to  maintain  the  point 
of  colour,  especially  as  with  each  moult  the 
hens  more  or  less  change  the  shade  of  their 
plumage,  for  which  reason  it  becomes  most 
difficult  to  know  how  to  select  mature  birds. 
It  should  be  needless  to  add  that  under  all 
conditions  specimens  which  are  not  in  robust 
health,  and  which  do  not  indeed  possess  lusty 
constitutions,  should  be  rejected  as  useless. 

4858 


the  two-horned  comb  [15]  of  the  French 
variety  La  Fleche    upon  some 
recognised  British  breed. 

As  an  example  of  what  is 
possible,  and  with  but  little 
trouble,  let  us  suppose  that  the 
Minorca  [16],  a  bird  of  black 
plumage  with  a  large  white  ear 


BLACK    MINORCAS 


AGRICULTURE 


and  a  single  comb,  were  selected  for  the  attempt. 
The  Fleche  [18],  a  larger  bird,  also  possesses  black 
plumage  and  a  large  white  ear.  By  crossing 
the  two  breeds,  mating  the  male  of  the  French 
with  the  females  of  the  English  breed,  for  the 
reason  that  the  prepotency  of  the  male  is  greater 
in  regard  to  fancy  points  like  the  comb,  some 
success  would  be  achieved  in  the  first  season. 
The  pullets — the  young  females — produced  by 
the  union  which  were  the  largest  in  size  and 
which  possessed  the  comb  of  the  Fleche  most 
nearly  perfect  would  be  mated  with  a  Fleche 
cock,  and  in  the  second  year  the  breeder 
might  confidently  expect  to  obtain  a  number  of 
specimens  with  almost  perfectly  formed  tvro- 
horned  combs. 

How  Size  is  Secured.     Here  it  may  be 
observed  that,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  female 


— n_r— _— __r-r^  •_ 
17.    BLACK    HAMBURGHS 


that   the  Langshan  is  not  a  bird  with  a  white 


exerts  the  greatest  influence  upon  size,  it  would      ear,  and  that  in  every  respect  but  plumage  it 


be  necessary   to    pay  special   at- 
tention to   this   feature.      Pullets 
being  selected  from  the  cross,  and 
these  being  bred  from  hens  of  the 
smaller  breed,  the  Minorca  would 
probably  have  lost  size,  so   that 
if    great     size    were    desired     it 
would   become  essential  to  fix>,it 
by  making  further  selections  from 
year  to  year  with  the  object  of 
acquiring    it    on   similar  lines  to 
those  adopted  in  the  production 
of  a  comb.     If  size  were  not  re- 
quired,   the    breeder   would   pro- 
bably find  it  possible  in  the  third 
year    to   select   both    male     and 
female    Minorcas    with    perfectly 
formed  white  ears  of  the  charac- 
teristic shape  and  the  comb  of  the 
Fleche    for  exhibition    purposes, 
rnent    might    be  equally  made  with  the  white- 
eared      Black      Hamburgh 
[17],     or     even    with    the 
larger    Langshan    [19]    and 
the  smaller  Black  Leghorn, 
notwithstanding      that     in 
these     two     cases     greater 
difficulties     would 
present  themselves 
owing    to  the  fact 


18.    LA    FLECHE   HEN 

The  experi 


is  dissimilar  to  the  Fleche. 

There   are   many  breeders  who 
maintain  two  strains  of  birds  of 
one   particular    variety  in    order 
that  they  may  Avith  greater  con- 
fidence  and  facility  obtain  speci- 
mens   for    crossing.      But  where 
this  is  not  the  case,  and  where  a 
breeder  owning  a  successful  flock 
sells  eggs  or  birds   to  others,  he 
may  be  able,  if  he   keep  a  care- 
ful record  of  his  sales,  to  select 
from    the   yards    of    one    of    his 
customers  a  specimen  for  crossing 
purposes,    should    he    require    it, 
with  great  advantage  to  himself. 
•»-  In   the  breeding   of  stock  of   all 
kinds  it  has  been  the  practice  of 
some  to  mate  brothers  and  sisters, 
although    the   plan   is   not  one  which   can   be 
recommended,  for  both  sexes  contain  the  blood 
of   both   parents.     If   for   no   other  reason,  it 
is  safer    to  mate  parent  with    offspring  when 
the    object    is    to    secure    qualifications  which 
cannot  be  obtained  in  any  other  way. 

Breeders,  however,,  are  often  compelled  to 
adopt  practices  which  are  contrary  to  the  views 
they  hold,  and  to  which  they  would  give  expres- 
sion if  they  were  able,  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
often  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  obtain  what  is 
really  needed.  In  the  production  of 
Bantams,  for  instance,  it  has  been 
necessary  to  use  material  of  the 
poorest  description  because  nothing 
better  was  obtainable.  In  such  a 
case  in-breeding  or  cross-breeding 
would  have  been  much  more  satis- 
factory ;  but  a  beginning  has  to 
be  made,  and  then  the  mating 
of  parents  with  offspring  follows 
as  a  natural  result,  for  essential 
features  can  often  be  fixed  in  no 
other  way.  The  reader  might  also 
refer  to  the  remarks  which  we  have 
made  on  the  production  of  the 
Silver-pencilled  Hamburgh,  which 
is  another  case  in  point. 


19.    BLACK     LAXGSIIANS 


Continued 


4859 


Group   9 

DRESS 
34 

MILLINERY 


Continued  from 
page  4769 


WIRE  SHAPE  MAKING 


Some  Essentials  in  Making  the   Shape. 
Bonnet   Shapes.     Taking   Measurements. 


Handling  the    Wire. 
Covering  the   Shape 


By  ANTOINETTE  MEELBOOM 


VJT7IRE  shapes  are  more  used  than  anything  else 
for  foundations  of  hats,  toques,  and  bonnets. 
They  are  light  and  can  be  made  in  the  most 
elaborate  of  shapes,  besides  being  the  only  suit- 
able foundation  for  transparent  materials.  The 
wire  must  be  nipped  without  rubbing  the  thin 
silk  filaments  of  wire,  or  the  shape  will  be  spoilt 
[56,  57  and  58].  It  should  be  placed  between 
the  nippers  and  cut  sharply  and  firmly.  To 
smooth  or  straighten  wire  it  should  be  rubbed 
round  the  knee  or  the  rounded  leg  of  a  table. 

Edge  wire  is  much  the  firmest  to  use  for 
headline  and  edge.  It  is  not  so  easily  procured 
retail  as  the  support  wire,  which,  if  necessary, 
may  be  used  for  the  whole  shape.  Support  wire 
can  be  had  in  any  colour  and  shade  for  trans- 
parent hats  and  toques,  as  it  is  essential  that 
the  foundation  shape  should  match  the  covering 
and  trimmings. 

Some  pouits  to  be  remembered  in  wire  shape - 
making  are  these  :  (1)  The  wire  must  be  lightly 
handled,  firmly  fixed,  and  not  twisted  ;  (2) 
eacli  part  of  the  shape  should  be  well  defined 
by  the  position  of  the  wires  ;  (3)  round  wires 
are  placed  underneath  the  support  wires,  and 
the  two  firmly  fixed  where  they  cross  each  other 
with  mounting  wire  or  cotton  [59]  ;  (4)  the 
outer  edge  of  either  hat,  toque,  or  bonnet  shape 
must  be  a  continuous  wire — if  joined  or  broken, 
the  shape  is  less  firm  ;  (5)  leave  no  great  spaces 
between  the  wires  ;  (6)  avoid  breaking  the  thin 
silk  filament  of  the  wire  and  leave  no  sharp 
edges  ;  (7)  unnecessary  wires  only  increase  the 
weight  of  the  shape. 

Making  Hat  Shapes.  Cut  off  a  piece  of 
wire  the  length  of  headline,  plus  2  in.  for 
turnings.  Join  in  a  circle,  overlapping  the 
wire  for  2  in.,  and  bind  with  mounting  wire  or 
strong  (No.  10)  cotton  [60A].  Cut  off  a  piece  of 
wire  the  length  of  the  circumference  of  brim, 
plus  2  in.  for  turnings.  Join  in  a  ring  and  fix 
as  before  [60fi].  These  are  the  two  principal 
round  wires,  and  are  made  of  the  thicker  wire, 
called  "  edge  wire."  Where  the  wires  are  joined 
is  the  centre-back  of  shape.  Divide  the  headline 
wire  in  half  and  quarters  for  hat  and  toque 
shapes  [60A]. 

Cut  off  a  piece  of  support  wire  the  size  of  the 
circumference  tip  plus  2  in.  ;  join  it  in  a  round, 
and  fix  as  before  [59K].  Next  cut  off  the 
support  wires.  Take  the  ring  of  wire  in  the  left 
hand,  holding  the  nippers  in  the  right.  Measure 
from  the  ring  and  bend  at  the  length  of  front 
brim,  plus  2  in.,  with  the  nippers  ;  bend  again 
at  height  of  sideband,  and  again  at  length  of 
tip  front  to  back.  Bend  downwards  the  length 
of  back  of  sideband,  and  again  at  the  length 
of  back  brim,  plus  2  in.  [62  and  59,  A-B]. 

4860 


The  2  in.  left  at  each  end  is  to  allow  for  turning 
over  the  headline  wire  [53]  and  for  nipping 
over  the  edge  wire  [58B]. 

The  side  to  side  wire  [59,  C-D]  and  the 
diagonal  wires,  right  side  front  to  left  side 
br,ck,  are  done  in  the  same  way.  Then  take  the 
left  side  front  to  right  side  back  [59,  E-F  and  G-H]. 

When  the  measurements  are  very  varied  it 
is  better  to  nip  the  support  wires  to  the  headline 
as  they  are  cut  off  to  prevent  their  becoming 
mixed.  Hold  the  headline  wire  with  the  left 
hand,  place  the  first  bend  of  the  centre  support 
under  the  centre  part  of  the  headline.  Then, 
holding  the  shape  near  the  headline,  bend  over  the 
support  wire  and  press  in  place  with  the  nippers. 
It  is  quite  firm  enough  if  turned  round  once.  Do 
not  rough  the  silk  filament  of  the  wire. 

Repeat  nipping  in  the  same  way  for  the 
centre-back,  side,  and  diagonal  support  wires. 
Tie  all  the  wires  in  centre  of  tip  with  mounting 
wire  or  strong  cotton  [61].  Place  the  wire 
round  the  circumference  of  tip  with  the  join  at 
the  back  under  the  support  wire,  and  tie  wherever 
they  cross  [59x]. 

Measure  again  the  exact  measurement  of  brim, 
front,  back,  sides.,  and  diagonals,  bending  up 
the  wire  sharply  at  the  measurement.  Nip  on 
to  the  edge  wire  (in  a  shape  which  has  both  sides 
alike,  the  halves  and  quarters  may  be  marked), 
nipping  over  the  support  wires  once  right 
round.  Press  firmly,  and  cut  off  any  piece  left 
quite  close  [58s].  One,  two,  or  more  round 
wires,  according  to  the  size  of  shape,  are  tied 
to  the  support  wires  wherever  they  cross  [59j]. 

Dome-shaped  crowns  are  made  in  the  same 
way,  except  that  there  is  only  one  measurement 
from  headline  front  to  back  [63]. 

In  the  toque  shapes,  coronets  of  bonnets,  and 
brims  that  turn  up  very  much  all  round,  the  edge 
wire  is  usually  smaller  on  one  side  to  allow  the 
support  wires  to  curve  up  [64  and  65].  Coronets 
are  shaped  brims  standing  out  either  round  the 
front,  side,  or  back  of  bonnets  [66  and  70].  When 
a  crown  is  much  larger  than  the  headline,  the 
brim  is  made  separately  from  it ;  and  for  extra 
strength  it  has  two  headlines  with  about  1  in. 
between  them  for  sideband  [68].  The  crown 
should  be  made  separately,  and  a  much  larger 
headline  and  circumference  of  tip  will  be  required. 
Support  wire  must  be  used  [67]. 

Some  toque  shapes  with  no  crowns  have 
wires  stretched  across  from  front  to  back,  side 
to  side,  and  diagonally  [69  A  &  B].  In  this  case 
the  double  headline  is  also  required. 

Making  a  Bonnet.  Measurements  for 
bonnet  shapes  are  taken  in  this  order : 

Outside  edge  all  round,  noting  size  of  front 
and  back,  ear  to  ear. 


DRESS 


Centre-front  to  centre-back,  noting  depth  of 
coronet  in  front,  and,  if  a  crown,  depth  of  side- 
band. 

Side  to  side,  noting  depth  of  coronet. 

Diagonals,  noting  depth  of  coronet  in  front. 

Length  of  crown. 

Width  and  depth  of  crown. 

Round  wires. 

Coronet  wires. 

Width  between  wires  round  edge. 

For  the  making,  cut  off  a  length  of  edge 
wire  the  first  measurement,  plus  2  in.  for  turn- 
ings. Join  it,  keeping  the  join  as  the  centre- 
back.  Mark  the  centre-front  with  cotton,  and 
measure  half  the  front  measurement  on  each 
side.  Then  bend  the  remaining  measurement, 
which  should  be  the  same  as  from  ear  to  ear. 
If  possible,  the  bonnet  should  be  fitted  to  see 
that  the  shape  at  back  meets  the  hair,  and  that 
the  front  effect  is  becoming. 

Cut  off  the  middle  support  as  previously  ex- 
plained for  hats.  In  the  case  of  a  bonnet  with 
coronet,  bend  the  piece  measuring  the  coronet, 
plus  2  in.  for  turnings.  Proceed  with  the  side 
and  diagonal  wires  in  the  same  way,  nipping 
them  at  the  back  to  the  edge  wire.  Tie  the  sup- 
ports in  the  centre.  The  coronet  wire  is  nipped 
on  last ;  it  is  also  made  of  edge  wire,  bent  into 
curves  or  points  as  required.  Then  tie  on  the 
round  wire,  nipping  it  at  the  back  to  edge  wire. 

Ail  wire  shapes  must  be  covered  with  tulle,  net 
or  chiffon,  to  take  away  the  hardness  of  the  wire, 
and  to  have  a  foundation  on  which  to  sew  the 
trimmings.  If  the  foundation  is  meant  for  fur  or 
velvet,  leno  is  better,  in  which  case  each  part  is 
cut  to  shape  [66].  The  edge  should  be  bound 
with  mull  or  sarcenet. 

To  cover  shapes  with  net  or  chiffon,  take  a 
piece  of  chiffon,  run  it  along  the  edge  on  the  out- 
side, "  easing  "  it  on  slightly.  Cut  it  up  at  each 
support  wire,  pull  the  chiffon  through  at  the 
headline,  so  that  it  comes  outside,  and  gather  it 
at  centre  of  tip.  Fasten  it  securely  and  cut  off 
all  turnings  [73]. 

Some  bonnet  shapes  can  be  covered  with  the 
net  in  one  piece.  In  this  case,  place  the  net  in 
the  centre  of  crown,  and  smooth  over  the  shape 
with  as  small  pleats  as  possible.  Bind  the  edge 
with  a  crossway  piece  of  velvet,  silk,  or  mull  [72]. 

All  bonnets  have  a  velvet  fold  round  the  head- 
line, either  a  crossway  piece  of  velvet,  folded 
double,  sewn  in  before  the  head  lining,  or  a  rou- 
leau, which  is  sewn  in  after  the  bonnet  has  been 
lined.  This  velvet  bind  is  necessary  to  help  the 
bonnet  to  set  comfortably,  to  prevent  it  from 
slipping,  besides  keeping  the  wires  from  pressing 
on  the  head  [71]. 

The  shape  of  individual  heads,  the  manner  of 
dressing  the  hair,  and  the  shapes  of  bonnets 
vary  so  much  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
judge  whether  a  bonnet  will  be  a  good  fit  or 
no  without  trying  it  on  the  wearer.  If  it  is 
found  that  the  bonnet  does  not  reach  far  enough 
to  cover  the  sides  of  the  head,  note  where  the 
headline  is  situated.  It  is  equally  possible  that 
the  depth  or  width  of  the  crown  itself  may 
require  enlarging. 


WIRE  SHAPES    ARE   MADE 
[Figures  56-73] 


The  headline  should  sit  quite  firmly  on  the 
head,  and  have  no  tendency  to  slip.  In  mak- 
ing up,  care  should  be  taken  that  no  very  thick 
part  of  the  trimming  or  lining  should  fill  up  the 
head  space,  and  thus  make  the  bonnet  too 
small. 

When  the  trimming  requires  to  be  folded  in 
the  line  of  head,  as  in  a  close-fitting  shape, 
allowance  for  this  should  be  made  when  making 
the  shape. 

Wire  shapes  to  be  covered  and  trimmed  with  net, 
or  such  materials  as  chiffon,  lace,  or  foliage,  are 
covered  with  double  tulle  or  net.  Floral  toques 
have  the  shap*  made  of  green  tubing,  slipped  on 
green  support  wire.  Tinsel  wire  is  occasionally 
used  as  a  foundation  for  lace  or  chenille. 
Chenille,  fine  braids,  and  cords,  very  narrow 
ribbon,  narrow  strips  of  tulle  or  chiffon,  are  all 
used  over  wire  shapes,  laced  closely  over  and 
under  the  support  wire.  When  these  are  used 
in  a  lattice  pattern  as  trimming  there  is  no  need 
first  to  cover  the  shape  with  tulle  or  net. 

Another  way  of  making  a  wire  shape  is  over 
a  buckram  or  straw  shape,  but  as  it  is  liable  to  be 
larger  than  the  pattern  shape,  it  is  only  used  in  a 
few  cases. 

Continued 

486) 


Group  25 

HEALTH 
•    16 

Continued  from 
page  4tiS4 


BOYS  AND  GIRLS  AT  SCHOOL 

The  Model  School.     Exercise  and  Rest.     Care  of  the  Eyes  and 
Teeth.      The  Importance  of  Good   Food  and  Warm  Clothing 


By    Dr.    A.    T.     SCHOFIELD 


A  CHILD  of  three  has  a  brain  six-sevenths  of 
"^  full  size,  and  a  child  of  twelve  one  nine- 
tenths  of  full  size,  the  full  weight  being  reached 
at  fourteen.  After  this  period  it  is  a  question  in 
the  brain  of  development  rather  than  of  growth. 
With  the  body  it  is  not  so.  It  continues  to 
increase  in  actual  size  till  18,  and  the  lower  limbs 
till  21,  after  which  growth  ceases. 

Turning  now  to  school  life,  we  come  to 
matters  of  great  importance  with  regard  to 
construction.  The  school  itself  should  be  open 
to  the  air  and  sun.  The  total  area  on  one  floor, 
including  school  and  playground,  should  have  a 
minimum  of  five  square  yards  to  each  child. 
The  basement  (if  any)  should  have  a  concrete 
floor  covered  with  wood  blocks.  The  school  is 
best  if  of  one  or  two  storeys  only. 

The  School=house.  A  central  hall  is 
good,  acting  as  a  reservoir  of  warm,  fresh  air  for 
the  class-rooms  which  open  into  it.  There  should 
be  no  skylights  and  no  point  of  the  room  from 
which  some  bit  of  sky  cannot  be  seen  ;  other- 
wise it  is  not  efficiently  lighted. 

The  light  should  be  on  the  left  of  the 
scholars,  and  the  window  space  should  be  one- 
fifth  of  the  floor  area,  and  never  less  than  one- 
sixth.  The  windows  should  measure  4  ft.  6  in. 
from  the  sill  to  the  top.  The  floor  should  allow 
10  sq.  ft.  for  each  child  and  the  height  of  the 
room  should  be  14  ft.  Secondary  schools  should 
allow  15  sq.  ft.  for  each  child.  Each  seat  should 
be  24  in.  to  26  in.  wide,  and  the  desks  should  be 
at  an  angle  of  40  deg.  for  reading  and  10  deg. 
with  the  horizontal  for  writing.  The  seats 
should  be  such  a  height  that  the  child's  feet 
can  rest  flat  on  the  floor,  the  thighs  well  sup- 
ported, the  back  of  the  seat  pressing  below  the 
shoulder  blades  so  that  when  the  arm  rests 
on  the  desk  the  shoulders  are  not  pushed  up, 
and  the  desk  should  overhang  the  seat  1  in.  or 
2  in.  There  should  be  four  sizes  in  a  large 
school. 

A  desk  round  the  wall,  3  ft.  6  in.  high,  is  an 
advantage.  All  corridors  should  be  at  least 
5  ft.  wide.  The  ceilings  should  be  white  and 
the  walls  tinted.  There  should  be  a  cloak- 
room for  every  150  scholars,  with  entrance  and 
exit  doors,  to  hold  coats,  shoes,  umbrellas,  hats, 
etc.,  and  there  should  be  hot  air  to  dry  the 
clothes.  The  air  in  schools  should  be  changed 
ten  times  an  hour  :  but  this  is  impossible  in  our 
climate  unless  the  incoming  air  be  heated.  Five 
hundred  children  produce  20  Ib.  of  solid  carbon 
in  the  form  of  gas  every  hour  by  breathing. 

Dormitories  should  never  be  entered  during 
the  day  ;  they  should  be  open,  and  not  cubicles. 
Five  hundred  cubic  feet  should  be  allowed  for 
each  child,  and  a  separate  towel,  brush  and 
comb  provided. 

4862 


Nearly  all  schools  have  too  little  air  space. 
The  Education  Act  requires  only  80  cubic  ft.  of 
air  space  for  each  child,  bat  the  London  School 
Board  allows  130.  There  should  be  (without 
heated  air)  300  cubic  ft.  to  500  cubic  ft.  with  a 
minimum  of  250  cubic  ft.  Closets  should  be 
provided  at  the  rate  of  15  per  cent,  for  girls,  and 
10  per  cent,  for  boys,  with  5  per  cent,  urinals. 
There  should  be  a  covered  way  and  a  special 
attendant. 

Some  Dangers  of  School  Life.  With 
regard  to  school  life  some  points  may  be  noted. 
Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  cases  of  spinal  curvature 
are  produced  at  this  time,  due  to  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  spine  and  the  bad  position  adopted. 
Short  sight  is  also  common,  and  a  chief  factor 
in  both  is  the  carelessness  of  the  teachers.  The 
points  are  : 

(1)  Want  of  proper  supervision  as  to  attitude. 

(2)  Want  of  proper  light  to  the  left  of  scholars. 

(3)  Badly  constructed  and  unsuitable  desks. 

(4)  Wrong  height  of  seats  according  to  age. 

(5)  Slanting  desks   and   curving   position   of 
back. 

(6)  Slanting  writing  with  copy-book  to  right 
instead  of  in  front  of  scholar,  and  consequent 
twisting  of  spine  and  neck,  with  the  left  shoulder 
raised  and  the  right  dropped. 

Out  of  3,600  children  examined,  1,500  were 
discovered  to  have  defective  sight  or  hearing, 
and  many  of  these  were  labelled  dull  or  in- 
attentive simply  because  they  could  not  see  or 
hear,  and  they  were  too  shy  to  say  so. 

If  any  child  is  seen  when  reading  to  hold  a 
book  less  than  a  foot  from  its  face,  or  in  writing 
to  have  the  head  nearer  than  15  in.  to  the  cop^y- 
book  an  oculist  should  be  seen. 

A  child  should  be  sent  home  if  it  has  a  swollen 
face,  bad  sore  throat,  a  sneezing  cold,  itching 
skin,  ringworm,  ophthalmia,  or  any  form  of 
sore  eyes,  or  chorea  (St.  Vitus  Dance). 

Over-pressure  in  School  Life.  Under 
12  years  of  age  there  should  be  no  night  work 
after  seven  ;  over  12,  none  after  nine.  Over 
pressure  is  caused  in  school  *  life  by  under- 
feeding, over-study,  working  during  convales- 
cence, night  lessons,  too  little  exercise,  com- 
petitive examination,  bad  air. 

The  first  is  a  common  cause.  Children 
should  eat  as  much  plain  food  as  the}''  can  at 
regular  meal  times.  No  parent  can  judge  how 
much  they  really  require. 

After  an  acute  illness  children  are  often 
very  bright  and  quick,  and  hence  return  to 
school  before  they  are  strong.  Competitive 
examinations  are  a  common  cause  of  fatal 
breakdowns.  Ordinary  examinations  are  not 
injurious  ;  it  is  the  competition  that  finds  out 
the  weak  ones. 


The  signs  of  over-pressure  are  loss  of  sleep, 
irritable  temper,  intolerance  to  light  and  sound, 
a  twitching  of  the  forehead  horizontally,  vomit- 
ing (when  not  after  meals)  and  headaches.  Should 
any  two  of  these  signs  appear,  a  skilled  doctor 
should  at  once  be  consulted. 

We  have  already  considered  the  importance 
of  exercise,  although  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
many  of  those  who  excel  in  gymnastics  are  found 
to  have  overstrained  the  heart.  Drill  is  valu- 
able for  boys  and  girls,  and  gives  a  good  figure, 
while  gymnastics,  unless  properly  directed, 
almost  invariably  produces  rounded  shoulders. 

Children  need  regular  and  sufficient  sleep. 
The  hour  of  retiring  to  rest  must  be  regular  and 
early,  and  to  ensure  refreshing  rest  the  bed- 
room should  be  cool  and  airy,  and  all  active  brain 
work  should  be  stopped  at  least  half  an  hour 
before  bedtime. 

It  is  good  for  parents  to  keep  life  charts  of 
their  children.  Every  Christmas  the  weight, 
height,  girth,  and  physical  records  of  the  year 
should  be  recorded. 

Children's  Dress.  The  clothing  of  all 
children  should  allow  the  freest  motion  of  every 
limb  and  the  full  action  of  the  lungs.  It  should  be 
of  uniform  warmth,  and  should  not  leave  any 
vital  parts  exposed.  Unfortunately,  this  is  too 
often  forgotten,  and  children  are  dressed  in  a 
fashion  that  their  parents  would  not  endure  for 
a  moment  if  applied  to  themselves. 

For  all  children,  flannel  next  the  skin,  loose 
over  the  body,  but  well-fitting  round  ankles 
and  arms,  is  a  needed  protection  against  disease 
caused  by  exposure,  and  money  is  well  invested 
in  good  underclothing. 

For  boys,  flannel  next  the  skin,  then  knicker- 
bockers and  a  blouse  form  an  admirably  healthy 
dress,  which  can  be  followed  by  a  sailor's  suit 
later  on.  A  straw  hat  or  a  cap,  and  a  pair  of 
strong,  broad  boots  with  low  heels  complete 
the  outfit. 

The  less  buttoning  up  about  the  neck  the 
better  the  chance  of  developing  a  well-formed 
chest.  In  cold  weather,  however,  that  part 
must  be  protected  not  by  mufflers  or  comforters, 
but  by  the  clothes,  for  it  caanot  be  too  much 
insisted  on  that  children  require  more  warmth 
than  adults,  not  less. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  combination 
flannel  undergarment  is  the  most  comfortable 
and  healthy  arrangement.  The  legs  especially 
should  be  protected  in  this  way,  and  not  left  bare, 
or  with  a  single  covering  of  cotton.  Over  this, 
with  girls,  there  should  be  a  stout  quilted  bodice 
on  which  the  lower  garments  can  be  buttoned, 
and  then  a  plain  dress  over  all.  The  stockings, 
of  course,  are  suspended.  A  sailor  costume 
is  a  capital  one  for  girls,  and  very  healthy. 

The  Value  of  Woollen  Clothing.  The 
reason  woollen  clothing  or  flannel  is  so  good 
is  because  it  retains  the  heat  of  the  body 
better  than  any  other  material,  and  isolates 
the  body  from  changes  in  the  surrounding 
temperature,  whether  of  heat  or  cold.  It 
also  absorbs  all  superfluous  moisture,  and  is 
lighter  for  its  warmth  than  any  other  material. 
Fine  flannel  does  not  irritate  the  skin,  and 


HEALTH 

children  with  the  tenderest  skin  can  get  used  to 
the  stockingette  flannel  now  so  much  used, 
which,  moreover,  shrinks  far  less  in  washing 
than  the  ordinary  kind.  In  our  English  climate 
especially,  all  the  protection  that  flannel  can 
give  is  needed,  and  it  is  far  better  to  spend 
money  in  warm  clothes  than  in  large  fires.  The 
absurd  practice  of  leaving  the  arms  and  legs 
bare  in  cold  weather  cannot  be  too  strongly 
condemned.  It  has  carried  off  hundreds  to 
early  graves,  and  predisposes  children,  and 
especially  girls,  to  early  consumption  and  many 
varieties  of  disease.  It  retards  the  circulation 
and  digestion,  lessens  the  vital  heat,  and  is 
therefore  a  cruel  and  pernicious  practice.  Warm, 
woollen  stockings  are  invaluable,  and  woollen 
mittens  tend  greatly  to  keep  the  hands  warm. 
Flannel  night-dresses  in  winter  are  also  very 
good.  Light-coloured  clothes  are  cooler  in  sum- 
mer and  warmer  in  winter  than  dark  ;  dark 
colours  absorb  heat  from  the  sun  in  summer 
and  from  the  body  in  winter.  Nothing  tight 
should  be  worn  round  a  girl's  body,  and,  above 
all,  no  tight  corsets  or  tight  boots  or  collars  or 
tapes  should  be  used. 

Naturally,  girls  have  no  marked  waists,  and 
to  attempt  to  form  one  by  forcibly  compressing 
the  lower  ribs  is  a  cruel  practice.  A  well-fitting 
bodice  is  all  that  is  needed  for  the  figure.  Corsets 
on  growing  girls  are  a  great  evil  hi  another  way. 
They  confine  and  restrain  the  growth  of  all 
the  muscles  of  the  back,  and  by  thus  seriously 
weakening  it  produce  curved  spines,  round 
shoulders,  and  weak  backs.  No  girl  can  have 
a  graceful  figure  who  has  a  flat  or  crooked  back. 
The  true  secret  of  a  beautiful  figure  is  in  a  strong 
spine  and  well-developed  muscles.  This  gives 
a  poise  to  the  head  and  an  easy  carriage  of  the 
figure.  A  capital  exercise  to  produce  this  is 
to  teach  girls  to  march  about  carrying  a  light 
vessel  of  water  on  the  head  without  spilling  it. 

Care  of  the  Eyes.  Children's  eyes 
should  be  carefully  watched,  and  no  reading 
or  sewing  by  twilight  or  by  a  bad  light  allowed. 
The  proper  position  for  reading  is  with  the 
back  to  the  light,  which  should  fall  full  on 
the  page.  Near-sightedness  is  often  caused  by 
over  study,  bad  print,  and  imperfect  light.  It 
is  seldom  found  in  children  before  their  educa- 
tion begins,  but  often  becomes  rapidly  developed 
afterwards.  The  desks  are  frequently  badly 
placed  for  reading,  the  book  being  far  too  low. 
The  result  of  near-sightedness  in  children  is 
generally  a  squint,  which  speedily  tends  to  become 
worse,  until  at  last,  if  neglected,  the  sight  of  one 
eye  goes  altogether.  Any  child  that  is  suspected 
of  being  short  sighted,  or  who  squints,  however 
little,  should  at  once  be  fitted  with  suitable  glasses. 

Another  matter  of  great  importance  with 
children  is  their  hearing.  Their  ears  are  a  con- 
stant source  of  trouble.  Beware  of  neglected 
colds  in  the  head,  as  they  often  lay  the  foundation 
of  permanent  deafness.  Omitting  to  dry  the 
hair  after  washing  it  is  a  common  cause  of  this. 
Deafness  is  a  frequent  result  of  measles  or  of 
scarlatina.  It  may  also  arise  from  a  "  box " 
on  the  ears,  or  from  a  constant  discharge  which 
has  gradually  eaten  away  the  inside  of  the  ear. 

4863 


HEALTH 

The  Teeth.  The  care  of  the  teeth  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance  to  children.  A 
child  with  bad  teeth  has  a  bad  digestion,  a  poor 
appetite,  and  is  in  constant  pain.  From  their 
earliest  years  children  should  be  taught  to  brush 
their  teeth  with  a  soft  brush,  night  and  morning, 
with  plain  water  or  a  little  soap.  Sweets  and 
hot  cakes  are  great  enemies  of  good  teeth  ; 
so  are  nuts,  penholders,  and  string.  The  Ameri- 
cans, who  are  very  fond  of  sweet  things,  have 
the  worst  teeth  and  the  best  dentists.  It  is  a 
great  mistake  to  suppose  the  care  of  the  milk 
teeth  is  of  no  importance.  If  they  are  lost 
early  the  jaw  contracts,  and  when  the  permanent 
teeth  appear,  they  are  too  crowded,  and  soon 
decay  in  consequence.  The  first  four  permanent 
double  teeth  are  peculiarly  liable  to  decay,  and 
should  be  examined  early  so  that  they  may 
be  saved  in  time. 

The  hair  should  be  kept  short.  This  is  im- 
portant for  cleanliness  and  for  the  consequent 
avoidance  of  the  many  troublesome  diseases 
that  are  prone  to  affect  the  children's  heads. 
The  hairbrush  should  be  soft,  but  not  too  soft, 
and  should  be  freely  used.  This  is  of  the  greatest 
importance,  not  only  to  keep  the  hair  in  good 
order,  but  to  keep  it  glossy.  Constant  brushing 
drawrs  down  the  natural  oil  at  the  roots  into  the 
fibre  of  the  hair,  giving  it  a  bright  lustre.  If 
the  hair  is  very  crisp  and  harsh,  a  little  of  the 
finest  olive  oil  is  the  best  pomade.  Curl  papers 
and  curling  tongs  are  both  injurious,  the  latter 
especially.  As  a  girl  grows  up,  the  hair  should  be 
kept  in  a  long,  loose  plait  down  the  back,  and 
not  twisted  on  the  head  till  absolutely  necessary. 

A  word  about  children's  shoes.  They  should 
be  shoes  and  not  boots,  for  two  reasons.  They 
give  full  freedom  to  the  growth  of  the  ankle 
joint  instead  of  restraining  it  in  stiff  leather, 
and  they  do  not  stop  the  circulation,  as  boots  too 
often  do,  forming,  as  it  were,  garters  round  the 
ankle. 

Food.  Leaving  clothes,  we  now  come  to  a 
great  requirement — good  food.  This  is  abso- 
lutely essential  for  proper  growth.  Few  people 
are  aware  that  a  growing  boy  of  ten  or  twelve 
requires  as  much  food  as  a  labourer  through  a 
long  day's  work.  Growth  is  not  so  much  a 
matter  of  caprice  as  is  generally  thought. 

The  ordinary  rule  of  growth  is  that  a  child 
should  increase  2  Ib.  in  weight  for  every  inch 
in  height  between  three  and  four  feet,  and  2|  Ib. 
for  every  inch  between  four  and  five  feet.  Height 
is  dependent  to  a  large  extent  on  birth  and  sur- 
roundings, and  is  closely  connected  with  weight. 
In  these  respects  the  more  favoured  classes  have 
the  advantage  over  the  others  to  an  enormous 
degree.  The  reasons  are  that  they  spring  from 
taller  and  better  developed  parents  ;  and  they  are 
better  fed,  less  worked,  and  take  more  exercise — 
that  is,  less  indoor  work  and  more  game  and 
field  sports. 

The  growing  time  is  a  very  trying  period  for 
health  and  strength.  A  child  should  grow  from 
two  to  three  inches  every  year  ;  if  it  is  much 
more  or  less  it  is  suspicious.  All  sudden  growth 
should  be  watched,  and  lessons  relaxed,  especially 


when  there  is  increase  in  height  without  increase 
of  weight,  which  often  leads  to  extreme  delicacy. 

Children,  therefore,  to  grow  well  should  be 
well  fed.  Of  course,  some  are  over-fed,  but  far 
more  are  under-fed.  Children  do  not  require  so 
much  meat  in  proportion  as  adults,  but  an  abun- 
dance of  wiiolesome  farinaceous  food.  They 
should  not  be  fed  on  pastry  and  rich  dishes,  but 
should  have  plenty  of  bread,  milk,  eggs,  and 
cereals  (rice,  barley,  oatmeal,  etc.)  in  every  form. 
As  a  rule,  a  child  should  be  allowed  to  eat  a^ 
much  as  he  will  of  plain,  nourishing  food. 

It  is  as  cruel  to  compel  a  child  always  to 
clear  his  plate  as  it  is  at  other  times  to  refuse 
him  more  when  he  wants  it.  If  you  think  the 
child  is  simply  greedy,  give  him  dry  bread,  but 
give  him  something. 

Again,  children  often  have  a  hatred  and  some- 
times even  a  tioiror  of  certain'  articles  of  food. 
Fat,  under-done  meat,  eggs,  pork,  liver,  and  other 
things  are  often  hated  by  children,  although 
a  certain  amount  of  fat  or  butter  is  desirable.  In 
such  cases  it  is  unwise  to  press  them  beyond 
a  certain  point.  Food  eaten  with  aversion  or 
under  threats  is  pretty  sure  to  disagree,  and  often, 
as  we  have  seen,  a  child  really  knows  far  better 
what  is  suited  for  him  than  the  parent. 

Meals.  Children  should  not  be  allowed  to 
go  too  long  without  food,  especially  in  the  middle 
of  the  day.  It  is  a  mistaken  idea  that  sugar  is 
bad  for  them  ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  one  of  the 
most  nourishing  articles  of  diet,  and,  taken  pure 
with  food,  is  quite  wholesome.  But  it  is  not  so 
good  taken  in  the  form  of  sweets  eaten  at  all 
hours  of  the  day,  and  of  more  than  doubtful 
composition. 

Children  should  have  three  good  meals  a 
day,  and  the  dinner  should  be  taken  early. 
All  raw  and  starch  foods  should  be  very  well 
masticated.  Watercress  and  lettuces  are  good. 

For  drink,  pure  water  at  dinner  ;  at  other 
meals,  plain  or  flavoured  with  tea,  coffee,  cocoa, 
or  milk  as  wished.  One  of  the  most  cruel  and 
thoughtless  practices  is  to  allow  the  child  to 
taste  malt  liquors.  They  are  not  only  bad  for 
them,  but  too  often  form  the  first  stepping-stone 
to  a  habit  that  tends  to  grow  till  it  is  beyond 
all  control. 

A  child  in  good  health  should  have  a  cold  bath 
in  the  morning  in  summer,  and  a  tepid  one  in 
winter.  He  should  feel  warm  after  it,  and  should 
not  have  it  when  very  hot  or  very  cold,  or  just 
after  a  meal.  Cold  baths  should  not  be  taken  at 
night.  Sea  bathing  is  very  good  when  the  child 
comes  out  of  the  water  warm.  Timid  children 
should  never  be  forced  to  go  into  the  sea. 

For  washing  purposes  a  warm  bath  should  be 
taken  at  night,  a  flannel  rather  than  a  sponge 
should  be  used,  and  plain  curd  soap.  If  this 
is  followed  by  cold  sponging  the  benefit  is 
greatly  increased,  especially  if  a  tablespoonful 
of  salt  has  been  first  dissolved  in  water,  say,  a 
quart.  There  should  be  no  dawdling  ;  the  entire 
operation  should  be  conducted  smartly  and 
briskly,  the  feet  standing  on  cork  or  carpet, 
not  on  oilcloth. 


Continued 


4864 


SLATE  AND  TILE  WORK 

Slates  and  Tiles.     Preparing  Roofs.      Laying  Slates  and  Tiles.     Form- 
ing Eaves,  Verges,  Ridges,  Valleys,  and  Hips.    Stone  Slates.    Shingles 


Group  4 

BUILDING 
34 

Continued   from 
page  4760 


By  Professor   R.    ELSEY   SMITH 


HTHE  work  of  the  slater  consists  in  covering  the 
framework  of  a  roof  with  slates  to  form 
an  incombustible  and  waterproof  covering.  The 
structure  of  the  roof  may  be  formed  of  wood 
or  iron,  or  a  combination  of  the  two  ;  or  it 
may  be  formed  of  iron  in  combination  with 
concrete ;  but  it  must  be  prepared  in  some 
way  to  receive  the  slating.  In  the  case  of  a 
roof  having  timber  rafters,  the  cheapest  method 
of  preparing  the  roof  is  to  lay  across  the  rafters 
at  regular  intervals  sawn  laths  about  2  in.  by 
1  in.  to  which  the  slates  can  be  nailed  [24-].  A 
roof  formed  in  this  way  may  be  made  perfectly 
watertight,  but  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  keep 
out  snow  if  accompanied  by  a  driving  wind  ; 
the  snow  finds  its  way  between  the  interstices 
of  the  slates  and  may  settle  on  the  ceiling  or 
floor  below,  thaw,  and  soak  it  with  water. 

Preparing  the   Roof    for   Slating.      A 

mo.re  satisfactory  method  of  preparing  a  roof 
for  slating  is  to  cover  the  rafters  with  boarding, 
and  to  lay  on  this  sheets  of  inodorous  sarking 
felt  or  of  three-ply  Willesden  paper,  either  of 
which  are  water  and  rot  proof.  The  slates  may 
be  laid  directly  on  this  [25],  or  better  still,  sawn 
laths  may  be  laid  as  before  to  receive  the  slates 
[26],  or  where  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  space 
immediately  below  the  roof  at  a  temperature 
as  uniform  as  possible,  2  in.  by  2  in.  battens 
may  be  nailed  above  the  felt,  one  directly  above 
the  back  of  each  rafter,  and  the  slating  laths 
may  be  nailed  to  these  [27].  This  gives  a  con- 
siderable air  space  between  the  slates  and 
boarding,  and  as  air  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat, 
this  prevents  rapid  changes  of  temperature.  It 
also  allows  any  moisture  due  to  the  penetration 
of  snow  or  wet  resulting  from  broken  slates  to 
run  down  the  slope  of  the  roof  to  the  eaves. 

Where  roofs  are  formed  with  concrete,  wood 
laths  may  be  nailed  to  the  concrete  to  receive 
the  slates,  or  in  order  to  avoid  the  use  of  any 
combustible  material,  fillets  may  be  formed 
in  the  breeze  concrete  at  the  necessary  intervals. 
The  distance  of  the  laths  or  fillets  from  each 
other  will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  slates  used 
and  the  gauge  at  which  they  are  fixed. 

Slaters'  Tools.  All  that  are  required  are 
instruments  for  trimming  the  slates  where  required 
for  fixing,  and  for  repairing  them  when  necessary. 
The  cutting  iron  [36]  is  simply  a  long  iron  edge 
on  which  a  slate  to  be  trimmed  is  placed.  The 
tool  is  formed  with  a  couple  of  spikes  at  the 
back,  so  that  it  can  be  driven  into  a  wood  block 
or  trestle,  at  a  convenient  working  height.  The 
zax  [37]  is  the  tool  used  for  trimming  the  slates  ; 
it  consists  of  a  blade  fixed  in  a  wood  handle, 
with  which  the  slates  are  trimmed. 

1  i  27  , 


In  performing  this  operation  the  edge  of  the 
slate  to  be  treated  is  rested  on  the  cutting  iron 
and  allowed  to  overhang  slightly,  and  the 
superfluous  material  is  cut  off  with  a  series 
of  quick  strokes.  At  the  back  of  this  tool  is 
a  projecting  spike,  with  which  a  line  is  first 
drawn  across  the .  slate,  marking  the  level 
of  the  nail  holes,  and  afterwards  the  holes  are 
perforated,,  by  two  smart  blows. 

Tools  for  Fixing  Slates.  In  fixing  slates 
the  slater  ia  provided  with  a  deep  belt  with 
pockets  slung  round  his  waist  to  hold  the  nails. 
He  has  also  a  hammer  [35] ;  this  has  a  broad 
head  for  driving  nails,  a  spike  at  the  further  end 
for  holing  slates  if  necessary,  and  a  claw  at  one 
side  by  which  nails  can  be  withdrawn.  The 
ripper  [38]  is  a  tool  used  hi  repairing  roofs  ;  it 
consists  of  a  long  metal  arm,  fixed  in  a  wooden 
handle  at  one  end  and  provided  at  the  other  with 
a  blade  crossing  it,  and  provided  with  a  cutting 
edge  at  the  back,  which  is  also  hollowed  out  on 
either  side  of  the  central  arm.  The  tool  is  used 
thus  :  when  a  broken  slate  is  to  be  dealt  with, 
this  tool  is  passed  up  below  the  slate  and  round 
the  nail  by  which  it  is  fixed  and  forcibly  with- 
drawn, cutting  off  the  nailhead  so  that  the  slate 
may  be  entirely  removed. 

Sizes  and  Qualities  of  Slates.  Slates 
are  blasted  in  the  quarries,  the  blocks  sawn  to 
convenient  sizes,  and  then  split  and  squared  by 
hand  and  sorted  into  various  divisions,  according 
to  size  and  quality. 


THE  CHIEF  SIZES  OF  SLATES  IN  ORDINARY  USE 

Name. 

Inches. 

Name. 

Inches. 

Imperials 
Empresses     .  . 
Princesses     .  . 
Duchesses 
Marchionesses 

Countesses    .  . 

30  by  24 
26  by  15 
24  by  14 
24  by  12 
22  by  11 
or  12 
20  by  10 

Viscountesses  . 
Ladies     . 
Small  ladies  .  . 
Doubles  .  . 

Smalls     .  . 

18  by  10 
16  by  10 
14  by   8 
13  by  10 
or  7 
any  smaller 
size. 

A  good  slate  should  be  hard  and  tough  and 
give  a  metallic  ring  when  struck,  and  should 
not  split  when  trimmed  or  holed  ;  it  should  not 
absorb  more  than  1  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in 
water.  Its  absorption  may  be  tested  by  allowing 
it  to  stand  half  immersed  in  water.  If  in  twelve 
hours  the  water  has  been  absorbed  so  as  to 
reach  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  slate  it  is  not 
a  suitable  slate  to  use  ;  in  a  really  good  slate  the 
water  should  not  rise  to  any  appreciable  extent. 
Soft  slates  if  breathed  upon  for  a  minute  or  so 
will  give  off  a  strong  odour  of  clay. 

Slates  vary  much  in  colour,  and  may  be  blue, 
red  or  purple,  and  grey.  All  these  colours  are 
to  be  obtained  in  Welsh  slates,  and  there  are 
four  qualities — bests,  seconds,  thirds,  which  are 

4865 


BUILDING 

sold  by  count  of  1,200  per  thousand,  and  tons, 
sold  by  weight.  Bests  are  the  thinnest  and  lightest 
and  most  free  from  all  defects,  and  make  a  very 
neat-looking  roof  ;  but  the  seconds  and  thirds, 
which  are  of  the  same  material,  but  thicker  and 
less  uniform,  make  a  stronger,  though  heavier 
and  generally  less  even  roof.  The  ends  of  slates 
are  sometimes  not  cut  square,  but  given  a 
rounded  or  pointed  form. 

Westmorland  slates  are  green  hi  colour, 
heavier  than  Welsh  slates,  and  are  not  cut  to 
uniform  sizes,  so  that  they  require  to  be  sorted 
into  sizes  before  using. 

Slates  may  be  laid  on  a  roof  of  as  low  a  pitch 
as  22  deg.  if  large  slates  are  used.  Countess 
slates  should  not  be  laid  to  a  flatter  pitch  than 
26£  deg.,  and  small  slates  to  a  pitch  of  30  deg. 

Terms  Used  by  the  Slater.  When 
slates  are  laid  in  a  roof  the  area  of  the  slate  that 
shows  on  the  completed  roof  is  less  than  one- 
half  of  the  total  area  of  the  slate  ;  the  upper  part 
of  the  slate  is  completely  covered  by  the  next 
course  of  slates,  and  to  some  extent  by  the 
next  course  but  one.  The  surface  of  the  slate 
that  remains  exposed  is  termed  the  margin  [24], 
and  the  depth  of  the  margin  is  equivalent  to 
the  gauge  [24] ;  the  lower  edge  of  the  slate  is 
termed  the  tail  [25] ;  the  upper  edge  of  a  slate 
is  termed  the  head  [25] ;  the  upper  surface,  when 
laid,  the  back  [26] ;  the  lower  surface,  when  laid, 
the  bed  [26].  Where  the  length  of  the  slates 
used  throughout  a  roof  remains  uniform,  the 
gauge  remains  the  same  ;  but  if  the  length  of 
the  slates  varies,  as  with  Westmorland  slates, 
the  gauge  is  varied.  The  largest  slates  are  used 
at  the  eaves,  arid  gradually  reduced  to  the  ridge, 
and  in  such  cases  special  care  is  necessary  in 
setting  out  the  laths  or  battens  to  which  they 
are  nailed. 

Fixing  Slates.  There  are  two  systems  of 
fixing  slates,  depending  upon  the  position  in 
the  slate  in  which  the  nailing  holes  are  pierced. 
When  head-nailing  [29]  is  adopted  they  are  pierced 
about  1  in.  below  the  head  of  the  slate.  The 
principal  advantage  claimed  for  this  system  is, 
that  the  nail  hole  is  protected  from  the 
weather  by  two  thicknesses  of  slate,  and  in  the 
event  of  one  of  these  slates  being  cracked  the 
nail  hole  is  not  thereby  exposed ;  its  drawbacks 
are  that  more  slates  are  required  to  cover  a  given 
area,  repairs  are  less  easily  effected,  and  should 
the  wind  get  under  the  tail  of  the  slate  it  may 
exert  a  very  considerable  leverage  when  the  nail 
is  so  close  to  the  head.  When  centre  nailing  [28]  is 
adopted,  the  holes  are  perforated  only  sufficently 
above  the  centre  of  the  slates  to  allow  the  nail  to 
miss  the  slates  of  the  course  below.  This  system 
is  considered  to  give  a  better  hold  to  the  slate, 
and  employs  somewhat  fewer  slates  than  when 
they  are  head  nailed  ;  but  the  nails  are  pro- 
tected by  only  one  thickness  of  slate,  and  if  this 
happens  to  crack  above  the  nail  hole,  water  may 
find  its  way  in. 

In  both  systems  the  slates  are  laid  so  as  to 
have  a  lap,  which  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  the 
extent  to  which  the  head  of  one  slate  is  covered 
or  lapped  by  the  tail  of  the  slate  in  the  next 
course  but  one  above  it ;  the  lapis  usually  not  less 

4866 


than  3  in.,  and  "When  slates  are  head-nailed  the 
lap  is  measured  from  the  nail  hole,  which  is  at 
least  1  in.  below  the  head  of  the  slate  ;  but  when 
slates  are  centre-nailed  the  lap  is  measured 
from  the  actual  head.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  the  effective  length  of  the  slate  is  reduced 
by  1  in.  at  least  when  head-nailed,  and  the  gauge 
which  equals  the  effective  length,  less  the  lap, 
divided  by  two,  is  reduced  by  £  in.,  and  it  is  for 
this  reason  that,  as  already  stated,  more  slates 
are  required  to  cover  a  given  area  when  head- 
nailed  than  when  cent  re -nailed.  If  there  were 
no  lap  in  slating,  water  finding  its  way  through 
the  joints  between  the  margins  of  two  adjoining 
slates  might  not  be  received  by  the  slate  belov,- 
it,  but  miss  the  head  and  reach  the  boarding, 
or  if  there  were  no  boarding,  drip  from  the  inside. 
But  the  length  of  the  lap  insures  that  the  head 
of  every  slate  is  several  inches  above  the  point 
at  which  moisture  can  come  through  the  joints 
in  the  next  course  of  slates. 

Bonding  of  Slates.  If  a  slate  roof  bo 
examined,  it  will  be  found  that  every  course  of 
slates  breaks  joint  with  the  course  immediately 
below  or  above  it,  so  that  the  joint  between  any 
pair  of  slates,  laid  side  by  side,  coincides  with  the 
centre  of  a  slate  in  the  course  below  [30  j.  This 
bonding  is  regulated  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the 
roof,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  form  the  bond 
with  a  slate  half  the  width  of  an  ordinary  slate, 
though  this  is  sometimes  done,  as  such  a  slate 
would  have  width  for  only  a  single  nail,  and 
would  be  liable  to  be  displaced  ;  but  in  every 
alternate  course  the  end  slate  is  half  as  wide 
again  as  an  ordinary  slate,  so  that  the  first 
joint  in  such  a  course  comes  over  the  centre  of 
the  second  slate  from  the  end  in  the  course 
below. 

Slating  a  Roof.  The  slater  starts  from 
the  eaves  of  a  roof  and  works  upwards.  The 
carpenter  has  provided  a  tilting  fillet,  or  has 
kept  the  top  of  the  front  facia  above  the  level 
of  the  roof  boarding,  and  provided  laths  at 
proper  distances  to  which  the  slates  are  to  be 
nailed.  The  exact  distance  of  the  first  fillet 
from  the  eaves  depends  upon  the  size  of  the 
slate.  In  order  to  provide  a  double  thickness 
of  slate,  the  bottom  course  of  slates  is  laid 
double,  and  the  lower  slates  in  this  double 
course  are  shorter  than  the  ordinary  slates 
by  a  length  equal  to  the  gauge,  so  that  the 
tails  of  the  upper  and  lower  slates  in  the 
course  will  coincide,  and  the  joint  between  the 
upper  and  lower  rows  of  slates  in  the  course  is 
broken.  The  tails  extend  beyond  the  facia  or 
tilting  fillet  about  1  in.,  so  that  water  running 
down  the  roof  will  drip  from  the  ends  generally 
into  a  gutter,  and  the  tilting  fillet,  by  raising  the 
lower  part  of  the  slate  from  the  boarding, 
ensures  that  the  tails  will  fit  closely  together. 

Except  the  lower  slates  in  the  double  course, 
the  slates  are  usually  uniform  in  size  till  the 
ridge  is  reached,  where  the  last  row  of  slates  has 
to  be  cut  to  a  length  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
under  course  in  the  eaves,  and  to  secure  this  result 
the  gauge  as  set  out  may,  if  necessary,  be  varied 
by  a  trifling  amount  throughout  the  whole  slope 
of  the  roof  to  insure  that  the  head  of  the  topmost 


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f1ETHOW  Of  3WTina 


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DETAILS   OF    SLATED   ROOFS 


4867 


BUILDING 

course  but  one  shall  come  to  within  about  1 J  in. 
of  the  ridge. 

Slates  are  usually  laid  so  that  the  edges  of  the 
slates  in  each  course  are  in  contact  ;  but  con- 
siderable economy  may  be  effected  by  spacing 
them  with  a  short  interval  between  them.  This, 
which  is  termed  open  slating  [31],  does  not  make 
so  sound  a  roof,  but  in  positions  sheltered  from 
driving  rain  and  for  many  kinds  of  outbuildings 
such  a  roof  may  be  adequate,  but  if  not  laid 
on  boarding,  it  will  be  very  liable  to  allow  snow 
to  enter. 

Nailing  Slates.  Each  slate  is  fixed  with 
two  nails  driven  through  the  holes  perforated  for 
them  into  the  batten  or  boarding.  The  nails 
are  short,  with  large,  flat  heads,  to  cover  the 
perforation  in  the  slate.  The  best  nails  are  made 
of  copper,  and  permanently  resist  oxidation. 
Nails  of  malleable  iron,  galvanised,  are  also  satis- 
factory, and  composition  nails,  made  of  an  alloy 
of  tin,  zinc,  and  copper,  are  used,  and  resist 
oxidation.  Nails  made  from  pure  zinc  are  too 
soft  to  drive  readily.  Lead  nails  are  used  when 
not  required  to  be  driven  into  the  wood  but 
to  be  bent  round  the  batten. 

Finishing  the  Edges  of  a  Roof.  The 
edges  of  each  slope  must  be  treated  in  a  special 
manner.  They  may  be  finished  with  verges  where 
the  slates  overhang  the  wall,  or  may  be  stopped 
behind  a  parapet ;  in  either  case  a  tilting  fillet 
must  be  provided  by  the  carpenter  to  lift  the 
outer  edge  of  the  slating  and  thus  prevent  any 
tendency  for  water  to  run  down  the  roof  and  flow 
over  the  outer  edge.  Where  verges  are  used,  the 
slates  are  usually  bedded  and  pointed  in  cement, 
and  a  wood  or  cement  fillet  may  be  run  against 
the  brickwork  below  the  overhanging  slates.  If 
the  return  wall  under  the  verges  or  parapet  be  at 
right  angles  to  that  under  the  eaves,  there  will  be 
110  occasion  to  do  more  than  provide  for  bonding 
the  slates,  as  already  described  ;  but  if  the  angle 
between  them  be  not  a  right  angle,  the  slates 
must  be  cut  with  a  raking  edge,  to  fit  the  angle. 
Slates  must  also  be  cut  with  a  raking  edge 
wherever  a  hip  or  valley  occurs.  Slates  are  not 
bedded  in  mortar,  but,  where  laid  on  battens 
without  boarding  under  them,  are  sometimes 
torched — that  is,  the  horizontal  joints  are  pointed 
in  lime  and  hair  from  the  underside  of  the  roof. 

Finishing  the  Ridge.  When  the  two  sides 
of  a  roof  have  been  slated  to  the  apex,  there 
will  be  a  joint  at  the  top  on  each  side  of  the 
ridge  through  which  water  would  penetrate ;  and 
there  are  two  or  three  methods  of  protecting 
this.  A  sawn  slate  ridge  roll  [32]  may  be  used 
with  wings  on  each  side  •  the  wings  and  roll  may 
be  in  three  separate  pieces,  or  one  of  the  wings 
may  be  in  one  piece  with  the  roll,  and  the 
other  then  fits  under  a  rebate  in  the  roll.  The 
wings  are  fixed  with  copper  screws  set  in  white 
lead  to  the  ridge  piece,  and  the  heads  are 
covered  by  the  roll,  which  is  fixed  with  long 
brass  or  copper  screws,  the  heads  countersunk 
and  stopped  with  oil  putty  or  cement  ;  the  ridge 
is  jointed  in  oil  putty,  and  the  wings  lie  on  the 
back  of  the  top  row  of  slates  on  each  side  of 
the  ridge.  Where  the  ridge  is  joined  by  the 
hips  a  special  junction  piece  is  employed. 


Tiles  are  also  largely  used  for  protecting  ridges. 
The  most  common  form  is  a  plain  rounded  tile 
[33],  which  simply  covers  the  ridge,  and  is  bedded 
and  pointed  in  lime  and  hair  mortar ;  or 
specially-formed  ridge  tiles,  formed  with  a  flange 
to  cover  the  upper  slates  on  each  side  of  the  ridge, 
and  usually  with  a  roll  or  a  plain  or  ornamental 
cresting,  are  bedded  in  the  same  way.  A  lead 
roll  is  also  used,  and  is  described  under 
External  Plumbing,  together  with  the  means 
taken  to  make  watertight  joints  between  the 
sloping  surface  of  slate  roofs  and  the  vertical 
surfaces  of  walls,  chimneys,  dormers,  etc. 

Finishing  Hips.  Hips  may  be  finished  in 
the  same  way  as  ridges,  with  slate  rolls  or  hip 
tiles,  which  resemble  ridge  tiles,  or  with  a  lead 
roll.  The  slate  roll  or  hip  tiles  are  bedded  and 
secured  as  in  the  case  of  a  ridge,  and  it  is 
customary  to  screw  to  the  back  of  the  wood 
hip  rafter  at  its  lower  end  a  piece  of  wrought 
iron,  of  which  the  lower  end  is  turned  up,  and 
often  treated  ornamentally,  as  a  stop  to  prevent 
the  lowest  tile  slipping  down  ;  this  is  termed  a 
liip  hook  [42].  Where  the  hips  cut  against  the 
ridge,  the  joint  is  best  formed  with  a  specially- 
formed  tile  to  cover  the  junction.  This  may 
be  quite  plain;  but  in  many  cases  at  about 
the  point  where  the  intersection  occurs  the 
tile  is  raised  considerably  above  the  ridge  level, 
is  treated  ornamentally,  and  is  termed  a 
finial.  A  similar  ornamental  finial  occurs  fre- 
quently where  the  ridge  terminates  above  a 
gable  end,  or,  where  overhanging  barge  boards 
are  used  [see  CARPENTRY],  the  apex  is  often 
framed  into  a  wooden  finial,  against  which  the 
ridge  tile  is  stopped. 

There  is  one  other  method  of  finishing  the  hip 
which  is  not  applicable  to  the  ridge.  This  is 
done  by  having  the  slates  closely  cut  and  mitred 
to  the  line  of  the  hip  and  forming  a  small  secret 
gutter  running  down  the  hip,  and  under  the 
slates.  This  forms  a  very  neat  finish,  and,  with 
the  concealed  gutter,  a  watertight  one  [see 
External  Plumbing]. 

Valleys  in  slate  roofs  are  formed  with  lead 
dressed  over  a  tilting  fillet  on  each  side  [see 
External  Plumbing],  and  the  slates  must  be  care- 
fully cut  to  fit  the  slope. 

Glass  Slates.  Glass  slates  may  be  used  to 
admit  light  to  the  roof  space.  They  are  made 
the  same  size  as  ordinary  slates,  £  in.  thick, 
bonded  with  them,  and  perforated  and  screwed 
to  the  woodwork.  If  close  boarding  be  used,  it 
must  be  cut  away  under  the  glass  tiles. 

The  surface  of  a  slate  roof  may  be  varied  in 
appearance  either  by  using  slates  of  two  different 
colours  in  alternate  bands  or  in  other  geometrical 
arrangements,  or  by  introducing  a  proportion 
of  slates  the  tails  of  which  are  cut  to  a  rounded 
or  pointed  form. 

Repairing  Slate  Roofs.  The  method 
of  removing  old  slates  was  referred  to  in  de- 
scribing the  ripper.  New  slates  cannot  be  nailed 
to  the  battens,  and  are  secured  in  position  by  the 
use  of  tad;?.  These  are  .strips  of  lead  or  copper, 
of  which  the  upper  end  is  bent  and  hooked 
over  the  head  of  the  slate  in  the  course  below  ; 
the  new  slate  is  then  placed  in  position,  and  the 


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5CAI1  OF  FELT 


DETAILS    OF   TILERS'    WORK 


4869 


BUILDING 

end  of  the  tack  bent  up  over  it  to  hold  it  in  posi- 
i       tion.     Two  tacks  should  be  used  for  each  slate 
to  be  fixed. 

Saw  n  Slates.  Sawn  slate  roofs  are  occasion  - 
ally  used,  and  are  heavy  and  costly.  They  may  be 
used  either  on  a  timber  or  iron  frame.  The  slabs 
may  be  cut  to  any  convenient  size,  and  are 
generally  about  £  in.  thick..  The  edges  of  the  slabs 
in  each  course  simply  butt  one  against  the  other, 
and  are  laid  in  red  lead,  and  afterwards  covered  by 
a  sawn  slate  cover  bedded  over  the  joint  in  red 
lead  [34].  The  slabs  and  covering  slips  are  fixed 
by  screws,  for  which  holes  must  be  drilled,  or,  if 
fixed  to  iron  purlins,  bolts  are  used.  The  slate 
must  be  countersunk  to  receive  the  heads  of 
the  screws,  which  are  bedded  in  red  lead.  The 
tail  of  one  course  of  slates  laps  over  the  course 
below  about  4  in.,  and  is  bedded  in  red  lead. 
In  this  form  of  roof  there  is  no  bonding,  the  joints 
in  every  course  coming  directly  over  those  in 
the  course  below,  so  that  the  cover  strips  run 
up  in  a  straight  line  from  the  eaves  to  the  ridge, 
and  each  strip  laps  over  the  strip  below  as 
occurs  in  the  larger  slates.  A  special  capping 
piece  is  used  to  protect  the  ridge. 

Vertical  Slating.  Vertical  slating  is 
sometimes  employed  for  the  cheeks  of  dormers 
and  similar  situations,  and  is  fixed  in  the  same 
way  as  in  slopes.  Vertical  slating  is  also  used, 
especially  in  slate  districts,  for  protecting 
exposed  walls  from  the  effects  of  driving  rain. 
Slates  for  this  purpose  may  be  selected  of  such 
a  size  as  to  allow  the  use  of  a  gauge  that  is  a 
multiple  of  the  height  of  a  course  of  bricks,  so 
that  the  slates  may  be  nailed  into  the  brick 
courses.  A  lap  of  1|  in.  will  suffice  for  vertical 
slating. 

Stone  Slates.  Stone  slates,  or  tiles,  are 
employed  in  districts  where  thin,  laminated  stones 
are  available,  and  these  are  sometimes  brought 
to  other  districts.  They  are  usually  about  1  in. 
thick  and  upwards,  and  vary  somewhat  in  size, 
so  that  they  require  to  be  sorted  into  sizes.  The 
deeper  courses  are  laid  near  the  eaves,  and  the 
gauge  is  regularly  diminished  as  the  ridge  is 
approached.  They  are  usually  laid  to  about  3£  in. 
lap  with  a  double  course  at  eaves,  and  cut  to  ridges 
and  hips,  but  the  valleys  are  generally  formed 
with  shaped  stones  laid  to  an  easy  curve ;  but 
lead  valleys  may  be  used.  They  are  laid  on  sawn 
oak  laths,  and  each  stone  is  fixed  with  one  oak  peg. 
The  stones  may  be  shouldered  in  lime  and  hair. 
This  consists  in  bedding  the  heads  of  the  stones 
only  for  a  short  distance  down.  Another  method 
of  fixing  is  to  lath  between  the  battens  and  to  fill 
in  the  space  with  mortar  made  of  stone  and  lime, 
and  to  bed  the  stones  on  this  mortar  [39].  The 
verges  and  the  joints  of  the  stones  are  pointed,  and 
the  hips  and  ridges  may  be  covered  with  tiles 
or  with  solid  sawn  stone  covers  [40],  at  least  8  in 
wide  on  each  splay,  cut  in  long  lengths  to  suit 
the  pitch  of  the  roof,  and  bedded  and  pointed  in 
cement,  and  with  specially-cut  junction  pieces 
i  where  the  hips  and  ridge  meet,  and  strong 
I  wrought  hip  iron,  as  described  for  slate 
hips.  The  flattest  pitch  that  is  suitable  for 
a  roof  covered  with  stone  slates  is  one  of 
40°,  and  the  roof  timbers  and  trusses  require 
4870 


to  be  about  50  per  cent,  stronger  than  for  slates 
on  account  of  the  extra  weight  of  this  covering. 
Stone  slating  is  sometimes  used  vertically,  for 
cheeks  of  dormers  or  for  walls,  formed  with 
similar  stones. 

Shingles.  Shingles  are  wood  slates  split 
generally  from  oak,  but  cedar  and  larch  are  also 
sometimes  used ;  they  are  usually  6  in.  wide,  and 
from  12  to  18  in.  in  length,  and  are  laid  in  the 
same  manner  as  slates,  but  with  a  lap  of  from  4  to 
5  in.,  and  are  not  suitable  for  a  flatter  pitch  than 
45°.  They  are  nailed  with  copper  nails  on  close 
boarding.  The  hips  and  ridges  may  be  cut 
out  of  solid  oak  in  long  lengths  in  the  same 
manner  as  already  ^described  for  stone  hips  and 
ridges  with  slopes  6  to  8  in.  long,  but  the  hips 
may  also  be  close  cut  and  mitred,  and  provided 
with  a  secret  gutter  as  described  for  slate  hips, 
which  makes  neater  work. 

Shingling  is  principally  used  now  for  turrets 
and  spires,  and  in  such  cases  there  is,  of  course, 
no  ridge  piece  required,  but  an  apex  piece 
will  be  necessary ;  and  this  may  be  of  oak,  or  of 
fir  covered  with  lead. 

Tiles.  Tiles  are  burnt  from  suitable  earths, 
but  they  vary  much  in  quality,  colour,  and  form 
[see  page  644].  Some  are  light  in  colour  and 
porous ;  others,  made  from  very  compact  clays, 
are  dark  in  colour,  varying  from  deep  red  to 
brown  and  purple,  almost  vitrified  in  burning, 
and  absorbing  very  little  moisture.  They  are 
usually  slightly  cambered,  or  arched,  between  the 
head  and  tail,  and  may  be  perforated  with  holes 
for  nails,  or  formed  with  small  projections  termed 
cogs  or  nibs  on  the  underside  of  the  head,  or 
they  may  have  both.  The  size  of  a  tile  is  usually 
10£  by  6|  in.  or  11  by  7  in.,  and  the 
gauge  employed  is  usually  3£  to  4  in.  The 
tails  are  not  always  square  in  form,  but  may  be 
made  ornamental  in  character.  Special  sized 
tiles  are  made  for  the  under  course  at  eaves,  and 
the  top  course  at  the  ridge,  to  avoid  cutting ;  extra 
wide  tiles,  known  as  tile-and-a-half  [41],  are  made 
for  bonding  at  ends  of  slopes,  .and  special  tiles 
are  made  for  both  hips  [42]  and  valleys  [45],  form- 
ing a  rounded  angle,  and  of  such  a  form  that 
the  tiles  bond  with  those  in  the  adjoining 
slopes.  The  forms  of  these  tiles  differ  according 
to  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  and  must  be  specially 
made  or  selected  exactly  to  suit  the  pitch 
employed. 

Pantiles  [48]  are  usually  about  14  by  9  in., 
and  are  curved  in  an  ogee  curve  in  their 
horizontal  section ;  they  are  provided  with  cogs. 

Cutting  and  Hanging  Tiles.  Where  the 
edges  of  a  roof  do  not  finish  square,  but  make  an 
irregular  angle,  tiles  may  have  to  be  cut  to  fit  the 
slope.  This  is  usually  done  by  marking  the 
required  line  on  the  tile,  and  breaking  off  the 
superfluous  material  in  small  pieces  with  a  pair 
of  iron  pincers  till  the  required  angle  has  been 
obtained,  and  the  operation  is  finished  by  rubbing 
the  edge  smooth  on  a  piece  of  stone. 

Roofs  are  prepared  for  tiling  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  for  slating ;  the  sawn  laths 
are  usually  about  1£  by  1  in.,  and  are  set  out 
to  the  required  gauge  [43].  The  eaves  are  laid 
double  as  in  slate  roofs  [44].  Tiles  that  have  no 


nibs  are  hung  to  the  laths  by  oak  pins  driven 
through  the  holes  provided,  or  are  nailed  with 
nails  similar  to  those  used  for  slating  [43]. 

Tiles  that  have  nibs  are  hung  to  the  laths  by 
means  of  them,  and  may,  in  addition,  be  secured 
by  nails  ;  but  it  is  not  usual  to  use  more  than  one 
nail  to  each  tile,  or  to  nail  every  course  of  tiles, 
as  they  are  largely  kept  in  position  by  the  weight 
of  the  courses  above;  for  ordinary  tile  slopes, 
if  every  fourth  course  is  nailed  it  will  amply 
suffice. 

Bedding  Tiles.  Tiles  are  not  generally 
bedded  in  mortar,  which,  when  used,  is  liable  to 
absorb  moisture,  but  are  laid  dry,  each  row 
resting  on  the  back  of  the  row  below,  as  with 
slating.  Where  tiles  are  fixed  without  boarding 
or  felt,  they  are  sometimes  torched  like  slates — 
that  is,  the  horizontal  joints  only  are  pointed  ;  in 
other  cases  the  vertical  joints  are  a'so  pointed 
between  the  tiling  battens.  Such  pointing  will 
tend  to  keep  any  snow  from  drifting  in,  but  in  a 
well  laid  roof  it  is  not  required  to  keep  out  wet, 
and  if  the  tiles  are  absorbent  it  is  liable  to  absorb 
moisture  from  them. 

Where  verges  occur  tiles  are  bedded  and  pointed 
in  cement,  and,  in  the  place  of  the  wood  fillet  used 
in  slating,  a  tile  may  be  bedded  and  a  cement 
fillet  formed  on  it  in  cement ;  this  may  be 
finished  with  a  hollow  joint  [56].  It  is  possible 
to  form  hips  and  valleys  by  cutting  and  mitreing 
the  edges  of  the  ordinary  tiles,  and  to  use  lead 
valleys  and  rounded  ridge  tiles  as  is  done  with 
slates ;  the  hips  are  then  bedded  in  lime  and  hair 
mortar,  and  pointed,  but  this  does  not  make 
so  good  work  as  using  special  hip  tiles  bonded 
with  the  ordinary  tiling. 

Ridges  may  be  formed  as  described  for  hips 
with  plain  rounded  tiles  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  a  special 
ridge  tile  is  used — either  a  roll  with  two  flanges 
only  or  with  a  cresting  in  addition.  There  is 
a  great  variety  in  the  form  of  ridge  tiles  to  suit 
different  tastes  and  styles  of  work,  but  they  have 
all  two  wings,  or  flanges  to  cover  the  ridge,  and 
rest  on  the  topmost  row  of  tiles  [53].  Vertical 
joints  between  the  ridge  tiles  are  unavoidable, 
and  the  ridge  tiles,  or  at  least  the  ends  of  them, 
are  therefore  bedded  on  a  layer  of  cement,  and 
the  joints  are  made  in  cement.  Ridge  tiles  are 
usually  made  in  lengths  of  a  foot  and  upwards. 
Finials,  as  already  described  for  slated  roofs,  are 
used,  but  with  tiled  roofs  finials  of  the  same 
material  are  usually  employed  [54]. 

Ornamental  and  Vertical  Tiling.  The 
appearance  of  the  roof  surface  may  be  varied 
by  the  introduction  of  a  certain  proportion  of 
tiles  differing  from  the  ordinary  tile  either  in 
form  or  colour.  Tiles  that  have  the  tails  finished 
in  an  ornamental  form  [49]  are  usually  laid  in 
bands  of  three  or  four  rows  and  upwards  at 
regular  intervals.  -Tiles  of  a  darker  or  lighter 
colour  than  the  ordinary  tile  may  be  laid  in  the 
same  way,  or  may  be  introduced  so  as  to  form  a 
geometrical  design  ;  if  this  is  done,  very  careful 
setting  out  is  essential  to  insure  the  symmetrical 
completion  of  the  pattern. 

Vertical  faces,  such  as  cheeks  of  dormers, 
gable  ends,  etc.,  may  be  tiled  in  the  same  way  as 
described  for  vertical  slating ;  but  in  such  positions 


BUILDING 

the  tiles  should  be  nailed,  and  vertical  edges  to 
dormers  or  similar  positions  should  be  solidly 
bedded  and  pointed  in  cement,  and  the  joint 
between  vertical  tiling  and  the  slope  of  the  roof 
is  made  secure  by  lead  soakers  [see  PLUMBING]. 

Vertical  tiling  to  walls  is  frequently  employed 
in  country  work  as  a  protection  to  thin  walls. 
The  joints  of  an  ordinary  brick  wall  are  not 
conveniently  spaced  for  hanging  tiles,  as  they 
give  a  gauge  of  3  in.  only  ;  but  in  localities  where 
a  9  in.  wall  may  be  built  hollow  by  using  bricks 
on  edge,  tiling  may  suitably  be  fixed  to  the 
joints  [50].  This  will  allow  a  gauge  of  4|  in.  A 
very  usual  method  of  hanging  tiles  is  to  build  in 
coke  breeze  fixing- blocks  at  regular  intervals,  and 
secure  to  them  sawn  laths  2  in.  by  1  in.,  to  which 
the  tiles  are  hung  [51],  or  the  laths  may  be  fixed 
to  vertical  timbers  built  into  the  walls  at  intervals 
of  from  14  in.  to  18  in.  [52].  Vertical  tiling  may 
be  laid  dry,  or  bedded  and  pointed  in  mortar.  In 
the  former  method  the  laths  are  less  likely  to 
perish,  as  better  ventilation  will  be  secured ;  and 
mortar,  as  already  pointed  out,  is  liable  to  absorb 
moisture  from  porous  tiles.  Vertical  angles  are 
formed  with  specially  made  angle  tiles,  or  the 
ordinary  tiles  may  be  cut  and  mitred,  and  lead 
soakers  employed.  The  lower  edge  of  a  vertical 
tiled  surface  is  made  to  project  from  the  face  of 
the  wall  either  over  a  brick  or  stone  band, 
corbelled  out  at  least  2|  in.  [52],  or  where  a  tiled 
surface  is  stopped  over  an  opening,  a  wooden 
tilting  fillet  is  provided  [51],  the  lower  courses 
are  bedded  in  cement.  The  object  of  this  pro- 
jection is  to  throw  off  any  water  that  runs  down 
the  tiles  clear  of  the  walls.  Where  tiling  is 
stopped  in  a  vertical  line  by  the  jambs  of  open- 
ings, the  outer  tiles  are  bedded  and  pointed  in 
cement.  Where  tiling  is  finished  under  a  wooden 
window-sill  or  below  the  kerb  of  a  skylight,  a 
lead  apron  is  generally  closely  nailed  to  the 
underside  of  the  sill,  and  dressed  down  over 
the  tiles. 

Repairing  Tiled  Roofs.  Tiled  roofs 
may  have  broken  tiles  removed  and  new  ones 
fixed  in  position  in  the  manner  already  described 
for  slate  roofs  ;  but  where  tiles  are  provided 
with  nibs,  and  the  tiles  are  not  nailed  down, 
it  is  often  possible  carefully  to  lift  slightly  a  few 
tiles  and  insert  a  new  one,  passing  the  nibs  over 
the  lath,  and  thus  securely  hanging  it.  Some 
few  years  ago  a  slotted  tile  was  manufactured 
in  which  the  nail  hole  was  provided  with  a 
circular  slot  below  it,  so  that  even  when  nailed 
the  tile  could  be  pushed  up  so  that  the  slots 
dropped  over  the  nail  heads,  and  then,  by  draw- 
ing down  the  tile,  it  was  securely  fixed.  Such 
tiles  greatly  facilitate  repairs,  but  are  not  in 
general  use. 

Pantiles  are  used  only  for  an  inferior  class  of 
work  ;  they  are  not  flat,  but  partly  concave  and 
partly  convex  in  cross  section,  and  are  provided 
with  nibs,  and  can  be  laid  to  a  pitch  as  flat  as 
25°,  and  are  not  usually  nailed.  The  laths 
are  usually  about  1  \  in.  by  1  in.  Under-boarding 
or  felt  is  not  used.  The  tiles  are  laid  so  that  in 
each  course  the  convex  edge  of  one  tile  overlaps 
the  concave  edge  of  the  next ;  successive  courses 
do  not  break  joint,  and  there  is  no  lap  in  the 

4871 


BUILDING 


ordinary  sense,  but  the  tails  of  one  row  cover  the      only  for  temporary  \vork  and  outbuildings,  and 

i  i  **  *        ,  <•  1         1  f  •  rt       •__  A  _         f        •    _  1 jl  1  >  _  1  j          T  1»  1  j  ,1      •  1 


heads  of  the  course  below  from  3  in.  to  5  in., 
and  the  alternate  ridges  and  furrows  formed  by 
the  t£es  run  continuously  from  the  eaves  to  the 
ridge.  The  tiles  are  bedded  and  pointed  in 
hydraulic  lime  and  hair. 

Glass  tiles  can  be  obtained  to  work  in  with 
ordinary  pantiles,  and  are  perforated  and  fixed 
with  screws.  Ridges  are  formed  with  simple 
convex  tiles  bedded  in  cement  [47].  Hips  may 
be  formed  with  similar  tiles,  and  valleys  with 
concave  tiles  ;  but  in  roofs  of  this  class  hips  and 
valleys  are,  as  far  as  possible,  dispensed  with. 


has  at  the  best  a  short  life,  but  this  may  be 
extended  by  tarring  the  upper  side  of  the  felt, 
and  sprinkling  it  with  sand  or  ashes. 

Roofs  of  Weather  Boarding.  Another 
form  of  temporary  roof  may  be  made  with 
weather  boarding  ;  this  is  principally  used 
for  vertical  surfaces,  but  may  be  employed 
for  roofs  of  sheds  and  outbuildings  having 
a  pitch  of  at  least  27°;  about  one-quarter 
pitch  and  a  greater  slope  than  this  is  desirable. 
The  boards  generally  have  an  average  thickness 
of  about  f  in.  and  are  cut  with  a  weathered  or 


Special  forms  of    tiles   are  manufactured   of      feather  edge  surface — that  is.  the  lower  edge  is 


various  kinds,  and  for  these  more  elaborate 
precautions  are  taken  against  the  penetration 
of  wet,  and  a  much  larger  portion  of  the  bed 
of  each  tile  is  visible  in  the  finished  roof,  and  in 
some  cases  almost  the  whole  of  the  back  in  thus 
displayed.  Such  tiles  are  more  expensive ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  far  smaller  number  are 


thicker  than  the  upper  one,  varying,  say,  from 
\  in.  to  1  in.  in  thickness,  so  that  two  boards 
can  be  sawn  out  of  a  plank  1|  in.  thick.  The 
under  side  of  the  lower  edge  is  sometimes  also 
rebated,  so  as  to  fit  over  the  thinner  edge  of  the 
near  board,  which  insures  that  the  under  surfaces 
lie  in  a  plane.  Such  boarding  is  laid  on  rafters 


required  to  cover  a  given  area.     As  examples  of      so  that  the  lower  edge,  whether  it  is  plain  or 


this  class,  Venetian  tiles  may  be  mentioned  [55], 
The  sides  of  these  tiles  are  not  quite  parallel,  but 
converge  somewhat,  and  a  rim  or  edge  is  formed 
at  both  sides,  and  the  edges  of  adjoining  tiles 
are  covered  with  half-round  tiles,  also  somewhat 
tapered  in  their  length.  This  makes  an  effective- 
looking  roof,  and  is  watertight,  but  not  proof 
against  driving  snow.  Tiles  are  also  made  in 
diamond  and  other  ornamental  forms,  with 
fillets  slightly  raised  on  the  two  upper  sides,  and  a 
corresponding  fillet  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
two  lower  sides. 

Pitch  of  Tile  Roofs.  The  flattest  pitch 
chat  is  considered  desirable  for  a  tile  roof  is 
45°,  but  roofs  are  sometimes  laid  as  flat 
as  30°,  but  should  have  boarding  and  felt 
under  them.  The  timbers  of  a  roof  covered 
with  tiles  require  to  be  about  30  per  cent, 
stronger  than  in  the  case  of  a  roof  covered  with 
slates. 

Cement  Filleting.  In  both  slate  and  tile 


rebated,  overlaps  the  board  below  it  and  is 
fixed  with  nails.  The  boards  can  be  obtained 
in  long  lengths,  and  should  extend  throughout 
the  whole  length  of  the  roof,  wherever  possible, 
to  avoid  joints  in  the  surface  of  the  boards,  and 
the  boards  overhang  slightly  at  the  end,  forming 
ridges.  The  ridge  is  covered  with  a  ridge  piece 
cut  from  the  solid,  as  described  for  roofs,  covered 
with  shingles  After  the  roof  is  covered,  it  is 
generally  protected  with  two  or  three  coats  of 
tar.  Roofs  of  this  class  are  used  for  simple  struc- 
tures and  are  formed  without  hips  and  valleys. 

Galvanised  Iron  and  Felt  Roofs. 
Galvanised  corrugated  iron  is  made  in  large 
sheets,  and  is  sometimes  undulating  in  cross- 
sections,  formed  with  alternate  rounds  and 
hollows,  or  sometimes  with  broad  flat  surfaces, 
with  rounds  at  intervals.  This  material  may 
be  obtained  curved  in  its  length,  to  suit  a 
rounded  roof.  It  is  best  laid  over  boarding  and 
felt.  In  laying,  the  sheets  are  lapped  laterally 
to  the  extent  of  at  least  one  corrugation,  and 


ft  .*  1  .  .  ,      .       ,  f  ,  ,  IAJ       WU.V       WAIV/J..IU       VM-       CIV      X\^«*OL'       VA1~H_;         t^  VSJ.  J.  U.&CV1U.WUJ       C**AVfc 

roofs  where  the  work  is  not  of  a  high  class    the'     when  Bucce8give  rows  of  sheets  occur,  the  tail  of 


junctions  between  the  ends  of  slate  roofs  and  the 
walls  of  parapets,  chimney  stacks,  or  other  brick 
faces,  are  often  protected  by  fillets  of  cement  to 
prevent  the  penetration  of  wet  at  these  points 
[57].  When  newly  executed,  these  are  usually 
efficient;  but  if  any  movement  occurs  in  the 
roof,  the  fillets  are  apt  to  break  away  from  the 
tiles  or  the  wall,  and  to  leave  the  joint  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  unprotected. 

Roofs    of    a   Temporary    Character. 

Some  other  forms  of  roofing  may  be  mentioned, 
though  they  are  not  laid  by  the  slater  or  tiler. 
The  simplest  of  these  is  a  covering  of  tarred  felt, 
which  may  be  laid  by  the  carpenter.  The  roof  to 
be  covered  is  first  boarded,  and  the  felt  cut  into 
strips  the  length  of  the  roof,  and  laid  horizontally, 
the  lower  edge  lapping  over  the  edge  of  the  board- 
ing and  nailed,  and  the  sides  turned  down  over 
the  boarding  and  nailed.  The  next  strip  of  felt 
has  the  lower  edge  lapped  over  the  top  of  the  first 
strip,  and  is  nailed,  and  in  a  ridge  roof  a  strip 
is  nailed  over  the  ridge.  Such  a  roof  is  useful 


one  sheet  covers  the  head  of  the  next  for  6  in. 
The  sheets  are  fixed  by  galvanised  nails  or  screws, 
with  large  heads,  and  the  hole  in  the  sheet  is 
covered  by  a  washer  under  the  nail.  The  sheets 
can  be  cut  if  required,  and  zinc  flashings  may 
be  used  when  necessary  to  protect  the  junction 
between  the  roof  and  vertical  surfaces,  as  in 
the  case  of  slated  roofs.  Special  galvanised 
iron  ridges  are  employed  for  use  where  a  ridge 
occurs,  and  these  may  be  made  to  take  the 
form  of  a  continuous  ventilating  ridge.  Messrs. 
Braby  supply  such  roofs  in  special  sheets 
to  work  in  with  the  ordinary  sheets,  but  in- 
cluding an  iron  kerb  and  skylight  ;  these  are 
often  useful  for  lighting  the  upper  parts  of 
structures  covered  with  this  material.  Ordinary 
sheets  are  rolled  in  lengths  of  5  ft.  to  8  ft.,  and 
in  widths  of  2  ft.  3  in.  and  2  ft.  9  in.,  with  3  in. 
or  5  in.  corrugations,  and  in  various  thicknesses, 
varying  from  16  to  30  in  the  Birmingham  iron 
gauge.  No.  16  is  used  for  good  work  ;  17  to  19 
for  ordinary  work  ;  20  to  30  for  cheaper  work. 


Continued 


4872 


THE  WORLD'S  CEREALS  &  FRUITS 

Tree  Products— continued.    Berries,  Buds,  and  Barks.    Wheat,  Maize,  Barley, 
Oats  and  Rye.      Rice  and  Millets.      The  Vine  and  the  Olive.      Tropical  Fruits 


Group  13 

COMMERCIAL 
GEOGRAPHY 


itinued  from 
page  4658 


By  Dr.  A.  J.  HERBERTSON,  M.A.,  and  F.  D.  HERBERTSON,  B.A. 


Condiments  and  Spices.  Many  tropical 
plants  yield  condiments  and  flavourings.  The 
familiar  spices — pepper,  the  berry  of  one  tree  ; 
cloves,  the  flower  buds  of  another  ;  nutmegs,  the 
kernel  of  another  ;  mace,  the  lace-like  husk  in 
which  the  nutmeg  is  enclosed ;  and  cinnamon, 
the  bark  of  another,  are  all  natives  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  have  been  introduced  into  other 
tropical  lands.  [See  FOOD  SUPPLY.]  Cloves  are 
chiefly  exported  from  Zanzibar  and  Pemba.  The 
Vanilla  orchid,  a  native  of  Central  America  and 
Mexico,  is  now  cultivated  in  Bourbon,  Mauritius, 
and  other  suitable  regions. 

Cinchona  and  Camphor.  A  valuable 
product  of  the  tropical  forest  is  cinchona, 
often  called  Peruvian  bark.  The  cinchona,  of 
which  there  are  many  species,  is  a  native  of 
the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  between  10°  N. 
and  20°  S.  lat.  Near  the  equator,  it  grows 
up  to  10,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  but  in  higher 
latitudes  it  needs  lower  elevation.  'In  Madeira, 
where  it  is  now  being  grown,  it  is  only  found 
near  sea-level.  About  half  a  century  ago  it  was 
introduced  into  Algiers,  Java,  and  India.  It  is 
now  grown  in  Southern  India  and  Ceylon,  as 
well  as  in  Sikkim  and  British  Burma,  but  not 
enough  is  produced  to  meet  the  large  Indian 
demand.  The  bark  of  the  cinchona  yields 
quinine,  which  is  used  medicinally  as  a  febrifuge 
and  tonic. 

Camphor  is  obtained  by  distillation  from  the 
chips  of  the  camphor  laurel.  Formosa  supplies 
nearly  all  the  market.  The  chief  markets  are 
Hong-Kong,  London,  Hamburg,  and  New  York. 
Besides  its  medicinal  uses,  camphor  is  used  in 
making  celluloid,  smokeless  explosives,  etc. 

Bread  =  fruit  Tree  and  Sago  Palm. 
Two  other  trees,  though  not  actually  wild, 
require  so  little  cultivation  as  hardly  to  be 
agricultural  products.  These  are  the  bread- 
fruit of  the  Pacific  and  the  sago  palm  of  the 
East  Indies.  The  sago  palm  becomes  mature  at 
about  15  years,  and  its  pith  yields  about  600  Ib. 
of  sago.  A  month's  work  produces  twice  as 
much  sago  as  can  be  used  in  a  year.  Once  formed, 
a  plantation  renews  itself  without  further  care, 
and  only  a  little  clearing  and  planting  is  required 
to  form  a  new  one.  Like  the  coco-nut  palm  or  the 
bread-fruit,  the  sago  palm  is  on  the  border  line  of 
agriculture.  The  sago  of  commerce  is  exported 
through  Singapore.  It  is  rich  in  starch,  and,  in 
addition  to  its  domestic  uses,  it  is  used  to 
thicken  cacao. 

Products  of  the  Agricultural  Lands. 
By  far  the  most  important  products  of  the 
agricultural  lands  are  the  cereals,  or  bread-stuffs. 
Other  important  crops  are  various  edible  fruits, 
roots,  fibre  plants,  etc. 


The  temperate  cereals  are  wheat,  maize, 
barley,  oats,  rye,  and  buckwheat. 

Wheat.  Wheat,  the  most  valuable,  has 
been  cultivated  for  thousands  of  years.  As  a 
result  of  long  cultivation  many  varieties  are  in 
existence.  White  wheats  yield  a  finer  flour, 
but  red  wheats  are  often  better  suited  to 
poorer  soils.  American  wheats  are  hard,  starchy, 
and  yield  little  bran.  The  best  varieties  of 
wheat  yield  as  much  as  80  per  cent,  of  flour. 
[See  AGRICULTURE.] 

Wheat  is  particularly  suited  to  clay  soils  and 
rich,  heavy  loams.  It  can  stand  a  fairly  hard 
winter,  especially  if  the  ground  be  protected  by 
snow  against  deep  frosts.  Where  the  winter 
is  not  too  severe  it  is  planted  in  autumn,  to  be 
more  forward  in  the  following  season.  This 
is  winter  wheat.  Spring  wheat  is  sown  in 
spring  to  ripen  in  the  same  autumn.  It  requires 
a  mean  summer  temperature  of  at  least  55°  F. 
for  three,  or  four  months  to  ripen,  and  grows 
best  between  25°  and  55°,  though  in  Europe  it 
is  cultivated  as  far  north  as  60°  lat.  The  ideal 
climatic  conditions  are  cool,  wet  winters,  which 
make  the  processes  of  germination  and  early 
growth  slow,  and  warm,  sunny,  dry  summers. 
These  conditions  are  admirably  fulfilled  round 
the  Mediterranean. 

The  Wheat  Lands  of  the  World. 
Wheat  is  now  extensively  grown  in  the 
temperate  zone.  Europe  produces  about  half 
of  the  world's  total  crop,  but  consumes  more. 
The  chief  wheat  lands  of  Europe  are  Hungary, 
Rumania  and  Russia,  all  steppe  lands.  France 
grows  enough  wheat  to  supply  her  own  eon- 
sumption,  but  exports  a  considerable  pro- 
portion, making  up  the  deficiency  by  import. 
In  Asia  wheat  is  increasingly  grown  in  the 
steppes  of  Siberia,  a  continuation  of  those 
of  Russia.  In  the  Punjab  and  the  Northern 
Dekkan  it  is  an  important  winter  crop.  Aus- 
tralian wheat  is  small  in  yield,  but  excellent  in 
quality.  In  New  Zealand  the  yield  is  high. 
In  North  America  immense  harvests  are  grown 
in  the  Upper  Mississippi  basin  and  in  the  Red 
River  valley.  A  very  large  wheat  crop  is  also 
raised  on  the  Pacific  coast,  especially  in  the 
Willamette  and  Californian  valleys.  This  now 
goes  mainly  to  Eastern  Asia.  In  Argentina  wheat 
is  grown  within  a  radius  of  about  400  miles  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Plate  River,  and  the  area  is 
increasing  with  the  facilities  of  transport. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  world's  harvests 
are  transported  in  the  form  of  flour.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  the  wheat  crop  of  the 
United  States  and  Hungary.  The  importing 
country  loses  the  offal,  which  is  retained  abroad 
for  stock  feeding. 

4873 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

The  world's  crop  at  the  beginning  of  this 
century  exceeded  3,000,000,000  bushels,  valued 
at  £556,000,000.  It  is  increasing  ai:nually,  but 
consumption  keeps  pace  with  it.  It  has  been 
said  that  "  the  world's  crop  is  yearly  consumed 
so  nearly  to  the  danger  line  that  very  often  the 
visible  supply,  or  the  amount  known  to  be  in 
the  market,  is  reduced  to  a  few  million  bushels." 
It  is  a  fortunate  circumstance  that  the  wide 
extension  of  the  wheat  area  makes  almost  every 
month  harvest  time  in  one  or  other  of  the  wheat 
lands  of  the  world. 

The  yield  per  acre  varies  greatly.  In  Denmark 
it  is  as  high  as  42  bushels,  owing  to  the  perfection 
of  the  agricultural  methods.  In  England  it  is 
30  bushels,  in  New  Zealand  26,  hi  Hungary  18'5, 
in  Canada  15*5,  in  the  United  States  and 
Argentina  about  12*3,  and  in  Russia  8*6.  There 
is,  therefore,  much  room  for  increase  in  the 
world's  harvest,  both  in  acreage  and  in  yield. 

The  Wheat  Fields  of  the  Future. 
The  competition  of  the  virgin  wheat  lands, 
though  their  yield  is  much  less  per  acre,  is  so 
serious  in  the  aggregate  that  wheat  cultivation 
no  longer  pays  in  this  country,  nor,  indeed,  in 
Eastern  Canada  and  the  Eastern  United  States. 
The  cultivation  of  wheat  in  this  country  has 
rapidly  declined,  partly  owing  to  the  fall  in 
prices  due  to  increased  competition,  but  partly 
owing  to  a  series  of  wet  summers  during  the 
'eighties,  and  of  equally  disastrous  droughts  in 
the  'nineties. 

The  following  table  shows  the  acreage  under 
wheat,  the  price  per  quarter  of  480  lb.,  and 
the  import  of  cereals,  raw  and  manufactured, 
for  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century : 


Year. 

Home  supply. 

Imports. 

Acreage. 

Pi-ice 
per  qr. 

Grain. 

Meal  &  flour. 

Total. 

1875 
1880 
1885 
1890 
1895 
1900 

3,514,000 
3,066,000 
2,553,000 
2,484,000 
1,456,000 
1,901,000 

45/2 
44/4 
32/10 
31/11 
23/1 
26/11 

51,877,000 
55,262,000 
61,499,000 
60,474,000 
81,750,000 
68,616,000 

6,136,000 
10,558,000 
15,833,000 
15,773,000 
18,368,000 
21,542,000 

58,013,000 
65,820,000 
77,332,000 
76,247,000 
100,118,000 
90,158,000 

During  this  period  the  maximum  price  was 
reached  hi  1877,  when  it  touched  56s.  9d.  per 
quarter,  and  the  minimum  in  1896,  when  it 
dropped  to  17s.  6d.  The  following  list  gives 
the  sources  of  our  wheat  supply  in  percentages : 


United  States 
Home  grown 
Canada     .  . 
India 
Argentina 
Itussia 

43-5 
21-6 

8-4 
6-8 
(IT, 
6-1 
2  6 

Home  grown 
Colonial  grown 
Foreign  grown 

..  21-0 
.  .  1S'.'> 
..  60-1 

Rumania.  . 
Other  sources 

1-4 

.      3-1 
lOO'O 

1000 

About  two-fifths  of  the  total  supply  is  thus 
grown  within  the  Empire,  and  rather  more  than 
half  of  this  total  in  these  islands.  The  wheat 
supply  of  1905  presented  some  exceptional 
features.  India,  Russia  and  Argentina  each 
supplied  nearly  25  per  cent.  ;  Australia  more 
than  10  per  cent.,  and  Canada  and  the  United 
States  each  about  6  per  cent. 

Maize.  Maize,  known  in  North  America  as 
Indian  corn,  or  corn,  and  in  South  Africa  as 
mealies,  is.  grown  in  regions  with  warm  summer 

4874 


days  and  nights,  and  summer  rains.  In  coun- 
tries with  dry  summers  it  requires  irrigation. 
In  good  summers  it  ripens  in  sunny  gardens  in 
this  country,  the  green  cob,  or  ear,  forming  a 
delicious  vegetable.  Maize  is  grown  in  Hungary, 
Northern  Italy,  Turkey,  Southern  Russia,  and 
Rumania,  North  and  South  Africa,  Australia, 
and  in  Mexico,  where  it  forms  the  staple  food. 
It  is  nowhere  so  extensively  grown  as  in  the 
States  of  the  Central  Mississippi  Basin,  which 
form  the  "  maize  belt."  In  1905,  94,000,000 
acres  produced  2,708,000,000  bushels,  the  largest 
single  crop  in  the  United  States,  and  four- 
fifths  of  the  world's  maize  crop.  Most  of  the 
United  States  crop  is  used  in  fattening  hogs 
and  cattle.  This  is  extremely  economical,  for 
meat  realises  a  better  price  than  maize,  and  the 
land  is  enriched  by  the  manure  of  the  stock  to 
which  it  is  fed.  The  maize  imported  into  this 
country  is  chiefly  used  for  feeding  horses  and 
cattle.  It  forms  an  article  of  human  food  as 
cornflour  (finely- ground)  and  hominy  (coarsely 
ground).  Glucose,  a  substitute  for  sugar,  is 
prepared  largely  from  maize,  about  60,000,000 
bushels  being  thus  used  annually.  Other 
products  are  starch  and  alcohol. 

Barley.  Barley,  the  hardiest  of  cereals,  has 
a  wider  climatic  range  than  any  other,  being 
grown  in  higher  latitudes  and  at  higher  eleva- 
tions. In  Norway  it .  grows  as  far  north  as 
70°  N.  The  best  barley  is  grown  in  the  wheat 
belt.  In  this  country  it  does  well  in  the  dry 
eastern  counties,  and  particularly  in  Scotland. 
In  the  United  States  the  best  is  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia. As  a  foodstuff,  barley  is  being  displaced 
everywhere  by  wheat,  but  it  is  in  increasing 
demand  for  malting.  The  world's  annual  crop 
is  about  1,000,000,000  bushels  annually. 

Oats.  Oats  suit  a  climate  where  the  summers 
are  too  moist  and  cool  for  wheat.  They  are 
grown  throughout  Ireland,  Scotland,  Denmark, 
and  Scandinavia,  and  in  the  other  countries  of 
Europe,  except  round  the  Mediterranean,  where 
the  summers  are  too  dry.  The  chief  exporting 
country  is  Russia.  Oatmeal  was  long  the  staple 
cereal  food  in  Scotland,  and  its  consumption  as 
porridge  is  increasing  in  this  country.  Oats  are 
everywhere  chiefly  used  as  food  for  horses.  The 
world's  crop  is  about  4,000,000,000  bushels 
annually.  The  weight  varies  greatly  from 
season  to  season. 

Rye.  Rye  does  well  on  poor,  sandy  soils, 
and  is  suited  admirably  to  the  infertile  plain  of 
North  Central  Europe,  where  it  is  the  chief  cereal 
crop  and  breadstuff.  It  is  grown  in  Russia  for 
home  consumption,  the  greater  part  of  the  wheat 
being  exported.  Rye  bread  has  a  dark  colour 
and  a  bitter  taste.  A  coarse  whisky  is  distilled 
from  the  grain. 

Buckwheat.  Buckwheat,  unlike  the  pre- 
ceding, is  not  a  grass  ;  its  fruit  is  rather  a  nut 
than  a  grain.  It  is  also  called  sarrasin,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Crusaders,  or  by  the  Moors  into  Spain.  It  is 
grown  on  poor  soils  for  cattle  and  horses  in 
Russia,  North-east  Germany,  and  Britanny.  Its 
acreage  in  the  United  States  has  declined  greatly 


in  the  last  35  years.  The  flowers  of  buckwheat 
are  attractive  to  bees,  and  produce  excellent 
honey. 

Rice.  The  cereals  of  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical lands  are  rice,  millet,  and  dhurra,  or 
sorghum.  The  temperate  cereals  can  be  grown 
at  suitable  elevations,  as  in  the  fierra  templada 
and  the  tierra  fria  of  the  Andes.  Rice  is  the  food 
of  perhaps  one-third  of  the  human  race.  It  has 
been  cultivated  from  a  remote  period  in  the 
monsoon  lands,  where  the  rains  occur  at  the 
rice -planting  season,  and  has  developed  many 
different  varieties.  The  wild  rice,  which  is  found 
in  the  marshy  lands  of  Southern  Asia  and 
Northern  Australia  is  probably  the  ancestor  of 
the  cultivated  plant. 

Rice  requires  a  hot  summer  and  complete 
flooding  at  certain  periods  of  growth.  It  is 
admirably  suited  to  the  deltaic  plains  of  the 
Ganges,  Irawadi,  Mekong,  Menam,  Red  River, 
and  other  great  rivers  of  the  monsoon  regions  of 
South  and  South-east  Asia.  Here  its  cultivation 
is  least .  laborious,  as  no  artificial  levelling  is 
required,  and  flooding  occurs  naturally  during 
the  heavy  summer  monsoon  rains.  It  is,  how- 
ever, too  valuable  to  be  confined  to  such  deltaic 
regions.  Over  much  of  the  rice  area  of  Southern 
China  artificial  levelling  and  elaborate  irrigation 
is  necessary,  as  in  the  Chengtu  plain  of  the  Min 
River,  described  in  an  earlier  series  of  lessons. 
Rice  is  grown  in  Japan,  Southern  China  and  the 
adjacent  islands,  the  Philippines,  Java,  Cochin- 
China,  Siam,  Burma,  India,  Ceylon,  Egypt, 
Northern  Italy,  the  Spanish  province  of  Valencia, 
and  in  the  United  States  round  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  From  most  of  the  rice  lands  two  crops 
are  obtained  in  a  year.  The  growth  is  rapid, 
especially  when  the  rice  fields  are  under  water. 
At  such  times  the  plants  grow  several  inches  in 
twenty-four  hours.  The  rapid  growth  and  prolific 
yield  enable  the  rice  lands  to  support  a  denser 
population  than  any  other.  The  grain  itself  is  not 
specially  nutritious,  being  deficient  in  fats  and 
nitrogen,  though  rich  in  starch.  It  contains 
little  gluten,  and  does  not  make  good  bread. 
Rice  forms  the  staple  food  of  Japan,  the  Philip- 
pines, the  Sunda  Isles.  Indo-China,  and  Southern 
China.  It  is  the  largest  crop  grown  in  India,  but 
is  not  the  staple  food.  If  mixed  with  other 
ingredients,  it  yields  such  fermented  liquors  as 
the  Japanese  saki  and  arrack. 

The  dense  population  of  the  rice  lands  leaves 
but  a  small  margin  for  export.  The  rice  used  in 
this  country  comes  chiefly  from  India  and  Burma, 
or  from  the  United  States. 

Millets.  The  millets  are  indigenous  in 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries.  Common 
millet,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  is  a  prolific 
annual  3  ft.  or  4  ft.  high,  yielding  a  very  small 
but  very  nutritious  grain.  It  is  cultivated 
extensively  in  India,  where  it  forms  the  staple 
cereal,  as  it  .also  does  among  the  poorer  classes 
of  Northern  China,  where  rice  is  not  groAvn. 
Being  a  quick-growing  crop,  it  is  sown  frequently 
for  an  autumn  harvest  after  the  failure  of  the 
winter  wheats  in  North  China.  The  so-called 
giant  or  Indian  millet  is  the  dhurra  or  sorghum. 
It  grows  to  12  ft.  or  14  ft.  in  Northern  China  and 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Manchuria,  where  it  is  extensively  used  for 
distilling  spirit*  It  is  also  cultivated  in  India, 
to  a  small  extent  in  Southern  Europe,  and  very 
extensively  in  Africa,  where  it  is  known  as  Guinea 
corn  and  Kaffir  corn.  In  Central  Africa  much 
is  made  into  native  beer,  owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  keeping  grain  in  a  tropical  climate.  Both 
millet  and  sorghum  are  extensively  grown  in  the 
United  States  and  elsewhere  for  green  fodder. 

Edible  Fruits.  Fruits  are  an  excellent 
addition  to  diet,  but  only  in  exceptional  cases, 
such  as  the  date  in  the  desert  and  the  banana  in 
Central  Africa,  do  they  form  staple  foods.  They 
are  very  perishable,  and  play  only  a  small  part 
in  commerce.  A  common  method  of  preparing 
them  for  transport  is  by  drying.  A  familiar 
example  is  the  raisin,  or  dried  grape.  The 
canning  of  fruit  has  become  a  very  important 
industry.  Tinned  pineapples,  peaches,  apricots, 
etc.,  can  be  bought  more  cheaply  than  the  fresh 
fruit.  Fruits  are  also  utilised  by  allowing 
their  juice  to  ferment.  In  recent  years  quick 
transport  and  improved  methods  of  storage 
have  stimulated  the  fruit  trade  greatly. 

Temperate  Fruits.  The  tundra  and  the 
high  moors  of  temperate  lands  produce  a  con- 
siderable variety  of  small  fruits.  The  cranberry 
is  made  into  wine  in  Siberia,  and  is  extensively 
used  in  America  for  sauces,  etc.  Cranberries  are 
imported  into  this  country  from  Russia  and 
Northern  Europe. 

The  characteristic  temperate  fruit  is  the 
apple.  It  is  the  commonest  orchard  tree  in 
Southern  England  and  Northern  France.  The 
fruit  keeps  wrell  in  transport,  and  is  largely 
exported  from  Eastern  Canada,  the  Northern 
United  States  and  Tasmania,  as  well  as  from 
France  and  the  Continent.  The  fermented 
juice  yields  cider.  Apples  are  preserved  by 
drying  in  the  form  of  Norfolk  biffens  and  Nor- 
mandy pippins.  The  pear  has  a  very  similar 
range,  but  is  less  in  demand.  Cherries,  plums,  and 
the  temperate  stone  fruits — plum,  apricot,  peach, 
etc. — play  little  part  in  the  world's  commerce  in 
their  fresh  state,  though  large  quantities  are 
preserved  by  crystallisation.  The  Balkan  Penin- 
sula produces  fine  plums,  which  are  extensively 
dried  and  exported. 

The  Vine.  The  vine  grows  wild  in  the 
Caucasus  and  Armenia,  and  was  probably 
originally  cultivated  in  Persia.  It  requires  long, 
dry  summers  and  very  warm  autumns,  and  is 
particularly  suited  to  the  Mediterranean  climate, 
though  it  is  grown  for  wine  considerably  further 
north.  An  interesting  series  of  experiments  made 
in  the  'seventies  and  'eighties  with  outdoor  vine- 
yards in  England  showed  that  though  excellent 
wine  was  obtainable  in  good  years,  bad  seasons 
resulted  in  complete  failure.  For  wine,  the  vine 
can  hardly  be  grown  successfully  far  north  of  the 
Loire  in  Western  Europe,  but  the  northern  limit 
rises  with  the  increasing  heat  of  summer  towards 
the  east.  Excellent  wines  are  grown  on  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  hills  of  Eastern  France 
and  the  Rhine  Highlands,  where  terracing  in- 
creases the  amount  of  sunshine  received  [see 
FOOD  SUPPLY].  The  extreme  north  limit  is 
reached  in  Posen.  in  about  the  latitude  of  London. 

4875 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

Further  cast  the  summers  are  shorter  and  the 
autumns  too  cool,  and  the  limit  of  the  vine  falls 
rapidly  to  the  Sea  of  Azov.  The  vine  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Western  and  Central  Asia, 
but  as  the  use  of  wine  is  prohibited  in  Mohamme- 
dan countries,  the  fruit  is  preserved  by  drying. 
The  vine  is  grown  in  North  Africa,  and  good  wine 
is  made  in  the  French  Colony  of  Algiers.  It 
was  introduced  in  the  seventeenth  century  into 
Cape  Colony,  where  it  is  exceptionally  productive. 
In  the  New  World,  California  exports  wine,  and 
the  vine  is  grown  as  far  north  as  42°  N.  in 
Ontario.  In  Australia,  wine  is  exported  from 
South  Australia,  Victoria,  and  New  South 
Wales.  . 

The  Wine  -  producing  Countries. 
France,  however,  still  leads  among  the  wine- 
producing  countries  of  Europe,  followed  by 
Italy,  Spain,  Austria-Hungary,  Portugal,  and 
Germany.  The  most  esteemed  French  wines 
are  the  clarets  grown  round  and  exported 
through  Bordeaux,  and  the  champagnes  and 
burgundies  of  Eastern  France.  Italian  wines 
do  .not  keep  well,  and  are  little  in  demand 
abroad.  The  most  popular  are  the  Tuscan 
Chianti  and  the  Sicilian  Marsala.  Sherry,  from 
the  district  round  Cadiz,  is  the  most  famous 
Spanish,  and  port,  grown  in  the  Douro  basin  and 
exported  through  Oporto,  the  best-known  Portu- 
guese wine.  Of  Hungarian  wines,  the  Tokay  of 
the  Theiss  is  the  most  esteemed.  The  Rhine  and 
Moselle  wines  of  Germany  are  in  high  repute. 
Of  extra  European  wines,  the  oldest  favourites 
are  Canary  sack  and  Madeira. 

Brandy  is  the  spirit  distilled  from  grape-juice, 
the  best  being  made  in  the  champagne  country. 
Much  so-called  brandy  is  merely  potato  or  other 
inferior  spirit. 

Fresh  grapes  are  imported  cheaply  from  Spain 
and  Portugal,  packed  in  cork  sawdust.  Superior 
dessert  varieties  also  come  from  France  and  the 
Channel  Islands.  Even  South  Africa  and  Aus- 
tralia contribute  in  winter.  Dried  grapes  or 
raisins  come  from  the  Mohammedan  lands  of  the 
Eastern  Mediterranean,  or  from  Spain,  where  the 
Mohammedan  tradition  still  lingers.  Sultanas 
are  a  dried,  seedless  grape  grown  in  Asia  Minor  and 
the  ^Egean  Islands.  The  small,  dark  currant  is 
practically  confined  to  Greece. 

The  Olive.  The  olive-tree  is  said  to 
attain  an  age  of  over  1,000  years.  The  terraced 
olive  yards  of  the  Sierra  Morena  in  Spain, 
or  of  the  Tuscan  and  Campanian  coasts  of  Italy, 
thus  represent  one  of  the  most  permanent  and 
remunerative  investments  of  human  labour.  The 
olive  is  grown  throughout  the  Mediterranean 
region,  in  the  Southern  Crimea,  and  round  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  has  also 
been  introduced  into  the  New  World,  where  it 
does  well  in  California,  Mexico,  and  Chile,  and 
into  those  parts  of  Australia  which  have  a 
Mediterranean  climate. 

The  fruit  is  rich  in  a  palatable  oil,  which  is 
expelled  by  pressure.  This  oil  is  extensively  used 
for  table  purposes  and  cooking  in  the  Mediterra- 


nean lands,  which  are  too  dry  for  cattle  and  where 
butter  is  an  article  of  luxury.  The  finest  table  oils 
are  those  of  Provence  in  France,  and  of  Lucca 
in  Tuscany.  A  second  pressure  gives  a  coarser 
oil,  which  is  used  in  soap-making. 

Oranges  and  Lemons.  Another  charac- 
teristic group  of  Mediterranean  fruits  are  the 
orange,  lemon,  and  citron.  The  orange-tree 
lives  over  a  century,  and  bears  several  thousand 
oranges  annually.  It  is  grown  in  all  the 
Mediterranean  lands,  and  in  similar  climates 
outside  that  region.  It  requires  a  winter  tem- 
perature of  not  less  than  40°,  and  cannot  stand 
frost.  The  lemon  has  a  very  similar  distribution. 
The  fresh  orange  is  chiefly  imported  into  this 
country  from  the  Azores  (St.  Michael's),  Spain, 
Portugal,  Sicily,  Malta,  the  Holy  Land,  and  the 
West  Indies.  In  the  United  States  oranges  are 
grown  in  California,  Florida,  and  Louisiana,  and 
large  quantities  are  exported  from  the  West 
Indies  and  Brazil.  The  fruit  is  frequently  pre- 
served in  sugar  as  a  dessert  sweetmeat.  Its  peel 
is  candied.  From  unripe  oranges  is  distilled 
the  liqueur  known  as  cura9oa.  Lemons  are 
obtained  from  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain.  The  lime 
is  largely  grown  in  Montserrat  for  lime-juice. 

Figs  and  other  Temperate  Fruits.  The 
fig  is  cultivated  round  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 
Dried  figs  are  exported  from  Smyrna.  Other 
temperate  fruits  are  the  almond,  walnut, 
pistachio,  pomegranate  and  mulberry.  The 
latter  is  important  in  connection  with  the  silk 
industry.  Its  fruit  is  palatable,  but  it  is  grown 
primarily  for  its  leaves,  on  which  the  silkworms 
are  fed.  It  is  widely  distributed,  from  Japan 
and  China,  the  great  silk  countries  of  the  East, 
through  Cochin-China,  Bengal,  and  Western 
Asia  into  Southern  Europe.  In  the  higher 
parts  of  Central  Asia  the  dried  and  pulverised 
fruit  replaces  sugar. 

Tropical  Fruits.  Of  the  immense  variety 
of  tropical  fruits  the  most  familiar  are  the 
pineapple  and  the  banana,  though  the  mango, 
grape-fruit,  etc.,  may  occasionally  be  bought. 

The  banana,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  is 
now  cultivated  throughout  the  tropics,  where 
it  largely  replaces  cereals  as  an  article  of 
diet.  The  root  stock  sends  up  new  stems 
annually.  A  few  months  later  these  are  laden 
with  the  immense  clusters  of  fruit  seen  in  our 
markets.  The  yield  per  acre  is  probably 
greater  than  of  any  other  food  plant,  while 
the  labour  of  cultivation  is  very  slight.  Immense 
quantities  are  imported  into  this  country  from 
the  Canaries,  which  supply  the  finest,  and 
from  Costa  Rica  and  Jamaica,  which  send  a 
larger  but  coarser  variety.  There  is  a  vast 
import  from  the  West  Indies  into  the  United 
States.  The  pineapple,  a  native  of  tropical 
America,  has  been  introduced  into  the  tropical 
lands  of  the  Old  World  and  Australia.  It  is 
largely  exported  from  the  West  Indies  into  the 
United  States.  The  bread-fruit  and  the  coco- 
nut palm  hardly  deserve  the  name  of  agri- 
cultural plants. 


Continued 


4876 


HAND  &  MACHINE  LACE-MAKING 

Hand-made,  Point  and  Pillow  Laces.    Birth  of  the  Lace  Loom.     Heathcoat's  Lace 
Machine.    Bobbin  and  Carriage,  Comb  Bars,  Point  Bars,   and  Other  Appliances 


Group  28 

TEXTILES 
34 


Continued  from 
page  4765 


By  W.  S.  MURPHY 


Point  Lace.  Lace  is  a  fabric  formed  by 
interlooping  and  intertwining  threads  in  the 
shape  of  a  continuous  mesh  or  figure.  The 
making  of  lace  seems  to  have  been  esteemed  an 
elegant  occupation  for  leisured  ladies  in  the  early 
civilised  communities,  and  the  art  has  not  lost 
its  domestic  and  feminine  character.  Though 
now  of  considerable  industrial  importance,  lace- 
making  may  be  classed  with  embroideiy,  crotchet- 
ing,  needlework,  and  crewel  work.  Hand- 
made lace  is  divided  into  two  classes — (1)  point 
or  needle  lace,  wrought  on  one  thread  and  twined 
into  the  pattern,  and  (2)  pillow  lace,  composed 
of  many  different  threads  wrought  together  to 
form  the  fabric.  The  finest  and  most  valuable 
of  all  laces  is  the  "  Point  d'Alemjon,"  named 
after  the  French  town  most  famous  for  its  manu- 
facture. This  lace  is  not  a  single  fabric,  but  a 
composition  of  several,  some  patterns  requiring 
the  assistance  of  twelve  workmen,  each  making 
a  different  part.  Brussels  point  enjoys  a  high 
reputation.  It  also  is  a  composite  fabric,  being 
made  of  ground  mesh  and  figured  pattern. 
Among  other  famous  point  laces,  the  leading 
varieties  are  Valenciennes,  Caen,  Chantilly, 
and  British  point.  From  the  nature  of  the 
productive  method,  it  is  inevitable  that  the 
variety  of  this  lace  should  be  very  great.  Every 
needle-lace  worker  gifted  with  imagination 
might  very  well  invent  a  new  form  of  lace. 

Invention  of  Pillow  Lace.  Point 
lace  is  necessarily  costly,  and  accessible  only  to 
the  very  wealthiest  class  of  persons  as  a  pur- 
chasable commodity.  Lace  became  industrial 
and  commercial  through  the  invention  of  pillow 
lace.  A  Dutch  lady,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Barbara  Etterlein,  the  wife  of  a  master  miner 
in  Annaberg  named  Uttmann,  is  credited  with 
inventing  pillow  lace,  in  1561. 

Method  of  Making  Pillow  Lace.  First, 
the  pattern  is  pricked  out  on  parchment  or 
strong  paper  in  pin-holes,  and  fastened  on  the 
pillow  or  cushion.  Providing  herself  with  a 
number  of  pairs  of  lace  sticks  about  four  inches 
long,  and  each  connected  with  its  fellow  by  a, 
thread  which  at  each  end  is  partly  wound 
round  the  top  of  the  stick,  the  worker  takes  the 
cushion  on  her  lap.  Sticking  successive  pins 
upright  in  the  holes,  and  hanging  the  threads 
round  each  one  as  soon  as  it  is  set  up,  she  begins 
to  intertwist  and  cross  the  threads  by  passing 
the  little  sticks  over  and  under  each  other  as 
they  hang  down  loose  on  the  surface  of  the 
cushion.  When  all  the  holes  have  been  filled 
with  pins  and  all  the  threads  have  been  twisted, 
and  the  sprig  has  been  formed,  to  join  the  parts 
of  the  sprig  a  stitch  is  taken  up  through  one  of 
the  pinholes  with  the  needle-pin.  Through  the 
loop  thus  made  one  of  the  lace  sticks  is  passed, 


and  the  thread  on  it  is  knotted  with  one  of  its 
fellows.  When  all  the  sprigs  or  parts  of  the 
pattern  have  been  formed,  they  are  made  up  by 
fixing  them  on  the  pillow  all  together,  and  effect- 
ing the  joining  by  means  of  threads  and  lace 
sticks. 

The  Hand  Method.  The  lace  student 
should  thoroughly  understand  the  hand  method. 
In  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Francaise  "  a  writer  has 
given  a  fine  description  of  the  method  of  making 
the  most  elaborate  form  of  pillow  lace. 

"  This  is  a  work  in  gold,  silver,  silk,  or  linen, 
made  upon  a  cushion  by  the  use  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  small  bobbins  on  a  design  traced  upon 
paper,  and  two  sorts  of  pins,  and  which  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a  composition  of  gauze,  weaving, 
and  embroidery,  because  there  are  many  points 
and  thick  threads  introduced,  of  weaving,  for 
there  are  parts  where  there  are  proper  warp .  and 
weft,  and  where  the  tissue  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  weaver ;  of  gauze,  because  patterns  are 
executed  upon  it,  and  the  threads  which  might 
have  been  considered  as  being  warp  and  weft  are 
often  withdrawn  from  each  other  by  crossings. 
Of  three  things,  one  is  necessary  in  making  lace 
on  the  cushion — either  to  compose  or  make  it 
from  one's  own  ideas,  which  supposes  imagina- 
tion, design,  taste,  knowledge  of  many  "  points," 
faculty  of  employing  them,  and  even  invention 
of  other  meshes  ;  or  to  be  able  to  work  out  a 
pattern  given  on  paper ;  or  to  copy  a  lace  already 
made,  given  for  the  purpose,  which  supposes  less 
talent  but  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  art.  It  is 
then  usually  necessary  to  copy  from  designs 
pricked  carefully  on  vellum.  The  art  of  the 
'  piquer '  is  to  discern  exactly  the  points  where 
the  pins  must  be  placed  in  order  to  keep  out  the 
threads  in  the  proper  position  to  form  the 
designed  meshes,  etc.  ;  to  ascertain  by  careful 
examination  all  the  points  needful  to  carry  out 
the  course  of  working,  composed,  as  it  is,  of 
sometimes  intermingled  points,  and  sometimes 
points  siicceeding  each  other.  If  a  mesh  be  tri- 
angular, three  pins  would  be  necessary ;  if 
quadrangular,  four,  and  one  pin  must  also  be 
placed  in  the  centre  to  produce  the  opening 
required. 

"  The  workwoman,  by  counting  the  threads  that 
need  to  be  supplied,  knows  exactly  the  number 
of  bobbins— 60,  80,  100,  150,  or  200— which 
will  be  required  ;  and  each  is  sufficiently  filled 
with  thread.  Placing  a  large  pin.  on  the  cushion, 
and  having  fastened  the  threads  of  as  many 
bobbins  as  she  can  attach  to  this  pin  so  that 
there  shall  not  be  any  thread  given  off  unneces- 
sarily, she  places  and  fills  a  second,  third,  fourth, 
and  so  on  in  a  horizontal  line  with  the  first, 
till  all  are  fixed  that  are  necessary.  The  pattern 
is  then  placed  behind  the  pins.  It  is  not  difficult 

4877 


TEXTILES 

to  learn  the  mode  of  making  any  sort  of  mesh  or 
point  if  the  threads  of  which  it  is  found  to  be 
composed  be  each  numbered,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8,  9,  and  so  on,  if  so  many  are  used  in  it.  Let 
these  numbers  be  invariably  considered  as 
attached  to  the  same  threads  and  bobbins. 
Think  of  the  first  that  goes  from  left  to  right  or 
right  to  left  as  number  1,  the  second  as  number  2, 
and  .  so  on.  Whenever  a  bobbin  is  displaced, 
consider  it  a  new  arrangement  of  the  whole. 
Have  paper  at  hand,  and  write  the  positions 
down  in  order  to  become  perfectly  acquainted 
with  them — 4  and  4,  8  and  8,  and  so  on  until 
they  are  well  arranged  in  the  mind  and  under- 
stood. Thus,  a  knowledge  of  the  points  may  be 
quickly  obtained,  and  the  habit  of  managing, 
arranging,  and  finding  the  bobbins  again  will 
be  acquired,  so  that  in  a  week  all  that  is  wonderful 
in  the  art  of  lacemaking  will  disappear — at  least, 
the  writer  found  it  so. 

"Twisting  is  accomplished  by  passing  the 
threads  round  each  other  so  many  times,  more 
or  less,  as  is  desired  for  the  mesh,  first  the  two 
next  to  one  another  ;  then  the  next  two  ;  after- 
wards taking  one  of  each  of  these  and  twisting 
it  with  its  neighbours  before  twisting  elsewhere. 
The  crown,  cross,  or  knot,  is  needed  to  complete 
the  mesh,  and  its  formation  closes  up,  and  ties 
or  binds  the  work. 

"  Linen  work  is  simply  passing  these  threads 
from  number  1  to  number  3,  2  to  1,  4  to  2,  and 
3  to  4.  There  is  no  twist.  Then  leaving  the 
two  bobbins  which  are  most  to  the  left  hand, 
and  taking  the  other  two  that  immediately 
follow  on  the  left,  they  pass  from  left  to  right, 
putting  2  on  3,  and  going  on  as  before.  The  first 
movement  differs,  the  rest  are  the  same.  Then 
it  was  1  on  3,  now  it  is  2  on  3.  Weaving,  or  cloth 
work,  is  always  finished  by  a  mesh.  The  method 
of  making  meshes  and  cloth  work  being  under- 
stood, new  designs  may  be  easily  produced,  new 
'  points '  devised  and  executed,  and  thus 
surprising  patterns  be  wrought,  filled  with  pre- 
viously unknown  arrangements  of  thread?." 

Centres  of  Pillow  Lace.  France 
occupies  the  premier  position  in  this  industry, 
Belgium  coming  next  in  importance.  The  chief 
centres  in  the  former  country  are  Caen,  Bayeux, 
Chantilly,  Lille,  Arras,  Mirecourt,  Du  Pay, 
Bailleul,  and  Alencon.  The  Belgian  pillow  lace 
industry  is  carried  on  in  Brussels,  Antwerp, 
Malines,  Yypres,  Bruges,  Ghent,  Menin,  Courtrai, 
Alost,  and  the  villages  round  these  places. 
Certain  districts  in  England  have  been  identified 
with  the  lace  trade,  notably  Bedfordshire, 
Buckinghamshire,  Nottinghamshire,  and  Devon- 
shire, each  locality  having  a  style  of  its  own, 
which  experts  at  once  recognise.  Essentially  a 
home  industry,  and  calling  for  highly  developed 
skill,  pillow  lacemaking  flourishes  best  in  small 
rural  villages,  and  sporadic  growths  have 
occurred  in  most  counties  south  of  the  Wash 
at  various  periods.  Limerick  and  Donaghadee, 
in  Ireland,  produce  laces  of  special  character 
much  admired. 

Teaching  Pillow  Lacemaking.  Being 
a  domestic  art  as  well  as  an  industry,  many  ladies 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  work  for  the  purpose 

4878 


of  making  laces  for  personal  use.  In  London 
and  other  large  centres,  as  well  as  in  the  rural 
districts  mentioned,  private  schools  exist  for  the 
teaching  of  lacemaking,  and  several  institutions 
of  various  kinds  include  the  subject  in  their 
curriculum.  The  Home  Arts  and  Industrial 
Association,  Albert  Hall,  Kensington,  London, 
S.W.,  and  the  Royal  School  of  Needlework, 
Exhibition  Road,  South  Kensington,  are  the 
leading  centres  of  information  and  instruction 
on  the  subject. 

Hand  and  Machine.  Our  object  being 
purely  the  investigation  of  industrial  processes, 
hand-made  lace  may  appear  some  little  way 
beyond  our  province.  But  the  student  of  lace 
who  does  not  know  something  of  the  hand-made 
lace  industry  is  ignorant  of  the  basis  of  the  whole 
trade.  Many  ingenious  mechanics  have  failed 
to  make  practical  valuable  ideas  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  lace  loom  because  they  had  not  a 
grasp  of  the  principles  of  lacemaking.  It  need 
hardly  be  said  that  the  designer  finds  in  study  of 
hand-made  lace  the  most  fruitful  source  of 
inspiration. 

MACHINE-MADE    LACE 

Real  and  Imitation  Lace.  Machine- 
made  lace  was  once  called  imitation  lace;  but 
the  power  of  the  manufacturers  has  wiped  out 
the  distinction.  It  is  ridiculously  contrary  to 
fact  to  say  that  all  hand-made  lace  is  more 
valuable  than  any  kind  of  machine-made  lace, 
or  that  all  varieties  of  the  latter  are  imitations  of 
the  former.  Many  beautiful  designs  have 
originated  in  the  designing-room  of  the  lace 
factory,  and  much  hand-made  lace  is  little  better 
than  a  waste  of  good  material.  The  lace  manu- 
facturer is  kept  true  to  art  and  utility  by  the 
stern  discipline  of  the  market  ;  hand-made  lace 
is  protected  by  a  prejudice  in  its  favour. 

The  Birth  of  the  Lace  Loom.  If  one 
were  asked  what  machine  used  in  the  textile 
industries  is  the  most  wonderful,  we  should 
unhesitatingly  give  the  palm  to  the  lace  loom. 
Originating  from  the  knitting  frame,  which  is 
itself  a  highly  ingenious  piece  of  mechanism, 
the  lace  loom  has  been  formed  into  a  marvel 
of  mechanical  ingenuity.  In  its  early  form,  the 
lace  loom  is  simply  a  hosiery  machine  used  for 
making  lace  fabrics.  When  Strutt  added  on  the 
ribbing  apparatus,  and  Butterworth  and  Else 
contrived  the  ticklers,  the  lace  loom  had  actually 
come  into  existence.  From  about  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  onwards  the  adaptation  of 
the  hosiery  frame  to  the  imitation  of  lace  became 
the  rage  among  mechanics  in  Nottingham- 
shire, Leicestershire,  and  London.  So  numerous 
are  the  inventors  who  contributed  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  hosiery  frame  into  a  lace  machine 
that  there  is  not  a  historian  with  any  claim  to 
authority  but  who  gives  a  list  of  inventors, 
including  some  names  unmentioned  by  others. 
Even  Felkin,  the  historian  par  excellence  of  hosiery 
and  lace,  has  omitted  some  names  worthy  of 
mention.  Our  aim  being  purely  practical,  we 
omit  all  but  the  most  conspicuous  inventors, 
concentrating  attention  on  the  mechanism  and 
the  course  of  its  development. 


TEXTILES 


Looping  Lace  Frame.  In  1764 
a  machine  was  devised  to  make  frame- 
looped  net ;  five  years  later  a  spoon 
tickler  came  into  use,  by  which  two 
loops  could  be  lifted  over  two  needles, 
and  figured  net  made  ;  in  1768  a  method 
of  shifting  the  threads  either  from  left 
to  right  at  will  was  devised,  and  a  kind 
of  cross  stitch  resembling  lace  net  pro- 
duced [218].  Thus  bit  by  bit  the  in- 
genious experimenters  wrought  out  the 
problem  of  producing  an  imitation  of 
lace  by  machinery.  At  last,  in  1786, 
the  root  idea  of  the  lace  loom  was 
conceived  by  a  poor  man  named  Flint. 
He  hit  on  the  method  of  placing  long 
points  on  a  machine  bar  which  would 
pass  between  the  needles  of  the  frame 
and  manipulate  the  threads,  forming  by 
two  motions  the  double  loop  necessary 
for  forming  net.  A  few  obvious  im- 
provements on  this  frame  brought  into 
existence  a  practicable  point-net  frame, 
and  Nottingham,  the  scene  of  the 
labours  of  Flint  and  his  not  too  scrupu- 
lous supplanters,  became  from  that 
time  the  great  centre  of  machine  lace 
manufacture. 

Warp  Lace  Loom.  A  single 
thread,  no  matter  how  elaborately 
looped,  can  hardly  produce  a  substan- 
tial fabric.  Something  more  was  there- 
fore needed  to  the  full  development  of 
the  lace  frame.  This  was  found  in  the 
invention  by  Crane,  of  Edmonton,  in 
1775,  of  the  warp  frame.  Instead  of 
running  a  single  thread  through  the 
whole  range  of  needles,  a  warp  beam 
was  suspended  over  the  frame,  and 
threads  from  it  supplied  to  each 
needle.  With  the  implements  already 
devised  for  the  looping  frames,  the 
warp  frame  started  on  its  career 
with  high  advantages.  Its  mobility  was 
greatly  increased  by  the  addition  of  a  series 
of  notched  wheels,  invented  by  Dawson  in 
1701,  which,  through  the  medium  of  bars, 
caused  the  perpendicular  threads  to  move 
variously,  according  to  design.  This  was  the 
forerunner  of  the  now  famous  Jacquard  machine, 
with  which  weavers  of  all  the  textiles  must  be 
more  or  less  familar.  In  its  later  developments, 
this  frame  took  special  forms  for  special  fabrics. 

Bobbin=net  Lace  Loom.  After  all,  the 
weaver's  plan  of  plaiting  warp  and  weft  has 
something  fundamentally  right  in  it,  and  no 
perfect  texture  can  be  produced  except  on  that 
plan,  however  modified  and  disguised  it  may 
be.  Looking  at  the  perfect  selection  of  the 
primitive  instruments  of  industry,  one  is  haunted 
by  the  idea  that  we  are  the  successors  of  a  race  of 
superior  beings  who  inhabited  the  earth  before 
us,  and  taught  our  prehistoric  fathers  some  of 
the  arts  of  life.  Weft  is  desirable  as  a  means  of 
adding  to  the  texture  of  a  fabric  ;  but  lace 
is  not  cloth,  and  a  straight  weft  would  not  do  at 
all  for  our  purpose.  The  problem  was  to  com- 
bine continuous  threads,  crossing  and  inter- 


218.    FIRST   LACE   MADE   ON   KNITTING   FRAME 


twining,  but  without  showing  straight  lines  in 
either  warp  or  weft.  It  is  well  understood  that 
if  a  strong  weft  is  wrought  on  a  weaker  warp, 
the  warp  will  be  permanently  bent  out  of  the 
straight  line.  If,  in  addition,  the  weft  is  tight, 
and  the  warp  slack,  the  bend  will  be  all  the 
greater.  The  deviation  ilms  secured  might 
not  be  great,  but  it  would  be  sufficient  for  a  close 
net  fabric.  The  essential  principle  of  net, 
however,  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  crossing 
weft  itself*  deviates.  A  weft  thrown  across  the 
loom  from  a  shuttle  would  not  answer.  Many 
solutions  of  the  very  difficult  problem  were 
offered  and  discarded,  till  the  idea  of  giving  a 
weft  thread  to  every  warp  thread  was  hit  upon. 
This  idea  came  to  three  men — John  Heathcoat, 
of  Loughborough  ;  Robert  Brown,  of  Notting- 
ham ;  John  More,  of  Croydon.  Dispute  has 
arisen  often  as  to  the  man  who  had  the  prior 
right.  We  need  hardly  spend  time  over  that 
controversy.  Both  by  law  and  history  it  has 
been  decided  that  John  Heathcoat  was  the 
first  inventor  of  the  lace  loom  as  we  now 
know  it,  and  to  his  invention  the  student  must 
accordingly  turn. 

4879 


TEXTILES 


219.   HEATHCOAT'S  LACE  LOOM 


Heathcoat's  Lace  Loom.  Invented  in 
1809,  John  Heathcoat's  loom  [219]  contains  the 
principle  of  all  the  lace  looms  since  used,  and  care- 
ful study  of  it  will  enable  the  student  to  follow 
intelligently  all  the  subsequent  developments 
of  lace  machinery. 

Beam  Rollers.  Two  roller  beams  form 
the  top  and  bottom  extremities  of  the  loom  ; 
the  lower  one  is  the  warp  beam,  and  the  upper 
roller  is  the  cloth  beam.  The  warp  threads 
are  thus  stretched  almost  perpendicularly. 

Warp  Guides.  Two  sets  of  upright 
guides  each  carry  alternate  threads  of  the  warp, 
acting  in  a  manner  not  unlike  the  healds  of  an 
ordinary  cloth  loom. 

Carriages  and  Bobbins.  Here  we  come 
to  the  first  novel  feature  in  the  lace  loom  [220J. 
The  bobbins,  d,  are  made  of  two  flat  round  discs, 
connected  at  the  centre  by  a  short  spindle. 
Round  this  spindle  the  thread  is  wound,  filling 
up  the  space  between  the  discs.  The  carriage,  a,  is 
a  fine  piece  of  brass  plate,  with  horns,  c,  at  each 
side  to  slip  into  the  catch-bars  on  which  they 
work  within  the  comb  bars.  In  the  improved 
carriage  a  round  hole  with  grooves  is  cut  in  the 
centre  of  the  plate,  to  contain  the  bobbin,  and 
through  the  head  a  very  small  hole  is  drilled  to 
let  through  the  thread  of  the  bobbin,  or  shuttle. 
A  small  spring,  6,  is  screwed  on  to  the  carriage 
to  hold  the  bobbin  in  place. 

Comb  Bars.  In  the  "  Old  Loughborough," 
as  this  loom  was  named,  there  were  two  tiers 
of  bobbins.  There  were,  therefore,  two  carrying 
comb-bars,  extending  the  width  of  the  loom. 

4880 


These  bars  are  divi- 
ded into  grooves,  or 
combs  [221],  extend- 
ing at  right  angles 
to  their  length.  The 
bars,  k,  are  fixed  in 
front  and  behind  the 
warp  threads  so  that 
the  combs  form  the 
segment  of  a  circle. 
When  the  carriages 
containing  the  bob- 
bins have  been  fixed 
in  the  grooves  of  the 
comb  bars,  the  two 
sets,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  warp,  are  kept 
at  equal  distances 
laterally  and  in  the 
line  of  the  warp 
threads  upon  which 
they  are  to  operate. 
Shifting  Bars. 
Hanging  in  the 
centre  of  the  circle, 
the  circumference  of 
which  is  the  combs, 
are  long  levers, 
named  shifting  or 
conducting  bars.  By 
these  the  bobbins 
are  made  to  move  like 
so  many  clock  pen- 
dulums oscillating 


along  the  grooves.  The  bobbins  are  passed  half 
way  through  the  warp  threads  by  the  one 
shifting  bar,  and  are  caught  by  the  other  bar  and 
carried  through  to  the  other  side. 

Points  Bars.  On  each  side  of  the  warp 
is  a  long  bar,  studded  with  as  many  points  as 
there  are  threads  in  the  warp.  These  bars  aro 
made  to  move  backwards  and  forwards  on  pivots, 
the  points  passing  alternately  through  the  warp. 
The  uses  of  these  points  shall  be  seen  in  the 
working  of  the  loom. 

Bobbin=net  Loom  at  Work.  Having 
noted  the  principal  parts  of  the  loom,  we  can 
now  observe  the  productive  process.  When  the 
shifting  bars  have  passed  the  bobbins  containing 


Comb 
through, 
wfueh.  Carriage 
'£  Bobktnare  rnovetL 

SECTION    OF    COMB    BAR 

the  thread  through  the  warp, 
the  comb  bar  which  accepts 
them  on  the  other  side  re- 
ceives a  lateral  motion  equal 
to  the  space  of  two  warp 
threads.  If,  then,  the  bobbins  be  brought  back 
on  the  contrary  side  of  each  warp  thread,  each 
weft  thread  will  have  been  twisted  round  a  warp 
thread.  If  the  comb  bar  in  front  be  now  moved 
laterally  till  each  bobbin  stands  opposite  to  the 


C.  Catches      D  Bobbin, 
220.      BOBBIN 

CARRIAGE  OF 

HEATHCOAT'S   NET 

LOOM 


space  from  which  it  started  first,  and  the  threads 
be  again  passed  through  to  the  back  and  brought 
again  to  the  front  of  each  warp  thread,  the  whole 
of  the  threads  will  have  been  twice  twisted. 

Meshing.  We  have  adopted  the  hypo- 
thetical tense  in  the  foregoing  because  another 
operation  takes  place  midway  in  the  one  de- 
scribed. Before  being  twisted,  one  half  of  the 
threads  of  weft  must  be  moved  to  the  right  and 
the  other  half  to  the  left.  This  is  the  work  of 
the  point  bars.  Previous  to  crossing,  every 
other  bobbin  is  moved  so  as  to  form  a  distinct 
row,  making  two  rows  of  the  whole,  one  a  little 
behind  the  other.  The  point  bars  are  moved  so 
to  enter  the  first  row,  and  then  by  a  lateral 
movement  slide  till  the  points  are  opposite  to 
one  division  further  to  the  left  of  the  second  row. 
The  points  are  now  advanced  through  the  second 
row.  As  a  result,  the  right  side  of  the  threads 
of  the  first  row  is  in  contact  with  the  left  side  of 
each  pin,  while  the  left  side  of  the  second  row 
of  threads  is  contiguous  to  the  right  side  of  each 
pin,  or  point,  and  the  weft  threads  are  crossed. 
This  has  prepared  them  for  twisting  with  the 
warp  threads  contiguous  to  them.  The  threads 
thus  crossed  and  twisted  are  carried  up  towards 
the  cloth  beam,  and  leave  space  for  further 
operations.  When  in  the  loom,  the  warp  is 
straight,  with  the  weft  twined  upon  it  [222 J. 
After  coming  off,  with  the  tension  of  the  warp 
released,  a  fine  mesh  [223]  is  formed. 

A  Clever  Adjustment.  When  each 
row  of  meshing  has  been  formed,  the  weft 
bobbins  and  carriages  moving  to  the  right  will 
have  made  the  end  of  that  row  one  carriage  and 
bobbin  too  many  at  the  right  hand,  and  at  the 
left  hand  one  bobbin  and  carriage  too  few.  But 
the  same  must  happen  with  the  row  of  bobbins 

1234 


1        13       2       12        4        10        6         8 
222.    BOBBIN-NET   AS    SEEN    IN    THE   LOOM 

and  carriages  moving  to  the  left.  To  redress 
the  balance,  an  ingenious  contrivance  called 
a  turnabout  has  been  invented,  which  transfers 
the  carriages  to  the  lacking  ends,  both  back 
and  front,  restoring  the  full  sets.  By  this 

Cont\ 


TEXTILES 

moans  the  course  of  the  weft  from  end  to  end  of 
the  piece  remains  unbroken,  though  each  bobbin 
carriage  of  the  sets  changes  its  place  every 
series  of  meshes  the  full  width  of  the  machine. 

Improvements  on  Bobbir=net  Loom. 
Heathcoat  and  many  other  ingenious  mechanics 
added  improvements  to  the  wonderful  loom. 


223.    FINISHED    BOBBIN-NET 

Most  of  these  improvements,  however,  are  of 
little  practical  interest,  because  consisting  in 
the  adaptation  of  the  loom  to  the  production  of 
special  fabrics  which  had  their  day  of  fashion 
and  then  passed  out  of  use  and  memory.  Others 
made  serious  contributions  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  loom,  the  most  notable  being  the  "  pusher  " 
device  of  Samuel  Clark  and  James  Mart,  and  the 
Levers  patent.  The  former  as  a  mere  improve- 
ment may  be  briefly  noted ;  but  the  latter, 
having  become  the  highest  form  of  lace  loom  at 
the  present  day,  must  be  studied  at  some  length 
by  itself. 

Pusher.  Always  in  his  mind  the  lace 
worker  had  an  ideal  loom  which  would  twist, 
mesh,  double,  twine,  and  loop,  in  all  directions 
without  check  or  limit.  For  this  ideal  nearly 
every  loom  inventor  wrought.  In  1812  Messrs. 
Clark  &  Mart,  of  Nottingham,  took  out  a  patent 
for  a  loom  which  is  thus  described :  "  The 
carriages  containing  the  bobbins  were  pushed 
by  long  instruments  through  the  warp  threads, 
which  bobbin  threads  were  drawn  off  downwards, 
and  the  net  thus  formed  below  was  carried  on  a 
work  beam,  also  in  the  reversed  position.  The 
carriages  were  held  on  short  combs  only  by  the 
tension  of  the  bobbin  threads.  An  important 
difference  exists  between  the  double-tier  circular 
machine  and  the  pusher.  In  the  circular 
(Heathcoat's)  pairs  of  bobbin  threads,  with 
their  carriages,  must  necessarily  act  together. 
They  cannot  be  parted  in  operation  and  effect  ; 
whereas  in  the  pusher  every  bobbin  and  carriage, 
being  each  operated  upon  by  an  independent, 
pusher  just  as  wanted,  can  be  obliged  to  proceed 
in  any  direction,  or  remain  at  rest.  Thus  cloth- 
work  can  be  made  more  uniform  and  clear." 
nned 


1  K 


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Group  24 

PHYSICS 
34 

Continued  from 
page  4700 


AN  ETERNAL  LIVING  THING 

Physics,    The   Mother   of  Sciences.        Its  Conception    of  the    Universe. 
The    World    is    More    Than    a    Machine.        Some    Books    on    Physics 


By  Dr.   C.    W.    SALEEBY 


"THERE  now  remains  only  sufficient  space  to 

sum  up  the  conclusions  which  we  have  reached 
after  our  long  survey  of  the  field  of  physics,  and 
to  make  certain  comments  upon  its  character. 
In  the  first  place  it  is  to  be  noted  that  there  is  a 
whole  realm  of  physics — not  of  subject  matter  but 
of  method — to  which  we  have  scarcely  alluded. 
This  we  may  call  mathematical  physics.  It 
would  have  been  out  of  place  here,  but  that  is 
by  no  means  to  deny  its  cardinal  importance. 
The  incessant  and  inextricable  inter-relation 
of  physics  and  chemistry  has  again  and  again 
been  insisted  on,  both  explicitly  and  by  cross- 
references.  In  our  latter  pages  we  have  been 
introduced,  very  briefly,  to  the  new  science  of 
physical  chemistry,  which  is  neither  physics  nor 
chemistry,  but  both,  and  which  is  steadily 
tending  to  subordinate  chemistry  to  itself  and 
to  explain  all  chemical  processes  in  physical 
terms. 

The  Un:ty  of  the  Sciences.  We 
have  also  been  constantly  led  to  believe  that 
physics  is  involved  in  all  the  other  sciences  ; 
in  studying  light,  for  instance,  we  saw  that  we 
were  on  the  way  towards  psychology,  or,  at  any 
rate,  physiological  psychology.  No  more  than 
chemistry  can  this  science  be  divorced  from 
physical  conceptions  and  physical  methods. 
Similarly,  in  the  case  of  geology  it  might  be 
shown  that  these  concepts  and  these  methods 
are  all  essential.  The  prime  geological  problem, 
for  instance,  that  of  the  formation  and  cooling 
of  the  earth,  is  really  a  physical  problem  on  a 
great  scale. 

Similarly,  the  science  of  life,  whether  of 
animals  or  plants,  is  coming  every  day  more 
clearly  to  recognise  the  need  of  physics.  There 
has  been  entirely  banished  from  biology  the  old 
conception  of  the  vital  force.  The  energies  dis- 
played in  living  matter  are  included  in  the 
"  Correlation  of  the  Physical  Forces,"  and  the 
phenomena  of  living  matter  display  not  the 
smallest  infraction  of  the  universal  and  funda- 
mental physical  law  of  the  conservation  of 
energy.  In  short,  if  we  use  the  term  Natural 
Science  to  include  all  the  concrete  sciences — 
physics,  chemistry,  geology,  astronomy  and 
biology — we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that 
before  very  long,  perhaps,  all  of  these  will  be 
recognised  as  physical  sciences  or  as  subdivisions 
of  physics — a  great  name  which,  as  the  reader 
will  remember,  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word 
for  Nature. 

But  the  material  and  the  objective  are  corre- 
lated with  the  non-material  and  the  subjective. 
Hence  the  facts  of  physics  have  to  be  recognised 
even  in  what  used  to  be  called  the  mental  and 
moral  sciences.  He  will  greatly  err  who  ignores 
physics  in  his  study  of  mind,  as  we  have  already 

4882 


Been.  Similarly,  it  has  been  siiown,  and  pre- 
eminently by  Herbert  Spencer,  that  physical 
principles  are  of  value  in  the  study  of  sociology 
and  even  of  ethics. 

Physics  and  Philosophy.  In  a  word, 
physics  is,  as  Bacon  said,  "  the  great  mother  of 
the  sciences,"  and  thus  it  is  pre-eminently  the 
science  with  which  divine  philosophy  herself  has 
to  reckon,  or,  rather,  we  should  say  it  is  the 
science  with  which  false  philosophies  have  to 
reckon,  and  which,  if  it  be  true,  renders  the 
most  invaluable  services  to  philosophy.  Time  was 
when  all  the  phenomena  of  the  world,  or,  at  any 
rate,  all  those  which  were  of  special  interest,  were 
thought  to  be  arbitrary  and  capricious.  The 
idea  of  law,  as  we  understand  it,  was  absolutely 
non-existent,  even  in  the  minds  of  the  wisest, 
2,500  years  ago.  It  is,  indeed,  very  far  from 
asserting  its  due  dominance  over  the  thinking  of 
all  thinking  men  even  to-day.  The  growth  of 
the  belief  in  law  has  synchronised  with,  and 
depended  upon,  the  growth  of  our  physical 
knowledge. 

One  by  one,  little  phenomena  and  big  pheno- 
mena have  been  examined,  and  found  to  exhibit 
constancy.  Everyone  knows  how  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  heavens  were  once  regarded  as 
dependent  upon  the  arbitrary  will  of  some 
capricious  spirit  or  spirits  ;  but  now  your 
astronomer  predicts  the  return  of  a  comet  in  a 
century,  and  it  arrives  punctual  to  the  day. 
Such  a  prediction  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
purely  physical  methods,  and  has  established  the 
conception  of  law  in  respect  of  celestial  physics. 
It  is  only  among  the  most  ignorant  and  super- 
stitious in  our  own  country,  or  amongst  the 
population  of  such  a  benighted  country  as  Spain, 
where  mediaeval  ecclesiasticism  still  holds  its 
sway  over  the  human  mind,  that  a  comet  or  an 
eclipse  can  cause  alarm.  The  invariable  rule  is 
that  as  knowledge  grows  the  realm  of  law  is 
recognised  to  extend.  Thus,  if  we  take  the 
branch  of  physics  which  to-day  is  least  ad- 
vanced and  least  capable  of  prevision,  we  shall 
find,  as  we  might  expect,  that  this  is  precisely 
the  branch  in  which  the  reign  of  law  is  least 
recognised. 

The  Reign  of  Law.  We  have  devoted 
some  little  part  of  our  course  to  the  study  of 
meteorology,  "  the  Cinderella  of  the  sciences." 
But  everyone  knows  how  far  we  yet  are  from 
effective  prediction  of  the  weather.  There  is 
no  sign  of  law,  at  any  rate  to  the  "  man  in  the 
street,"  and  this  is  best  illustrated  by  the  fact 
that  petitions  for  fine  weather  or  for  rain  are 
still  sent  up  in  our  churches,  though  no  one 
would  dream  of  praj/ing  that,  in  any  particular 
instance,  or  for  any  particular  purpose,  the  law 
of  gravitation  should  be  abolished.  Yet,  the 


changes  in  the  weather  are  due  to  laws  just  as 
invariable  as  the  law  of  gravitation,  which  is, 
indeed,  one  of  them. 

Having  successfully  asserted  the  dominance 
of  law  within  its  own  proper  realm,  physics 
has  already  demonstrated  its  dominance  in  as- 
tronomy and  in  chemistry,  as  physical  chemistry 
is  noAv "proving.  And  the  claim  of  physics  is  to 
assort,  what  every  man  of  science  believes,  that 
the  sway  of  law  is  universal.  Every  year's  ad- 
vance in  science  brings  further  support  to  this 
doctrine. 

The  Unity  of  the  Universe.  Physics 
does  even  more,  because  it  is  ever  more  positively 
asserting  that  the  whole  objective  Universe  must 
be  conceived  of  as  a  mechanical  or  dynamical 
system  swayed  by  the  laws  of  motion,  gravita- 
tion and  the  like.  When  we  were  discussing  the 
doctrine  of  energy  we  saw  the  tremendous 
character  of  the  verdicts  which  physics  thus 
thinks  itself  capable  of  pronouncing  upon  the 
past  history  and  upon  the  future  of  the  Universe. 

The  supreme  service  of  physics  to  philosophy  is, 
however,  the  demonstration  that  the  Universe 
is  really  a  Universe.  This  follows  in  two  ways 
from  the  creed  of  physics.  In  the  first  place, 
it  follows  from  the  omnipresent  sway  of  physical 
law.  Gravitation  is  true  here  and  beyond 
Sirius.  The  laws  of  motion  were  equally  true 
a  thousand  years  ago  as  to-day.  We  cannot  but 
belie  re  that  the  Universe  is  one  if  we  realise  that 
its  modes  of  action  are  uniform,  all  differences  of 
time  and  space  notwithstanding. 

Secondly,  physics  teaches  us  the  unity  of  the 
Universe  by  its  grand  proposition  that  all  the 
m  iltiplicity  which  the  Universe  presents  to  us 
can  be  resolved  into  differing  but  interchange- 
able aspects  of  one  and  the  same  thing.  This, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  is  a  quite  modern 
discovery.  Men  now  living,  and  notably  Lord 
Kelvin,  can  remember  the  days  when  the  doc- 
trine of  energy  was  first  formulated.  The  last 
few  years  have  amazingly  extended  this  proposi- 
tion. In  still  further  support  of  the  proposition 
that  the  Universe  is  really  one,  they  have  actu- 
ally enabled  physicists  to  abolish  the  dualism 
that  had  hitherto  obtained,  of  matter  on  the 
one  hand,  and  energy  on  the  other. 

A  Doctrine  Swept  Away.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  conservation  of  matter,  or  of  mass, 
has  been  clean  swept  away,  and  we  now  con- 
ceive of  mass  in  terms  of  the  varying  velocities 
of  electrons.  Matter  can  no  longer  be  regarded, 
therefore,  as  ultimate,  and  the  concept  of  energy 
is  seen  to  be  more  comprehensive  than  ever. 

We  cannot  say,  however,  that  we  have  reached 
any  finality,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  we 
have  disposed  of  matter.  There  remains  the  ether, 
our  conceptions  of  which  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
material,  and  are  merely  transferred  to  it  from 
our  conceptions  of  matter.  Nevertheless,  physics 
can  fairly  claim,  and  with  more  verity  every 
day,  to  have  rendered  supreme  service  to  phil- 
osophy in  demonstrating  by  the  scientific,  induc- 
tive or  a  posteriori  method,  that  which  the  soul 
of  the  philosopher  has  always  inclined  to  believe, 
independently  of  any  kind  of  observation  or 
scientific  proof — namely,  the  unity  of  all  things. 


PHYSICS 

Hie  scientist  should  have  no  prepossessions  in 
favour  of  any  view.  His  business  is  simply 
to  observe  and  correlate  facts  ;  but  in  so  doing 
he  finds  that  he  is  inevitably  led  to  a  demon- 
stration of  that  unity  which,  in  the  eyes  of 
philosophers,  has  commonly  been  regarded  as 
a  necessary,  intuitive,  a  priori,  or  self-evident 
truth. 

Physics  and  Eternity.  We  are  not 
forgetful  that  a  course  on  philosophy  is  awaiting 
our  consideration,  and  it  will  be  well  if  from  the 
hard  facts  of  science  we  can  construct  a  firm 
foundation  for  our  philosophy.  "  To  the  solid 
ground  of  Nature  trusts  the  mind  which  builds 
for  aye  "  (Wordsworth).  The  doctrine  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  has  two  aspects,  only 
one  of  which  is  represented  by  its  name.  It 
states,  firstly,  that  nothing  is  destroyed,  and 
secondly,  that  nothing  is  created.  If  this  be  true 
now,  as  the  physicist  believes,  he  has  no  reason 
to  think  that  it  was  ever  untrue.  Now  observe 
the  stupendous  character  of  the  proposition 
which  we  cannot  but  infer  from  this  doctrine 
of  physics.  It  is  that  there  was  never  any 
"  creation  "  as  the  mediaeval  orthodoxy,  or  the 
untutored  child,  conceives  of  that  process.  II 
we  go  back  to  the  speculations  of  the  great 
Aristotle,  we  find  that  he  has  no  idea  of  creation — 
creation  out  of  nothing.  The  world  for  him 
had  always  existed  in  some  form  or  other.  There 
never  was  a  beginning.  There  never  was  crea- 
tion out  of  nothing.  But  the  reader  is  well 
aware  that  certain  old  views  of  the  history  of  the 
world,  which  no  educated  person  now  regards 
as  forming  any  essential  part  of  the  truths  of 
Christianity,  were  implicitly  believed  a  few 
centuries  ago. 

The  World  is  not  Merely  a  Machine. 
Thus,  when  after  a  tremendous  struggle  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  came  to  be  accepted  by 
the  mediaeval  Church,  and  was  converted  into 
an  orthodox  form  by  the  greatest  of  its  com- 
mentators, St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  one  of  the 
greatest  men  of  the  thirteenth  century,  being 
second  only  to  Roger  Bacon,  the  idea  of  creation 
out  of  nothing,  which  would  have  seemed  puerile 
to  Aristotle  himself,  and  which,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  is  inconceivable,  was  restored.  Modern 
physics,  however,  will  have  none  of  this,  and 
has  gone  back  to  the  Aristotelian  conception. 
The  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of  energ}- 
directly  denies  creation  out  of  nothing,  which, 
in  any  case,  is  a  pseudo-idea  that  depends  for 
its  conception  upon  the  power  of  words  to  cheat 
the  mind. 

The  physical  conception  of  the  Universe,  then, 
is  that  of  an  eternal  machine  ;  but  when  this 
conception  is  corrected  by  further  thinking, 
and  especially  by  the  criticisms  of  psychology 
and  philosophy,  the  physicist  rather  inclines 
to  think  of  the  Universe  as  a  living  thing  than 
as  an  inanimate  mechanism  ;  rather  as  the 
World  Tree  than — as  Boyle  thought — as  a 
mighty  clock  made  and  set  going  by  an  Almighty 
clock-maker. 

God  is  Behind  the  Universe.  The 
thoughtful  physicist  is  well  aware  that  even 
his  best  conceptions  of  the  Universe  are  only 

4883 


PHYSICS 

relative  and  symbolic.  He  knows  that  he 
deals  only  with  appearances  or  phenomena. 
He  has  achieved  the  most  amazing  success  in 
observing,  correlating,  and  unifying  them,  but 
they  remain  phenomena  still.  We  must  not 
hen-  anticipate  too  much  what  is  to  be  said 
in  a  subsequent  course,  but  it  is  necessary  for 
us  to  insist  once  again  upon  the  different  and 
infinitely  nobler  form  which  the  idea  of  creation 
takes  in  the  mind  oj_the  modern  student  of 
nature.  The  old  idea,  as  elucidated,  for  instance, 
by  Aquinas  or  by  Dr.  Paley,  was  that  the 
Supreme  Power  manufactured  the  great  clock 
out  of  nothing,  wound  it  up  and  set  it  to  run. 
The  clock  was  one  thing  and  the  Maker  another. 
In  the  eyes  of  the  modern  physicist  this  is  no 
better  than  a  naive  materialism,  which  was 
quite  content  to  regard  our  conceptions  of  a 


clock  and  the  matter  composing  it  as  valid  and 
ultimate.  The  modern  student  of  natural 
science  believes,  in  the  great  words  of  Goethe, 
that  the  Universe  is  "  the  living  garment  of 
God  "  ;  that  from  eternity  to  eternity  it  has 
been  and  will  be  sustained  and  vivified  and 
informed  and  recreated  every  instant  by  the 
Unsearchable  Power  of  which  it  is  the  mani- 
festation to  us. 

"  A  presence  that  disturbs  me  with  the  joy 
Of  elevated  thoughts  ;  a  sense  sublime 
Of  something  far  more  deeply  interfused, 
Whose  dwelling  is  the  light  of  setting  suns, 
And  the  round  ocean,  and  the  living  air, 
And  the  blue  sky,  and  in  the  mind  of  man  ; 
A  motion  and  a  spirit,  that  impels 
All  thinking  things,  all  objects  of  all  thought, 
And  rolls  through  all  things."  * 


SOME     VALUABLE     BOOKS     ON     MODERN     PHYSICS 


By  far  the  greatest  book  that  has  ever  been 
written  on  Physics  in  the  English  language  is  the 
•'  Natural  Philosophy,"  by  Thomson  and  Tait. 
Ranking  beside  this  is  Tait's  "  Properties  of 
Matter,"  while  Lord  Kelvin's  recent  publication 
of  his  Baltimore  lectures  may  be  noted.  The 
*'  Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  contains  important 
articles  (which  are  not  easy  reading,  however) 
by  both  of  these  authors. 

This  is  not  the  place  for  a  historical  biblio- 
graphy ;  we  can  merely  note  that  in  any  such 
list  the  place  of  supreme  honour  will  be  taken 
by  Newton's  "  Principia." 

Of  modern  elementary  textbooks,  two  or 
three  may  be  named,  though  none  of  these 
are  modern  hi  the  sense  of  including  the  develop- 
ments of  the  last  ten  years.  Messrs.  Macmillan 
publish  an  excellent  "  Elementary  Course  of 
Physics,"  edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  C.  P.  Aldous, 
M.A.  Professor  Balfour  Stewart  also  left  an 
excellent  little  book  of  "  Elementary  Lessons 
in  Physics,"  which  is  popular  with  students. 
More  recently,  Dr.  C.  G.  Knott  has  covered  the 
same  ground  with  a  very  lucid  and  attractive 
volume. 

The  elementary  textbooks  do  not  concern 
themselves  with  what  we  may  call  the  philosophy 
of  the  subject,  nor  its  logic.  They  do  not 
inquire  into  the  validity  of  the  fundamental 
conceptions  which  are  presented  to  the  reader. 
The  classical  works  upon  the  experimental 
method  and  its  logic  are  the  '*  Novum  Organum  " 
of  Bacon  and  the  "  System  of  Logic  "  by  John 
Stuart  Mill  [see  the  course  on  LOGIC].  For 
discussions  of  the  fundamental  concepts  of 
physics  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  second 
volume  of  Dr.  J.  T.  Merz's  magnificent  "  History 
of  European  Thought  in  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
and  especially  to  Chapters  VI.  and  VII.,  which 
are  historical  and  critical  masterpieces.  Still 
more  critical  and  more  fundamental  in  its 
attack  upon  certain  of  our  physical  notions  is 


the  already  celebrated  "  Science  and  Hypothesis," 
by  M.  H.  Poincare,  recently  translated  and 
published  by  the  Walter  Scott  Publishing 
Company. 

For  the  newer  aspects  of  the  subject  and 
for  the  new  ground  covered,  which  belongs 
indefinitely  to  physics  and  to  chemistry,  the 
reader  may  consult  several  volumes.  Popular 
accounts  of  the  new  ground  are  to  be  found 
in  "The  New  Knowledge,"  by  Professor  R.  K. 
Duncan  (Hodder  and  Stoughton),  and  in  "  The 
Recent  Development  of  Physical  Science," 
by  W.  C.  D.  Whetham,  M.A.,  F,R.S.  (John 
Murray).  The  Rontgen  rays  are  very  full}' 
discussed  by  Professor  J.  J.  Thomson  in  the 
article  "  Electricity "  in  the  new  edition  of 
the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  A  certain 
amount  of  matter  on  this  subject,  subsequent 
to  the  writing  of  that  article,  has  been  included 
in  our  course.  For  what  will  undoubtedly 
prove  to  be  the  classical  discussion  of  the  new 
theory  of  matter  the  reader  must  be  referred 
to  Professor  J.  J.  Thomson's  "Corpuscular 
Theory  of  Matter,"  which,  however,  has  not 
yet  seen  the  light  when  these  words  are  being 
written.  Admirable  books  on  radio-activity 
and  its  physical  problems  have  been  written 
by  two  or  three  English  workers  at  the  subject. 
The  best  of  these  is  "  Radio- Activity,"  by 
Professor  Ernest  Rutherford,  of  Montreal, 
Professor  Thomson's  most  distinguished  pupil. 
Another  excellent  volume,  also  based  upon  the 
distintegration  theory,  has  been  published  by 
Mr.  Frederick  Soddy,  now  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  and  was  published  by  "The  Elec- 
trician." The  more  chemical  aspects  of  this 
physico-chemical  question  will  be  discussed  by 
Sir  William  Ramsay  in  a  volume  entitled  "The 
Transmutation  of  Matter,"  which  he  is  now 
preparing  at  the  instance  of  the  present  writer. 

*  From  '•  Tintern  Abbey,"  written  by  Wordsworth  at 
the  age  of  twenty-ei^ht 


PHYSIOS  concluded ;  follotred  by  POWER 


4884 


HARNESS  MATERIALS 

Leathers  and  Cloths.     Saddlers'  Ironmongery.     Strap  Making 
and  Finishing.       Harness  Straps  and    Standard    Dimensions 


Group  20 

LEATHER 
15 


By  W.  S.  MURPHY 


LJARNESS-MAKERS  require  a  strong,  flexible 
class  of  leather  for  belts  and  straps ; 
pig-skin,  real  or  imitation,  for  saddles ; 
japanned  or  enamelled  hides  for  harness  collars  ; 
and  various  classes  of  brown  and  black  leathers 
suitable  for  saddle  flaps,  skirts,  and  saddles. 
Selection  of  these  is  aided  by  the  leather  factors 
who  cater  specially  for  the  trade  ;  but  the  saddler 
should  study  carefully  the  different  kinds  used, 
and  so  be  able  to  make  a  selection. 

Cloths.  Girths,  bands,  and  cloths  are 
generally  sold  in  the  form  required,  and  we  have 
only  to  cut  them  to  length.  The  girths  range 
from  4  in.  to  6  in.  wide,  and  are  made  of  wool, 
cotton,  or  union.  Felts,  baizes,  canvases,  and 
checks  may  be  bought  by  the  web,  and  cut  to 
suit  ;  felt  is  a  handy  material,  making  pads, 
covers,  or  linings  for  harness  and  saddles. 

Threads.  Saddlers'  threads  are  various, 
ranging  from  the  flax  out  of  which  he  makes 
wax-ends,  through  common  machine-sewing 
cotton  and  lint,  up  to  fine  silk.  In  selecting 
threads,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
weakest  point  in  a  saddlery  outfit  must  be  strong 
enough  to  stand  much  wear  and  tear. 

Miscellaneous  Items.  Pads  may  be 
filled  with  horsehair,  goats'  hair,  sheeps'  wool,  or 
several  qualities  of  flock,  ranging 
in  quality  from  pure  raw  wool, 
finely  carded,  down  to  mixed 
cotton  and  broken  rags.  Rye 
and  wheat  straws  ars  also  used 
for  the  in  sides  of  cart  collars. 
We  use  different  kinds  of  waxes. 
•The  common  brown  wax  is  not 
suitable  for  light  straps  and 
work  that  must  be  shown  on  the 
harness  of  carriage  horses.  Bees- 
wax, white  paraffin  wax,  and 
tallow  grease  are,  as  will  be  seen, 
essential  to  the  work  of  the 
saddler  and  harness  -  maker. 
Emery,  sandpaper,  grease  ball, 
blacking,  and  polishing  pastes 
cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  the 
finishing  processes  of  even  cart 
harness  or  ploughing  gear.  Tacks 
for  fastening  the  work  together 
temporarily,  saddle  tacks  for 
use  and  ornament,  and  nails — 
clout  nails  they  are  named — 
for  fastening  the  ends  of  belts 
and  girths  must  also  be  provided.  Last,  we 
must  not  forget  flour  paste.  This,  made  of 
flour  and  alum  boiled  together,  joins  linings, 
canvas,  and  inside  packings  together.  Good, 
thick  paste,  with  a  strong  gluten  in  it,  comes 
in  handy  many  a  time. 


5.    CUTTING  OUT 
GAUGE 


Ironmongery.  Buckles  are  required  for 
the  ends  and  joints  of  straps,  varying  in  size  and 
character  according  to  the  proportions  of  the 
belts  and  the  class  of  the  harness.  The  smaller 
buckles  and  -joint-rings  of  cart  harness  are 
usually  of  tinned  iron,  and  the  large  ones  are 
brass.  Van,  cab,  gig,  carriage,  and  riding  har- 
ness buckles  range  from  cheap  tinned-iron  to 
costly  nickel-plated,  in  all  the  various  sizes,  or 
covered  with  leather,  enamel,  or  celluloid. 
Unless  specially  desired  by  a  customer,  it  is 
well  to  stick  to  plain  metal,  because  none  of  the 
coverings  devised  have  given  satisfaction.  They 
save  polishing  paste  and  elbow  grease  in  the 
harness -room  ;  but  celluloid  breaks  with  a  fall, 
enamel  cracks  readily,  and  leather  cuts,  so  that 
the  expense  is  greater  in  the  end. 

Bits.  The  most  expensive  item  in  this  de- 
partment is  the  bit.  Since  ever  horses  were 
harnessed,  the  bit  has  exercised  the  ingenuity 
of  the  harness -maker.  Two  opposite  qualities 
appear  in  the  bit.  On  the  one  hand,  the  driver 
or  rider  must  have  command,  and  on  the  other, 
the  horse  should  be  allowed  as  much  freedom 
in  the  mouth  as  possible.  We  iiave  a  large 
variety  of  bits  from  which  to  choose,  and  there 
are  always  new  ones  coming  on  the  market. 
Among  riding  bits,  the  Pelham. 
is  most  generally  used.  This  bit- 
has  a  flat  bar,  long  cheeks,  and 
rings  for  both  double  and  single 
rein.  The  hackney  bit  has  a 
jointed  mouthpiece,  with  rings 
at  each  side.  The  Wilson  snaffle 
driving  bit  is  composed  of  two 
rings  on  a  jointed  mouth  bar, 
with  a  pair  of  loose  rings  on 
the  bar.  On  the  Liverpool  bit 
the  curb  cheek  is  loosely  joint "d 
to  the  solid  mouth  bar.  The 
Liverpool  is  coming  into  vogue 
as  a  carriage  bit,  but  old- 
fashioned  people  still  keep  to 
the  large  Buxton  bit,  with  the 
long  curb  cheeks  curved  just 
below  the  mouthpiece.  India- 
rubber  mouth  bars  are  used  for 
shy  horses  with  tender  mouths, 
and  there  are  show  bits,  stallion 
bits,  and  other  kinds  and  styles ; 
but  the  models  described  are  the 
most  common. 
In  addition,  we  require  to  keep  in  stock 
winker  plates  of  many  patterns,  brass-headed 
nails,  D-rings,  and  bosses. 

Cutting  Out.  Leather  is  a  costly  raw 
material,  and  the  method  of  cutting  out  [5]  may 
make  all  the  difference  between  profit  and  loss  in 

4885 


LEATHER  WITH 
KNIFE 


LEATHER 

the  business.  Such  a  caution  need  hardly  be 
addressed  to  cutters  in  the  factory,  because  the 
object  of  the  greater  part  of  their  training  is 
economy  of  leather.  But  the  beginner  in  the 
retail  trade  does  need  a  reminder  It  seems  such 
a  small  matter  at  the  moment  to  pare  off  a  slender 


6.  CUTTING  OUT  LEATHER  WITH  PRESS 

strip  of  leather  from  a  strap  cut  off  liberally 
from  the  hide  ;  but  put  these  parings  in  the 
scales  at  the  end  of  a  week,  and  see  how  many 
shillings  have  been  dropped  The  operation  of 
cutting  out  by  press  [6]  is  economical  when 
quantity  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  die. 

Strap  Cutting.  In  cutting  a  strap,  lay 
the  hide  on  the  bench,  the  back  towards  you  ; 
mark  exactly  the  breadth  with  an  awl  against 
the  straightedge,  and  then  cut  with  the  round 
knife.  Of  course,  if  you  use  the  plough,  the 
straightedge  and  round  knife  are  not  needed. 
Strap-cutting  machines  save  labour  to  an  even 
greater  extent.  Straps  of  all  kinds  should  be 
cut  the  long  way  of  the  hide,  as  the  tensile 
strength  of  the  skin  of  an  animal  is  greater  from 
head  to  tail  than  across  the  body 

In  the  cutting-room  of  the  factory,  the  stuff 
for  each  set  of  harness  is  cut  and  put  together 
before  any  part  is  sewn ;  the  practice  ought  to 
be  followed  in  the  smallest  of  workshops.  Cart 
harness  stuff  is  not  cut  out  in  the  same  order  as 
the  stuff  for  carriage  or  van  harness. 

Cart  Harness.  Leaving  out  collars  and 
saddles,  to  which  we  shall  devote  separate 
sections,  let  us  start  with  the  cart  harness  All  the 
parts  may  be  cut  from  hide  of  the  same  quality, 
excepting  the  winkers,  which  must  be  stiffer, 
and  free  from  oil.  For  the  latter,  leather  mer- 
chants stock  special  pieces.  Horses  vary  in  size, 
but  the  following  are  average  proportions  : 

Head=gear.  Winkers,  7  in.  by  7£  in. ;  checks, 
2  ft.  2  in.  by  1  £  in.  ;  noseband,  2  ft.  by  2  in. ;  fore- 
head band,  2  ft.  by  1 J  in.  ;  ear-pieces,  9  in.  by 
1£  in.  ;  chin-straps,  6  in.  by  2  in.  and  9  in.  by 

2  in.  ;   winker  straps,  2  ft.  by  1|  in. ;  head-strap. 
1  ft.  10  in.  by  1 J  in.  ;    throat  lash,  3  ft.  8  in.  by 
l\  in.  ;  reins,  5  ft.  by  1^  in.  and  2  ft.  4  in.  by  1 J  in. 

Body  Harness.  Crupper,  2  ft.  8  in.  by 
4  in  ;  crupper  ring,  8J  in.  by  |  in.  ;  breeching, 
7  ft.  4  in.  by  4  in.  :  hind  tugs,  I  ft.  8  in.  ;  loin 
straps,  3  ft.  8  in.  by  1£  in.  ;  cart  belly-band, 

3  ft.  8  in.  by  3  in. 

The  proportions  of  van  and  cab  harness  are 
quite  different  from  the  above  : 


Bridle.  Cheeks.  2  ft.  9  in.  by  2  in.  ;  nose- 
band, 2  ft.  8  in.  by  1  in.  ;  forehead  band,  1  ft.  9  in. 
by  1  in.  ;  headpiece,  1  ft.  10  in.  by  1£  in.  ;  winker 
strap,  13  in.  by  1  in. ;  throat  lash,  2  ft.  3  in.  by  \  in. 

Body  Harness.  Bearing  rein,  6  ft.  by 
%  in.  ;  crupper,  2  ft.  by  1|  in.  ;  crupper  billet, 

3  ft.  9  in.  by  1^  in.  ;  dock,  1  ft.  3  in.  ;   breeching, 
7  ft.  6  in.  by  If  in  ;    hip  straps,  4  ft.  by  2  in.  ; 
breeching  straps,  3  ft.  3  in.  by  1J  in.  ;    back 
band,  8  ft.  ;    shaft  tugs,  1  ft.  7|  in.  by  If  in.  ; 
traces,  4  ft.  9  in.  by  1|  in. 

Riding  harness  is  lighter,  finer,  and  less  elab- 
orate than  any  kind  of  draught  harness. 

Bridle.  Cheeks,  9  in.  by  $  in.  ;  head- 
strap,  1  ft.  10  in.  by  1 J  in.  ;  front  strap,  1  ft.  2 1  in. 
by  f  in.  ;  throat  lash,  1  ft.  7  in.  by  f  in.  ;  ivinx, 

4  ft.  by  1  in. 

Body  Gear.  Crupper,  1  ft.  6  in.  by  1  in.  ; 
billet,  2  ft.  4  in.  ;  crupper  dock,  1  ft.  long ; 
side  straps,  2  ft.  2  in.  by  f  in.  ;  short  cross  straps, 
about  10 \  in.  ;  girth  strap,  3  ft.  by  1J  in.  ; 
chapes  and  billets. 

These  measurements  are  merely  approxi- 
mate, and  the  minor  parts  require  to  be  cut 
according  to  the  size  and  quality  of  each  job. 

Edging,  Greasing,  Racing,  BucR= 
ling,  and  Blacking  Straps,  It  will 
save  us  a  good  deal  of  repetition  if  we  go  through 
the  process  common  to  all  straps.  Though  we 
speak  of  nosebands,  headpieces,  and  other  things, 
all  are  really  straps— the  whole  harness  is 
composed  of  straps — that  is,  strips  of  leather. 
Examine  a  harness  strap  of  any  kind,  and  the 
features  of  it  that  distinguish  it  from  plain  strips 
of  leather,  such  as  might  be  used  for  a  razor  strop, 
are  indelible  straight  lines  along  its  length, 
sharpness  of  edge,  and  black  colour. 

Shaping  the  Strap.  Among  the  strips  of 
leather  gathered  for  harness  stuff  we  find  one 
intended  for  a  box  strap,  and  with  it  to  practise 
on,  the  principle  of  strap-making  can  be  acquired. 
Lay  the  plain  piece  of  leather  on  the  bench,  and 
with  the  edge-trimmer,  shaped  like  a  crooked 


HAND-S'flTCHING    HARNESS 

tuning-fork,  trim  the  edges  all  round.  Turn  the 
one  end  over  1  in.  or  2  in.,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  whole  strap,  to  form  the  holder  of  the 
buckle ;  cut  a  hole  near  the  bend  for  the  btickb 
tongue ;  shave  the  turned-over  part  thin  to  the 
end ;  at  the  same  time  shape  the  other  end  by 
shaving  it  a  little,  making  a  graduated  tip  with 
three  sides  by  cutting  off  triangular  pieces  from 
the  corners. 


Creasing.  By  these  simple  acts  we  have 
given  our  strip  something  like  the  form  of  a 
belt,  and  to  bring  it  still  nearer  what  is  wanted 
we  take  up  the  crease.  Turning  the  screw  so  that 
the  one  creasing  leg  is  almost  close  to  the  other, 
we  warm  it  at  the  gas,  and  then,  fitting  it  on  to 
the  side  of  the  leather,  run  it  along  all  sides, 
making  a  fine  clear  line.  If  another  line  be 
clesired,  screw  the  crease  wider,  and  draw  the 
line  as  before.  This  is  an  operation  constantly 
repeated  in  saddlery  and  harness-making,  and 
has  to  be  carefully  done.  Of  course,  if  the 
creasing  machine  be  used,  the  worker  simply 
holds  the  strap,  and  the  machine  does  the  rest. 

Racing.  Racing  is  practically  the  same  as 
creasing,  with  two  differences  that  entitle  the 
operation  to  a  different  name  and  suit  it  for  pur- 
poses the  crease  could  not  accomplish.  A  race 
compass  is  a  divider  with  a  crescent  measuring 
gauge,  one  leg  sharp-pointed,  and  the  other  round. 
With  this  instrument  we  can  trace  lines  for  sew- 
ing or  cutting  circles,  semi- 
circles, turns,  and  twists. 
The  second  difference  is 
that,  while  the  crease  only 
makes  a  strong,  bright  mark, 
the  race  cuts  a  shallow 
channel,  and  is  therefore 
better  for  tracing  lines  for 
cutting  or  stitching. 

Fixing  the  Buckle. 
Put  the  buckle  in  the  bend 
of  the  strap,  the  tongue 
passing  through  the  hole, 
and  stitch  a  tack  on  both 
fcides  to  hold  it  firm.  Cut 
a  piece  of  leather  £  in. 
broad,  one  and  a-half  times 
longer  than  the  breadth  of 
the  strap  ;  skive  the  ends, 
strike  it  square  to  the  breadth 
of  the  strap  with  the  hammer  on  the  loop-stick, 
and  insert  the  ends  within  the  fold  that  holds 
the  buckle.  This  is  the  loop  that  holds  the  belt 
firm  after  it  has  been  buckled. 

Sewing  the  Strap.  We  are  now  ready 
for  sewing  [7].  Some  belts  or  straps  are  sewn  with 
a  single  thread,  and  others  with  a  double  thread  ; 
some  are  stitched  plain,  others  with  a  cross 
stitch,  or  chain,  or  locked  stitch.  The  chain 
stitch  with  a  single  thread  is  most  common. 
Make  a  thread  2|  yards  long,  by  running  five 
strands  that  length  off  the  ball,  twisting  them 
together  under  the  palm  on  the  knee,  waxing, 
and  threading  on  a  needle  at  each  end.  Run 
the  pricker  along  the  line  where  the  sewing  is  to 
be  ;  thrust  the  awl  at  a  slant  through  the  first 
mark  of  the  pricker  ;  insert  the  needle  in  the 
undermost  side  and  draw  the  thread  half  way 
through  ;  equalise  the  thread  above  and  below 
by  putting  the  needles  together  and  pulling 
tight  ;  thrust  the  awl  through  the  second  mark  : 
bring  the  undermost  needle  up  through ;  send 


8.    HARNESS   LOOP    DIES 


LEATHER 

the  needle  on  the  upper  side  down  through  ; 
pull  tight.  A  stitch  has  been  made.  Sew 
right  on  till  the  buckle  has  been  completely 
fastened,  with  the  loop  held  in  by  the  stitcheg 
as  well. 

Holing.  The  next  thing  is  the  punching 
of  the  holes  in  the  belt.  If  this  be  done  by  hand, 
mark  the  places  where  the  holes  have  to  be  with 
the  dividers,  and  then  strike  the  holes  with 
hand  punch  and  mallet. 

Blacken  with  ink  or  dye  the  parts  whitened 
with  the  cutting,  then  crease  all  over  again,  and 
polish  with  a  rag. 

Making  Loops.  We  have  mentioned 
loops,  and  though  the  connection  explains  the 
meaning  of  the  term  and  shows  the  character 
of  the  article,  further  description  is  necessary, 
The  loop  mentioned  above  is  a  fixed  loop,  put 
on  the  neck  of  the  buckle  ;  but  there  are  running 
loops  of  various  kinds  required  in  harness.  A 
running  loop  is  the  movable  band  which  holds 
in  position  the  loose  end  of 
the  strap  or  belt  or  band  after 
it  has  passed  through  the 
buckle.  Some  are  hard  and 
square,  some  are  ornamented, 
and  others  are  plain  and 
soft.  In  hand-made  saddlery, 
looping  is  a  very  particular 
and  artistic  bit  of  work.  We 
have  loop-stamping  machines 
with  special  dies  [8].  Prepar- 
ing for  the  machine,  we  cut 
the  loop  the  length  of  twice 
the  breadth  and  thickness  of 
the  belt,  and  skive  the  ends  so 
that  the  two  joined  make  one 
thickness  of  the  leather  ;  then 
the  die  is  fixed  and  the  loop 
pieces  put  through  the  stamp- 
ing machine. 
Having  made  the  leather  the  proper  size  and 
skived  it,  fold  over  the  piece  of  hard  wood 
called  a  looping  stick,  and  hammer  nicely  down 
to  form  the  corners.  Then  draw  a  pattern  with 
creases,  dividers,  and  compasses,  imitative  of 
inlaid  wood  or  in  any  pattern  fancy  seems  to 
favour. 

Sewing  the  loop  is  a  ticklish  job,  if  done  by 
hand.  Make  a  channel  with  the  racing  compass, 
and  stitch  carefully,  making  sure  that  the 
thread  catches  well  on  to  both  sides  of  the  loop. 
To  draw  a  needle  through  a  space  half  its  length 
in  a  square  of  stiff  leather  is  no  easy  task  ; 
long  stitches  are  therefore  excusable,  provided 
they  are  firm  and  well  taken.  A  method  we 
think  better  than  using  needles  is  the  substitution 
of  the  shoemaker's  bristles,  which,  being  flexible, 
allow  a  sharper  curve  in  a  small  space.  Smooth 
down  the  sewing  in  the  channel,  and  finish  off 
nicely  with  dye  and  polish.  In  this  way  large 
running  loops  for  breech-bearers,  traces,  tugs, 
and  other  large  belts  are  made. 


Continued 


4887 


Group  26 

SHOPKEEPING 
34 


Continual  from  pair*  4710 


CYCLOPAEDIA  OF  SHOPKEEPING 

SADDLERS.    Apprentice   and   Journeyman    Saddlers.      Tools   for  the 
Working  Saddler.     Stock  and  Side  Lines,  Profits  and  Prospects 


'"THE  trade  of  a  saddler  and  harness-maker 
1  seems  to  have  fallen  on  evil  days.  The  auto- 
mobile is  ousting  the  horse  from  the  high  roads, 
and  one  of  the  attendant  results  is  the 
lessened  occasion  for  purchasing  saddlery  and 
harness  by  those  who  were  wont  to  be  the  most 
liberal  in  their  disbursements  upon  such  articles. 

It  must  be  recognised  by  the  man  or  youth 
who  would  be  a  saddler  and  harness-maker  that 
he  is  about  to  adopt  a  livelihood  where  the  work 
is  hard.  In  most  branches  of  retail  shopkeeping 
there  are  respites — often  brief,  perhaps — from 
the  strain  of  attention  to  business,  but  the 
saddler  can  scarcely  afford  these.  His  is 
essentially  a  working  business,  and  can  be 
properly  prosecuted  only  by  the  man  who  has 
acquired  the  skill  to  work  at  it  with  his  hands. 
The  higher  the  skill,  of  course,  the  greater 
are  the  rewards  likely  to  be.  But  the  man 
who  has  not  learned  the  trade,  and  learned  it 
properly,  need  not  think  of  establishing  himself 
as  a  saddler.  And  the  retail  shopkeeper  with 
many  departments  will  be  foolish  to  attempt 
to  add  saddlery  as  a  side  line.  The  risk  of  failure 
in  such  an  attempt  is  almost  certain. 

Tne  Saddler's  Apprentice.  As  the 
business  is  one  that  can  be  prosecuted  only  by 
a  properly  trained  craftsman  and  not  entered 
haphazard  by  a  man  from  an  alien  trade  witb 
some  business  aptitude,  it  is  proper  to  consider 
the  question  of  apprenticeship  at  greater  length 
than  has  been  our  practice  in  considering  other 
trades.  Apprenticeship  is  general  and  necessary. 
The  term  of  service  was  formerly  seven  years, 
but  it  has  become  shorter  in  recent  decades, 
and  five  years  may  now  be  regarded  as 
the  most  usual  term.  The  period  is  none 
too  long,  as  there  are  a  great  many  practical 
details  to  be  learned,  and  the  youth  who  has 
just  completed  his  apprenticeship  is  never  a 
thoroughly  qualified  craftsman.  He  must  gain 
further  experience  for  at  least  three  years — 
preferably  in  a  shop  other  than  that  in  \vhich 
his  apprenticeship  was  passed — before  he  can 
claim  thorough  competence. 

Sometimes  a  premium  is  required  by  the 
employer,  but  this  is  now  rare,  as  the  condition 
of  the  trade  makes  it  difficult  for  employers  to 
obtain  apprentices  even  without  the  premium. 
Apprentices'  wages  vary.  In  many  country 
districts  they  begin  at  only  2s.  a  week,  rising 
to  9s.  during  the  last  year  ;  but  in  London  the 
wages  during  the  first  year  are  usually  5s.  a 
week.  When  apprentices  live  indoors,  a  custom 
which  is  becoming  very  infrequent,  they  receive 
no  salary,  but  a  little  pocket-money  only. 

Apprentice  Duties.  The  apprentice  has 
usually  to  fill  the  part  of  message-boy  and 
shop-cleaner  as  well.  His  first  practical  work 
is  to  learn  to  make  wax  threads  of  various 

4888 


thicknesses,  from  three  to  eight  strands  of  hemp 
twisted  and  dressed  with  black  wax  for  black 
leather  and  with  beeswrax  for  brown  leather 
sewing.  If  many  hands  are  kept,  this  thread- 
making  may  occupy  most  of  the  time  of  an 
apprentice.  In  some  shops  the  black  wax  com- 
position— a  mixture  of  pitch,  resin,  and  tallow 
— is  made  on  the  premises.  The  ingredients 
are  heated  together  and  allowed  to  cool,  after- 
wards being  divided  into  convenient  pieces. 

The  apprentice's  next  advance  is  to  the 
responsibilities  of  sewing,  which  demand  all 
his  care  and  attention,  as  it  must  be  straight  and 
regular.  Then  it  may  fall  to  him  to  learn  the 
important  department  of  cutting  out.  Most 
apprentices,  however,  are  never  entrusted  with 
this  work,  which  is  most  important,  as  judicious 
cutting  means  great  economy  and  unskilful  cut- 
ting heavy  loss  by  waste,  for  leather  is  a  very 
expensive  commodity 

Journeymen  Saddlers.  The  wages  of 
journeymen  saddlers  are  from  20s.  to  49s.  per 
week,  and  30s.  is  about  the  average.  The  journey- 
man saddler  frequently  has  no  opportunity  to 
learn  the  commercial  side  of  the  business,  his 
time  being  spent  exclusively,  or  almost  exclu- 
sively, at  the  bench.  For  this  reason  the  saddler 
is  frequently  a  bad  business  man,  as  he  often 
starts  on  his  own  account  without  any  previous 
business  experience  whatever.  It  is  worldly 
wisdom  to  attain  knowledge  at  the  expense  of 
another,  and  the  savings  of  a  man  may  be 
dissipated  in  a  short  time,  whereas,  had  he 
obtained  some  commercial  knowledge,  say, 
as  the  manager  of  a  branch  business,  or  as 
assistant  to  attend  customers  or  to  buy  goods 
and  materials,  he  might  have  been  qualified  to 
guard  and  increase  his  capital. 

The  Departments.  The  departments, 
if  we  may  call  them  so,  of  the  saddlery  and 
harness  business  are  three — the  manufacturing, 
the  selling,  and  the  repairing.  The  saddler  need 
never  be  idle.  If  his  attention  is  not  required 
by  a  customer  he  may  be  doing  repair  work,  and 
if  neither  selling  nor  repairing  be  possible  at  the 
moment  he  may  be  making  something  for  stock. 
There  is  a  distinct  advantage  in  the  ability  to 
occupy  time  thus.  If  not  making  a  merchant's 
profit,  the  saddler  can  at  least  earn  a  workman's 
wage  every  day.  The  repairing  of  saddlery  and 
harness  is  an  important  and  lucrative  part  of 
the  saddler's  business,  and  should  be  encouraged 
by  every  legitimate  means,  chief  among  which 
are  the  best  possible  work,  its  prompt  execution, 
and  the  never-failing  fulfilment  of  promises. 

The  necessarily  personal  character  of  the 
business  of  a  saddler  is  an  important  factor,  and 
although  customers  can  procure  their  require- 
ments at  some  of  the  large  stores,  most  of  them 
patronise  the  "  single- business  man."  It  is  most 


important  that  collars  ana  saddles  should  lit 
their  wearers  exactly,  should  conform  to  Nature, 
and  not  conflict  with  it,  so  that  the  ability  to  fit 
well  is  the  first  essential  for  a  successful  saddler. 

Capital.  Many  saddlers  start  in  a  small 
Avay  of  business  with  a  capital  of  not  more  than 
£100.  With  only  this  amount  at  disposal  the 
selling  stock  must  be  small,  as  the  greater  part 
of  the  sum  must  be  spent  in  working  material, 
which  is  expensive.  To  open  a  medium-class  busi- 
ness, the  sum  of  at  .least  £250  is  required,  and  we 
may  take  this  as  a  typical  case  for  consideration. 
With  such  a  sum  financial  pressure  will  be  felt 
in  intensity  as  the  volume  of  business  is  great, 
because  credit  prevails  to  such  a  large  extent, 
and  the  saddler  can  seldom  receive  payments 
as  promptly  as  he  has  to  make  them. 

The  premises  required  must  be  fairly  com- 
modious, but  need  not  be  in  the  principal 
thoroughfares  if  rents  there  are  too  high,  as  the 
orders  are  usually  given  by  coachmen  and 
grooms,  and  not  by  the  masters.  The  shop  fittings 
are  not  elaborate  or  expensive — a  strong,  solid 
bench  at  which  to  work,  a  counter  upon  which 
to  cut  out  and  from  which  to  serve  customers, 
a  few  glass  wall-cases  for  the  better-class  stock, 
such  as  bits,  spurs,  stirrup-irons,  whips,  and 
brushes,  plenty  of  hooks  and  brackets  from 
which  to  suspend  harness,  a  dummy  horse  (we 
saw  a  good  second-hand  one  of  full  size  for  which 
£6  10s.  was  asked  a  few  days  ago),  a  rail  on  which 
to  show  saddles,  a  good  supply  of  wooden  shelves 
placed  at  different  heights,  and  a  small  desk.  All 
these,  with  the  necessary  working  tools,  would 
absorb,  say,  £50  of  the  capital.  The  rest  of  the 
money,  or  the  greater  portion  of  it,  would  be  spent 
upon  the  raw  materials  of  the  craft  and  upon  stock, 
such  as  whips,  horse-rugs,  sponges,  low-priced 
collars,  and  saddles,  and  proprietary  articles,  such 
as  embrocation  and  harness  composition,  etc. 

Tools.  The  tools  required  by  the  working 
saddler  consist  of  the  following  : 

An  assortment  of  needles  for  harness  and  collar 
work,  two  paring  knives,  a  round  knife  for  thinning 
the  edges  of  leather  to  give  a  rounded  appearance 
to  lined  straps,  breeching  straps,  etc.  Head  knife 
for  cutting  circular  shapes  or  holes  in  leather,  plough  - 
cutting  gauge  for  cutting  straps  and  belting.  Spoke- 
shave  to  trim  and  finish  the  edges  of  traces,  etc. 
Three  edge-trimmers  of  various  sizes,  two  pairs  of 
sharp  and  strong  scissors  for  cutting  linings,  basil 
and  thin  leathers.  Washer  cutter,  punches  in  half 
a  dozen  different  sizes,  both  round  and  oval  (ovals  are 
better,  as  they  make  holes  in  straps  large  enough 
without  impairing  the  strength).  Buckle  tongue 
punches,  a  girth-chape  punch,  a  brace  end  punch, 
a  hand  punch  with  various  sizes  of  nipples  to  screw  in 
(this  is  handy  to  make  holes  in  harness  while  being 
worn),  mallet,  3  Ib.  block  of  lead,  scalloping  irons 
(Vandyke,  round,  straight,  and  half-moon),  rosette 
punches,  two  hammers  (one  fairly  light),  pricking 
iron,  wheel  prickers,  two  screw  races,  single  creases, 
three  checkers,  beveller,  a  flat  steel  rule,  a  pair  of 
compasses  with  screw  and  regulator,  a  pair  of  race 
compasses,  a  few  awl  blades  and  hafts,  bent  awls, 
sewing  awls,  a  hand  and  palm  iron,  a  thimble,  a  pair 
of  clamps  to  hold  the  work  while  being  stitched, 
nail  claw,  cutting  pliers,  pincers,  nippers,  iron  collar 
rod,  a  vice,  a  small  wrench,  a  hardwood  stick  about 
30  in.  long  having  a  V-shaped  point  for  filling  the 
body  of  collars  with  straw,  a  steel  seal  iron,  loop 
sticks,  a  boxwood  rubber,  a  straining  fork,  files  and 
rasps,  and  a  pair  of  hand  wool  carders. 


SHOPKEEPINO 

The  whole  of  these  tools  can  be  bought  for 
about  £6.  They  should  be  arranged  along  a  board 
fixed  at  the  back  edge  of  the  working  bench, 
loops  of  leather  of  various  sizes  being  fixed  to 
take  the  different  articles.     "  A  place  for  every- 
thing and  everything  in  its  place  "  is  a  good  rule 
for  the  saddler  who  would  be  expeditious  and 
economical  at  his  work. 

Materials.     The   materials   to  be  used   for 
the  making  of  saddlery  and  harness  which  the 
beginner  must  buy  comprise  the  following  : 

Threads  of  hemp,  black   wax,  beeswax,   etc.,  linen 
and   silk   threads,  nails,   cut   tacks    of   various   sizes 
clout  nails,  round-headed   and   japanned  nails,  nails 
with  nickel,  silver,  or  brass  heads,  rivets  of  all  kinds, 
dyes,   blackings,   varnish,   tallow,  soft  soap,   harness 
jot,  and  compositions. 

Flocks   for   stuffing   collars,    etc.,   horsehair,    doe's 
hair,  felt  for  pads,  leather  of  all  kinds,  both  brown 
and   black  ;     webs   of   various   widths   and   colours  ; 
spurs  ;     stirrup-irons  ;     harness    furniture     in    brass, 
nickel,  and  plated  silver  ;  face  pieces  and  name  plates  ; 
trees  or  foundations  for  cart,  gig,  and  riding  saddles  ; 
buckles  in  brass  and  plated  in  many  sizes  ;  Ds.,  Ss., 
etc.  ;    hip  chains,  bits,  snaffles,  curbs,  hames  in  brass 
and  plated. 

Collar  check  for  lining  cart  collars,   and  saddles  ; 
blue  serge  for  lining  gig  saddles,  etc.  ;    white  serge 
for  lining  riding  saddles  ;    kersey  for  making  horse 
covers,   bandage  serge,   bindings  of  all  descriptions, 
both  coloured  and  white. 

The    Stock.     Saddlers  should  manufacture 
most  of   their    stock   of  harness  and  saddlery. 
Factory-made  goods  are  somewhat  lower  in  price 
than  shop-made  goods,  but  the  process  of  rapid 
manufacture  pursued  in  the  factories  does  not 
make  for  the  best  quality,  and  the  saddler  is 
wise  in  his  own  interests  who  discourages  the 
factory  articles  for  his  own  productions.      We 
may  cite  a  few  articles  in  saddlery  and  harness 
which   will    be   in   frequent   demand    with   the 
usual  prices  charged.    We  confine  ourselves  to 
good  medium-class  articles. 

£  s.   d. 

Complete  set  of  gig  harness  (hand  sewn), 
brass     furniture,     brass-covered     hames, 
patent  leather  collar  and  saddle,  bridle 
with  Buxton  or  Liverpool  bit,  chain  front     660 
The  same  with  plated  furniture       .  .    extra     220 
Separately,  the  items  work  out  thus  : 

Patent  leather  collar          ..  ..  ..  14     0 

Brass  hames  .  .  .  .  . .  .  .  100 

Pair  traces  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  18     0 

Bridle  and  bit         100 

Saddle  and  breeching        2   15     0 

Reins  100 

Brown  leather  sets  are   charged   extra  in 

some  cases. 
Rush  collars  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  50 

Head  collars  .  .  .  .  .  .      from  5     0 

Kersey  rugs  . .          . .          . .          . .      1100 

Complete  suit  of  kersey  clothing  .  .      3     5     0 

Hemp  rugs  for  stable         ..  ..  ..  12    '0 

HUNTING    SETS. 

Gentleman's    riding    saddle,    with    girths, 
stirrups,      and     stirrup-leathers,       from 

£2   10s.  to       660 

Ladies'  ditto  .  .          from    £5    5s.    to   10     0     o 

Double-rein  bridle ..  ..  ..      from      1    10     I) 

Hunting  breastplate          ..  ..:       ,,  12     0 

Martingale..  ..  ..  ..          ,,  50 

CART    HARNESS. 

Per  Set         ..  ..  ..  ..    about     5   10     0 

Singly,  the  prices  are  about  : 

Collar  16     0 

Hames          .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  76 

Cart  saddle  and  breeching  .  .  ..2100 

4889 


SHOPKEEPING 


£  s. 
14 
10 
12 


HORSE 

about 


Bridle 
Collar 
Hames 


Hip  strap  and  crupper 
Gear  belly- 


Mi-idle  with  hit 

Belly  band 

Reins  .  .  .  .  .  . 

HARNESS    FOR    LEADER 

0 
14 
16 
7 

15 
ly-band     ...  ..  5 

Backhand   .....  .  .          12 

Gear  chains  ...  .  .  8 

Set  stick      .....  .  .  26 

Leather.  The  fluctuations  in  the  leather 
market  give  opportunity  to  the  cautious  specu- 
lator, apart  from  the  mere  manufacture  of  his 
saddlery  and  harness.  Naturally,  a  rise  in  the 
price  of  the  raw  material  demands  an  increased 
price  for  the  manufactured  article,  although 
many  tradesmen  are  slow  to  grasp  the  fact. 
Within  the  last  year  leather  has  advanced  from 
10  to  15  per  cent.  The  man  who  was  prescient 
enough  to  buy  a  year's  supply  ahead,  and  also 
to  advance  his  prices,  has  at  least  his  net 
annual  profit. 

In  purchasing  leather,  the  buyer  must  trust 
greatly  to  the  honour  of  the  seller,  and  having 
found  a  house  that  treats  him  well,  be  loth  to 
change  his  market  by  any  specious  inducements. 

The  price  of  leather  varies  very  much.  For 
instance,  strained  leather  basil  (sheepskins)  has 
recently  gone  up  from  Is.  3d.  to  2s.  6d.  per  Ib. 
At  present  good  harness  backs  rule  from  Is.  9d. 
to  2s.  6d.  per  Ib.,  and  good  harness  bellies  about 
Is.  3d.  per  Ib.  White  leather,  which  is  much  used 
for  sewing  and  for  repairing  cart  collars,  costs 
about  Is.  per  Ib.  ;  hogskins  from  13s.  to  20s. 
each,  and  patent  leather  or  japanned  hide  from 
3s.  to  3s.  lid.  per  Ib. 

Prospects  of  the  Trade.  The  effect 
of  the  motor-car  upon  the  saddlery  trade  is 
appreciated  only  by  those  who  know  the 
trade  well.  The  extensive  services  of  motor 
omnibuses  is  an  additional  cause  of  alarm,  al- 
ready acute  from  the  extensive  following  of  the 
motor  fashion  by  private  owners.  The  collar 
trade  especially  has  been  seriously  affected. 
Motors  do  not,  and  probably  never  will,  affect 
the  hunting  trade,  to  which,  therefore,  the  efforts 
of  members  of  the  trade  should  be  directed. 
Hunting  saddles  should  be  of  the  very  best 
quality,  as  they  have  very  hard  wear.  At  present, 
saddles  with  plain  flaps  are  preferred,  but  for 
poor  riders  saddle-flaps  with  knee  rolls  should 
be  recommended,  as  they  afford  a  much  firmer 
grip.  Saddlecloth  and  numnahs  are  not  used  in 
the  hunting  field,  and  it  may  be  mentioned  inci- 
dentally that  saddle  linings  must  not  be  patched, 
as,  if  they  are,  they  are  likely  to  cause  sores. 

If  military  contracts  can  be  secured,  it  is  often 
a  good  thing.  The  profits  are  small,  but  the 
orders  are  large  and  the  money  certain. 

Sundries.  The  list  of  saddlers'  sundries  is 
numerous.  It  comprises  : 

Brushes  of  all  sorts,  body  brushes,  whisk  dandy 
brush**,  whalebone  dandy  brushes,  bass  ditto, 
wati-r  brushes,  spoke  brushes  (with  and  without 
handles),  mane  brushes,  harness  and  boot  bni.-h<-;. 
breeches  brushes,  compo  and  carriage  cus 


Continued 


cloth  brushes,  carriage  washing  brushes,  oil  and  hoof 
brushes,  dog  and  stable  brushes;  horse  toppings, 
gig  lamps,  sponges,  chamois  leathers,  creams,  re- 
vivers,  burnishers,  and  glove  brushes;  nose  bags, 
halters  and  halter  reins,  stable  fittings  ;  horse  clippers, 
singeing  lamps,  scraper3,  curry  combs,  mane  combs, 
stable  baskets,  buckets,  coaching  baskets,  etc.  ; 
corn  servers  and  measures,  whips,  hunting  crops, 
whip  sockets,  thongs,  whipcord,  etc.  ;  body-belts, 
girths,  singlets,  rugs,  horse  nets,  bandages  and 
rubbers,  horse  boots,  kneecaps,  body  rollers,  horses' 
bonnets,  etc.  Blackings,  dubbings,  polishes,  clean- 
ing pastes,  embrocation  oils,  soaps,  etc.  Unfortun- 
ately the  last-mentioned  articles  are  usually  sold  at 
cut  prices  by  the  stores  and  grocers.  The  saddler 
must  protect  himself  by  buying  in  the  best  market 
and  making  up  his  own  blackings,  dyes,  etc.,  and  by 
pushing  their  sale. 

Helps  to  Business.  There  are  a  few 
public  functions  which  help  the  saddlery  busi- 
ness, and  advantage  should  be  taken  of  them 
and  trade  pushed  among  the  horse  owners  who 
patronise  them.  They  include  — 

The  Coaching  Club  Meet  in  Hyde  Park.  The 
Four-in-hand  Club  Meet  in  Hyde  Park.  The  Whit 
Monday  parade  of  Cart  Horses  in  Regent's  Park. 
The  May  Day  parades  of  horses  in  the  streets,  which 
do  much  to  promote  the  men's  pride  in  their  horses. 

Side  Lines.  The  desirability  of  remunera- 
tive side  lines  for  the  saddler  and  the  reason  for 
it  have  been  already  urged.  Leggings  and  gaitei  i 
are  very  profitable,  and  dog  collars,  leads,  chains, 
baskets,  and  clothing  are  very  saleable  if  a  little 
less  remunerative.  Bags  and  portmanteaus  are 
intimately  allied  to  the  trade,  and  should  by  all 
means  be  put  into  stock.  They  are  discussed  in 
the  article  on  Bag  and  Trunk  Dealers  in  thjs 
course,  to  which  attention  is  directed.  Game  bags, 
cartridge  bags,  gun  cases,  braces,  belts,  and  foot- 
balls can  all  bring  grist  to  the  mill  and  profit  to 
the  till.  Driving  gloves  are  articles  of  frequent 
demand,  and  yield  good  profits.  Saddler-made 
purses  have  a  reputation  for  long  life  which  they 
deserve,  and  are  not  to  be  despised  ;  but  they  are 
given  to  last  too  long,  and  when  we  hear  of 
one  which  has  stood  the  strain  of  daily  handling 
for  twenty  years,  one  feels  that  the  benefit  has 
been  all  with  the  purchaser  and  not  with  the 
saddler  who  made  and  sold  the  article. 

Credit  and  Profits.  As  already  men- 
tioned, the  business  is  chiefly  of  the  credit  order, 
and  yearly  and  half-yearly  accounts  are  the  rule. 
The  trading,  both  on  the  sales  of  articles  bought 
and  on  the  manufactured  work,  should  show  a 
gross  profit  of  about  33  J  per  cent,  on  the  return. 
Repair  work  ought  to  be  more  remunerative. 
chiefly  for  the  reason  that  the  proportion  of 
material  used  is  generally  small,  and  the  price 
is  made  up  of  labour  which  should  always  carry 
larger  profit  than  merchandise. 

The  objectionable  practice  of  bribing  the  ser- 
vants of  customers  has  become  common  in  the 
saddlery  trade.  Once  adopted,  it  is  most  difficult 
to  abandon,  and  the  best  course  is  to  refuse  to 
countenance  it  in  any  form.  The  man  who  takes 
this  stand  will  maintain  his  self-respect,  win  the 
respert  of  his  customers,  and  find  it  remunera- 
tive in  the  end.  The  new  law  which  has  come 
into  operation  (January  1907)  ought  to  suppress 
the  practice  if  it  is  rigorously  enforced. 


4890 


OBOE,  COR  ANGLAIS,  &  BASSOON 


Construction  of  the  Instruments. 
Compass  and  Tone.        Scales. 


The  Players'  Attitude. 
Effects  and   Exercises 


Group  22 

MUSIC 
34 


Contimieil  from 
page  4761 


By    ALGERNON    ROSE 


OBOE 

When  "  reeds  "  are  referred  to  in  an  orchestra, 
they  are  of  two  kinds — single  and  double.  The 
single  reed  is  that  which  vibrates  against  the 
framework  of  the  mouthpiece  (referred  to  in 
the  article  on  the  Clarionet).  Of  the  double 
reed  family,  the  chief  member  is  the  Hautboy, 
or,  in  Italian,  "Oboe."  Here  the  tone  of  the 
instrument  is  elicited  by  blowing  through  two 
slips  of  pliant  cane,  placed  one  against  another 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  a  narrow  channel 
between  them  for  the  passage  of  the  breath. 

Two  tongues,  bound  firmly  together  with  silk, 
are  fastened  over  one  end  of  a  thin  metal  tube 
known  as  the  "  staple."     The  opposite  end 
of  this  staple  fits  into  the  upper  orifice  of  the 
hautboy  itself.     According  to  the  size  of  the 
instrument  and  its  pitch,  so  do  the  dimensions 
of  the  double  reed  vary.     In   choosing    the 
reed,  appearance  is  the  only  guide,  although 
this  is  not  always  a  sure  one.     The  best  cane 
is  of  brilliant  yellow,  with  the  bark  lustrous. 
Pale  cane  gives  bad  tone.      What  is  wanted 
is  a  reed  neither  too  hard  nor  too  soft. 
The  former  sounds  unpleasantly  shrill, 
whilst  the  effect  of  the  latter  is  woolly, 
and  lacking  in  vibration.     Good  hautboy 
players  are   generally  adepts  at  making  >o 
their  own  reeds,  because  no  one  can  judge   9 
so  well  as  the  player  himself  what  best 
suits  his  own  lips  and  teeth. 

An  ideal  reed  possesses  justness,   ex- 
actness, and  equality  in  vibration.     These 
requirements  depend,  of  course,  not  alone 
on  the  colour  or  the  fibre  of   the   cane, 
but  on  its  precise  length,  thickness,   propor- 
tions, and  the  way  in  which  the  tAvo  tongues 
are  disposed   opposite   each   other.     As  the 
charm  of  the  hautboy  greatly  depends  on  the 
good  quality  of  its  tone,  and  as  this,  when 
the  double  reed  is  once  fixed,  is  governed  by 
the   manner  in   which   the   latter   is  placed 
between  the  lips  and  blown  by  the  player,  the 
performer's  attitude,  when  holding  the  instru- 
ment, is  of  no  small  importance. 

Attitude.  If  the  hautboy  is  held  like  the  THE 
clarionet,  the  student  will  neither  do  justice  to  OBOE 
himself  nor  to  his  instrument,  because  there 


' '  HLfMB   li  -  • 


point    the     fingers    downwards — not    upwards, 
as  for  flute  playing.     The  left  hand  negotiates 
the  top  joint,  and  the  right  hand  the  middle 
joint.     Do  not  rest  the  second  joint  of  the  first 
left  finger  on  the  instrument.      This  habit  spoils 
freedom  in  playing.     Remember  that  there  must 
be    no    stiffness    in    manipulation.     Curve    the 
fingers.     Raise    them    above    the    holes,    just 
sufficient   to  allow   the   air   to  escape.     If   the 
fingers  are  lifted   high    it  is  impossible  to  get 
rapidity  in  execution.     A  peculiarity  in  hautboy 
playing  is  that  the  holes  must  not  be  covered 
by  the  tip  of  the  finger,  but,  as  in  the  bagpipe, 
by  the    fleshy    part    of    the    first   joint. 
This  is  interesting,  because  it  shows  the 
relationship  of  the  hautboy  and  the  bag- 
pipe   chanter    to    the   pastoral   musette. 
But,  unlike  the  bagpipe,  which  requires 
digital  strength  of  a  steely  character,  the 
hautboy  as  a  solo  instrument,  especially 
in  the  orchestra,  demands  a  combi- 
nation with  force  of  the  maximum 
delicacy  if  the  peculiar  sweetness  of 
its  tone  is  to  be  produced  in  a  flex- 
ible manner,  so  that  the  intermediate 
shades  and   varieties  of  expression 
may  be  controlled  artistically. 

Choice  of  Instrument.    The 
material   of   which    hautboys    were 
formerly  made  was  frequently  box- 
wood.      To-day  it  is   agreed   that 
either  rosewood  or  ebonite  gives  not 
only  a  fuller,   but  a  more  delicate 
tone- quality.     The  student  should  be  able  to 
procure   a  reliable   second-hand   instrument 
of  modern  type  for  £5,  or  less.     For  the  most 
beautifully  finished  new  models  the  price  may 
be  as  high  as  £40,  the  cost  varying  according 
to   the  number    of    keys,  the  material,  and 
the  system  on  which  the  instrument  has  been 
manufactured.     If  the  hautboy  is  not  new,  it 
should  be  carefully  examined  to  see  that  there 
are  no  cracks  in  the  tube.     A  bandsman,  on 
returning  from  India,  will  sometimes  be  only 
too  glad  to  dispose,  very   cheaply,  of  an  in- 
strument, the  tube  of  which  has  split  in  the 
tropics,  or  has  developed  other  faults.    These 
occur  most  frequently  in  boxAvood  or  ebony 


is  as  much  difference  between  blowing  a  tube  Carte  &  Co-)  instruments,  which  are  very  brittle,  and  liable 

with  a  single  and  a  double  reed  as  there  is  between       to  go  wrong  if  dropped. 

tiring  off  a  gun  with  a  single  and  a  double  barrel. 

The  idiosyncrasies  of  each  implement,  whether 

as  regards  tone  or  trajectory,  must  be  studied. 

Place  the  hautboy  in  a  straight  line  from  the 

mouth,  then  let  it  slant  downwards  till  the  right 

thumb,   holding   the   middle   portion,    is   about 


six  inches  from  the  body.     Keep  the  head  erect. 
Rest  the  hands    lightly  on  the  instrument  and 


The  hautboy  is  far  more  sensitive  than  the 
larger  orchestial  wind  instruments.  It  is 
therefore  very  delicate.  But  the  beauty  of 
its  tone,  when  mastered,  more  than  com- 
pensates for  the  care  the  possessor  has  to 
bestow  upon  it.  The  student  should  there- 
fore resolve,  from  the  beginning,  to  strive 
to  obtain  the  most  expressive  sound-quality, 

4891 


MUSIC 

and  always  improve  upon  it.  Once  a  bad 
lone-production  has  been  acquired,  there  is 
nothing  more  difficult  than  to  get  rid  of  it. 
A  remarkable  feature  of  this  little  instrument 
is  that  its  shrill  and  piercing  character  will 
cleave  its  way  through  the  tone  of  a  hundred 
violins.  If  well  played,  it  will  stand  out  like 
a  thread  of  finely-spun  gold  on  a  groundwork 
of  velvet-pile.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  be 
like  vitriol  if  the  instrument  is  blown  in  a 
wrong  way,  although  this  very  stridency  of  its 
tone  makes  the  hautboy  invaluable  in  a  military 
band  when  leading  troops. 

The  Tone.  The  soul  of  sound  is  put  into 
the  instrument  not,  as  in  the  case  of  the  violin, 
by  the  right  hand,  but  by  the  mouth  of  the 
player.  The  tongue  and  breath  of  a  wind 
instrumentalist  do  all  that  the  violin  bow  achieves 
on  a  stringed  instrument.  When  treating  of  the 
violin,  however,  we  have  seen  how  much  has  to 
be  accomplished  by  the  bow.  If,  therefore, 
execution  on  the  hautboy  is  to  be  brilliant, 
sympathetic,  and  effective,  much  depends 
on  the  correct  way  in  which  the  tongue  and  the 
fingers  of  the  player  harmonise  together.  Before 
inserting  the  reed  in  the  mouth,  draw  the 
lower  and  upper  lips  over  the  teeth.  This 
makes  a  soft  cushion  on  which  the  reed  may 
rest.  Place  the  tip  of  the  reed  in  the  middle  of 
the  mouth,  not  so  far  as  the  staple,  but  about 
one-third  of  the  length  of  the  cane.  Fix  the 
reed  in  such  a  way  between  the  lips  that  it  may 
not  alter  its  position.  As  in  the  clarionet, 
the  pressure  by  the  lips  on  the  reed  is  slack 
for  the  low  notes,  and  firmer  for  the  high  ones. 

Having  inserted  the  reed  in  the  mouth,  let 
the  tip  of  the  tongue  touch  the  end  of  the  cane. 
It  must  do  this  so  as  to  close,  temporarily, 
the  channel  of  air  between  the  two  slips  of  cane 
which  form  the  double  reed.  Fill  the  mouth 
with  air  by  drawing  a  long  breath.  Compress 
the  cheek  muscles  sufficiently  to  cause  the  reed 
to  vibrate.  Withdraw  the  tongue  quickly,  so 
that  the  breath  passes  between. the  reeds  with 
moderate  force.  This  method  of  attack  in  the 
tone  is  technically  known  as  "  tonguing." 

This  delicate  instrument  needs  considerable  care. 
After  each  time  the  hautboy  (or  oboe)  is  used 
wipe  it  out  by  means  of  a  piece  of  silk  wrapped 
over  a  stick.  Occasionally  the  joints  need  greas- 
ing. For  this  purpose  mix  together  a  little 
melted  beeswax  and  tallow.  If  the  points  of  any 
of  the  springs  squeak,  put  on  a  drop  of  sewing 
machine  oil  with  a  feather.  Always  keep  the 
screws  of  the  keys  tight.  Should  a  key  fail  to  act, 
'carefully  unscrew  it,  clean  it  with  leather,  and 
replace  it,  WTien  the  instrument  has  been  taken 
apart  and  put  together  again,  make  sure  that 
t  he  tinger-holes  are  in  an  exact  line.  In  adjusting 
tin-  reed  into  the  headpiece,  the  oval  part  of  the 
r«-<-d  should  be  parallel  with  the  fingerboard. 

It  the  reed  does  not  vibrate  freely,  scrape  it 
till  it  becomes  more  transparent.  Do  not  make 
it  too  thin,  or  the  top  notes  will  be  very  difficult 
to  produce.  In  that  ease,  slightly  curtail  the 
<-nd  of  the  reed.  With  a  sharp  knife  cut  off  a 
pit  -re  very  smoothly.  According  to  the  character 
of  the  note  required,  so  must  the  attack  of  the 

4892 


tongue  be  strong  or  weak.  The  more  advanced 
the  student  gets  in  his  studies  the  more  mindful 
should  he  be  of  the  object  to  which  he  is  en- 
deavouring to  attain.  He  should  aim  at  a 
beautiful  tone- quality  rather  than  mere  rapidity 
of  execution.  It  is  well  to  imagine  that  a 
severe  critic  is  always  listening  to  one's  practice. 

The  'two  lips  of  the  player  and  the  two  lips 
of  the  reed  should  work  together  with  such  har- 
monious flexibility  that  the  fact  of  the  initial 
vibration  being  due  to  the  pulsations  of  air 
forced  between  the  reeds  from  the  lungs  should 
be  dismissed  from  the  mind  of  the  performer. 

The  Breath,  Make  no  noise  in  taking  a 
fresh  breath.  Keep  the  body  still.  Because  of 
the  tiny  aperture  in  the  reed,  the  performer  feels 
that  he  cannot  breathe  freely  into  his  instrument, 
and  has  a  sense  of  holding  back  wind  which  is  not 
fully  used.  But  one  mistake  which  beginners  are 
apt  to  make  is  to  employ  more  breath  than  is 
necessary.  Since  the  aperture  in  the  reed  is  so 
small,  the  art  is  to  supply  just  as  much  air  as 
is  required,  and  no  more.  As  soon  as  he  has 
mastered  the  playing  of  single  notes,  taking  a 
fresh  breath  for  each  sound,  the  player  should 
endeavour  to  link  together  a  group  of  notes  so 
as  to  make  a  musical  sentence  by  one  respiration. 
It  is  because  of  the  breathing  difficulty  that  fre- 
quent pauses  are  given  in  hautboy  music,  during 
which  the  player  can  exhaust,  or  reinforce,  his 
lungs.  The  hautboy  player,  if  he  desires  to 
excel,  must  carefully  study  the  management  of 
his  breath.  At  the  beginning  of  a  phrase,  suffi 
cient  air  should  be  inhaled  to  suffice  for  the 
number  of  notes  slurred  together.  If  a  habit  of 
reading  ahead  is  cultivated,  breath-control  will 
give  little  trouble.  The  careless  player,  who 
reinforces  his  lungs  unnecessarily  for  a  short 
passage,  and  omits  to  do  it  before  a  long  one, 
soon  becomes  fatigued  and  exhausted. 

A  long  phrase  on  paper  does  not  always 
demand  as  much  breath  for  its  performance  as  a 
comparatively  shorter  one.  If  the  former  is 
played  softly  in  quick  time,  and  the  latter  loudly 
in  slow  time,  the  shorter  group  of  notes  will 
require,  obviously,  a  Jarger  reserve  of  wind  power. 
Avoid  taking  a  fresh  breath  in  the  middle  of  a 
phrase.  If  this  is  necessary,  inhale  what  is  called 
a  "  half -inspiration  "  quickly.  In  such  cases  it 
is  better  to  have  too  much  breath  than  not 
enough,  because  if.  when  the  player  reaches  the 
middle  of  a  phrase  and  finds  he  has  more  than 
he  needs,  there  is  little  difficulty  in  letting  the 
surplus  escape,  so  long  as  he  takes  care  to 
reserve  enough  for  the  completion  of  the 
passage. 

Compass.  The  compass  of  the  hautboy  is 
two  octaves  and  four  notes,  from  B  below  first 
ledger  line  treble  clef  to  F  above  third  ledger  line 
over  the  staff.  But  the  best  notes  are  from  G,  on 
the  second  line  to  C  on  the  second  ledger  line 
above  staff.  If  we  reckon  by  the  church  organ,  the 
hautboy,  from  its  lowest  C  to  the  B  above,  gives 
what  is  known  as  the  "  two-foot  "  tone.  But  as 
two  semitones  belonging  to  the  four-foot  octave 
are  produced  by  additional  holes  near  the  bell, 
the  measurement  somewhat  exceeds  2  ft,  from 
end  to  end.  This  extra  length  considerably 


enriches  the  tone-quality  of  the  instrument, 
which  formerly  was  shorter  than  it  is  to-day. 
As  the  hautboy  is  difficult  to  play  when  on 
the  march,  its  parts,  in  military  music,  are 
written  as  simply  as  possible,  rapid  passages 
and  arpeggios  being  avoided.  In  a  brass  and 
reed  band,  however,  a  couple  of  hautboys 
sustaining  notes  in  the  harmony  considerably 
add  to  the  effect  of  the  general  tone.  For  solo 
playing  the  student  must  prepare  himself  to 
execute  a  good  many  complicated  passages. 
Nevertheless,  the  hautboy  appears  at  its  best 
when  it  is  given  in  the  orchestra  a  plaintive 
melody  of  a  pastoral  character.  Unlike  the 
clarionets  and  flutes,  it  sounds  the  actual  pitch 
of  the  notes  written  in  the  music. 

Hautboys  possess  12,  13,  16,  17,  or  19  keys 
besides  rings.  The  prices  range,  for  new  in- 
struments of  rosewood  or  ebonite,  from  £8  to 
£^0.  The  model  most  generally  used  has  15 
keys  and  two  rings,  and  costs  about  £10.  In- 
struments of  the  latest  pattern  give  the  low  B7. 

Fingering.  As  regards  the  fingering,  there 
is  considerable  resemblance  in  the  hautboy  to  the 
flute.  The  natural  scale  of  the  tube,  if  no  keys 
are  used,  is  D  major.  With  the  keys,  C  2,  C,  B, 
and  the  low  B1?  are  produced  beyond  the  ordin- 
ary holes  by  means  of  additional  vents  pierced  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  tube.  From  the  B !?,  there- 
fore, to  the  extreme  top  of  the  compass,  this 
instrument  gives  not  only  the  diatonic,  but  all 
the  chromatic  intervals,  those  above  the  first 
octave  being  obtained  by  increased  pressure  of 
the  breath.  This  acceleration  of  the  vibration 
within  the  instrument  causes  the  upper  harmonic 
partials  to  sound.  The  highest  notes  are  elicited 
by  cross-fingerings.  Unlike  the  clarionet,  the 
hautboy  does  not,  however,  jump  off  in  tone  a 
twelfth  higher  with  extra  blowing.  The  increased 
force  supplied  produces  the  octave,  as  in  the 
flute,  over  the  lower  notes  played  with  slacker 
lips.  Although  the  tone  of  the  instrument 
cannot  be  described  as  resonant  in  volume,  it  has 
a  peculiar,  penetrating  quality  so  that,  unless 
carefully  produced,  the  sound  is  unpleasantly 
nasal  and  piercing.  To  understand  the  fingering, 
the  first  point  is  for  the  student  to  locate  the 
six  open  holes.  In  the  cheaper  models  none  of 
these  have  rings.  Refer  now  to  the  illustration. 

Starting  at  the  top  of  the  instrument,  these 
finger-holes  are  marked  F,  E,  D  for  the  left  hand, 
and  C,  B,  A  for  the  right.  Being  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  tube,  the  holes  are  conveniently 
under  the  fingers  of  the  player.  Rest  the 
instrument  on  the  right  thumb  by  the  plate 
provided  for  the  purpose  at  the  back  of  the 
joint.  Put  down  the  first  left  finger  over  the 
F  hole,  the  second  left  finger  over  the  E  hole,  the 
third  left  finger  over  the  D  hole,  and  close  the 
C,  B,  and  A  holes  respectively  by  the  first,  second, 
and  third  right  fingers.  In  modern  instruments 
certain  keys  have  double  branches.  Thus,  the 
fourth  left  finger,  touching  No.  6  key,  or  the 
left  thumb  touching  No.  10  key,  by  opening 
the  same  vent,  enables  some  otherwise  difficult 
passages  to  be  played  with  ease.  Having  closed 
all  the  six  holes,  put  down  as  well  the  first, 
second,  and  fourth  keys.  Blow  softly,  and  this 


MUSIC 

will  give  the  lowest  note,  B  ?.  For  the  B  jj, 
use  the  same  fingering  without  the  first  key. 
For  the  low  C  employ  the  same  fingering,  but 
with  only  the  fourth  key. 

Close  all  the  holes  likewise  for  the  Cj,  but 
only  use  the  third  key.  For  D  ft,  close  all  the 
holes,  without  using  any  of  the  keys.  For  the 
DJJ,  or  E !?,  keeping  all  the  holes  closed,  either 
the  fifth  or  sixth  key  may  be  employed,  as  most 
convenient.  To  produce  E  ft,  open  the  lowest 
hole,  keeping  the  others  closed.  In  the  same 
way,  F  ft  will  be  obtained  with  the  addition  of 
the  seventh  key.  F  Jj!  is  played  by  opening  the 
fifth  as  well  as  the  sixth  hole.  For  G  ft,  open 
the  fourth  hole.  Keep  this  fingering  for  G  £ , 
adding  the  eighth  key.  For"  A,  open  the  third 
hole.  Use  the  same  fingering  for  Atjl,  adding, 
as  convenient,  either  the  ninth  or  the  tenth  key. 
For  B  ft,  close  only  the  top  hole.  For  C  ft , 
close  only  the  second  hole,  or  the  first,  with  the 
eleventh  key.  Blowing  with  more  pressure  than 
for  the  lowest  register,  put  down  the  fingers  on 
all  the  holes  again,  excepting  the  top  one,  for  C  £", 
and  use  the  fourth  key.  Or  leave  all  the  holes 
open,  and  use  the  fifth  key. 

A  third  way  to  get  this  note  is  to  put  down 
the  first  finger  on  the  top  hole,  and  use  the 
twelfth  key.  To  get  D,  on  the  fourth  line,  close 
all  the  holes  except  the  top  one.  For  D  ft,  keep 
to  the  same  fingering,  but  half  cover  the  top  hole, 
and  use  either  the  fifth  or  sixth  key.  For  E  ft, 
open  the  bottom  hole,  keeping  the  others  covered, 
and  add  the  thirteenth  key.  For  F  ft,  keep  the 
same  holes  closed,  but  use  the  seventh  key. 
Open  the  two  bottom  holes  for  F  jj,  using  the 
thirteenth  key.  For  the  G  ft,  open  the  three 
bottom  holes  and  put  down  the  thirteenth  key. 
Use  the  same  fingering,  adding  the  eighth  key, 
for  G  $.  For  A  ft,  open  the  four  bottom  holes, 
using  the  thirteenth  key.  Cover  all  the  holes 
except  the  third,  and  add  the  thirteenth  key 
for  A  $.  For  B,  cover  all  the  holes  excepting 
the  second,  and  add  the  fifth  key.  Or,  if  more 
convenient,  only  cover  the  top  hole,  using  the 
fourteenth  key.  For  C,  cover  all  the  holes  except 
the  first  and  sixth.  This  is  an  example  of  what 
is  called  cross-fingering.  For  C  jj",  add  the 
fourth  key. 

Open  the  third  hole,  half  cover  the  top  hole, 
and  still  use  the  fourth  key,  for  D.  For  D  JT, 
adhere  to  the  same  fingering,  but  close  the  bottom 
hole  and  use  the  second  instead  of  the  fourth  key. 
For  E,  half  close  the  top  hole,  quite  close  the 
second,  third,  fifth,  and  sixth  holes,  leaving  the 
fourth  open,  and  using  the  fifth,  eight,  and 
thirteenth  keys.  For  F,  half  close  the  top  hole, 
close  the  second  hole,  the  fifth  and  sixth,  using 
the  fifth,  eighth,  and  thirteenth  keys.  For 
FjL  half  close  the  top  hole,  close  the  second, 
fourth,  and  fifth  holes,  using  the  fourth,  seventh, 
eighth,  and  thirteenth  keys.  For  G,  on  the 
fourth  ledger  line  above  the  staff,  close  the  top 
and  fourth  holes,  blowing  with  special  force. 

If  the  student  following  these  directions 
makes  out  for  himself  a  diagram  such  as  we  have 
furnished  for  the  clarionet,  he  will  well  impress 
the  method  of  manipulation  upon  his  memory. 
Some  notes,  however,  have  quadruple  fingering  ; 

4893 


MUSIC 

hut  to  avoid  confusing  the  beginner,  every 
pottibie  combination  has  not  been  pointed  out, 
Mt  hough  to  get  the  two-foot  tone  for  the  low 
M-Mer  slower  vibration  is  passed  into  the  reed, 
so  that  the  whole  of  the  air  in  the  tube  may 
form  one  long  segment,  for  the  one-foot  tone 
that  segment  is  harmonically  divided  by  quicker 
pulsations  until  the  top  notes,  which  lie  in  the 
ox  inch  octave,  are  reached.  By  practice  a  cres- 
cendo can  be  obtained  on  the  lowest  notes,  or  a 
diminuendo  on  the  highest,  without  in  any  way 
interfering  with  the  pitch. 
Ex.  1. 


breath  is  taken  in,  playing  successively  C,  D, 
E,  and  F  ;  G,  A,  B,  and  C  ;  and  so  on  up  and 
down  the  scale.  Do  not  be  satisfied  till  the  two 
octaves  can  be  played  from  low  to  top  C  in  one 
breath,  and  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  in  the 
same  way.  From  C  major  proceed  to  G  major. 
Treat  that  key  in  like  manner.  Next  try  D 
major  with  two  sharps  ;  A  major  with  three  ; 
E  with  four,  and  so  on,  treating  each  key  in 
the  same  fashion.  Continue  by  studying  the 
Relative  Minor  scales,  beginning  very  slowly 
with  A  minor  [Ex.  2] 


Scales.  For  the  study  of  correct  articula- 
tion the  daily  practice  of  scales  is  indispensable, 
both  ascending  and  descending.  First  try  these 
diatonically  in  tones,  with  occasional  semitones, 
and  then  chromatically,  only  in  semitones.  Both 
the  major  and  minor  scales  should  be  studied. 
Play  these  at  first  very  slowly,  and  listen 
attentively  so  as  to  get  a  good  quality  of  tone. 
When  this  has  been  mastered,  accelerate  the 
speed  to  obtain  rapidity  of  execution.  But 
tone-quality  should  always  come  before  velocity. 


Ex.  2. 


Here  observe  the  F  £  and  G  £  in  going  up, 
and  the  G  tf  and  F  ?}  in  coming  down.  With 
diligence,  the  student  must  familiarise  himself 
equally  with  the  Minor  as  -vith  the  Major  modes 
of  each  key.  The  accidentals  introduced  will 
also  make  practice  of  chromatic  passages  easy. 
Management  of  the  breath  being  so  important 
in  hautboy  playing,  and  modern  music  being  so 
prone  to  semitones  rather  than  whole  tones. 
particular  attention  should  now  be  given  to 
the  chromatic  scale. 


Try  the  scale  of  C  major,  through  two  octaves, 
descending,  after  ascending,  in  the  mannei 
given.  [Ex.  1.] 

Here  we  have  four  crotchets  in  each  bar, 
repeating  the  same  note.  Practise  this  exercise 
with  the  metronome  set  to  40.  This  is  the 
lowest  time  marked.  Then,  instead  of  crotchets 
[•lay  quavers,  so  that  to  each  beat  two  notes  are 
blown,  and  the  same  sound  is  made  in  each  bar 
eight  times.  Without  altering  the  metronome, 


EJL  3. 


Chromatic  Playing.  Exercise  3  gives  a 
passage  in  which  no  fewer  than  twenty -five  notes 
are  linked  together  by  a  single  slur,  indicating  that 
they  are  to  be  played  successively  in  one  breath, 
the  fingers  meanwhile  running  up  the  scale 
through  two  octaves  by  a  series  of  half-tones 
above  the  low  C.  To  execute  repeated  passages 
like  this  requires  considerable  skill. 

Taking  this  passage,  the  student  should  first 
link  each  two  notes  together.  Thus,  play  the 


lnit  quickening  the  stroke  of  the  tongue,  then  try 
-emiquavers.  Four  sounds  to  every  beat  will 
now  ).>e  produced,  so  that  each  note  is  repeated 
Hi  times  in  every  bar.  Then  take  the  scale  in  a 
'liilerent  way.  Write  it  out  on  music  paper 
without  repeating  any  note. 

Practise  linking  one  note  with  another. 
Blow  the  C  and  li,  the  K  and  F,  and  so  on, 
<-ach  coupled  with  one  breath.  Then  make 
a  slur  over  every  four  notes,  so  that  no  fresh 


low  C  and  theD7  smoothly  with  one  breath. 
Repeat  this  four  times  in  one  bar.  Take  the 
D?  and  D  §.  Repeat  them  in  the  same  way. 
After  going  up  and  down  the  two  octaves  in 
this  manner,  put  an  imaginary  slur  over  every 
three  notes.  Play  C,  D  7  and  D  ft  in  one 
breath,  so  as  to  make  four  triplets  of  the  same 
sounds  in  each  bar.  Next  link  D7,  D  £,  and. 
E  ?  together.  Repeat  them  in  the  same  way, 
and  go  up  and  down  the  chromatic  scale,  al ways 


shifting  the  first  note  a  semitone  at  a  time. 
Having  linked  together  three  half-tones,  try 
four.  Take  D">,  D  $,  E  t?  and  E  tf,  in  the 
same  way.  Next  group  five  notes  together, 
then  six,  and  afterwards  seven.  By  this 
manipulation  and  breath  control  are  acquired 
simultaneously.  Moreover,  writing  out  such 
exercises  is  excellent  training  for  familiarising 
the  eye  with  musical  manuscript.  This  often 
distresses  an  amateur,  who  has  confined  his 
attention  to  printed  notation.  When  he  first 
begins  to  play  a  second-oboe  part  in  an  orchestra, 
unless  he  has  accustomed  himself  to  manuscript 

Ex.  4. 

JL_ 


rviusic 

the  player  inserts  the  A  above  and  repeats  the  G 

quickly,  mak- 
ing a  little  trip- 
let on  the 
third  note  of 
the  group  of 
four,  without 
interfering 
with  the  time. 
A  ppoyiaturas 
aje  slipped  in 

much  in  the   same   way,  the  Grace  "notes    being 
written  small  so  that  the    larger  notes  may  be 


Ex.  5 


Written 


Played 


Written 


Played 


exercises,  he  is  placed  at  a  disadvantage, 
is  unable  to  decipher  the  handwriting  of  the 
given  him.  Continuing  this  study,  group 
together,  now,  eight  semitones — viz.,  C, 
D  7,  D  fl,  E  t?,  E  t|,  F,  G  t?  and  G  jj.  Play 
that  passage  with  one  breath  on  the  first 
beat  of  the  bar.  Repeat  the  same  phrase 
on  the  "  two,"  "  three,"  "and  "  four."  Start 
the  next  bar  from  the  D  t>  ;  the  third  bar 
from  the  D  tf ;  and  so  on.  Never  be 
satisfied  until  every  sound  in  each  phrase 
is  articulated  clearly  and  in  a  flowing  man- 
ner. Now  link  together  nine  notes  from 
the  C  to  the  A  t?  inclusive.  Then  ten  half- 
tones, from  the  C  to  the  A  jj  ;  eleven  from 
the  C  to  the  B  ?  ;  twelve  from  the  C  to  the 
B  § ;  and  then  thirteen  from  the  C,  includ- 
ing the  C  above.  By  this  time  the 
beginner  will  have  mastered  playing  with 
one  breath  a  complete  octave.  While  he 
should  not  rest  content  with  this,  he  should 
not  make  the  mistake  of  attempting  the 
impossible.  What  appears  difficult  at  first 
will  become  easier  with  repetition,  provided 
the  time  devoted  to  dailv  practice  is  care- 
fully planned. 

The  Trill.  The  shake,  or  trittp,  is 
the  alternate  repetition  of  a  note  written 
with  one  the  next  degree  in  pitch  above  it, 
and  needs  careful  practice  [Ex.  4]. 

Take  the  scale  of  D  major,  and  play  it 
slowly.  Now,  after  the  D,  articulate  the 
note  above,  E.  Repeat  the  D  and  E  four 
times,  ending  with  the  D.  Proceed  with 
the  E,  linking  it  with  F  $.  Repeat  E,  F, 
as  indicated,  before  going  to  F>  and  G  ; 
G  and  A  ;  and  so  on,  up  to  the  D  and  E 
above.  The  shake  depends  for  its  charm 
upon  the  evenness  and  smoothness  with 
which  the  waves  of  sound  are  elicited. 
Familiarity  with  chain  shakes  will  make 
what  are  known  as  yassinq  shakes  simple 
[Ex.  5]. 

Here,  where  the  turn  occurs  over  the  G, 


more  emphasised  [Ex.  6].  A  good  player  can  do 
practically  any  kind  of  solo  work  with  this  in- 
strument, which  is  capable,  in  its  medium 
compass,  of  rapid  execution  and  considerable 
liveliness.  The  ambitious  student  who 
takes  up  the  oboe  with  the  object  of  qualify- 
ing for  a  place  in  an  orchestra  is,  therefore, 


^— 4-J—^ r 


THE  COR 
ANGLAIS 

(Mahillon  &  Co.) 


Ex.  6. 

Written 

Played 


recommended  to  study  the  oboe  parts 
of  standard  orchestral  works :  Haydn's 
'"  Seasons "  and  Symphonies,  Mozart's 
Symphonies  ;  the  solos  which  occur  in 
Beethoven's  "  Pastoral  "  Symphony,  and 
in  Rossini's  "  William  Tell "  ;  or  in 
other  familiar  operas,  such  as  Weber's 
"Oberon"  and  "Freischutz,"  and  Auber's 
"  Masaniello." 

COR     ANGLAIS 

What  the  basset  horn  is  to  the  clarionet, 
the  cor  anglais  is  to  the  hautboy. 

Between  the  two  instruments,  however, 
come  two  instruments  of  the  same  double - 
reed  family.  First,  we  have  the  Oboe  da 
Caccia,  for  which  there  is  a  part  in  Bach's 
"  Christmas  Oratorio  "  ;  secondly,  we  have 
the  Oboe  d' Amore,  to-day  used  in  the  Bach 
Choir,  at  the  Brussels  Conservatoire,  and 
elsewhere.  This  stands  a  minor  third 
lower  than  the  ordinary  hautboy.  It  is, 
therefore,  like  the  A  compared  to  the  C 
clarionet.  The  tube  being  longer,  the 
lower  notes  are  mellower,  and,  as  was  f  or- 
merlv  considered,  more  sentimental ;  hence 
the  name.  But  when  parts  occur  in  read- 
ing old  scores  marked  "  Oboe  d' Amore  " 

4895 


MUSIC 

or  "Oboe  da  Caeria."  they  are  usually 
transposed  and  played  either  on  the  ordinary 
hautboy  or  on  the  cor  anglais.  Of  late  years 
the  latter  instrument  has  been  much  improved, 
both  as  regards  facility  in  fingering  and  purity 
of  tone. 

Cost.  The  cost  greatly  depends  upon  the 
make  which  the  student  desires  to  purchase. 
Complete,  with  leather  sling-carriage  and  reed- 
box,  a  well-seasoned  rosewood  or  ebonite  oboe 
d'amore  in  A,  with  German-silver  keys,  new. 
can  be  obtained  for  about  £10.  A  cor  anglais, 
with  15  keys,  in  F,  costs  about  £11.  With  17 
keys  and  real  silver  fittings,  as  much  as  16  or  22 
guineas,  respectively,  is  demanded.  In  appear- 
ance, the  oboe  d'amore  is  like  a  big  ordinary 
hautboy.  But  the  cor  anglais  has  the  mouth - 
tube,  to  which  the  reed  is  attached,  curved  and 
bent  towards  the  player.  The  bell,  or  bass  end, 
of  the  instrument,  instead  of  being  concave,  like 
the  hautboy,  is  convex,  or  bulbous. 

Fingering.  Except  that  the  keys  are 
rather  larger,  and  the  holes  somewhat  further 
apart,  the  fingering  is  precisely  the  same  as  on 
the  hautboy.  The  scale  of  the  cor  anglais  is 
two  octaves  and  a  fifth — from  E,  third  space 
bass  clef,  to  Bt?,  first  ledger  line  above  treble  clef. 
Such  are  the  actual  sounds  produced.  But  if 
we  examine  one  of  the  most  familiar  instances  of 
the  use  of  this  instrument,  which  occurs  in 
Rossini's  Overture  to  "  William  Tell,"  we  shall 
find  the  part  given  to  the  cor  anglais  in  the  score 
placed  in  the  bass  clef.  This  is  the  Italian 
custom.  To-day,  however,  instead  of  repre- 

Ex.  1. 

In  score.      x-v    .j  •        /^N      :-t  _  ^^     _-,. 

-r-^f-Tpny-r~yg=T^& 


The  Reeds.  Although  the  rough-and-ready 
drone-reed  of  the  Highland  bagpipes  in  producing 
tone  is  the  same  in  action  as  the  hautboy,  the 
pipe-reed  does  not  come  into  contact  with  the 
player's  lips.  The  more  musical  the  oboist 
the  more  sensitive  are  his  lips,  and,  for  obtaining 
the  different  registers  of  pitch  by  variation  of 
lip-pressure,  it  is  necessary  that  the  double  reed, 
upon  which  the  lips  and  the  tongue  operate,  shall 
pulsate  with  the  utmost  responsiveness,  so  that 
the  player  may  not  be  hindered  by  the  cane  being 
unduly  stiff  or  soft.  The  reeds  here  are  larger 
than  those  for  the  hautboy,  but  otherwise  are 
alike  in  detail. 

The  Tone.  For  cantabile,  or  slow  move- 
ments, the  expressive  quality  of  the  cor  anglais 
stands  unrivalled  ;  but  the  instrument  is  not 
adapted  for  rapid  passages.  When  well  played, 
its  lower  notes  are  rich  and  exceedingly  beautiful. 
They  possess  a  tone-fragrance  which  distin- 
guishes this  instrument  from  all  others  in  the 
modern  orchestra.  For  that  reason  composers 
make  more  and  more  use  of  the  mysterious 
"  colouring  "  which  the  cor  anglais,  judiciously 
used,  gives  to  an  orchestral  tone-picture.  To 
subdue  the  tone,  it  was  formerly  customary  to 
cover  the  wood  of  the  instrument  with  leather, 
which  also  prevented  its  cracking.  But  that  idea 
has  been  discarded.  Meyerbeer,  in  the  "  Hugue- 
nots," Gluck,  in  "  Orpheo,"  Berlioz,  in  the 
"  Symphonic  Fantastique,"  and  Halevy,  in  "The 
Jewess,"  have  all  employed,  with  telling  effect, 
the  low,  plaintive,  mysterious  sounds  of  the 
cor  anglais. 

Beethoven  has  a  fine  trio  for  two  hautboys 


Now  written. 


-•£.  B 


senting  the  instrument  an  octave  lower  than  its 
real  sounds,  the  cor  anglais  is  written  for  strictly 
according  to  the  fingering,  and  treated  as  a 
transposing  instrument  [Ex.  1]. 

This  arrangement  of  writing  in  the  treble  clef 
adapts  the  cor  anglais  to  the  ordinary  hautboy 
fingering,  so  that  the  larger  instrument  auto- 
matically speaks  its  part  as  desired,  a  fifth  below, 
in  the  same  way  as  obtains  with  the  clarionets. 
The  key  signature  of  the  cor  anglais  always 
contains,  therefore,  one  sharp  more,  or  one  flat 
less,  than  that  in  which  the  music  really  stands. 
When  a  part  for  this  instrument  occurs  in  an 
orchestral  score,  one  hautboy  only  is  usually 
employed  at  the  same  time,  because  the  part  for 
the  second  hautboy  player  is  dispensed  with,  that 
bring  allotted  to  the  cor  anglais.  He  is  thus 
spared,  when  the  composer  scores  in  the  treble 

•  •let',  the  trouble  of  transposing  his  part  a  fifth 
higher.     Standing  in  the  key  of  F,  and  speaking 
a  fifth  lower  than  the  ordinary  hautboy,  if  the 
second  hautboy  player  suddenly  takes  up  the 

•  •or  .-iM.iil.ii-.  In-  has  enough  to  do  to  suit  his  lips 
1o  a.   dillVrent    reed    and    adapt    his    fingers    to 
tin-  larger  Ury   mechanism  without  having  the 
perplexity  «»f  transposing  at  sijfht  to  attend  to 

as  well. 

ts'.ir, 


and  cor  anglais,  Op.  29,  and,  in  the  opening  of 
Act  III.  of  "  Tristan,"  Wagner  uses  the  instru- 
ment in  a  masterly  manner.  But  all  the^e 
instances  are  for  sustained  effects.  So,  although 
the  cor  anglais  is  the  outcome  of  a  rustic  pipe, 
it  is  not  adapted  for  lively  melodies.  For  the 
beginner,  who  can  use  it  in  place  of  the  hautboy, 
it  is  of  considerable  advantage  to  learn,  because 
he  must  be  prepared  to  take  it  up  at  any  time  if 
he  becomes  an  orchestral  performer. 

This  article  would  not  be  complete  without 
mention  of  the  fourth  member  of  the  family,  the 
Oboe  Basso,  now  obsolete.  This,  however,  was 
almost  synonymous  with  the  oboe  lungo,  or 
oboe  d'amore  [see  also  OBOE], 

BASSOON 

On  account  of  its  human  quality  of  tone  in 
the  higher  register,  the  bassoon  is  frequently 
called  the  "  Vox  Humana "  of  the  orchestra. 
In  some  respects  it  is  singularly  like  the  violin, 
because  the  musical  ear  of  a  player  is  mainly 
responsible  for  correct  intonation.  Moreover, 
an  old  bassoon,  like  an  old  fiddle,  improves  with 
age.  By  reason  of  its  delicacy  and  sensitiveness, 
this  instrument  endears  itself  in  a  remarkable 
way  to  the  player.  If  he  attempts  to  force  its 


tone  he  gets  out  of  it  nothing  but  a  succession 
of  grunts  or  squeals.  It  will  not  be  coerced,  but 
can  be  coaxed  into  doing  many  charming  things. 
By  employment  of  this  instrument,  Haydn, 
Bach,  Beethoven,  Mendelssohn,  and  other  great 
composers  have  achieved  wonderful  effects. 
Unfortunately,  the  bassoon  is  not  always 
reverenced  by  musicians  as  it  ought  to  be.  It  is 
looked  upon  as  the  clown  of  the  orchestra.  But, 
although  Mendelssohn  has  made  it  imitate  closely 
the  braying  of  an  ass  in  the  "  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,"  in  funeral  marches  it  is  used  with  awe- 
inspiring  effect. 

It  is  because  of  the  spiritual  qualities  of  the 
bassoon  that  the  player  who  wishes  to  qualify 
for  an  orchestra  should  possess  exceptional, 
rather  than  ordinary,  musical  gifts  before  he 
seeks  to  excel  in  it.  If  the  student  has  an 
opportunity  of  hearing  a  soloist  like  Mr.  James, 
the  principal  player  in  the  London  Symphony 
Orchestra,  he  will  realise  how  expressive  is  the 
bassoon  when  artistically  treated. 

The  Dulcino.  In  orchestral  scores  this 
instrument  is  generally  designated  by  its  Italian 
name,  "  Fagotto."  This,  in  old  writings,  is 
spelt  "  Phagoti,"  from  "  phagos,"  a  faggot,  the 
appearance  of  the  instrument  being  thought  to 
resemble  a  bundle  of  sticks.  The  part  it  plays 
is  an  octave  below  the  cor  anglais,  and  a  twelfth 
—not  an  octave,  as  is  generally  thought — below 
the  hautboy.  In  Italy,  a  boy  is  put  to  the 
bassoon  at  the  age  of  ten.  He  is  given  the  small 
model,  known  as  "  Dulcino,"  to  play.  On 
account  of  its  size,  this  is  more  suitable  for  his 
fingers.  Then,  after  two  or  three  years,  he  can 
take  up  the  ordinary-sized  bassoon,  just  as  a 
child  who  has  learned  the  rudiments  of  violin 
playing  on  a  half  or  three-quarter  sized  instru- 
ment can  go  to  one  of  full  size. 

The  ordinary  bassoon  is,  in  reality,  a  tube, 
mostly  of  wood,  eight  feet  in  length.  As  an 
eight-foot  pipe  would  be  unwieldly  for  the  player, 
this  is  doubled  up. 

The  Parts.  The  bassoon  consists  of  five 
parts,  known  as  (1)  the  crook,  (2)  the  wing,  (3) 
the  butt,  (4)  the  long  joint,  and  (5)  the  bell. 
Fitted  together,  these  parts  form  a  carefully 
graduated  hollow  cone.  This  tapers  from  a 
fraction  of  an  inch  at  the  reed  to'  less  than  2  in. 
diameter  at  the  bell.  The  extreme  end,  however, 
is  not  the  widest  internal  part  of  the  instrument. 
Like  the  cor  anglais,  it  is  made  bulbous,  the 
extremity  being  constructed  so  as  to  subdue  the 
sffect  of  the  bell-note.  By  doubling  the  tube, 
the  instrument  itself  measures  only  4  ft.  This 
places  all  the  holes  within  the  reach  of  the 
fingers,  the  vents  being  pierced  obliquely  through 
the  substance  of  the  wood,  so  as  to  bring  them 
more  conveniently  under  the  two  hands  of  the 
performer.  The  small  brass  tube,  which  re- 
sembles a  Latin  "  S,"  gradually  increases  in  size 
internally,  being  fixed  at  its  wider  end  into  the 
wing.  The  latter  is  also  known  as  the  tenor 
joint.  The  wing,  in  its  turn,  fits  into  the  butt. 
This  is  called,  also,  the  lower  joint.  Here  the 
bore  is  bent  back  upon  itself  through  a  solid 
block  of  wood  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  "  U," 
the  base  of  the  "  U  "  having  in  it  a  cork,  or 

1  L  26 


MUSIC 

sometimes  a  sliding  tube,  from  which  the  con- 
densed breath  of  the  player  can  be  emptied. 
The  lower  joint,  or  butt,  fits  into  the  long  joint. 
This  is  termed,  also,  the  bass  joint.  On  the  top 
of  the  latter  is  fixed  the  so-called  "  bell,"  also 
known  as  the  small  joint. 

Having  built  up  the  parts,  let  us  look  at  the 
keys.  Tnree  of  these  are  fixed  to  the  wing,  or 
tenor  joint.  The  longest  key  is  the  C,  the  short 
one  A,  and  the  third,  pointing  downwards,  C$. 
These  are  all  worked  by  the  left  thumb.  In  the 
butt,  or  lower  joint,  the  first  key  is  B!7,  the 
second  E,  the  third  F,  and  the  fourth  G  Jf.  The 
right  thumb  manages  all  these.  The  first  right 
finger  negotiates  the  B!?  key,  connected  with 
the  first-mentioned  Bt?,  controlled  by  the  right 
thumb  in  the  same  way  that  the  third  right 
finger  has  control  of  the  open  key  in  A,  worked 
also  by  the  left  thumb.  Beside  the  open  A  key 
are  the  keys  of  GJJ!  and  F.  Above  the  F  is 
another  key  controlling  F$.  These  three — 
GJ,  F,  and  Fjf — are  managed  by  the  right 
little  finger.  In  the  long,  or  bass  joint,  the  left 
thumb  works  the  first,  or  open  D  key.  Then 
come  Et?  and  C^1,  both  negotiated  by  the  left 
little  finger,  as  well  as  the  two  last  keys,  B  and 
B!?,  the  two  latter,  together  with  the  open 
top  C,  being  managed  by  the  left  thumb. 
Bassoons  have  16,  17,  19,  or  22  keys,  according 
to  their  system  of  manufacture.  The  ordinary 
model  has  the  17 -key  mechanism. 

Compass.  The  compass  is  from  B7, 
second  ledger  line  bass  clef,  to  At?,  second  space 
treble  clef  ;  but  extra  key-work  and  cross 
fingering  enable  the  F  above  to  be  reached. 
Thus  we  have  a  remarkable  range  of  three  and  a 
half  octaves,  giving  the  entire  chromatic  scale, 
some  notes  having  triple  fingering.  Music  for 
the  bassoon,  consequently,  is  written  in  the  bass 
clef,  the  tenor,  and,  occasionally,  the  treble  clef. 
But  the  action  of  the  player's  lips  has  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  producing  notes  of  different  pitch 
with  similar  fingering.  What  is  known  as 
"  loose  lips "  is  employed,  if  we  begin  at  the 
lowest  note  in  the  bass,  up  to  the  lowest  G. 
From  the  A,  first  space  bass  clef,  the  B,  C,  D,  E, 
and  F,  with  their  semitones,  are  played  with 
what  is  called  the  natural  embouchure.  On  the  G 
above  comes  what  players  call  a  "  change." 
For  this  note  the  lips  are  "  pinched."  They  are 
drawn  in  more  and  more  the  higher  the  pitch 
becomes  in  ascending  the  scale,  so  that  for 
extreme  top  notes  considerable  pressure  is 
needed. 

Reeds.  This  humouring  of  the  notes  by 
the  lips  makes  the  choice  of  reeds  a  matter  of 
importance.  If  the  cane  is  unripe,  it  will  be 
spongy  and  give  a  poor  tone.  If  it  is  ripe,  it 
will  be  of  golden  colour.  The  cane  should, 
preferably,  come  from  Southern  Italy  rather 
than  the  South  of  France,  the  former  having 
more  resilience.  Bassoon  reeds  can  be  purchased 
at  music  shops  from  a  shilling  upwards. 
"  Guaranteed "  reeds  are  to  be  had  from  two 
shillings,  singly,  or  thirty  shillings  a  dozen. 

Attitude.  The  chief  weight  of  the  instru- 
ment is  thrown  on  to  the  player's  left  shoulder- 
by  means  of  a  leather  strap.  This  is  fastened 

4897 


MUSIC 

by  a  swivel  through  a  metal  ring  at  the  lower 
joint  in  the  second  band  below  the  wing.  Hold 
the  instrument  obliquely  from  left  to  right  in 
tin-  hollow  of  the  hands.  The  bell  must  point 
upwards  in  the  direction  of  the  left  shoulder. 
Place  the  left  hand  at  the  level  of  the  player's 
In-east,  and  the  right  hand  lower  down.  The 
lower  portion  of  the  instrument  should  come 
behind  the  player's  right  thigh.  Keep  the  body 
erect,  and  the  head  upright  in  a  natural  position. 
The  bassoon  crook  should  be  turned  slightly 
towards  the  right.  Do  not  move  the  elbows  to 
accentuate  fresh  phrases. 

Draw  the  lower  lip  over  the  teeth,  so  as  to 
form  a  cushion.  Before  fixing  the  reed  into  the 
crook,  moisten  the  former.  Now  put  the  reed 
in  the  mouth.  Place  it  between  the  middle  of 
the  lips,  so  that  both  lips  press  against  the  flat 
sides  of  the  reed.  In  this  way  it  must  be  held 
securely,  and  not  allowed  to  shift  when  the  lips 
tighten  or  slacken  for  the  production  of  high  or 
IOAV  sounds.  The  left  side  of  the  ised  should 
point  slightly  upwards,  so  that  it  rests  in  the 
mouth  obliquely.  Let  both  lips  cover  it  nearly 
as  far  as  the  first  ring  of  wire. 

The  First  Sound.  With  the  left  hand, 
close  the  first,  second,  and  third  holes  in  the  wing, 
or  tenor  joint,  by  the  first,  second,  and  third 
fingers.  Having  done  this,  shut  the  aperture  be- 
tween the  reeds  by  projecting  the  tongue.  Take 
a  full  breath,  but  do  not  puff  out  the  cheeks. 
Whilst  neither  pinching  the  lips  unduly,  nor 
letting  them  become  loose,  pronounce  the  word 
"  too."  Articulation  of  this  syllable  will  cause 
the  tongue  to  retire  swiftly  from  the  reed.  This 
will  force  the  air  through  the  aperture.  The 
result  will  give  C,  second  space  bass  clef.  As 
soon  as  this  note  is  elicited,  sustain  it  while 
counting  mentally  four  beats  in  slow  time.  Make 
the  tone  of  equal  strength,  and  do  not  allow  it  to 
jump  off  either  to  a  higher  or  lower  pitch  [Ex.  1]. 
r/x.  1.  ,  o 


— -X S  **z^s'  ^ *<• ' 

too     .     .  -  .     .     ,         too 


too 

How  comparatively  small  is  the  diameter  of 
the  long  air  cohimn,  which  pierces  this  bulky, 
doubled-up  wooden  instrument,  is. not  usually 
realised.  Take  any  other  tube  in  the  orchestra 
giving  an  eight-foot  tone,  such  as  the  euphonium 
or  bombardon,  the  metal  of  which  is  hammered 
thin,  and  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  air  column 
in  the  latter  is  far  more  ample  than  in  the  former. 
It  is  this  fact,  combined  with  the  initial  vibra- 
tion of  the  double  reed,  which  gives  the  bassoon 
its  characteristic  tone.  The  tone-quality  of 
a  wind  instrument  is  governed,  first,  by  its 
embouchure,  or  manner  of  the  blowing,  and, 
-••mildly,  by  the  dimensions  and  length  of  the 
internal  air-column,  rather  than  the  thickness 
•  ir  s|te< -jiil  substance  employed  to  enclose  that 
mhnnn.  The  student  will,  therefore,  understand 
how  important  it  is  that  the  internal  passage  of  so 
delicate  an  instrument  should  be  kept  clean. 

A  bassoon  requires  almost  as  much  nursing  as 
.1  rifle  in  which  smokeless  powder  is  used  if  it 
i-  to  be  handled  with  the  best  effect,  When  dirt 


accumulates  inside,  it  not  only  flattens  the  pitch 
1 11  it  the  articulation  becomes  false,  and  some 
notes  are  very  difficult  to  produce.  The  student 
when  he  has  finished  his  daily  practice  should 
invariably  turn  the  instrument  upside  down 
to  let  the  water  run  out.  In  addition  to  this, 
whenever  there  is  time,  take  each  joint  apart  to  let 
the  air  penetrate  through  the  tube.  Wipe  it  out 
carefully  by  pulling  a  worsted  cleaner  through 
every  joint.  If  the  instrument  is  put  away 
damp,  the  wood  will  swell  and  soon  rot.  Every 
three  months  it  needs  careful  overhauling. 

This  should  be  done  after  it  has  been  practised 
upon  for  some  hours.  If  the  instrument  has  been 
put  aside  for  some  time,  it  cannot  be  cleansed 
so  satisfactorily.  Having  taken  the  joints  apart, 
clean  out  the  crook  by  passing  along  quill  through 
both  ends.  Then  withdraw  the  quill,  and  fill 
the  mouth  with  clean  water.  Blow  it  through 
the  crook  until  the  tube  is  thoroughly  washed. 
Pass  a  wad  of  linen  tightly  through  each  joint 
to  take  off  the  thickest  layer  of  dirt.  Take  out 
the  cork,  or  sliding  tube,  in  the  butt.  Carefully 
take  off  the  keys,  or  the  pads  will  be  spoilt  by 
the  next  operation.  Now  introduce  a  quill 
dipped  in  the  best  salad  oil  Having  oiled  each 
joint,  excepting  the  crook,  allow  the  instrument 
to  stand  for  a  whole  day,  so  that  any  unnecessary 
accumulation  may  be  thoroughly  soaked.  Wipe 
out  afterwards  each  joint  with  some  dry  linen 
until  it  comes  through  unsoiled. 

The  Fingering.  Having  produced  the 
first  sound,  C,  by  blowing  steadily  through 
the  reed,  closing  the  first,  second,  and  third 
holes  in  the  wing  of  the  bassoon,  the  student 
should  now  proceed  to  connect  the  C  with 
the  D  above,  the  E  and  F,  with  the  B  below, 
and  so  on.  If  the  student  follows  the  succeeding 
indications,  and  turns  to  the  chart  in  the  Clarionet 
article  [page  4790],  he  can  make  out  a  similar 
one  for  the  bassoon.  This  will  impress  the 
fingering  on  his  mind.  The  six  open  holes  are 
stopped,  as  has  been  noted,  by  the  first,  second, 
and  third  fingers  of  the  left  and  right  hands,  the 
former  negotiating  those  in  the  tenor  joint, 
or  wing,  and  the  latter  those  in  the  lower  joint, 
or  butt.  In  addition  to  the  holes,  in  the  ordinary 
mechanism  there  are  seventeen  keys,  to  which 
system  we  will  confine  our  attention. 

In  any  case,  the  majority  of  the  keys  are 
manipulated  by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand, 
the  right  fingers  being  used  only  for  keys 
7,  8,  9,  and  10.  This  is  made  clear  by  the 
illustration  on  the  next  page,  which  shows  the 
entire  instrument,  with  all  the  keys,  front  and 
back,  with  their  numbers. 

With  this  as  a  guide,  we  may  learn  how  every 
note  is  produced  in  the  compass,  including  all 
accidentals.  But  it  must  first  be  understood  that 
the  tone  of  the  bassoon  is  capricious.  Like  the 
violin  or  the  trombone,  its  correctness  of  intona- 
tion depends  greatly  on  the  musical  ear  of  the 
performer.  So  much  is  this  the  case  that  every 
good  bassoon  requires  different  treatment,  A 
first-rate  player  cannot,  therefore,  do  himself 
justice  on  a  strange  instrument  unless  he  is  given 
time  to  become  familiar  with  its  peculiarities. 
Like  the  hautboy,  the  bassoon  gives  the 


consecutive  harmonics  of  an  open  pipe,  its  pitch 
being  an  octave  below  the  cor  anglais  and  a  twelfth 
lower  than  the  hautboy.  Closing  the  three 
finger-holes  for  the  left  hand,  the  bassoon  thus 
speaks  C,  whilst  the  hautboy  would  give  G. 
Closing  the  six  finger-holes,  the  bassoon,  like 
the  flute,  speaks  G,  whilst  the  hautboy  sounds  D. 
But,  unlike  either  the  flute  or  hautboy,  we  have, 
below  those  closed  notes,  a  range  of  deeper  sounds 
in  the  bassoon,  these  being  obtained  below  the 
natural  scale  of  the  instrument  by  means  of 
extra  vents  near  the"  bell,  which  nullify  the  effect 
of  the  constriction  at  that  part  so  that  the  lowest 
note  is  not  G.  The  bassoon  gives  no  fewer  than 
eight  semitones  below  it,  till  Bt?,  second  ledger 
line  below  bass  staff,  is  reached. 

The  Lowest  Notes.  To  produce  this 
B!7,  close  all  six  holes  and  put  down  keys  1,  3,  5, 
and  8,  as  well  as  the  right  thumb-hole  at  the  back 
of  the  bottom  joint.  Blow  with  a  very  loose  lip. 
Having  produced  this  note  in  slow  time,  to  get 
Bf,  keep  to  the  same  fingering,  but  add  No.  2 
key.  Blow  as  before.  For  the  bottom  C  use 
the  same  fingering,  but  release  keys  1  and  2. 
C  i",  or  D !?  above,  is  produced  by  the  same  finger- 
ing as  C,  with  No.  4  key  added.  D  %  is  sounded 
in  like  manner,  except  that  keys  Nos.  3  and  4  are 
not  employed.  For  D  it  or  E  ?  above,  keep  to  the 
same  fingering,  adding  No.  6  key.  For  Ef,  use 
the  same  manipulation,  without  keys  Nos.  5 
and  6.  Keep  to  the  same  fingering  for  F£,  but 
do  not  close  the  right  thumb-hole. 

For  FIT,  or  G?,  add  No.  7  key.  Close  the 
six  finger-holes  for  G  £j,  but  use  no  keys.  For 
G  tf,  or  At?,  add  keys  5,  6  and  9.  Release  the 
third  right  finger  for  A£,  putting  down  No.  7 
key.  Here  do  not  blow  any  longer  with  the 
loose  lip,  but  use  the  "  natural  embouchure " 
for  the  reed.  For  B!?,  or  AJi,  keep  to  the  same 
fingering,  but  release  No.  7  key,  closing  the 
right  thumb-hole  and  putting  down  No.  10  key. 
'  Another  way  of  getting  this  sound  is  to  stop 
all  fingerholes  except  No.  5,  closing  right  thumb- 
hole.  For  B  f,  stop  only  the  first,  second,  third, 
and  fourth  finger -holes,  using  No.  10  key;  or 
close  holes  1,  2,  3,  and  5,  together  with  the  right 
thumb-hole.  Now  we  come  to  C,  which  is  easily 
produced  by  putting  down  the  first,  second, 
and  third  left  fingers,  and  blowing  in  a  natural 
manner.  Merely  add  No.  1 1  key  for  C  jj ;  or 
close  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  holes'  only, 
using  No.  9  key.  For  D£,  put  down  the  1st 
and  2nd  fingers  only.  D  $  is  sounded  in  the 
same  way,  adding  No.  12  key  ;  or  put  down  the 
first  and  third  left  fingers,  closing  right  thumb- 
hole.  For  Etj,  put  down  only  the  first 
left  finger  and  No.  9  key  ;  or,  instead  of 
this  key,  close  the  right  thumb-hole.  F£, 
a  semitone  above,  is  the  note  sounded  when 
none  of  the  holes  of  the  bassoon  are  closed 
nor  keys  are  used.  This,  therefore,  is  the 
"  open  note  "  of  the  instrument.  For  FJt,  close 
the  three  lower  holes  and  add  No.  8  key!'  For 
G!?,  which  on  this  instrument  need  not  be  quite 
the  same  as  FJ,  close  all  the  holes  except  No.  1. 
using  No.  8  key. 

The  "  Vox  Humana  "  Register.  The 
reaching  of  G  jj  (on  fourth  space,  bass  clef) 


MUSIC 

carries  us  into  a  fresh  harmonic  region  of  the 
tube.  As  regards  different  qualities  of  tone, 
the  management  of  the  bassoon  reed  by  the 
lips  may  be  compared  to  the  production  of  the 
voice  in  singing.  From  the  lowest  Bt?  on  this 
instrument  to  the  G  above  we  have  the  reed 
blown  with  a  loose  lip,  in  the  same  way  that, 
for  producing  the  deepest  notes  of  the  larynx, 
the  singer  allows  his  vocal  cords  to  slacken  and 
breathes  abdominally.  At  this  point,  from  the 
G,  first  line  bass  clef,  the  bassoon  player  uses 
the  natural  embouchure,  or  lip  pressure,  on  the 
reed,  just  as  a  singer  gives  a  normal  tension  to 
his  vocal  cords  when  eliciting  what  are  known 
as  "chest"  notes.  Presently,  from  the  Gfcf: 
in  the  fourth  space  to  the  extreme  top  of  the ! 
bassoon  compass,  the  tension  of  the  lip  on  the 
reed  will  be  increased,  so  that  it  is  set  into 
vibration  in  a  manner  called  "  pinched,"  analo- 
gous to  the  way  the  falsetto  voice  makes  the 
vibrating  segments  smaller  in  the  head  notes. 

Formerly  great  composers  used  the  bassoon 
mostly  in  its  lowest  and  normal  registers ; 
but,  owing  to  improvements  in  the  tuba,  and 
other  brass  instruments,  the  higher  register  of 
the  bassoon  has  been  found  to  stand  out  in 
better  relief  by  Wagner,  Tschaikowski,  Dvorak, 
and  other  modern  composers,  and  the  higher 
notes  are  given,  in  consequence,  more  and  more 
prominence.  The  ambitious  student,  therefore, 


BACK  FACE 


FRON7  FACE 


do 


THE    BASSOON 


4899 


MUSIC 

should  pay  particular  attention  to  producing, 
as  beautifully  as  possible,  the  semitones,  from 
the  G  to  which  we  now  refer  to  the  octave  G 
above,  this  being  the  "  Vox  Humana  "  portion 
i.l'  the  scale.  To  produce  this  G,  fourth  space 
bass  clef,  close  all  the  holes  except  the  top  one. 
Stop  the  latter  to  check  the  tone  with  the 
octave  G  below,  slackening  the  lips  for  that 
purpose.  As  the  scale  is  ascended  in  semitones, 
it  is  an  excellent  practice  to  check  each  fresh 
sound  obtained  by  means  of  the  corresponding 
nrlave-tone  below. 

To  get  G2,  use  the  same  lingering  as  for 
G  tj,  closing  all  the  holes  excepting  the  top  one, 
but  adding  keys  Nos.  6  and  9.  For  Ajf,  close 
all  the  holes  except  No.  6.  If  the  tone  does  not 
come  readily,  cover  also  the  right  thumb-hole. 
For  the  B£,  close  the  first  five  finger-holes, 
using  keys  Nos.  6  and  10;  or,  close  the  bottom 
hole,  leaving  No.  5  open  and  not  using  No.  10 
key.  For  B*|,  close  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  holes  and 
use  No.  10  key. 

Tenor  Clef.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
notes  for  the  sounds  hitherto  made  are  usually 
written  in  the  bass  clef.  Now  that  we  come  to 
the  ledger  lines  above  the  bass  clef,  composers 
find  it  more  convenient  to  employ  the  tenor 
clef,  with  C  on  the  fourth  line.  To  produce 
this  note,  merely  put  down  the  first  three  left 
fingers,  as  for  the  octave  C  below,  but  tighten 
the  lips.  For  the  C£,  employ  the  same  finger- 
ing, closing  the  right  thumb-hole  and  adding 
No.  11  key;  or  close  the  first,  second,  and 
fourth  holes,  using  No.  9  key.  For  Dfr,  close 
the  first  and  second  holes  and  use  No.  9  key. 

There  are  three  ways  of  producing  D  £  above. 
Close  all  the  holes  except  No.  3  ;  stop  only  the 
first  and  third  holes  and  right  thumb-hole ;  or  close 
only  the  first  and  second  holes,  using  No.  12  key. 
For  E  tf  (fifth  line  tenor  clef),  close  only  the  first 
hole. and  use  No.  9  key  ;  or  close  all  the  holes 
except  No.  2,  using  no  keys.  For  Fj^,  close 
the  second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  holes, 
putting  down  Nos.  6  and  9  keys  ;  or,  close  the 
first,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  holes,  using  Nos.  6 
and  9  keys  ;  or  leave  open  all  the  holes,  using 
No.  8  key.  For  F*,  close  the  second,  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  holes,  using  No.  8  key.  For 
G  £j,  close  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  holes, 
using  No.  8  key.  To  get  Gjf,  close  only  the 
second  and  third  holes ;  or,  in  addition  to 
these  holes,  close  No.  5  and  use  the  5th  key. 
For  Ajj,  close  only  the  fiot  and  second  holes, 
using  No.  13  key ;  or  close  the  second,  third, 
fifth,  and  sixth  holes,  using  keys  Nos.  .">.  C>. 
and  9. 

For  B!7,  close  all  the  holes,  using  keys  Nos. 
K  and  13.  For  B$,  close  holes  1,  2,  4,  and  5, 
adding  keys  8  and  13.  For  tin-  top  ( '.  put  down 
the  first  and  third  left  fingers  and  first,  second 
and  third  right,  closing  right  thumb-hole  and 
using  keys  8  and  14;  or,  with  the  same  keys, 
1«  a\c  the  second  and  third  holes  open  ;  or,  with 
the  same  keys,  close  the  first,  second,  fourth, 
and  fifth  holes.  This  example  of  cross  fingering 
will  show  how  much  depends  on  getting  well 
into  the  mind  the  exact  pitch  of  the  note  to 
I"-  sounded.  For  ih<>  lop  rj,  p,,t  down  only 

4800 


the  first  left  finger,  using  keys  9  and  14.  For 
the  DS?,  stop  also  the  fourth  hole.  For  Dg, 
leave  all  the  holes  open,  using  keys  9  and 
14.  Leave  all  the  holes  open  for  E7,  using  keys 
9  and  15.  For  EjJ,  which  needs  considerable 
lip-pressure  and  strength  of  blowing,  leave  all 
the  holes  open,  using  keys  9  and  16. 

The  top  note  of  all,  F  tf,  is  produced  by  closing 
the  second  and  fourth  holes.  Accomplished 
players  can  still  further  extend  the  compass 
upwards,  although  it  requires  much  practice. 
But  the  notes  are  seldom  wanted,  because  they 
can  be  executed  more  easily  on  the  hautboy. 

Exercises.  Upon  this  groundwork  the 
student  should  be  able  to  construct  various 
progressive  exercises.  There  are  many  depart- 
ments of  study,  proficiency  in  which  can  only 
be  achieved  by  constant  repetition  and  intelli- 
gent application.  The  beginner,  as  soon  as  his 
lips  and  lungs  get  fatigued,  should  stop  practice. 
Many  students  do  themselves  more  harm  than 
good  by  practising  too  long  at  first,  Practise 
slowly,  in  every  key,  first  the  major  and  then 
the  minor  scales. 


Ex.  2.   loo 


Two  distinct  methods  of  articulation  are 
presented  by  legato  and  staccato  playing. 
In  the  former  each  note  must  glide  into  its 
neighbour,  one  breath  being  used  for  an  entire 
passage.  In  the  latter  each  note  must  be 
rapped  out  cleanly  by  the  tongue-tip.  There- 
fore the  syllable  "  too  "  is  only  articulated  at 
the  beginning  of  a  slurred  group.  In  playing 
staccato,  however,  give  a  "  too  "  for  each  beat 
of  the  rhythm  as  well  as  the  first  of  the  bar, 
as  in  Ex.  2. 

DOUBLE-BASSOON 

Every  ambitious  bassoon  student  should 
cultivate  also  the  double-bassoon  ;  it  strengthens 
the  blowing  po\vers  of  the  lips,  and  thus  im- 
proves one's  tone-production.  As  is  the  case 
after  exercising  one's  muscles  with  heavy  dumb- 
bells and  going  back  to  those  of  customary 
weight,  so  the  double -bassoon,  when  one  goes 
back  to  the  smaller  instrument,  makes  the  latter 
cnsicr  to  articulate.  The  impressive  grandeur 
of  the  contra-fagotto  is  often  indispensable, 
particularly  in  the  C  minor  Beethoven  Symphony, 
Yrt.  in  an  average  orchestra,  bassoon  players 
are  seldom  competent  to  perform  the  part. 

In  pitch,  the  double -bassoon  is  an  octave 
below  the  instrument  last  described.  There  is, 
however,  a  demi-contra-fagotto  in  F,  at  an 
intermediate  pitch  between  the  ordinary  and 
double-bassoon.  But  the  instrument  with 
which  we  now  deal  possesses  an  extreme  com- 
pass of  three  octaves,  containing  every  semitone 


MUSIC 


of   the   diatonic   scale   throughout   that   range.       now   supplied  in  brass  somewhat  cheaper  than 

The  top  octave  need  not  trouble  the  student,       the  B?  model  in  wood. 

as  parts  are  not  written  for  it.     The  instrument 

consists  of  a  conical  tube  upwards  of  sixteen 

feet  long,  the  diameter  ranging  from  a  quarter 

of  an  inch  at  the  reed  to  four  inches  at  the  bell. 

Nevertheless,    this    instrument    is    no    longer, 


The  reeds  cost  about  3s.  6d.  each.  The  reed 
resembles  that  of  the  bassoon,  but  is  larger. 
To  secure  accuracy  of  intonation,  it  does  not 
require  the  same  nicety  of  lip-pressure.  This 
advantage  enables  an  average  bassoon  player 


in  appearance,  than  the  ordinary  bassoon.     It      to  accustom  himself  quickly  to  the  larger  in- 


t 


is  curved,  not  twice,  but  four  times,  so  that 
it  measures  about  four  feet  from  end  to  end, 
and  is  thus  conveniently  manipulated  by  the 
performer. 

According  to  the  acoustical 
divisions  of  the  tube,  so  are  the 
holes  pierced.  To  make  the 
stopping  and  opening  of  these 
holes  possible  by  the  fingers,  a 
special  mechanism  is  provided. 
On  the  bassoon,  "  open  "  holes 
are  operated  on  directly  by  the 
first,  second,  and  third  fingers  of 
both  hands.  In  the  contra- 
bassoon,  in  place  of  these  holes, 
saddle -shaped  recesses  represent 
the  six  open  notes.  These  con- 
trivances are  situated  so  that 
three  of  them  can  be  worked  by 
the  left,  and  three  others,  lower 
down,  by  the  right,  fingers.  In- 
stead of  the  tips  of  the  fingers 
depressing  these  concavities,  use 
for  that  purpose  the  middle  joint 
of  each  digit.  This  is  far  less 
fatiguing  to  the  player,  as  the 
holes  are  then  closed  with  the 
assistance  of  the  fore-arm  muscles. 
The  other  keys — for  sharps  and 
flats — although  larger  than  in  the 
bassoon,  are  the  same  to  the 
touch.  As  there  is  double  the 
length  of  tubing,  this  is,  of 
course,  the  heavier  and  more  un- 
wieldy instrument. 

Price.  A  double  -  bassoon 
costs  no  more  than  a  pair  of  kettle-drums, 
and  should  be  regarded,  by  societies,  as  of 
almost  equal  importance  for  enriching  the  tone 


(C 


THE    DOUBLE-BASSOON 


strument.  No  matter  in  what  key  the  music 
is  written,  the  double-bassoon,  giving  all  the 
chromatic  intervals,  can  execute  accidentals 
as  easily  as  naturals.  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  discriminating 
the  different  notes  by  the  touch 
without  looking  at  the  instrument 
when  playing.  Situated  at  the 
back  of  the  lower  joint,  and 
worked  by  the  right  thumb,  is  the 
water  -  key,  A  double  -  bassoon 
performer  should  remember  to 
use  this  key  frequently,  to  blow 
out  the  moisture  which  accumu- 
lates. To  preserve  the  in- 
strument it  should  be  cleaned 
t>  out  much  in  the  same  way 
as  has  been  described  for 
the  bassoon. 

Fingering.  With  the  modern 
mechanism,  the  fingering  is 
almost  analogous  to  the  ordinary 
bassoon,  but  the  student  ^ho 
wishes  to  go  further  into  the 
question  is  referred  to  the 
Appendix  of  Satzenhofer's 
"  Neue  Praktische  Fagott- 
Schule,"  published  by  Zimmer- 
mann,  Leipzig. 

When  properly  played,  the 
double-bassoon  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing extraordinary  effects.  To 
get  the  lowest  notes  requires 
considerable  practice.  From  the 
A  written  in  first  space  bass 
clef,  to  the  A  above,  sustained 
sounds  are  fairly  easy.  Rapid  passages  are 
undesirable,  and  almost  impossible  ;  but  the 
deep  throbbings  of  the  low  pedal  notes  are 


at  a  public  performance.      An  excellent  double       magnificent,      as,    for     example,    in    Handel's 


bassoon  can  be  purchased  for  £15,  but  it  is 
sometimes  possible  to  get  one  at  an  auction- 
room  for  half  that  amount.  Brass  bands  in 
the  Midlands  and  elsewhere,  desirous  of  winning 
prizes  at  the  big  competitions,  can  add  consider- 
able richness  to  their  tone,  and  soften  the  harsh- 
ness of  other  instruments,  by  utilising  the 
splendid  bass  given  by  the  E  1?  contra-fagotto, 

OBOE,  COR  ANGLAIS,  and  BASSOON  concluded 


Firework  Music,"  Haydn's  "  Creation,"  and 
Wagner's  dragon  music  in  "  Siegfried."  In- 
deed, most  of  the  great  composers  have  availed 
themselves  of  the  deep  double -bassoon  notes. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  the  part  written 
for  this  instrument  stands  an  octave  higher 
than  the  actual  sounds,  for  convenience  in 
notation. 


4901 


Group  10 

TELEGRAPHS 


Continual  from 
patfe  4ti7'l 


TELEGRAPH    APPARATUS 

The  Germ  of  Telegraphy.     Rules  for  Direction  of  Current.     The 
Needle    System.      Conventionalisms  in  the   Telegraph    Service 


By   D.    H.    KENNEDY 


the  principal  systems  of  modern  tele- 
graphy are  based  on  the  relations  which 
exist  between  current-bearing  wires  and  magnets. 
These  relations  are  discussed  in  the  first  seven 
articles  on  Electricity.  It  will  be  assumed  that 
these  have  already  been  consulted  by  the 
reader. 

In  1820,  Oersted,  experimenting  with  a  battery 
and  wires  and  a  compass  needle,  found  that  when 
the  current- bearing  wire  was  brought  near  the 
compass  the  needle  was  deflected.  It  may  be 
said  that  this  was  the  germ  from  which  has 
grown  the  immense  system  of  telegraphic  com- 
munication, and  before  proceeding  with  this 
section,  the  student  should  turn  to  the  section 
on  Electromagnetism  [page  561],  and  thoroughly 
familiarise  himself  with  every  feature  of  this 
classical  experiment.  Figs.  20,  21,  22,  and  23, 
on  page  561,  illustrate  facts  of  fundamental 
importance. 

Rules  for  Direction  of  Current. 
Mnemonics  enabling  the  student  to  connect  the 
direction  of  the  current  with  the  direction  of 
the  force  due  to  its  magnetic  field  are  of  great 
practical  value,  and  there  are  several  available. 

Ampere  suggested  that  we  suppose  a  man  to  be 
swimming  in  the  wire  with  the  current,  and  with 
his  face  towards  the  compass  needle.  The  N 
pole  is  deflected  to  his  left  hand.  Maxwell  pre- 
ferred the  "  corkscrew  "  rule— namely,  that  the 
forward  direction  of  the  current  and  the  direc- 
tion in  which  a  N  pole  is  impelled  are  associated 
in  the  same  way  as  the  forward  direction  of  an 
ordinary  corkscrew,  and  the  rotation  of  its 
handle. 

Another  simple  rule  is  to  look  at  the  face  of 
a  watch,  and  imagine  that  the  current  is  passing 
from  the  observer  through  the  watch,  from  back 
to  front.  The  resulting  field  would  rotate  a 
N  pole  in  the  same  direction  as  the  hands  of 
a  watch. 

One  of  these  rules  should  be  selected  by  the 
student  and  fixed  in  the  mind  by  thorough 
experimental  testing,  so  that  he  will  be  able  to 
determine  the  direction  of  the  current  in  a  wire 
from  the  deflection  of  a  magnetic  needle,  or 
vice  versa. 

The  Needle  System.  In  1837,  Wheat- 
si,  mr  installed  the  first  practical  telegraph 
!••  t  ui-on  London  and  Slough,  and  it  is  a  remark- 
;il>!«-  fact  that  the  same  inventor  subsequently 
produced  the  high  speed  automatic  system  which 
T«.-»lay  is  used  to  transmit  nearly  all  our  Press 
telegrams. 

Wheatstone's  original  instrument  survives  in 
1h<-  shape  of  the  single-needle  telegraph  [6  and  7, 
page  4385].  It  is  so  named  from  the  fact  that 
tin-  signals  are  read  from  th:>  motions  of  a  needle, 

4002 


and  the  word  "  single  "  is  retained  in  the  title 
because  this  type  was  evolved  from  predecessors 
having  at  first  five,  then  four,  and  then  two 
needles.  Fig.  15  is  a  view  of  the  dial  of  the 
receiving  instrument.  Normally,  the  needle  is 
vertical,  and,  as  indicated  on  the  dial,  the  signals 
are  made  by  various  combinations  of  right  and 
left  deflections.  The  needle  in  front  of  the  dial 
is  non-magnetic,  and  merely  acts  as  a  pointer. 
It  is,  however,  mounted  on  the  same  axle  as  the 
magnetic  needle,  which  is  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  receiving  coils,  as  shown  in  16.  The  receiving 
instrument  may  best  be  considered  as  a  direct 
development  of  Oersted's  experiment.  Imagine 
a  small  diagonal -shaped  magnet  mounted  on  a 
horizontal  axis,  and  adjusted  so  that,  normally 
under  the  action  of  gravity  it  remains  vertical 
[17].  If  we  now  bring  a  vertical  current- 
bearing  wire  in  front  of  the  magnet,  it  will 
deflect  to  one  side  or  the  other  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  current.  If  the  current  is  weak 
the  deflection  will  be  very  small,  but  if  we  bring 
the  wire  over  the  top  and  down  behind  the 
magnetic  needle  at  the  same  distance,  we  can 
double  the  deflecting  force.  Carrying  the  wire 
up  the  front  again  will  treble  the  deflecting  force, 
and,  continuing  the  operation,  we  form  a  vertical 
coil,  and  we  note  incidentally  that  the  deflecting 
force  is  dependent  jointly  on  the  strength  of  the 
current  and  the  number  of  turns,  or,  as  explained 
on  page  562,  on  the  ampere -turns. 

For  convenience,  two  coils  are  made,  each 
containing  an  internal  chamber  large  enough  to 
allow  the  magnetic  needle  to  oscillate.  When 
they  are  fixed  in  position  on  the  horizontal 
brass  bar,  the  magnetic  needle  is  entirely 
enclosed. 

The  instrument  shown  in  16  is  not  a  modern 
form.  It  has  been  introduced  to  show  the  line 
of  development.  It  was  found  that,  owing  to 
the  joint  effects  of  constant  motion,  and  the 
demagnetising  influence  of  the  magnetic  fields  of 
the  varying  currents,  the  permanent  currents 
rapidly  deteriorated. 

Varley's  Induced  Needle.  The  remedy 
was  supplied  by  Mr.  S.  A.  Varley,  who,  in 
1866,  devised  the  induced  single  needle  shown 
in  18.  He  provided  two  large  permanent 
magnets,  and  substituted  a  small  soft  iron  needle 
for  the  oscillating  permanent  magnet.  The 
N  poles  of  the  two  bars  are  brought  down  near 
the  iron  needle,  so  as  to  "  induce  "  magnetism 
in  the  latter  [19]. 

The  single  needle  is  one  of  a  now  large  class 
of  instruments  which  are  sensitive  to  direction 
of  current.  They  are  called  polarised.  The 
"  induced  "  method  of  Varley  appears  in  nearly 
all  polarised  instruments.  The  student  \\iil 


notice  that  the  bar  magnets  have  their  N  poles 
downwards,  because  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
this  direction  is  in  agreement  with  the  vertical 
component  of  the  earth's  magnetic  field.  The 
Varley  form,  in  combination  with  a  tapper 
commutator  [see  6,  page  4385],  has  been  much 
used  by  the  Post  Office. 

Depression  of  the  left  tapper  connects  the 
battery  to  the  line,  and  sends  a  current  in  such 
a  direction  as  to  deflect  the  needle  of  the  receiving 
instruments  to  the  left,  while  the  right  tapper, 
on  depression,  makes  the  connection  in  such  a 
way  as  to  cause  the  current  to  traverse  the 


TELEGRAPHS 

function  to  perform,  and  the  student  who  takes 
the  trouble  to  ascertain  what  it  is  usually 
finds  that  in  the  process  his  mind  has  taken 
such  a  grip  of  the  subject  as  will  enable  him 
afterwards  to  reproduce  the  connections  from 
memory.  As  an  illustration,  we  may,  in  the  case 
of  the  single  needle,  give  a  rough  diagram  [20], 
showing  the  state  of  things  when  the  left  tapper 
is  depressed.  Similar  rough  diagrams  may  be  made 
to  show  the  state  of  affairs  when  the  right  tapper 
is  depressed  and  also  when  both  are  depressed. 
After  this  exercise  there  will  be  no  difficulty 
in  seeing  that  the  object  in  carrying  the  connec- 


21 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    TELEGRAPH    APPARATUS 

15.  SN  dial  16.   SN  coil,  early  form  17,   Vertical   magnetic  needle  deflected  by  field  of  current-bearing  wire 

18.  Varley's  induced  coil,  showing  signalling  needle        19.  Varley's  induced  coil  (section)        20.  Diagram  of  SN  with 

tapper  commutator        21.  Tapper  commutator  with  left  tapper  depressed         22.  Drop-handle  commutator         23.  Spag- 

noletti  needle  (side  view)       24.  Spagnoletti  needle  (front  view) 


circuit  in  the  reverse  direction,  which  causes  the 
needles  to  deflect  to  the  right. 

Circuit  Diagrams.  Fig.  20  is  a  diagram 
of  the  connections  of  a  single-needle  station. 
The  student  who  is  unfamiliar  with  telegraph 
connections  may  find  it  a  little  puzzling,  and  it 
may  cheer  him  to  know  that  those  which  follow 
are  much  more  simple.  In  this,  however, 
and  all  other  cases,  the  really  earnest  student 
will  not  content  himself  with  merely  looking  at 
the  lines  given  here,  and  tracing  them  out.  He 
should  analyse  each  case  for  himself.  Each 
wire  shown  in  a  connection  diagram  has  some 


tions  through  both  tappers  in  the  manner  shown  in 
19  is  to  prevent  the  short-circuiting  of  the  battery 
by  the  simultaneous  depression  of  both  tappers. 
Conventionalisms.  Figures  20  and  21 
give  the  opportunity  to  mention  one  or  two 
conventional  rules.  It  may  be  noted  that  the 
battery  is  connected  so  as  to  have  the  zinc 
or  negative  pole  at  the  left  side  and  the  copper, 
or  positive  pole,  at  the  right  side.  This  practice 
is  invariable  in  the  telegraphic  world,  and  may 
be  fixed  in  the  mind  by  using  as  a  mnemonic  the 
word  Z  IN  C.  The  circles  represent  battery 
terminals,  and  the  mnemonic  may  be  extended 

4903 


TELEGRAPHS 


!•>  include  the  direction  in  which  the  voltaic      deflect   to  the  left,  as  will  also  the  needles  at 


current  flows  by  noting  that   the  direction  is 
from  Z  to  C  (IN)  the  cell. 

In  21  it  will  be  noted  that  the  top  of  the 
needle  lias  moved  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
.  uncut.  All  needle  and  galvanometer  instru 


all  the  stations  on  the  line.  On  railway 
circuits  there  may  be  any  number  up  to 
twenty. 

On   such   lines   the   receiving   instrument   is 
usually  of   the  Spagnoletti   form  [23    and   24 1. 


iiu-nts  art-  made  to  conform  to  this.     A  third  con-  The  magnets  are  of  horseshoe  shape  and  the  soft 

vi  -n  t  ion  is  the  use  of  the  terms  "  up  "  and  "  down."  iron  needle  is  made  in  two  parts,  one  being  the  top 

Since  between  two  stations  there  is  only  one  line,  and  rear  end  of  the  axle,  the  other  being  the 

the   terms   really   apply   to   the   stations.     In  bottom  half  of  the  needle  and  the  front  end  of 

England,  London,  or  the  station  nearest  London,  the  axle.     These  are  united  by  brazing  across 

is  usually  called  the  "  up  "  station,  and  the  other  a    diagonal,   the    intervening    layer    of    spelter 

the    "down."     Once    this    has    been    decided,  keeping    them     magnetically    separate.       The 

the  line  may  be  joined  up  without  fear  of  con-  broadening    at    the    top    and    bottom    of    the 

fusion.     At  the  up  station  it  is 1    needle  results  in  firmer  signals. 

..11.    ,  I      4-Krt.    t4   *-l*-k«'t-»   "'    lino         I  ii  .,  .-i  i  i  w/ * 


called  the  "down"  line,  because 
it  goes  to  a  "  down "  station, 
while  at  the  "  down  "  station  it 
is  an  "  up  "  line. 

At  an  intermediate  station 
there  are,  of  course,  two  lines, 
and  both  titles  are  in  evidence. 
The  single -needle  coils  are  wound 
to  a  resistance  of  200  ohms,  and 
require  a  working  current  of 
about  20  milliamperes.  Small 
porous  pot  Leclanche  cells  are 
usually  employed  for  the  battery 
[see  page  464].  For  working  a 
number  of  stations  on  one  line 
the  needle  instrument  has  been 
found  specially  suitable,  and  it 
has  been  extensively  used  for 
this  purpose  on  railway  lines. 
Instead,  however,  of  the  tapper 
commutator,  a  form  called  the 
drop  handle  is  used  which  is 
manipulated  by  one  hand.  The 


25.    DROP   HANDLE  DESK 


Fig.  25  is  a  view  of  a  set 
from  which  the  writing  desk 
has  been  removed  to  exhibit 
the  internal  arrangements.  One 
of  the  receiver  coils  has  been 
unscrewed  from  its  position  be- 
tween the  horseshoe  magnets  and 
is  balanced  on  the  front  of  the 
case.  The  needle  and  its  axle  are 
thus  exposed  to  view. 

The  Sounder  System. 
This,  the  simplest  and  by  far  the 
most  popular  method  of  tele- 

fraphy  came  to  us  from  America, 
t    forms    another    instance    of 
simplicity     evolved     from     com- 
plexity. 

Contemporaneously  with  the 
work  of  Wheatstone  in  England. 
Morse,  in  America,  was  working  at 
an  attempt  to  produce  an  auto- 
matic recording  system.  The 
receiving  instrument  was  an  elec- 


handle  has  three  positions — namely,  centre  or  tromagnet    [see    page    561]   with    its    armature 

normal,  left  and  right,  the  two  last  producing  controlling  an  embossing  needle,  which  marked 

deflections    in     the    opposite    directions.      The  a  moving   paper  ribbon.    '  At  the   sending  end 

arrangement  is  shown  diagrammatically  in    22.  impulses   were    sent    by   contacts    made  under 

The  handle,  H,  mounted   on   the  axle,  A,  has  the    control    of    a    moving    board   with     pins 

two  metallic   parts,  C   and   Z,   insulated  from  arranged  at   intervals.     This  was  displaced  by 

<ach    other.     To   C   and  Z  are  connected   the  the    now    familiar    key,    when    it    was    found 

poles   of   the   battery,    B.     S  and '  T   are  two  that  the  signals   could   be  very  well  made    by 

strong    springs  which    normally  press    against  hand,  and   the   discovery  that   the   signals  of 

the  bridge  piece,  P,  and  so  maintain   the  con-  the    electromagnets    could    be    interpreted    by 

tinuity  of    the,   circuit.     If,  now,  the  handle  is  the    ear    led     to     the     simplification     of     the 

pushed   to   the   right,  C   will    press   against   S,  receiving   instrument.     A   modern   sounder   cir- 

forcing  the  latter  away  from  P,  and  Z  will  make  cuit  is  equipped  with  a  sounder,  usually  fixed 

contact  with  T.     As  a  result,  a  current  flows  via  in  a  sounder  screen  with  a  revolving  turntable, 

<',   S,  SN,  up  line,   through   distant  apparatus,  a  single-current   key,  a   single -current  galvano- 

down    line.    T    and    Z.      SN    will,   of    course.  meter,  and  a  battery  [10,  page  4606]. 


AREAS 


Examples  on  Loci.     Methods  of  Finding  Areas  of  Rectangles, 
Parallelogram^,    Triangles,    and    Other    Rectilineal    Figures 


Group  21 

MATHEMATICS 

34 

OEOMKTRV 

continued  from  page  47'24 


By  HERBERT  J.   ALLPORT,    M.A. 


Proposition  29.     Problem 

To  find  the  locus  of  a  point  which  is  equidistant 
from  two  given  points. 

Let  A  and  B  be  the  given  points. 

It  is  required  to  find  the  locus 
of  a  point  P  which  moves  so 
that  PA  is  always  equal  to  PB. 
Since  P  moves  through  all 
positions  in  which  PA  =  PB,  it 
follows  that  one  of  its  positions 
will  be  at  O,  the  middle  point 
of  AB. 

Let  P  be  some  other  position 
of  P,  so  that  PA  =  PB.   Join  OP. 
Then,  in  AS  POA,  POB,  the  three  sides  of  the 
one  A  are  equal  to  the  three  sides  of  the  other. 
'  they  are  equal  in  all  respects  (Prop.  7). 

.'.  ^POA=  /.POB. 

Hence  OP  is  _|_  to  AB  (Def.  8),  i.e.,  P  lies  on 
the  line  which  bisects  AB  at  right  angles. 

Next,  let  Q  be  any  other  point  which  lies  on 
the  line  bisecting  AB  at  right  Ls.  Join  QA, 
QB.  Then,  it  is  easily  shown  that  A  QOA 
=  AQOB  in  all  respects  (Prop.  4). 

AQA=QB. 

Hence,  every  point  on  the  line  bisecting  AB  at 
right  _  s  is  equidistant  from  A  and  B. 
,',  this  line  is  the  required  locus. 
Intersection  of  Loci.     The  position  of  a 
point  subject  to  two  conditions  may  be  found 
by  using  loci.     For  each  condition  gives  a  locus 
on  which  the  point  must  lie,  and  therefore  the 
point,  or  points,  where  the  loci  intersect  will 
satisfy  both  conditions. 

Example.  Find  a  point  equidistant  from  three 
given  points.,  A,  B,  G,  which  are  not  in  the  same 
straight  line. 

Since  the  point  is  to  be  equidistant  from  A 
and  B,  it  lies  on  the  straight  line  bisecting  AB 
at  right  L  s  (Prop.  29). 

Since  the  point  is  to  be  equidistant  from  B 
and  C  it  lies  on  the  straight  line  bisecting  BC  at 
right  .is. 

.*.  the  intei section  of  these  two  lines  is  the 
point  which  is  equidistant  from  A,  B  and  C. 

AREAS 

Definitions.  1.  The  altitude  of  a  triangle, 
with  reference  to  one  particular  side  as  base,  is 
the  length  of  the  perpendicular  drawn  to  the 
base  from  the  opposite  angular  point. 

2.  The    altitude    of    a    parallelogram,     with 
reference  to  one  particular  side  as  base,  is  the 
length    of    the    perpendicular    drawn    to    the 
opposite  side  from  any  point  in  the  base. 

3.  The  area  of  a  figure   is  the  amount  of 
surface  enclosed  by  its  bounding  lines. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  course  on 
Arithmetic,  page  1442,  that  if  the  number  of 


£    D 


units  in  the  length  of  a  rectangle  is  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  units  in  the  breadth  of  the 
rectangle,  the  product  gives  the 
number  of  square  units  in  the 
area  of  the  rectangle. 

A  rectangle  ABCD  is  said  to 
be  contained  by  any  pair  of 
adjacent  sides.  Thus  the  rect- 
angle is  denoted  by  rect.  AB .  AD,  or  by 
AB.  A  D  only. 

Proposition  30.     Theorem 

Parallelograms  on  the  same  base  and  between 
the  same  parallels  are  equal  in  area. 

Let  ABCD  and  ABEF 
•7  be      two      /~7s      on      the 
same    base    AB    and    be- 
tween   the    same    |js    AB 
and  FC. 

It  is  required  to  prove 

:  -  *          °         that 

area  of  O  ABCD  -  area  of  £7  ABEF. 
Proof. 

FE  =  AB,  since  ABEF  is  a  O  (Prop.  23), 
AB  =  DC,  since  ABCD  is  a  O- 
/.  FE  =  DC. 

.'.  by  adding  ED  to  each  of  these  equals,  we 
have  FD=-  EC. 

Hence,  in  the  AS  ADF,  BCE, 
FD  =  EC, 

DA  =  CB  (Prop.  23), 
AF  -  BE  (Prop.  23). 
.'.  AADF=  ABCE  (Prop.  7). 
Now,  if  A  ADF  is  taken  away  from  the  whole 
figure,  the  remainder  is  the  OABCD.     And, 
if  ABCE  be  taken  away  from  the  whole  figure, 
the  remainder  is  the  O  ABEF. 

But,  since  the  As  taken  away  are  equal,  the 
remainders  must  be  equal. 

/.  O  ABCD  =  O  ABEF. 
NOTE.     The  /~7s  may  be  such  that  the  sides 
FD  and  EC  do  not  overlap,  as  in  the  figure. 
Or,  the  points  D  and  E  may  coincide.     In  the 
first   of    these   cases   we   can   still    show    that 
FD  =  EC,  and  the  proof  is  as  given  above.     In 
the  second  case,  when  D  and  E  coincide,  the 
proof  is  still  more  simple,  for  it  is  obvious  that 
each  O  is  double  of  the  A  ABD  (Prop.  23). 
D       p  Area     of     a     Parallelo= 

~  gram.  By  the  last  proposi- 
tion,'a  rectangle  ABCD  and  a 
ED  ABEF  on  the  same  base  AB 
and  between  the  same  jjs  are 
equal  in  area.  But  we  have 
seen  that  the  area  of  the 
rectangle  is  AB  x  BC. 

.*.  the  area  of  the  EH  is  also  AB  x  BC. 
That  is, 
Area  of  a  parallelogram—  base  x.  altitude. 

4905 


MATHEMATICS 

Corolla  1-11. 


B  £ 


beticeen  the  same 
parallels  are  equal 
in  urea. 

For,  let  the  /Z/s 
ABCD,  EFGH 
have  equal  bases 
AB,  EF.  They 


also    have    equal    altitudes    because    they   are 

between  the  same  parallels. 

•  area  of  ABCD  =  AB  x  altitude 
=  EF  x  altitude 
=  area  of  EFGH. 

Proposition  31.     Theorem 

If  a  parallelogram  and  a  triangle  are  on  the 
same  base  and  between  the  same  parallels  the  area 
of  the  parallelogram  is 
O  c  £ r—^  twice   the   area   of  the 

/triangle. 

Let  the  OABCD  and 
the  A  ABE  be  on  the 
same  base  AB  and  be- 
tween the  same  |js  AB, 
DG. 
It  is  required  to  prove  that 

Area  of  O  ABCD  =  2  x  area  of  A  ABE. 
Proof.     Draw  BF  ||  to  AE  to  meet  DG  at  F. 
Then  ABFE  is  a  O- 

And     O  ABCD  =  O  ABFE  (Prop.  30). 

But  O  ABFE  =  2  x  A  ABE,  since  the  diagonal 
BE  bisects  the  O- 

.'.  OABCD  =  2x  A  ABE. 
Area  of  a   Triangle.      In  the  figure  of 
Prop.  31,  the  O  ABCD  and  the  A  ABE  have  the 
same  altitude,  viz.,  the  perpendicular  distance 
between  the  ||s  AB,  DG.     But, 

Area  of  ABCD  =  AB  x  altitude, 
and  it  has  been  proved  that  ABCD  is  double  of 
A  ABE. 

.'.  A  ABE  =  \  AB  x  altitude. 
Thus, 

Area  of  a  triangle  =  %  .  base  x  altitude. 
Corollary.     Triangles  on   the   same   base   and 
betiveen  the  same  parallels  are  equal  in  area. 

For,  the  AS  have  the  same  altitude,  and  the 
area  of  each  A  is  £  base  x  altitude. 

Similarly,  triangles  on  equal  bases  and  between 
the  same  parallels  are  equal  in  area. 

Proposition  32.     Theorem 

If  tint  fi-!«ngles  which  are  equal  in  area  are 
on  the  same  base,  then 

(i.)  If  they  lie  on  the  same  side  of  the  bti*<>, 
the  line  joining  their  vertices  is  parallel 
t»  flic  base. 

(ii.)  If  they  lie  on  opposite  sides  of  the  base, 
the  line  joining  their  vertices  isJjisected 
In  I  tin-  In  i  >»'. 

Let  ABC  and  ABD  be 
two  As  which  are  equal  in 
area. 


(i.)  If  the  As  lie  on  the  same 
side  of  the  base   AB, 
it  is  required  to  prove 
that  CD  is  !i  to  AB. 
Proof.     Draw  CE  and  DF  _L  to  AB. 


Then 


A  ABC  is  half  AB.  CE 
A  ABD  is  half  AB  .  DF. 


But  the  As  are  equal. 

;'.  AB  .  CE  =  AB  .  DF. 

/.  CE  =  DF. 

Now,  CE  and  DF  are  |j  (Prop.  11). 
.*.    since   EFDC   has    two    sides    equal    and 
parallel,  it  is  a  O  (Prop.  24). 

/.  CD  is  ii  to  AB. 

(ii.)  Let  As  ABC,  ABD  lie  on  opposite  sides 
of  AB,  and  let  AB  and  CD  cut  at  E. 
It  is  required  to  prove  that 
CE=DE. 

Proof.  Draw  AG,  BG  ||  re- 
spectively to  DB,  DA.  JoinDG, 
cutting  AB  at  F,  and  join  CG. 
Then  ADBG  is  a  O. 

.'.  DF  -  FG  (Prop.  23), 
and 
AAGB-  AADB  (Prop.  23) 

=  AACB  (Hyp.). 

'D  :.  GC  is  I!  to  AB  (by  i.). 

Hence,  in  A  DGC,  a  straight  line  FE  is  drawn 
through  F,  the  middle  point  of  one  side,  |j  to  a 
second  side. 

.'.  it  bisects  the  third  side  (Prop.  26). 

.'.  CD  is  bisected  at  E. 

Area  of  a  Trapezium.     Let  ABCD  be  a 
trapezium,  in  which  AB  is  ||  to  CD.     Draw  DE 
JL  to  AB,  and  BF  J_  to  DC.     Then 
Area  of  ABCD 

=  AABD+  ADBC 
-I.AB.DE+ICD.BF 

=  i  AB  .  DE  +  J,  CD .  DE 


f 


That  is, 
Area  of   tr«/>e~.!um=  | 

(sum  of  the  parallel  sides)  x  distance  bet-ween  them. 
Area  of  any  Rectilineal  Figure.  A 
rectilineal  figure  can  always  be  divided  into 
right-angled  triangles  and  right-angled  trap- 
eziums, and  the  area  of  the  figure  is  obtained 
by  adding  the  areas  of  these  triangles  and 
trapeziums. 

Let  ABCDE  be  any  rec- 
tilineal figure.  Join  any  two 
vertices,  such  as  A  and  D. 
From  the  remaining  angular 
[  points,  B,  C,  E,  draw  perpen- 
c  diculars  BF,  CH,  EG,  to  AD. 
The  figure  is  thus  divided  into 
four  right  -  angled  triangles 
and  a  trapezium  whose  areas  are  easily  calcu- 
lated. For  example,  suppose  the  measurements 
are  those  given  in  the  annexed  table,  the  various 
lengths  being  measured  from  A,  along  AD,  to  the 
points  where  the  perpendiculars  meet  AD. 
From  A.  I 
AF  -  2  !  FB  =  3 
AG  =  3 

AH  -  6  |  HC  =  4 
AD=  8  I 
Inches    ! 
Then,  area  of  figure 

-  AAED+  AAFB+  ACHD+  fig.  BFHC 
=  £  .  AD  .  GE  +  i .  AF  .  FB  +  i  .  CH  .  HD 

+  |.FH(FB+HC) 
=  1.8.4+1.2.3+1.4.2+1.4.7 
=  16+3+4+14 
=  37  square  inches. 


4906 


Continued 


THE  MAKING  OF  BESSEMER  STEEL 

The  Theory  of  Bessemer  Steel  Production.      The  Bessemer  Con- 
verter and  its  Operation.      Modifications  of  Bessemer's   Process 


Group  14 

METALS 
8 


Continued  from 
page  4750 


By  A.    H.    HIORNS 


IN  the  Bessemer  steel  process— forcing  air 
through  molten  pig  iron  in  numerous  small 
jets — the  silicon  and  carbon  become  rapidly 
oxidised,  and  produce  sufficient  heat  to  maintain 
the  iron  in  the  liquid  state  until  it  is  completely 
purified.  Two  different  modes  of  working  are 
adopted,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  pig  iron 
and  of  the  lining  of  the  vessel.  These  are  termed 
the  acid  and  basis  processes  respectively.  Sir 
Henry  Bessemer's  great  invention  is  not  confined 
to  blowing  air  through  molten  pig  iron,  but 
includes  numerous  mechanical  appliances 
invented  by  him  for  carrying  out  the  process,  as 
well  as  the  shape  and  construction  of  the  con- 
verter. The  original  vessel  was  fixed  with  air 
inlets  at  the  side,  but  this  was  soon  replaced  by 
a  tipping  converter,  supported  on  trunnions,  the 
air  being  injected  at  the  bottom.  After  trying 
various  patterns,  he  adopted  the  pear-shaped 
vessel  now  commonly  employed.  The  inventor 
perceived  the  great  advantage  of  conserving 
the  great  heat  of  the  ingots  by  covering  them, 
when  stripped,  with  hot  sand,  from  which  the 
still  red-hot  ingots  were  carried  to  the  rolls. 
This  was  the  first  crude  idea  of  soaking-pits, 
afterwards  so  successfully  applied  by  Gjers. 

Acid  Process.  In  the  acid  process,  the  iron 
employed  is  a  grey  haematite  pig,  rich  in  silicon 
and  very  low  in  phosphorus.  It  is  generally 
melted  in  a  cupola  and  run  into  the  converter 
when  in  the  horizontal  position.  The  blast 
is  turned  on  and  the  vessel  rotated  into  the 
vertical  position.  In  the  first  stage  the  graphite 
is  changed  into  combined  carbon,  and  silicon  is 
oxidised,  forming  a  slag  with  oxides  of  iron  and 
manganese.  In  the  second  stage  the  carbon  is 
oxidised  to  carbonic  oxide,  the  evolution  of 
which  causes  a  violent  action,  with  the  ejection 
of  showers  of  sparks  and  a  brilliant  flame.  As 
soon  as  the  carbon  is  removed  the  flame  drops 
and  the  blow  is  stopped.  About  10  per  cent,  of 
spiegeleisen  or  its  equivalent  of  ferro-manganese 
is  then  added,  and  imparts  the  necessary  carbon, 
the  manganese  taking  up  the  oxygen  from  the 
iron,  thereby  forming  oxide  of  manganese,  which 
passes  into  the  slag. 

The  length  of  the  blow  depends  on  the  quality 
of  the  pig  iron,  and  chiefly  on  the  silicon  and 
manganese  content.  It  varies  in  duration  from 
15  to  30  minutes.  The  loss  of  iron  in  the  process 
varies  from  15  to  20  per  cent. 

The  steel  is  poured  into  the  casting  ladle, 
which  rests  on  the  jib  of  a  ladle  crane.  This 
crane  now  swings  the  ladle  successfully  over 
the  ingot  moulds  standing  in  the  casting  ring, 
and  the  steel  is  run  into  the  moulds  through  a 
nozzle  in  the  bottom  of  the  ladle  by  raising  the 
internal  stopper  by  means  of  a  lever  on  the  outside. 


The  ingot  moulds  are  lifted  from  the  partly- 
solidified  ingots  by  the  ingot  cranes  and  by  means 
of  tongs,  termed  dogs,  hanging  from  these  cranes. 
The  ingots  themselves  are  lifted  and  carried 
to  the  heating  furnace  in  the  rolling  department. 

After  discharging  the  steel,  the  converter  is 
inverted  to  tip  out  the  slag,  and  repaired,  if 
necessary,  before  running  in  another  charge. 
The  oxide  of  iron  produced  by  the  blast  on  the 
ends  of  the  twyers  gradually  corrodes  them, 
so  that  the  twyers  become  gradually  shorter 
and  the  bottom  thinner.  After  15  to  20  heats 
the  bottom  is  removed  and  renewed. 

Limitations  of  the  Acid  Process.  It 
has  already  been  stated  that  the  acid  process  is 
applicable  only  for  pig  iron  low  in  phosphorus, 
but  sufficient  silicon  must  be  present  to  yield 
the  necessary  heat.  The  varieties  of  iron  used 
in  this  country  are  those  smelted  from  haematite 
or  magnetic  ores.  Since  the  purification  of  the 
crude  metal  is  effected  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  greater  fluidity  of  grey  iron 
is  advantageous,  as  the  plastic  condition  of 
molten  white  iron  is  liable  to  interfere  with  the 
passage  of  the  air  through  the  molten  metal. 
In  fact,  white  iron  can  be  treated  only  with 
increased  waste,  especially  as  it  is  deficient  in 
silicon.  Moreover,  white  iron  is  often  much 
higher  in  sulphur  than  grey  iron.  Also,  the  carbon 
being  in  the  combined  form,  the  production  of 
carbonic  oxide  takes  place  at  too  early  a  stage  of 
the  process,  and  afterwards,  the  carbonic  oxide 
being  present  in  insufficient  quantity,  the 
requisite  high  temperature  is  not  attained. 

The  chief  essentials,  then,  in  the  composition 
of  the  pig  are  a  very  low  percentage  of  sulphur 
and  phosphorus,  with  about  2  per  cent,  of  silicon. 
Both  silicon  and  manganese  can  be  practically 
removed  by  the  blow,  as  both  elements  are 
oxidised  and  unite  to  form  a  slag.  The  follow- 
ing analyses  give  the  composition  of  some 
Bessemer  pigs. 


Carbon. 

Silicon. 

Man- 
ganese. 

Phos- 
phorus. 

Sulphur. 

Charcoal  pig 
(•reenwood 

3-90 
3'75 

1-96 
1-76 

3-06 
0-13 

0-04 
0-08 

0'02 
0'14 

Snelus 

3-27 

1-95 

0'09 

0-05 

0-14 

Staffordshire 

3'94 

1-61 

OT2 

0'02 

0-03 

Jordan 

4-40 

1-81 

1-08 

O'Ol 

0'04 

American  .  . 

3-10 

0'98 

0'40 

o-io 

0-06 

Howe  stated  in  1890  that  while  there  are 
American  mills  where  2  per  cent,  or  more  of 
silicon  is  present  in  the  charge,  the  majority  use 
less  than  1'75  per  cent.,  and  what  appears  to  be 
the  most  characteristically  American  practice  has 
habitually  only  0'66  per  cent,  to  0'9  per  cent, 
of  silicon.  In  order  to  blow  iron  with  such  little 
silicon  successfully,  the  heats  must  follow  each 

4907 


METALS 

other  quickly,  and  the  vessels  and  ladles  must 
be  very  hot.  He  considers  that  as  far  as  con- 
venience of  blowing  is  concerned,  1'25  per  cent. 
of  silicon  is  the  best  proportion.  Metal  with 
0-5  per  cent,  of  silicon  has  been  blown  in  Sweden, 
but  this  is  done  only  when  the  initial  temperature 
is  very  high.  For  low  silicon,  then,  quick  blowing 
and  short  intervals  are  necessary. 

Results  of  the  Acid  Process.  In  the 
acid  process  almost  all  the  effective  heat  comes 
from  the  combustion  of  the  silicon,  and  the 
greater  the  percentage  of  silicon  the  hotter  the 
charge,  the  longer  the  blow,  the  greater  the  loss, 
the  more  expensive  the  repairs  and  maintenance, 
and,  with  high  silicon,  the  poorer  is  the  quality 
of  the  steel  likely  to  be.  If,  however,  the  silicon 
is  too  low,  it  causes  cold  heats,  heavy  sculls,  and 
bad  working  generally.  The  place  of  silicon  may 
be  taken  to  some  extent  by  manganese,  as  in 
Styria  and  Sweden,  where  the 
cast  iron  is  obtained  from 
spathic  ores.  In  such  a  case 
the  silica  lining  is  called  upon 
,to  supply  the  silica  for  forming 
a  slag  with  the  oxide  of  man- 
ganese. If  the  blow  be  too 
hot,  as  indicated  by  the 
appearance  of  the  flame,  scrap 
steel  is  added  to  lower 
the  temperature.  In 
England,  where  high 
silicon  irons  are  used,  the 
aim  is  to  keep  the  silicon 
sufficiently  low,  while  in  Sweden 
it  is  just  the  reverse.  With  coke 
pig,  when  the  silicon  is  low,  the 
sulphur  will  probably  be  too 
high,  causing  red-shortness  in 
the  steel. 

When  the  amount  of  man- 
ganese in  Bessemer  pig  iron  is 
upwards  of  2  per  cent.,  as  it 
often  is  in  Sweden,  the  direct  method  is  adopted 
— that  is,  the  blow  is  not  continued  till  the 
whole  of  the  carbon  is  burnt  off,  as  in  England, 
but  stopped  when  the  metal  contains  the 
desired  amount  of  carbon,  which  is  judged  by 
the  aid  of  the  spectroscope  and  the  colour  of  the 
slag.  The  amount  of  manganese  left  in  the  steel 
varies  from  O'l  per  cent  to  0'3  per  cent. 

The  gases  escaping  at  the  mouth  of  the  con- 
verter indicate  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  blow 
the  carbon  is  largely  burnt  to  carbon  dioxide. 
At  the  end  of  the  blow  the  gas  given  off  is 
chiefly  nitrogen. 

The  Converter.  The  modern  converter 
is  built  of  mild  steel  or  wrought-iron  plates 
riveted  together  and  lined  with  siliceous  or  basic 
material,  according  as  the  acid  or  basic  method 
of  working  is  adopted.  We  may  broadly  classify 
Bessemer  converters  into  fixed  and  movable.  The 
former  have  only  a  limited  application,  but  the 
Utter  arc  the  kind  generally  employed. 

The  acid-lined  converter  is  lined  internally 
with  silica  bricks  or  with  ganister,  which  may  be 
i  a  mined  round  a  central  core.  The  vessel 
is  supported  on  trunnions,  one  of  which  is  hollow 
and  connected  with  the  blast  main,  through 
p.  i  »s 


which  the  air  from  the  blowing  engines  passes 
to  the  wind-box  at  the  bottom  of  the  converter. 
The  body  is  mounted  on  an  iron  ring,  to  which 
it  and  the  trunnions  are  bolted.  In  the  early 
vessels  the  entire  shell  was  riveted  together,  but 
in  the  modern  vessel  the  bottom  and  the  nose 
are  detachable  from  the  body.  The  importance 
of  a  movable  body  will  be  perceived  when  it  is 
mentioned  that  the  twyer  portion  lasts  only  from 
15  to  20  heats,  while  the  body  will  stand  several 
months'  wear.  The  nose  is  not  often  removed 
except  for  relining.  The  centre  of  the  bottom 
section  is  the  plug,  in  which  are  fixed  the  fire- 
clay twyers,  each  containing  12  to  18  holes, 
about  |  in.  in  diameter,  through  which  the  air 
passes  to  the  metal. 

The  entire  bottom  is  fixed  to  the  body  by 
means  of  lugs  and  cottar-pins,  and  is  made 
easily  removable  for  the  examination  of  faulty 
twyers,  but  it  must  also  be 
air-tight.  Hence  it  is  faced 
true,  with  a  wide  bearing,  yarn 
and  clay  packing  being  put 
round  the  bottom  plate  between 
it  and  the  box,  the  plate  being 
secured  by  cottars  to  the  blast 
box.  The  movable  converter 
capable  of  rotation  in  a 
vertical  plane  through  an 
angle  of  180°  or  more, 
thus  enabling  the  con- 
tents to  be  discharged 
at  the  end  of  the  blow ;  and 
also,  by  turning  it  into  a 
horizontal  position,  the  metal 
lies  out  of  the  blast  below  the 
whole  of  the  twyers,  and  may 
remain  there  after  the  blast  is 
shut  off.  The  converter  is; 
made  in  two  forms,  known 
as  the  concentric  and  the 
eccentric  forms.  The  former 
is  shown  in  37  and  the  latter  in  38. 

Rotating  Mechanism.  For  the  rotation, 
an  iron  framework  supported  on  columns  carries 
the  converter  on  suitable  bearings,  arranged  so 
that  the  vessel  can  be  rotated  on  its  trunnions. 
This  is  effected  by  means  of  a  pinion,  keyed  on 
to  one  of  the  trunnions,  gearing  into  a  rack 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  double  hydraulic  ram. 
The  position  of  the  ram  and  cylinder  may  be 
either  vertical  or  horizontal.  Both  the  rack  and 
•  pinion  and  the  ram  must  be  securely  cased  in 
sheet  iron,  to  prevent  injury  by  splashing  of  the 
metal  or  the  slag  on  them.  The  valves  for  the 
hydraulic  cylinder  are  usually  controlled  at  some 
distance  from  the  converter  from  a  raised  platfo  :m 
known  as  the  pulpit.  In  some  cases  the  rotation 
is  effected  by  a  worm  and  pinion  gear,  actuated 
by  a  hydraulic  engine  or  by  a  double  or  triple 
cylinder  steam-engine.  In  addition  to  other 
advantages,  this  allows  for  a  complete  revolution 
of  the  vessel  through  360°.  However,  the 
simplicity  of  the  rack  and  pinion  arrangement, 
and  the  facility  with  which  it  may  be  manipu- 
lated, have  led  to  its  general  adoption. 

The  bottom  of  the  converter  being  the  portion 
subjected  to  the  greatest  wear,   and    requiring 


CONCENTRIC     CONVERTER 


to  be  frequently  removed,  is  made  interchange- 
able, and  a  number  of  bottoms  are  kept  in  readi- 
ness, so  that  when  one  gives  way  it  can  at  once 
be  replaced.  This  is  done  by  placing  a  trolley  on 
the  table  of  a  hydraulic  ram,  fixed  under  each 
converter,  and  then,  having  raised  the  trolley 
and  uncottered  the  bottom  section,  the  latter  is 
removed  by  means  of  the  ram.  In  fixing  a  new 
bottom,  it  is  run  on  a  carriage  to  the  table  of  the 
ram,  wet  ganister  and  fireclay  is  placed  round 
the  bottom  section,  and  the  bottom  pressed 
tightly  against  the  bottom  of  the  converter  by 
the  hydraulic  ram,  and  cottered  on.  In  some 
works,  instead  of  using  a  hydraulic  ram  under 
the  converter,  the  bottom  is  hoisted  into  position 
and  pressed  home  by  powerful  screw-jacks. 

The  lining  of  the  Bessemer  converter  in  this 
country    is    a    siliceous   sandstone,   which    con- 
tains  from   85    to  90  per  cent,    of   silica,   and 
occurs  below  the  coal  measures.     This  is  ground 
fine,  mixed  with  water,  and  rammed  in  between 
a  central  wooden  core  and  the 
shell  of  the  vessel.     In  America 
the  lining  consists  of  a  mixture 
of  60  per  cent,  crushed  quartz, 
25  per   cent,  fireclay,   and  the 
remainder    of    ground-up    fire- 
bricks     and      other      siliceous 
material.      The  American  lining 
lasts  for  400  to  500  heats,  while 
the   British    lasts    double  that 
time ;    but  we  must   take   into 
account  the  more  rapid  working 
of  the  American  vessels. 

Concentric  Vessel.  In 
the  eccentric  vessel  [38]  a  large 
amount  of  metal  can  lie  in  the 
belly  without  running  into  the 
twyers  or  out  of  the  nose,  and 
to  some  extent  it  prevents  slop- 
ping. When  the  method  of 
using  metal  direct  from  the 
blast  furnace  was  introduced,  a 
modification  of  the  converter 
appeared  necessary,  so  that  it 
might  receive  molten  pig  iron 
from  the  blast  furnace  ladle  when  turned  away 


METALS 

A  10-ton  converter  weighs  about  40  tons  ; 
the  steel  or  wrought  iron  plates  are  1  in.  thick, 
with  1  in.  rivets  and  strong  straps  ;  the  four 
parts  are  connected  by  pins  and  cotters.  The 
belt  and  trunnions  are  in  two  pieces,  formed  of 
cast-iron  box  sections  ;  the  trunnions  are  21  in. 
long.  The  belt  weighs  11  tons,  and  is  10  ft.  8  in. 
in  internal  diameter.  The  tipping  gear  may 
consist  of  a  worm-wheel  8  ft.  in  diameter,  gearing 
into  a  screw  of  4|  in.  pitch,  which  receives  its 
motion  directly  from  the  cranks  of  a  pair  of 
hydraulic  engines  mounted  on  one  of  the 
converter's  standards.  This  allows  of  the  vessel 
being  turned  over  in  either  direction.  A  rack 
and  pinion  arrangement  for  tipping  is  much 
more  common.  A  large  converter  of  this  kind 
for  15  ton  charges  is  24i  ft.  high,  and  mounted 
on  piers  20  ft.  above  the"  ground  Such  a  vessel 
may  weigh  from  60  tons  to  70  tons  A  wide 
nose  may  be  advantageous  from  the  point  of 
view  of  reducing  loss  from  ejected  metal ;  but 
the  narrower  the  nose  the  higher 
the  possible  working  tempera- 
ture, and  the  greater  the  amount 
of  metal  the  vessel  can  hold  in 
the  horizontal  position. 

Cupola  Furnace.  The 
molten  metal  for  supplying  the 
converter  may  be  melted  hi  a 
cupola,  or  taken  direct  from  the 
blast  furnace,  or  from  the  latter 
to  a  receiver  or  mixer  before 
finally  passing  to  the  converter. 
The  modern  cupola  is  really  a 
small  blast  furnace.  In  some 
cases  the  outside  shell  will  be 
10  ft.  to  12  ft.  in  diameter,  and 
the  blast  pressure  as  much  as 
2  Ib.  to  3  Ib.  per  square  inch. 
It  is  lined  with  a  firebrick  as  a 
backing,  and  then  rammed, 
usually  with  ganister  or  some 
other  siliceous  material.  The 
height  of  the  cupola  platform 

STEEL  ECCENTRIC  CONVERTER  should  be  such   that  when  the 
cupola  is  dumped,  or  raked  out, 


from  the  pit,  and  receive  spiegeleisen  froiif  the 
cupola  when  turned  towards  the  pit.  This  is 
readily  done  with  the  concentric,  but  not  with  the 
eccentric  vessel.  The  concentric  vessel  is,  how- 
ever, required  to  be  larger  than  the  eccentric, 
in  order  that  when  turned  down  it  may  hold  a 
given  charge  on  each  side  without  running  out 
at  the  mouth  or  into  the  twyers.  The  ratio  of 
the  capacity  of  the  concentric  vessel  to  the 
eccentric  vessel  is  as  3'5  to  5,  but  in  consequence 
of  the  greater  size,  less  slopping  occurs,  and  much 
of  the  metal*  ejected  during  the  boil  falls  back 
into  the  vessel.  Now,  the  path  over  which  the 
metal  runs  to  the  converter  is  very  highly  heated, 
and  the  slag  afterwards  formed  more  easily 
corrodes  this  more  highly  heated  portion  ;  hence 
the  advantage  of  equalising  this  wear  by  pouring 
alternately  into  each  side  of  the  vessel.  The 
concentric  converter  is  generally  made  in  four 
parts,  connected  by  bolts  and  cotters  for  easy 
detachment. 


all  the  debris  falls  upon  the  floor  level,  and  ample 
room  should  be  left  to  enable  the  men  to 
remove  this  easily.  Cupolas  with  drop  bottoms 
are  now  generally  made,  and  found  very  con- 
venient. A  moderate  sized  cupola  has  an 
exterior  diameter  of  about  6  ft.  to  7  ft.,  with  five 
or  six  twyers,  and  is  worked  with  a  blast  pressure 
of  1  to  1|  Ib.  It  will  melt  200  to  300  tons  of 
pig  iron  per  12  hours. 

The  position  of  the  cupola  is  generally  such 
that  the  metal  can  flow  by  gravity  from  the  tap- 
hole  to  the  Bessemer  vessel,  hence  it  is  placed  at 
a  higher  level.  If  the  cupolas  are  too  near  the 
converter,  the  workmen  are  exposed  to  excessive 
heat,  being  between  two  great  fires.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  cupolas  are  too  far  away,  the 
long  runners  tend  to  chill  the  metaltoo  much, 
and  some  of  it  will  solidify,  causing  much  waste. 
In  some  works  this  difficulty  has  been  over- 
come by  using  travelling  iron  ladles  to  convey 
the  iron  from  the  cupola  to  the  converter,  either 
by  running  on  a  track  or  by  means  of  a  crane, 

4900 


METALS 

which  admits  of  the  tipping  of  the  molten 
contents  of  a  ladle  into  the  converter. 

Tipping  ladles  are  now  frequently  used  to 
convey  cast  iron  from  the  cupola,  or  mixer,  to  the 
Bessemer  converters.  The  ladle  is  held  in  a  cast- 
iron  trunnion  belt  by  means  of  bolts  and  snugs. 
The  tipping  action  is  effected  by  a  worm  and 
screw  motion  actuating  a  trunnion,  so  that  the 
workman  can  easily  pour  a  charge  of  20  tons  of 
iron.  The  ladle  is  lined  with  firebricks  with  taper 
sides  and  fitting  into  one  another.  When  these 
are  built  in,  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  fireclay 
daubing.  Another  arrangement  for  tipping  is 
by  means  of  a  chain  fixed  to  the  bottom  and 
attached  to  a  hydraulic  cylinder,  while  the  ladle 
is  supported  in  the  bearing  of  the  carriage.  The 
trunnions  are  not  fixed  centrally  on  the  ladle,  but 
somewhat  in  front,  so  that  the  whole  metal  can 
be  poured  into  the  converter  by  tilting  without 
moving  the  ladle  forward. 

Ingot  Moulds.  The  material  from  the 
ladle  is  teemed  into  cast-iron  ingot  moulds  of 
various  forms  and  sizes — square,  circular,  oval, 
octagonal,  etc.,  open  at  both  ends.  They  are 
made  to  taper  considerably,  being  larger  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the  top,  so  as  to  allow  for  easy 
stripping.  The  usual  method  is  to  fill  each 
mould  separately,  but  the  method  of  casting  in 
groups  is  also  used.  A  large  ingot  may  be 
19£  in.  square,  and  weigh  50  cwt.  For  rails,  the 
ingot  is  14|  in.  square,  and  weighs  25  to  30  cwt. 
Several  smaller  sizes  are  also  used.  The  moulds 
are  generally  arranged  in  a  shallow  pit  in  a  semi- 
circle, so  that  the  ladle  crane  may  bring  the  nozzle 
of  the  ladle  over  each  one  in  succession. 

Sometimes,  when  an  ingot  is  tapped,  it  is  stop- 
pered down  by  throwing  some  sand  on  it,  and 
then  covered  with  an  iron  plate,  which  is  fast- 
ened down  by  a  cross-bar  and  wedges.  In 
group  moulds  they  are  generally  arranged 
round  a  central  one,  somewhat  taller  than  the 
rest,  into  which  the  metal  is  run,  and  whence  it 
passes  from  the  bottom  to  the  bottoms  of  the 
others  by  means  of  fireclay  tubes  or  passages. 
Hence  the  material  rises  in  the  moulds  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top.  A  plan  now  largely  adopted, 
especially  in  American  works,  is  to  have  the 
ladle  stationary,  and  a  bogie  truck  carrying 
two  moulds  is  run  under  the  nozzle  of  the  ladle 
for  teeming.  The  bogie  then  conveys  them 
away,  and  another  pair  is  brought  under  the 
taphole,  and  so  on  in  succession. 

Basic  Bessemer  Process.  This  process 
is  conducted  in  an  ordinary  converter,  but  a 
phosphoric  pig  iron  may  be  used.  Such  an 
iron  may  contain  3  per  cent,  of  carbon,  0'5  to  1 
per  cent,  of  silicon,  0'2  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  1  to  2 
per  cent,  of  manganese,  and  2  to  3  per  cent,  of 
phosphorus.  In  consequence  of  the  basic  lining, 
the  slag  is  basic,  and  is  capable  of  taking  up 
phosphorus  oxide.  All  acid  substances  tend  to 
neutralise  the  base,  so  that  only  a  certain 
quantity  of  acid  material  can  be  taken  up.  If, 
therefore,  much  silica  be  present,  it  will  unite 
with  the  base  in  preference  to  the  phosphorus 
oxide,  which  will  be  reduced  and  pass  into  the 
iron.  To  prevent  this,  excess  of  lime  is  necessary ; 
but  this  raises  the  fusion  point  of  the  slag,  and 

4910 


increases  its  quantity,  so  that  a  larger  vessel  is 
necessary.  This  means  an  addition  to  the  cost, 
and  an  increase  in  the  working  expenses. 

Now,  grey  pig  iron  generally  contains  much 
silicon,  which  renders  it  unsuitable  for  the 
basic  process.  White  iron  contains  only  a 
moderate  amount  of  silicon,  and  is  often  high  in 
phosphorus,  which,  being  a  good  heat  producer, 
and  playing  a  similar  part  to  that  of  silicon  in 
the  acid  process,  is  required  in  the  basic  process. 
Another  point  of  importance  is  the  amount  of 
phosphoric  acid  in  the  slag,  whose  value  as  a 
manure  depends  on  its  phosphorus  content. 
Moreover,  the  purity  of  the  lime  is  important,  as 
impure  lime  may  contain  silica,  and  1  Ib.  of 
silica  requires  4  Ib.  of  lime  to  neutralise  it. 
Silica  in  lime  generally  amounts  to  about  2  per 
cent.,  and  often  more.  In  consequence  of  the 
lower  temperature  produced  by  the  presence  of 
lime,  and  the  affinity  of  silica  for  such  a  strong 
base,  the  silicon  is  more  thoroughly  removed 
than  in  the  acid  process.  Manganese  is  not, 
however,  so  completely  removed.  A  highly 
basic  slag  is  also  favourable  for  the  removal  of 
sulphur,  which  takes  place  almost  entirely  during 
the  after -blow. 

Behaviour  of  Phosphorus.  Phosphorus 
is  not  appreciably  removed  until  most  of  the 
other  elements  have  been  eliminated  and  the 
heat  of  its  oxidation  is  concentrated  towards 
the  end  of  the  blow,  when  it  is  most  required. 
Phosphorus  is  oxidised  at  the  beginning  of 
the  blow  ;  but,  in  the  absence  of  a  basic 
fluid  slag  rich  in  lime,  the  oxide  is  decomposed 
by  the  carburised  iron  at  the  high  temperature 
prevailing  in  the  converter.  Towards  the  close 
the  slag  is  highly  basic,  and  then  the  oxidised 
phosphorus  passes  into  the  slag.  On  the  addition 
of  spiegeleisen  or  ferio:manganese  at  the  end  of 
the  blow,  some  of  the  phosphorus  is  reduced 
from  the  slag  and  passes  into  the  steel,  probably 
due  to  the  reducing  action  of  the  manganese. 

At  the  end  of  the  blow  the  iron  is  left  in  an 
oxygenated  state  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  the 
acid  process,  so  that  larger  quantities  of  manga- 
nese compounds  are  required.  To  reduce  the 
amount  of  oxide  before  adding  the  manganese 
compj^ind,  grey  hematite  pig  iron  is  generally 
added,  but  the  best  method  of  presenting  over- 
oxidation  is  to  use  good  manganiferous  pig  iron. 

The  Basic  Blow.  The  different  stages  of 
the  basic  blow  are  similiar  to  those  described 
in  the  acid  process,  but  during  the  boil  larger 
quantities  of  slag  are  ejected.  When  the  flame 
stops,  instead  of  turning  the  vessel  down  and 
stopping  the  blast,  as  in  the  acid  process,  blow- 
1  ing  is  continued  for  three  of  four  minutes  longer. 
This  is  termed  the  after-blow,  and  during  this 
period  practically  all  the  phosphorus  is  removed. 
The  plant  used  in  the  basic  process  differs  but 
little  from  that  in  the  acid  process,  except  that 
the  concentric  form  of  converter  is  more  often 
used.  The  essential  difference  is  in  the  lining, 
which  must  be  strongly  basic  and  sufficiently 
refractory  to  withstand  the  very  high  tempera- 
ture to  which  it  is  subjected  without  melting  or 
softening.  The  materials  generally  applied  for 
the  purpose  are  lime  and  burnt  dolomite,  mixed 


with    some     cementing      material, 
anhydrous  tar. 

Dolomite,  or  magnesium  limestone,  of  high 
quality,  and  containing  not  more  than  2  per 
cent,  of  silica,  is  desirable.  It  is  first  broken  up 
into  small  lumps,  and  strongly  calcined  in  a 
basic-lined  cupola  to  remove  moisture  and  carbon 
dioxide.  The  effect  of  this  calcination  is  to  pro- 
duce a  considerable  shrinkage,  and  it  is  advisable 
to  employ  the  shrunk  material  for  lining  the  con- 
verter as  soon  as  possible,  otherwise  it  will 
absorb  moisture  from  the  air  and  rapidly  de- 
teriorate. It  is  next  ground  in  a  pug-mill  and 
mixed  with  the  desired  amount  of  well-boiled 
tar.  The  prepared  material  is  made  into  bricks  of 
different  sizes  and  shapes  to  suit  the  sweep  of 
the  converter.  They  are  placed  into  position 
as  soon  as  they  come  from  the  press. 

Use  of  Small  Converters.  Although 
the  general  tendency  has  been  to  increase  the 
capacity  of  the  converters  and  the  general 
adoption  of  bottom  blowing,  the  small  converter 
with  side  blowing  is  still  used.  These  con- 
verters may  be  classified  into  fixed,  rotating,  side 
blowing,  and  bottom  blowing. 

Fixed  Vessels.  These  converters  have 
four  chief  defects  :  (1)  They  scarcely  permit  of 
bottom  blowing,  and  therefore  involve  a  great 
loss  of  iron  in  blowing.  In  bottom  blowing  the 
failure  of  a  single  twyer  would  let  the  whole 
charge  escape.  If  a  twyer  in  a  rotating  vessel 
fail,  the  vessel  can  easily  be  turned  so  as  to 
bring  the  twyer  above  the  level  of  the  metal, 
when  the  faulty  one  can  be  repaired.  This  is  a 
common  occurrence.  (2)  Even  in  side  blowing 
the  failure  of  a  twyer  is  a  serious  thing  in  a 
fixed  vessel,  because  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
the  charge  at  once,  converting  it  into  scrap. 
(3)  At  the  end  of  the  blow  the  charge  has  to  be 
tapped  out  instead  of  being  poured.  Moreover, 
the  proportion  of  carbon  is  less  under  control  in 
the  fixed  vessel  because  of  the  length  of  time 
required  to  tap.  (4)  It  is  impossible  to  recar- 
burise  in  the  vessel,  and  this  has  to  be  done  in 
the  ladle.  This  is  not  important  in  mild  steel, 
but  in  rail  steel  it  is  a  serious  thing.  The  fixed 
vessel  is  much  cheaper  than  the  rotating  one, 
and  in  small  works  where  the  charges  are  small 
the  low  cost  more  than  counterbalances  the 
losses  enumerated  above. 

Side  Blowing.  This  may  be  near  the 
bottom,  as  in  the  old  Swedish  converters,  or 
higher  up,  as  in  the  modern  vessels.  Side  blast 
requires  less  blast  pressure  and  therefore  less 
cost  in  blowing  engines,  boilers,  etc.  The  system 
has  three  chief  disadvantages  : 

1.  The   action   of   the    blast   is   not   uniform 
through  the  metal,  and  the  metal  contains  less 
carbon  above  than  below  the  twyers,  and  although 
the  portions  may  mix  in  the  ladle,  the  metal  is 
liable  to  be  non-homogeneous. 

2.  The  metal  round  where   the  blast  enters 
is  highly  oxidised,  while  in  bottom  blowing  the 
bath   is   so  highly   agitated   that   any   oxidised 
portions  are  rapidly  deoxidised  by  the  carbon 
and  silicon  of  the  other  part.     Again,  at  the  end 
of   the   blow  the  iron  oxide  escapes  as  a  dense 


METALS 

reddish- brown  smoke  along  with  the  blast, 
and  the  metal  is  overblown.  This  imperfect 
mixing  of  iron  oxide  and  the  carbonated  and 
silicated  portions,  in  the  case  of  side  blowing, 
causes  overblowing  and  consequent  loss  of  iron. 

In  the  old  Swedish  vessel  the  twyers  were 
placed  not  radially,  but  in  a  tangential  direction, 
so  as  to  give  to  the  metal  a  rotatory  motion. 
The  same  is  done  in  the  Robert  converter,  which 
has  also  a  vertical  rotation  by  the  twyer  being 
on  one  side  only. 

3.  The  bottom  and  the  sides  near  the  twyers 
wear  away  more  rapidly,  causing  the  depth  of 
metal  to  diminish,  so  that  the  blowing  becomes 
more  localised.  In  bottom  blowing  the  depth 
of  metal  above  the  twyers  change;  but  slightly, 
the  corrosion  being  chiefly  on  the  bottom.  Side 
blowing  has  two  advantages.  It  lessens  the  blast 
pressure,  and  prolongs  the  life  of  the  twyers. 

Clapp  and  Griffiths  Converter.  In 
this  vessel  the  twyers  were  raised  to  about 
10  in.  above  the  bottom,  so  that  when  half  the 
metal  was  tapped  out  the  twyers  were  not  out  of 
the  metal.  The  vessel  is  about  10  ft.  high, 
5|  ft.  internal  diameter,  lined  with  silica  bricks, 
and  provided  with  four  to  six  horizontal  twyers, 
filled  with  valves  for  regulating  the  blast.  As 
the  slag  rises  it  is  run  off  through  a  slag-hole 
during  the  intermediate  stages  of  the  blow. 
At  the  conclusion  the  metal  is  tapped  out  the 
same  as  from  a  cupola.  Ferro- manganese  is 
added  to  the  metal  in  the  ladle.  This  process 
appears  to  eliminate  the,  silicon,  but  leaves  the 
phosphorus  and  sulphur  practically  untouched. 

Hatton  improved  this  form  of  converter  by 
replacing  the  solid  bottom  with  a  movable  one, 
and  by  introducing  a  simpler  form  of  valve 
to  regulate  the  blast.  The  movable  bottom 
greatly  facilitates  repairs.  The  pig  iron  used 
must  be  practically  free  from  phosphorus  and 
sulphur,  and  contain  2  per  cent,  to  2 '75  per  cent, 
of  silicon,  otherwise  the  blow  is  too  cold. 
/  The  Robert  Converter.  This,  although  a 
movable  converter,  is  adapted  only  for  small 
charges  of  from  1  to  3  tons.  The  blast  is  intro- 
duced near  the  upper  surface  of  the  metal, 
and  the  twyers  inclined  at  different  angles,  so  as 
to  give  a  rotatory  motion  to  the  metal.  The  vessel 
itself  is  tilted  during  the  first  half  of  the  blow, 
and  turned  more  vertically  as  the  operation 
proceeds,  in  order  that  the  blast  may  be  less 
strongly  localised.  The  converter  is  mounted  on 
trunnions  and  revolved  in  the  usual  way,  but 
by  means  of  hand  gearing.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  this  converter  are  several.  No  ex- 
pensive blowing  plant  is  required,  the  slag  and 
gases  separate  better  from  the  metal,  a  higher 
temperature  is  obtained,  enabling  castings  to 
be  made,  the  process  can  be  stopped  at  any 
given  moment,  and  steel  can  be  made  in  varieties 
from  the  mildest  to  the  hardest.  The  loss  of 
metal  in  the  Robert  converter  seems  to  be  as 
great  as  in  the  fixed  vessels,  averaging  about 
20  per  cent.  The  position  of  the  twyers  high  up 
in  the  bath  is  a  disadvantage,  in  that  it  leads  to 
increased  loss  of  metal  by  oxidation.  The 
reduced  pressure  of  the  blast  is  an  advantage. 


Continued 


4911 


Group  12 

MECHANICAL 

ENGINEERING 

34 


following  TCMII*  fr  >m 
page  47 10 


THE  LATHE 


Invention    and    Development   of   the    Lathe.       Its    Principal 
Details.    Examples  of  Lathes.    Special  Types.    Lathe  Chucks 


By    FRED    HORNER 


A  LL  lathes,  from  the  tiny  watchmaker's  to  the 
•**  great  gun  lathes,  are  constructed  on  the  same 
principle — that  of  rotating  the  work,  and  presenting 
a  tool  suitably  for  cutting  it.  The  immense  varia- 
tions in  type  and  size  are  brought  about  by  the 
necessities  of  special  classes  of  work,  the  operations 
on  which  include  turning,  facing,  boring,  drilling, 
screw-cutting,  knurling,  milling,  etc.  The  number  of 
lathes  in  an  engineering  works  usually  exceeds  that 
of  any  other  single  type  of  machine  tool,  the  reason 
being  that  shafts,  pulleys,  wheels,  bolts,  pins,  screws, 
and  other  cylindrical  parts  form  a  preponderating 
element  in  mechanisms,  and  all  are  done  in  the 
lathe.  In  woodwork  also  a  large  proportion  is 
turned,  but  the  lathes  for  woodwork  are  much  lighter 
and  simpler  in  construction  than  those  for  metal. 

The  essential  difference  between  the  smallest  and 
the  largest  lathes  is  only  one  of  power  and  con- 
venience. Sufficient  strength  of  parts  and  driving 
power  must  be  provided,  and  means  for  gripping 
the  work  and  presenting  tools  to  it.  The  last-named 
provision  often  includes  arrangements  for  using 
several  tools,  either  successively  or  simultaneously. 

The  Early  Lathes.  The  original  form  in 
which  the  lathe  was  constructed  and  is  still  used  in 


1  2  3 

SECTIONAL  SHAPES    OF  LATHE    BEDS 

Oriental  countries  comprises  a  bar  carrying  two 
blocks  fitted  with  pointed  centres,  which  enter  into 
the  ends  of  the  work  and  afford  it  a  bearing  while 
rotating.  A  cord  is  wrapped  round  the  work,  and 
each  end  alternately  pulled  so  that  the  work  turns 
first  in  one  direction,  and  then  the  other.  The  turner 
applies  the  tool  while  the  piece  is  revolving  towards 
him.  As  the  lathe  lays  on  the  ground,  either  the 
hands  or  the  feet  of  the  turner  are  used  to  grasp  the 
tool,  leaving  one  hand  free  to  operate  the  cord..  But 
when  a  lad  is  employed  to  drive  the  cord,  the  work- 
man has  more  freedom  and  scope.  The  results 
turned  out  of  these  most  primitive  lathes  are 
astonishing ;  the  principal  drawback,  of  course,  is 
that  the  speed  is  not  high,  nor  are  the  revolutions 
continuous  in  one  direction. 

An  improvement  on  this  type  was  the  pole  lathe,  in 
which  the  bed  was  raised  up  sufficiently  to  enable 
the  turner  to  work  while  standing,  and  one  end  of 
the  driving  cord  was  attached  to  a  long,  springy  pole 
overhead,  while  the  other  end  was  fastened  to  a 
foot-treadle  below  the  lathe.  Pressure  on  the 
tn-adl<>  caused  the  cord  to  rotate  the  work  in  the 
cutting  direction,  while  on  release  the  spring  pole 
pulled  the  cord  upwards,  ready  for  another  down- 
ward motion.  An  alternative  to  the  pole  was  an 
archery  Low,  wind,  t,ave  the  requisite  amount  of 
elasticity.  But  these  devices  did  not  provide  for 
continuous  rotation  in  one  direction.  This  was 

4912 


attained  by  the  introduction  of  the  wheel-drii>en 
lathe,  in  which  a  wheel  revolving  on  an  axle  located 
either  above  or  below  the  lathe  drove  an  endless 
cord  passing  over  the  work,  and  turned  it  constantly 
towards  the  operator,  enabling  him  to  cut  continu- 
ously without  the  annoying  and  time-wasting 
intermittent  presentation  of  the  tool.  The  onlv 
instance  of  the  survival  of  the  reciprocating  lathe 
is  that  of  watchmakers'  turns — small  lathes  that 
have  the  piece  driven  between  centres  bv  a  cord,  the 
ends  of  which  are  attached  to  a  bow,  the  latter 
being  held  in  the  hand  and  moved  to  and  fro, 
winding  and  unwinding  the  cord  on  a  pulley 
fastened  on  the  work. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  all  these  cases  the  work 
is  driven  directly  upon  its  periphery,  and  always 
runs  between  two  points,  which  are  called  dead 
centres,  because  they  do  not  revolve.  The  running 
mandrel  lathe  was  a  later  development.  Instead  of 
driving  directly  on  the  surface  of  the  work,  a  head 
was  fitted  up  with  a  separate  short  mandrel  or 
spindle  and  pulley  to  receive  the  cord,  and  the  work 
was  rotated  by  suitable  chucks  on  the  spindle  nose. 
The  advantages  of  this  method  were  that  the  piece 
was  imencumbered  with  driving  tackle,  only  a 
small  portion  being  occupied  by  the  chuck,  and 
that  it  could  be  gripped  at  one  end  only,  leaving  the 
other  free  to  be  hollowed  or  bored  out  into  cup  or 
ring  forms,  a  class  of  operation  that  is  impossible 
when  the  back  centre  is  used.  The  germ  of  the 
majority  of  present-day  lathes  was  thus  established. 
All,  with  the  exception  of  some  special  dead-centre 
types,  have  running  mandrels,  from  which  the  work 
is  driven  or  is  gripped,  the  help  of  the  back  centre 
being  employed  in  some  cases,  abolished  in  others. 
The  reason  for  the  retention  of  dead  centres  in 
certain  cases  is  chiefly  one  of  relative  accuracy. 
There  is  always  a  possibility  that  a  mandrel  may 
run  slightly  out  of  truth,  and  in  such  case  the 
inaccuracy  of  movement  is  reproduced  on  the  work. 
But  with  dead  centres,  provided  the  centre  holes  in 
the  work  are  made  truly,  there  is  no  outside  coercion 
or  tendency  towards  untrue  running. 

Evolution  of  the  Lathe.  Having  thus 
established  the  essentials  of  the  lathe,  we  may 
consider  the  evolution  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
forms  of  the  different 
parts.  The  heads,  or 
poppets,  were  primarily 
constructed  of  wood — 
rough  blocks  fastened 
upon  a  bar  of  wood,  the 
bed,  which  also  sup- 
ported the  tool  rest  at 
a  suitable  height.  Even 
the  early  running  man- 
drels were  of  wood, 
which  gradually  gave 

place  to  iron,  still  revolving  in  wood  bearings.  Metal 
bushings  were  then  inserted  in  the  wooden  heads, 
and,  lastly,  the  heads  were  cast  in  metal.  The  bed 
underwent  change,  being  made  in  two  strips,  or 
vhcars,  set  side  by  side  a  little  distance  apart.  The 


4.    WHITWORTH 
BED 


LATHE 


LATHE    DETAILS 

5.  Sections  through  gap  bed     6.  Solid  mandrel      7.  Hollow  mandrel      8.  Common  back  gear      9.  Back  gear  with  two  ratios 

10.  Friction  back  gear     11.  Hendey-Norton  nest  change-gears     12.  Loose  headstock  or  poppet      13.  Saddle  with  self -acting 

and  screw-cutting  motions     14.  Carriage  with  plain  rest 

1  M  „  G  4913 


15.  GEAR  DRIVE  WITH  SLIDING 
KEY 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

heads  had  projections  or  checks  on  the  bottom, 
which  fitted  between  the  shears,  these  checks  being 
prolonged  to  the  under  side  of  the  bed,-  and  thero 
secured  with  wedges,  firmly  holding  the  heads  in 
place.  La  tec.  screw  bolts  performed  the  function. 
The  space  between  the  shears  formed  a  slot,  along 
which  the  tool-rest  could  be  slid,  and  clamped  at 
any  desired  point  to  operate  on  the  work.  The 
back  poppet  could  also  be  moved  nearer  to  or  farther 
from  the  head  to  accommodate  short  or  long  pieces. 

The  limitations  of  the  early  lathes  were  those  of 
capacity,  because  all  the  tools  had  to  be  held  and 
controlled  by  the  turner's  hands,  and  heavy  metal 
turning  was  difficult  or  impossible.  With  the  inven- 
tion by  Maudslay  of  the  slide-rest  the  possibilities  of 
the  lathe  were  _ 

at  a  bound 
immensely  in- 
creased ;  tools 
were  held 
rigidly  against 
the  stress  of 
cutting,  and 
moved  along 
accurately  in 
linear  direc- 
tions by  the  slides  of  the  rest.  The  difficulties 
encountered  in  holding  a  hand  tool  up  to  rough  or 
irregularly-shaped  pieces  disappeared,  since  the 
lumpy  or  eccentric  portions  on  the  surface  could 
not  push  the  tool  away.  Hand  turning  is  still 
practised  extensively  in  wood  and  in  some  classes 
of  light  metal  work.  It  has  little  or  no  scope  in 
an  engineer's  shop. 

With  the  increased  strains  involved,  wooden 
beds  had  to  give 'place  to  the  more  rigid  ones  of 
iron.  At  first  the  slide-rest  was  of  limited  range, 
depending  on  its  length  of  slide,  and  it  had  to  be 
shifted  to  a  fresh  position  when  a  length  beyond 
the  travel  was  being  turned.  The  next  step,  there- 
fore, was  to  fit  the  rest  to  the  bed  in  such  a  way 
that  it  could  slide  the  entire  available  length,  and 
so  traverse  along  a  piece  of  work  completely.  A  self- 
acting  motion  next  followed,  by  which  the  rest 
was  fed  automatically  through  connections  from 
the  headstock,  screws  being  cut  also  by  this  means. 
Subsequently,  a  self-acting  feed  was  given  to  the 
cross  or  transverse  motion  of  the  rest  for  facing. 

Improvements  in  the  Driving  Head. 
Changes  now  began  to  appear  in  the  driving 
heads.  The  stepped  cone  was 
introduced  to  give  a  range  of 
speeds  suitable  to  the  size  and 
character  of  the  work  being 
turned,  the  cord  or  belt  being 
changed  from  a  smaller  to  a 
larger  step  to  gain  greater 
driving  power  at  a  slower  S])eed. 
The  method  was  followed  in  both 
treadle  and  steam-driven  lathes. 
Then  as  work  increased  in  size,  it 
was  found  impossible  to  get  a 
cord  or  belt  to  drive  the  cut 
without  slipping,  and  toothed 
gears  were  introduced  to  gain 
power  at  reduced  speed.  Compactness  of  design  was 
obtained  by  the  familiar  1  me  I;. year  arrangement,  in 
which  four  toothed  wheels  drive  from  the  mandrel 
pulley  and  back  to  the  mandrel  with  an  average 
ratio  of  9  to  1.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in 
some  of  the  latest  lathes  for  high-speed  cutting,  the 
lu'lts  have  been  eliminated  altogether,  chains 
or  toothed  wheels  transmitting  power  positively 
from  an  electric  motor  to  the  lathe  mandrel.  The 

4914 


problem  of  getting  a  good  range  of  mandrel  speeds, 
formerly  met  by  stepjxjd  belt  cones  and  back  gears 
of  single,  double,  or  treble  types,  has  assumed  greater 
importance  since  the  introduction  of  high-speed 
steels,  and  developments  are  crowding  fast. 

Other  'points  in  lathe  evolution  include  the  prac- 
tice of  fitting  more  than  one  slide-rest,  to  enable  a 
number  of  tools  to  operate  on  different  portions  of 
a  piece  of  work,  the  inclusion  of  boring  arrangements 
in  place  of  the  ordinary  poppet,  and  improvements 
in  screw-cutting  devices.  An  advance  that  revolu- 
tionised some  classes  of  lathe  work  was  that  of  the 
capstan  or  turret  fitting,  which  holds  a  number  of 
tools  radially  in  such  a  position  that  they  can  be 
brought  into  place  in  rapid  succession  to  perform 
^  different  classes  of  operations  on  a  piece. 

These  turret  lathes  reach  the  highest  de- 
velopment in  the  automatic  -screw  machines 
which  carry  through  all  their  operations 
without  the  help  of  an  attendant. 

The  vertical  lathes,  or  boring  and  turning 
mills ,  are  a  class  by  themselves,  and  one  of 
comparatively  recent  development.  The 
axis  of  the  spindle  is  set  vertically,  and 
the  table  or  face-plate  carries  the  work 
without  the  help  of  a  back  centre. 

Beds.  Studying  now  some  of  the  principal 
elements  of  lathes,  the  basis  of  construction — the 
bed— ^ornes  first.  The  chief  essential  of  a  good 
bed  is  rigidity,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  flexiue  or 
vibration  under  the  stress  of  cutting.  The  early 
wooden  beds  did  not  provide  against  these  evils, 
neither  did  they  remain  true.  But  previous  to  the 
introduction  of  cast-iron  beds  a  little  advantage 
was  gained  by  attaching  strips  of  iron  to  the  wooden 
beds,  to  serve  as  guide- ways  for  the  slide-rest. 
Some  of  these  were  flat  plates,  others  were  rounded 
or  vee'd  on  the  top,  to  guide  the  rest  truly.  The 
iron  beds  which  followed  also  had  very  narrow 
top  edges,  sometimes  flat,  sometimes  of  vee  shape, 
a  practice  which  still  survives  in  modern  American 
lathes  of  small  and  medium  size.  In  England,  on 
the  contrary,  flat  slides  are  preferred.  The  advan- 
tages claimed  for  the  vees  are  that  the  saddle  or 
carriage  is  guided  truly  without  the  help  of  the 
edges  of  the  bed,  because  the  vees  automatically 
centre  the  carriage,  just  as  a  vee  planer  bed  does 
its  table ;  and  the  cuttings  also  fall  off  the  sloping 
sides  of  the  vees,  instead  of  remaining  on  them,  to 
the  detriment  of  the  faces,  as  in  a  flat  bed.  The 


APRON     GEAR 


amount  of  bearing  surface  on  vees  is  comparatively 
small,  a  defect  partly  compensated  for  by  making 
the  carriage  base  of  great  length.  To  keep  the 
carriage  down  on  its  vees,  a  practice  formerly  much 
adopted  was  that  of  suspending  a  weiirht,  which 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 


hung  down  between  the  shears. 
This  weight  prevents  the  addi- 
tion of  strengthening  cross-ties  or 
girts  being  cast  between  the 
shears,  and  in  any  case  is  applic- 
able only  to  small  lathes.  When 
the  weight  is  discarded,  gibs,  or 
#ct1ing-up  strips,  are  fitted  to 
the  edges  of  the  bed  so  that  the 
carriage  cannot  lift  during  cut- 
ting, and  ample  strength  may  be 
given  to  the  bed  by  the  use  of 
cross-ribs  at  intervals.  In  the  flat- 
top type  of  bed,  the  edges  are 
usually  vee'd,  in  order  that  one 
gib  strip  may  serve  two  functions 
— prevention  of  both  lifting  and 
lateral  motion.  If  square  edges  are  employed,  it 
is  necessary  to  fit  strips  having  both  upward  and 
lateral  adjustments.  A  point  of  importance  is  that 
the  use  of  vees  reduces  the  available  swing,  or 
diameter  that  can  be  turned,  by  comparison  with  a 
similar  lathe  having  a  flat  bed. 

Two  designs  of  recent  date  embody  important 
variations  on  ordinary  types.  In  the  Lang  bed,  the 
saddle  is  not  controlled  by  the  extreme  span  of  the 
bed,  but  only  by  a  narrow 
guiding  strip  at  the  front, 
on  which  the  saddle  has  a 
longitudinal  bearing  of 
about  ten  times  the  width. 
The  risk  of  cross-working 
is  greatly  reduced,  and  the 
lead  screw  or  feed- shaft 
is  brought  nearer  to  the 
guide  portion.  The  Darling 
and  Seller's  "  double-tier  " 
bed  has  a  supplementary 
ledge  located  some  way 
down  the  front  of  the  bed, 
the  saddle  having  an  ex- 
tension resting  on  this. 
The  effective  width  of  the 
bearing  is  thus  increased,  and  the  weight  of  the 
front  is  better  supported. 

In  1,  2,  and  3,  the  usual  sectional  shapes  of  the 
flat-topped  beds,  with  vee  and  with  square  edges,  and 
of  the  American  vee  tops  are  seen.  The  sectional 
forms  are  sometimes  modified  by  the  position  of 
the  lead  screw.  In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  placed 
in  front,  a  little  distance  away,  but  in  some  designs 


18.    ENGLISH 
(Tang-yes,  Ltd. 


GAP    LATHE 

,  Birmingham) 


19.     TYPICAL    AMERICAN    LATHE 


17.    A  14-IN.  SWING  AMERICAN  LATHE  VIEWED  FROM  ABOVE 


a  more  central  location  is  chosen,  either  about  half- 
way up,  and  to  one  side,  or  close  up  under  the  ledge 
of  the  front  shear.  The  pull  on  the  carriage  is  more 
central  and  the  screw  is  better  protected.  The 
Whitworth  type  of  bed  [4]  has  the  screw  set  as 
shown,  and  supported  on  part  of  its  circumference 
by  bearings. 

Some  of  the  heavy  lathes  have  beds  with  a  greater 
number  of  bearing  strips  on  the  top,  and  in  types 
where  the  entire  saddle  is 
not  moved  self-actingly 
tee-slots  are  cast  to  bolt 
the  rests  down  by,  and 
also  racks  to  bar  the  rests 
into  new  positions. 

Special  sections  of  beds 
are  the  front  slide,  and  the 
triangular.  A  style  used 
for  bench  lathes  forms  a 
portion  of  a  circle,  the  rest 
being  flattened  off  to  carry 
the  heads  and  slide-rest. 
The  front  slide  beds  have 
their  bearing  surfaces 
upon  the  front,  instead  of 
the  top,  and  the  slide- 
rest  travels  without  coming  foul  of  the  back 
poppet.  The  cuttings,  moreover,  fall  off.  But  the 
chief  advantage  of  the  design  is  that  it  permits  of 
fitting  a  vertical  slide,  a  useful  addition  for  milling. 

The  longitudinal  forms  of  beds  principally  vary 
in  being  either  plain,  or  gap.  The  latter  breaks  the 
continuity  of  the  top  by  a  space  in  front  of  the 
head,  enabling  wheels,  etc.,  to  be  swung  of  larger 
diameter  than  the  normal  capacity  over 
the  top  of  the  bed.  The  gap  may  or  may 
not  be  filled  in  for  ordinary  use  with  a 
bridge-piece,  over  which  the  saddle  passes. 
The  weakening  of  the  bed  by  the  gap  is 
compensated  for  by  carrying  ample  metal 
down  below.  Fig.  5  illustrates  longitudinal 
and  cross-sections  of  a  good  type  of  bed, 
cast  of  "  box  "  form,  with  lightening  holes 
arid  circular  wells  for  the  cuttings  to  fall 
clear  through.  The  bridge-piece  is  fitted 
in  with  shoulders,  and  is  held  with  a  bolt. 
The  cross-sectional  outline  is  shown  en- 
larged beneath,  taken  at  the  position 
indicated  by  the  dotted  line. 

In  the  movable  gap  beds  an  opening  of 
considerable  width  is  obtained  by  fitting 
a  supplementary  or  top  bed  on  the  main 
one,  this  upper  bed  being  slid  along  to 
close  or  open  out  the  width  available  for 
larger  objects.  Gap  beds  have  always  been 
more  popular  in  England  than  in  the 
United  States.  They  are  of  great  value  in 

4915 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

general  shops,  because  the  range  of  a  given  lailie  is 
ii.it  restricted,  and  it  saves  sending  work  having 
on*-  ]>art  of  large  diameter  to  a  lathe  otherwise 
needlessly  big  for  the  job. 

The  mounting  of  a  lathe  bed  which  is  not  of 
sufficient  depth  to  rest  directly  upon  the  ground  is 
ill ii MI  cast  /ff/x,  the  tallest  of  which  are  to  be 
found  in  the  small  amateurs'  treadle  lathes.  In 
this  .-use,  the  standards  serve  as  supports  for  the 
crrnik  axle.  The  hollow  box  standard  is  increasing 
in  favour  for  engineers'  lathes ;  i*  is  usually  fitted 
with  a  door,  and  shelves  are  placed  inside  to  carry 
tools,  etc.  Convenience  is  thereby  studied,  and  a 
more  rigid  support  afforded  than  that  given  by  plain 
legs.  A  tray  is  often  provided  below  the  lathe  bed 
to  hold  tools,  or  to  catch  lubricant  and  cuttings. 
A  single  standard  is  sufficient  in  some  short-bed 
lathes,  the  top  being  formed  into  a  tray.  Standards 
in  some  instances  take  a  three-point  bearing  oil  the 
ground,  instead  of  the  usual  four,  so  that  tendency 
to  distortion  through  uneven  foundations  is  obvi- 
ated, the  idea  being  borrowed  from  the  familiar 
three-legged  stool,  which  does  not  rock. 

Headstocks.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  the 
headstock  is  a  separate  casting  bolted  down  to  the 
bed,  but  in  certain  special  lathes  the  head  and  bed 
are  cast  in  one  piece,  to  gain  solidity.  Capstan 
lathes  are  the  types  principally  so  fitted.  The 
ordinary  headstocks  consist  of  a  base-plate,  with 
which  are  cast  two  uprights,  to  serve  as  bearings 
for  the  mandrel  at  back  and  front.  In  a  plain  lathe 
there  is  nothing  else  but  the  mandrel  and  the  pulley  ; 
when  gears  are  introduced,  alterations  appear  in  the 
head  casting.  The  fitting  of  a  mandrel  in  its  bear- 
ings is  a  most  important  matter,  affecting  the  truth 
of  the  work  produced,  and  there  are  a  great  many 
ways  of  attaining  the  object.  Apart  from  easy 
running,  means  must  be  provided  for  taking  up 
slack  as  wear  occurs,  and  this  should  be  done  without 
having  to  dismantle  the  head.  There  are  three 
methods 'in  common  employment.  One  is  to  make 
the  necks  of  the  mandrel  coned,  to  be  drawn  into  a 
tapered  bearing,  thus  absorbing  slack ;  another  to 
have  parallel  necks,  and  run  them  in  bushes,  which 
are  coned  outside,  to  draw  into  coned  holes  in  the 
head.  The  bushes,  being  split,  contract  upon  the 
mandrel  when  moved  endwise.  The  third  method 
is  to  employ  plain  brasses,  in  halves,  and  closed 
down  with  a  cap,  held  with  set-screws. 

In  the  best  English  practice,  coned  necks,  running 
in  hardened  steel  bushes,  have  been  used  for  many 
years,  and,  provided  they  are  properly  hardened 
and  fitted,  no  trouble  is  experienced.  When  badly 


made,  however,  difficulties  occur  through  .seizing  of 
the  steel  surfaces.  In  America,  bearings  of  softer 
metal  have  been  favoured,  such  as  oast  iron,  gun- 
metal,  phosphor-bronze,  Babbitt,  and  white  metals. 
Practically  all  lathe-makers  now  employ  these 
materials,  especially  the  phosphor-bronze  and  the 
Babbitt, 


20.    MASSIVE  LATHE    FOR   HIGH-SPEED    STEELS 
tl)«.Mii.  Smith  A-  Cnice,  Ltd.,  Keighlcy) 


4910 


21.   SURFACING     AND     BOR1X<;    LATHE 
(John  Lang  &  Sons,  Johnston*.') 

A  question  nearly  as  important  as  that  of  the 
necks  relates  to  end-thrust  when  the  lathe  is  working. 
In  the  more  primitive  lathes  the  mandrel  has  only 
a  front  bearing,  and  its  back  end  is  supported  by  a 
hardened  point-centre,  which  receives  the  thrust, 
a  construction  still  followed  in  many  amateurs' 
lathes.  But  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  have  two 
bearings  encircling  the  spindle.  Then  the  thrust- 
pin  must  be  placed  beyond  the  rear  bearing,  being 
held  by  a  couple  of  pillars  and  a  bridge- piece.  An 
alternative  to  the  pointed  centre  is  to  have  a  plain 
pin,  bearing  on  the  flat  end  of  the  mandrel.  Fig.  6 
illustrates  this,  as  well  as  the  coned  neck  fitting 
just  mentioned.  The  hinder  cone  is  keved  on  the 
mandrel,  and  forced  up  with  nuts  to  maintain  the 
running  fit. 

The  objection  to  these  end  pins  is  that  they  do 
not  permit  of  the  convenient  removal  and  replace- 
ment of  the  mandrel  pinion,  used  for  screw-cutting 
and  turning,  and  they  cannot  be  used  at  all  with 
hollow  spindles.  Two  ways  are  then  available — 
plain  thrust  rings  or  collars  of  hardened  steel  or 
bronze  may  be  used,  or  ball  races,  the  latter  being 
extensively  employed  now  for  light  lathes.  The 
thrust  fitting  is  located  at  the  front  bearing  or  the 
back  one,  the  latter  being  usual.  In  7  the  thrust 
is  received  in  a  casting  at  the  extreme  rear,  with 
collars,  an  adjusting  screw  and  lock  nut  making 
ondlong  alterations.  The  neck  bearings  of  the 
spindle  are  of  the  coned-sleeve  typ*»,  fitted  with 
nuts  at  each  end. 

The  fittings  which  go  on  the  spindle  include  the 
chucks,  the  cone  pulley,  the  first  back- 
gear  pinion,  and  the  last  wheel  (or  more  if 
extra  gear  is  included),  the  pinion  for  screw- 
cutting,  and  a  belt  pulley  or  pinion  for 
feeding.  The  nose  is  coarsely  threaded  to 
receive  the  chucks,  and  there  is  a  hole  for 
the  centre. 

Back  Gear*  As  already  mentioned, 
belt  cones  alone  do  not  afford  enough 
power  for  heavy  cutting,  a  gain  being 
therefore  necessary  by  gears,  termed  back 
gears.  The  most  common  form  of  these  is 
shown  in  8,  a  plan  view  of  a  head.  It  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  back-thrust  device 
is  similar  to  that  in  7.  The  belt  drives 
the  stepped  cone,  A,  at  various  speeds, 
the  cone  running  loose  on  the  spindle, 
and  carrying  with  it  a  toothed  pinion, 
B.  B  drives  a  wheel,  C,  on  a  quill,  with 
which  i^  cast  pinion  D.  driving  the  wheel  E, 


keyed  on  the  mandrel.  There  is  thus  a  double  gain, 
which  is  usually  designed  to  rotate  the  mandrel 
nine  times  slower  than  the  belt  pulley.  But  for  light 
cutting,  which  the  belt  alone  can  tackle,  connection 


22.    GUN    LATHE  WITHOUT   POPPET     (The  Xiles-Bement-Pond  Co.) 

is  made  direct  from  A  to  E  by  sliding  the  bolt  seen 
in  E  up  the  slot,  and  tightening  it  to  engage  with  a 
stud  cast  on  the  disc  of  A,  the  latter  then  driving 
positively,  while  the  gears,  B,  C,  D,  are  out  of  action. 
They  are  put  out  by  throwing  C  and  D  backwards, 
their  spindle  being  "keyed  at  each  end  in  eccentric 
bushes  resting  in  the  extensions  cast  on  the  head. 
One  eccentric  bush  is  formed  with  a  handle,  seen  in 
the  end  projection,  by  which  the  eccentric  arc  of 
rotation  is  given.  The  bush  is  sometimes  locked 
with  a  pin  to  prevent  the  gears  falling  back,  but 
by  locating  the  eccentric  in  a  certain  way  the  pin 
may  be  dispensed  with,  as  in  the  example  shown. 
Formerly  the  back  gears  were  slid  endwise  to 
disengage,  but  the  eccentric  throw-out  is  now 
preferred. 

A  design  of  back  gear  which  gives  the  choice  of 
two  ratios  is  that  in  9.  There  are  two  gears  on  the 
left-hand  end  of  the  eccentric  quill.  When  set  in 
the  manner  shown,  a  reduction  of  3  to  1  is  effected, 
but  by  sliding  the  larger  gear  along  into  engagement 
with  the  smaller  pinion  on  the  mandrel  (the  other 
gear  on  the  quill  being,  of  course,  simultaneously  slid 
out  of  mesh),  a  reduction  of  9  to  1  is  given.  The 
3  to  1  ratio  is  useful  for  work  which  requires  a  high 
speed,  with  more  power  than  the  belt  drive  alone  can 
provide. 

A  development  of  recent  years  is  the  friction- 
geared  head,  adopted  chiefly  for  capstan  lathes,  by 
which  the  operations 
of  stopping  the  lathe 
and  moving  the  lock- 
ing bolt  in  the  large 
mandrel  gear  are 
avoided,  the  change 
from  direct  belt  drive 
to  gear  being  made 
instantly  by  throwing 
over  a  lever. 

Fig.  10  is  an  eleva- 
tion of  a  friction- 
geared  head  of  a 
capstan  lathe  by  H. 
W.  Ward  &  Co.,  Bir- 
mingham. The  gears 
are  enclosed  under 
guards,  but  the  resem- 
blance to  those  in  8  wili 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

be  apparent.  The  stepped  cone,  A,  has  its  pinion, 
B,  attached  with  screws  and  bushsd  with  gun- 
ni2til ;  B  drives  a  wheel  on  the  back-gear  shaft 
(not  shown),  and  the  pinion  connected  with  this 
drives  to  spur  wheel,  C,  running 
loosely  on  the  mandrel,  at  a  ratio 
of  4  to  1.  A  sleeve,  D,  is  keyed 
fast  on  the  mandrel  between  the 
spur  wheel  and  the  cone,  A,  and 
is  extended  into  flanges  that  lie 
within  A  and  C.  Ring  friction 
clutches  are  formed  inside  the 
flanges,  as  shown,  and  the  expan- 
sion of  the  split  rings  produces 
sufficient  friction  within  the 
cone  or' the  wheel  to  drive.  The 
action  is  effected  by  the  handle, 
E,  which  has  a  pinion  moving  a 
rack  on  a  sleeve  sliding  on  D, 
so  that  the  sleeve  is  slid  to  right  or 
left.  Recesses  on  the  body  coerce 
little  toggle  levers,  F  and  G,  which 
are  pivoted  to  press  down  wedges 
between  the  halves  of  the  friction 
rings,  and  so  expand  them.  If  the 
lever  is  moved  to  the  left,  there- 
fore, the  cone.  A,  drives  the  sleeve,  and  thence  the 
mandrel ;  if  to  the  right,  the  spur,  C,  drives  the 
sleeve  and  mandrel,  and  the  back  gears  therefore 
come  into  action.  In  the  middle  position  of  the  lever 
the  mandrel  remains  still.  WThen  the  cone  is  driving 
direct  the  back  gears  may  be  thrown  out  by  the 
usual  eccentric,  or  left  running  if  changes  are  fre- 
quent, as  when  turning  and  screwing  alternate, 
requiring  fast  and  slow  speeds  respectively.  The 
spindle  has  a  2|-in.  hole  right  through  for  bars,  and 
there  are  three  protected  set  screws  at  the  back  to 
keep  the  bar  central  at  that  end,  various  chucks 
being  fitted  at  the  other  end  or  nose. 

As  lathes  get  heavier,  the  ordinary  back  gear  is 
insufficient  to  gain  the  power  necessary,  and  extra 
trains  are  therefore  introduced,  treble  or  quadruple, 
with  the  option  of  using  the  direct  belt  drive  or  the 
ordinary  double  gear.  The  last  pinion  in  such 
lathes  drives  on  to  a  spur  ring  forming  part  of  the 


AXLE- TURNING    LATHE     (James  Spencer  &  Co.,  Hollinwood) 


4917 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

face  plate,  so  that  the  power  is  delivered  at  the 
most  suitable  location,  and  the  spindle  is  relieved 
of  a  good  deal  of  strain. 

A  considerable  difference  has  been  brought  about 


front  of  M  are  for  locking  the  movable  frame  in  each 
position  by  a  handle  and  spring  catch.  The  gears  are 
so  calculated  as  to  give  the  regular  set  of  threads 
from  6  to  20,  others  being  obtainable  by  substi- 


.     DOUBLE     RAILWAY    WHEEL     LATHE 


25. 


in  headstocks  by  the  advent  of  high-speed 
steels,  which  are  able   to  take  greater  cuts 
than  the  usual  type  of  lathe  can  drive.     The 
variations  take  the  form  of  larger  belt  cones, 
increased  gear  gain,  or  the  employment  of 
all-gear  heads,  which  derive  their  power  from 
either  a    single   belt  pulley  or   an  electric 
motor,  all  changes  in  speed  and 
power   being    effected    through 
sliding  gears  or  keys. 

The  screw-cutting  arrange- 
ments of  heads  have  been  de- 
scribed on  page  3628,  and  this 
is  the  usual  type  of  fitting.  A 
device  which  is  now  employed 
to  a  large  extent  on  small  and 
medium-sized  lathes  obviates 
the  necessity  of  changing  the 
gears  from  their  studs  whenever 
a  different  pitch  of  screw  has  to  be  cut. 
This,  the  Hendey-Norton  system,  is  shown 
in  11,  which  is  a  part  sectional  elevation 
through  the  head  and  end  of  the  bed, 
containing  the  change  mechanism.  The 
pinion.  A,  on  the  tail  of  the  spindle  drives 
through  an  idler,  B,  which  can  be  slid  out 
of  gear  endwise.  B  drives  C,  mounted  on  a 
sleeve,  at  the  end  of  which  a  bevel  gear,  D,  drives 
the  shaft,  E,  either  direct,  when  the  claw 
clutch  seen  is  slid  into  engagement  with 
D,  or  in  the  reverse  direction, through  the 
large  bevel  wheel,  if  the  clutch  is  meshed 
with  F.  The  shaft,  E,  then  rotates  pinion 
G  on  its  end.  The  movements  of  the 
clutch  are  obtained  through  the  rod, 
H,  operating  the  curved  pivoted  lever 
seen  dotted,  H  being  extended  through 
into  the  carriage,  and  there  moved  by  the 
turner  at  any  position  without  having  to 
go  to  the  headstock.  The  rod,  J,  is  also 
extended  to  the  carriage,  and  is  struck  by  dogs, 
which  have  the  effect  of  throwing  the  clutch 
mechanism  just  described  out  of  gear,  instantly 
arresting  the  travel  of  the  tool,  a  useful  provision 
when  cutting  up  to  shoulders. 

The  drive  from  (J  is  through  wheel,  K,  and  pinion, 
L ;  the  last-named  rotates  a  shaft  going  inside 
the  gear-box,  M,  and  communicating  to  a  larger 
wheel  held  in  a  pivoted  frame.  By  this  means  the 
wheel  may  be  moved  along  and  thrown  into  mesh 
with  any  of  the  12  gears,  N,  on  the  end  of  the  lead 
screw,  0,  thus  enabling  12  changes  to  be  obtained 
without  touching  a  gear.  The  slots  and  holes  on  the 

4918 


tuting  a  different  gear  for  the  one  at  L.    Feeds  are 
obtained  by  using  the  lead  screw  to  actuate  gears, 
,  by    a    spline   down  its   length, 

and  so  to  travel  the  carriage. 

Poppets.  The  poppet,  or 
loose  headstock,  is  used  in  all 
lathes  excepting  those  which  do 
face  work  only,  or  turn  long 
pieces  with  the  help  of  guides 
combined  with  the  tools.  The 
two  essentials  in  a  poppet  are 
means  for  moving  and  clamping 
the  main  casting,  and  then 
giving  a  short  movement  to  the 
centre  to  force  it  up  to  the  work. 
In  12,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
body  is  provided  with  tongues 
on  the  base,  which  fit  between 
the  shears  and  keep  the  poppet 
centre  in  alignment.  Clamping 
is  done  by  the  bolt,  which 
draws  up  the  washer  plate 
against  the  under  side  of  the 
shears,  and  also,  by  means  of 
the  vee- fitting,  pulls  the  poppet 
over  to  one  side,  which  neutral- 
ises the  effect  of  any  slackness  that  may  be  present. 
The  centre  is  fitted  with  a  taper  into  a  sliding 


DOUBLE  RAILWAY 
WHEEL  LATHE 

Transverse  section 


barrel  lying 
within  the  cast- 
ing, and  moved 
backward  or 
forward  by  the 
screw  and 
hand  wheel. 
By  tightening 
up  the  small 
handle  seen,  the 


CIRCULAR     CAPSTAN 


barrel  is  locked  by  the  action  of  closing  in  the  split 
portion.  The  centre  may  be  ejected  by  turning 
the  hand  wheel  sufficiently  far,  causing  the  end  of 


•the  screw  to  press  against  the  tail  of  the  centre  ari:! 
push  it  out.  On  looking  at  the  end  view,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  casting  is  cut  away  at  the  front, 
facing  the  turner  :  the  object  of  this  is  to  allow  the 
handle  of  the  top  _a__ 

slide  of  the  rest  to 
clear  when  turning 
work  with  the 
poppet  close  up  to 
the  rest.  The  chief 
ways  in  which  pop- 
pets vary  from  this 
example  include  set- 
over  fittings  and 
methods  of  opera- 
ting the  barrel 
screw.  The  set- 
over  poppet  is  con- 
structed with  the 
upper  part  sliding 
across  the  base, 

clamped  to  the  bed,  2?    OPEN.SPINDLE 

by  which  means  the 

centre  can  be  thrown  over  to  one  side  by  a  definite 
amount,  enabling  long  objects  to  be  turned  taper- 
ing, instead  of  parallel,  as  when  the  centre  is  in 
alignment  with  the  headstock.  The  setting  is  done 
with  screws,  and  the  clamping  with  set-screws  or 
bolts.  The  heavier  poppets  are  different  in  several 
respects  from  small  ones  ;  more  holding-down  bolts, 
four,  or  six  in  number,  are  used,.  The  barrel  is  not 
moved  out  direct  by  a  hand  wheel  at  the  end,  but 
through  intermediate  gears,  the  wheel  being  brought 
to  the  front,  near  the  nose,  in  order  that  the  turner 
may  have  it  conveniently  close.  Rack  and  pinion 
gear  is  also  necessary  to  move  the  massive  poppets 
along  their  beds. 

Rests.     The  hand-rest  is  used  for  wood-turning 

and  light  metal  work.     It  takes  the  form  of 

a  tee-shaped  piece  held  in  a  vertical   socket, 

by  which  the  height  is  adjusted.   The  socket 

m. 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

The  slide-rest  in  its  simplest  form  consists  of  two 
slides  superimposed,  the  top  one  travelling  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  lathe  centres,  the  lower  one  at 
right  angles  or  transversely  thereto,  constituting 


28.     CAPSTAN    FOR    SHORT    WORK 

is  clamped  to  the  bed  at  any  desired  position.  The 
rest  does  not  control  the  tool,  but  simply  supports 
it,  the  movements  being  effected  by  the  turner. 


CAPSTAN    LATHE    (Webster  &  Bennett,  Ltd.) 

what  is  termed  a  compound  rest.  Tapered  or 
bevelled  parts  are  provided  for  by  a  swivelling 
movement,  produced  by  the  top  slide  turning  on  a 
circular  face,  bolts  locking  it  thereto.  Divisions 
around  the  edge  indicate  the  amount  of  angling. 
The  slides  are  moved  along  with  screws,  working  in 
nuts  fastened  to  the  under  sides  of  each  slide. 
'Clamping  plates  and  studs  on  the  top  face  of  the 
upper  slide  hold  the  tools  in  place  firmly.  The  usual 
method  is  to  have  four  studs,  with  nuts,  and  two 
plates  ;  another  type  has  a  block  held  on  the  rest 
with  a  central  bolt,  and  the  tool  is  held  with  a 
couple  of  screws  passing  through  the  open  side  of 
the  block.  In  America,  the  single  pillar  tool-post  is 
favoured,  consisting  of  a  slotted  post,  in  which  the 
tool  is  clamped  with  a  set-screw  from'  above,  as 
seen  in  14.  A  convex  strip  lying  in  a  concave 
washer  is  also  usual ;  it  allows  of  altering  the  height 
of  the  tool  point  by  tilting,  to  bring  it  always  level 
with  the  lathe  axis. 

The  length  of  the  slides  of  the  rest  described 
above  limits  the  length  of  work  which  can  be  turned 
at  one  setting.  In  the  sliding  lathes,  the  rest  is 
enlarged  into  a  saddle  or  carriage,  which  slides  along 
the  bed  from  end  to  end  within  the  limits  imposed 
by  the  headstocks.  The  sliding  motion  is  produced 
by  a  pinion  gearing  with  a  rack  on  the  front  of  the 
bed,  the  pinion  being  rotated  by  a  handle  or  wheel. 
A  more  regular  movement  may  be  imparted  by 
power,  as  in  the  self-acting  sliding  lathes.  A  shaft 
at  the  back  or  the  front  of  the  bad  is  driven  by 
belt-cones  or  gears  from  the  headstock  spindle,  and 
communicates  varying  ratea  of  motion  to  a  worm- 
wheel  on  the  saddle,  through  the  medium  of  a  worm 
which  is  free  to  slide  over  the  splined  feed-shaft  as 
the  saddle  travels.  The  worm-wheel  operates  a 
train  of  spur  gears  ending  in  the  rack  pinion.  In 
the  self-acting  sliding  and  surfacing  lathes,  an  auto- 
matic surfacing  or  cross-feed  is  obtained  by  geara 
connected  to  the  end  of  the  cross-slide  screw. 
The  most  complete  lathes  for  sliding,  sur- 
facing, and  screw-cutting  have,  in  addition, 
a  lead-screw  driven  by  the  change  wheels  at 
definite  rates,  the  screw  communicating 
longitudinal  motion  directly  to  the  saddle 
by  a  nut,  the  clasp-nut,  so  called  because  it  can 
be  made  to  embrace  the  screw  at  will,  either  by 
forming  it  as  a  half-nut,  pushed  up  or  down  1o 
engage  with  the  threads;  or  in  two  pieces,  which  are 
opened  or  closed  upon  the  screw.  A  cam  plate  i« 
the  usual  medium  of  operation,  an  example  of  which 

4910 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

is  shown  on  page  828  |82].  The  respect  ive  posi- 
tion- of  the  lead-screw  and  the  feed-shaft  were 
forim  i  Iv  at  front  and  back  respectively  of  the  bed, 
henee  the  term  back-shaft.  The  latter  was  driven  by 
belt  from  cones  on  the  headstock.  An  increasing 
practice,  however,  now  is  to  put  the  feed-shaft  in 
front  below  the  lead-screw,  which  is  a  more  compact 
arrangement,  and  admits  of  using  a  single  set  of 
change  gears  such  as  that  in  11  for  both  screw  and 
shaft.  The  shaft  is  frequently  abolished  altogether, 
the  screw  being  splined  to  serve  the  double  purpose, 
its  feed  worm  sliding  over  the  tops  of  the  threads. 
A  siddle  combining  movements  by  lead-screw  and 
back-shaft  is  shown  in  13.  The  saddle  itself.  A,  is 
racked  along  the  bed  by  the  handle  B  rotating  a 
pinion,  C,  gearing  with  the  rack  D.  The  self-acting 
sliding  motion  is  derived  from  the  back-shaft,  E, 
rotating  the  worm,  F,  and  wheel,  G.  The  latter 
actuates  a  pinion,  H,  and  thence  a  spur,  J,  on  a  shaft 
which  runs  right  through  the  saddle,  appearing  on 
the  front  with  a  pinion,  K,  engaging  with  a  wheel,  L. 
The  last  runs  loosely,  but  may  be  locked  to  a  boss 
and  disc  keyed  on  the  rack  pinion  shaft,  by  means 
of  a  wing-nut  tightening  a  bolt  in  a  slot  running 
round  L,  so  that  the  feed  may  be  thrown  in  at  any 


LATHE  WITH  HEXAGON  HOLLOW 

(Alfred  Herbert,  Ltd.,  Coventry) 

point  of  revolution.  The  teeth  of  the  gears  are 
usually  covered  with  guards.  The  lead-screw  with 
its  clasp-nut  is  seen  at  M.  The  upper  slide,  N,  is  fed 
across  by  handle  and  screw  (not  shown) ;  it  has  a 
swivel  facing,  with  bolts  in  a  circular  tee-slot,  by 
which  the  top  slide  is  held.  This  also  has  its  screw, 
and  the  clamping  plates.  It  may  be  noted  here 
that  the  uppermost  slide  is  not  always  fitted  ;  a 
practice  which  is  very  common  in  the  United  States 
is  to  dispense  with  the  last  slide,  and  move  the 
carriage  bodily  for  feeding  to  or  from  the  headstock. 
The  form  is  then  that  in  14,  the  transverse  slide  on 
the  carriage  carrying  the  tool-post.  The  carriage 
is  seen  to  bear  on  two  vees  only,  the  central  ones 
being  reserved  for  the  poppet  to  slide  upon.  The 
front  portion  or  apron  which  hangs  down  in  front 
is  omitted  in  this  view. 

When  the  style  of  back-shaft  in  13  is  used  for 
self-acting  cross-feed,  one  of  the  spur  wheels  engages 
with  a  pinion  running  loosely  on  the  end  of  the  cross- 
feed  screw,  but  made  to  drive  the  same,  when 
desired,  by  means  of  a  friction  clutch,  a  device 
which  is  shown  on  page  961  [111]. 

When  the  feed-shaft  is  located  in  front  of  the  bed 
1hr  power  is  taken  off  by  worm  or  bevel  gears,  and 
transmitted  through  roar  gears  to  the  rack  and 
i  In:  cross-feed  screw.  These  npron  y,:<ir.<i  are  arranged 
in  a  great  many  ways  by  different  makers.  Fig.  16 
embodies  the  principal  points  which  are  found  in 
the;  majority.  The  view  i<  a  section  looking  down 

4920 


upon  the  apron  years,  the  bed.  A,  being  indicated, 
and  the  rack.  B.  dotted,  becau.se  it  lies  above  the 
mechanism  drawn.  The  feed-rod.  C  (which  lies  in 
a  plane  below  the  gears,  shown  to  the  right,  though 
drawn  as  though  all  in  one  plane),  revolves  the 
bevel  gear  sleeve,  D,  by  a  keyway  and  feather.  The 
bevels  at  each  end  of  D  may  be  slid  into  engage- 
ment by  the  knob,  E,  with  bevel,  F,  for  feeding  to 
right  or  left.  F  is  keyed  on  spur  pinion  G,  which 
rotates  the  wheel  H.  and  the  latter  is  caused  to  move 
the  pinion,  J,  when  the  friction-disc  keyed  on  the 
shaft  of  J  is  drawn  into  frictional  contact  with  H 
bythe  screw  knob  L.  The  pinion,  J,  then  turns  the 
wheel  M,  with  its  pinion,  engaging  in  the  rack.  Hand 
movement  is  effected  by  the  wheel,  N,  also  having  a 
pinion  engaging  with  M.  The  self-acting  cross 
traverse  is  produced  by  a  pinion  above  II  connecting 
it  to  another  pinion  on  the  cross-feed  screw,  the 
details  not  appearing  in  the  view. 

The  stepped  feed  cones  formerly  employed 
exclusively  for  operating  back-shafts  have  given 
place  largely  to  gear  drives,  which  are  more  power- 
ful. Changes  are  made  either  by  sliding  different 
sets  into  mesh  with  each  other,  or  by  the  use  of 
a  sliding  key,  as  in  15.  There  are  two  shafts, 

"  .    .  i    one'  -^» on  tne  enc*  of  which  a  spur 

gear  is  keyed,  and  driven  by 
others  from  the  mandrel.  Three 
pinions  are  keyed  on  the  other 
end  of  A,  and  constantly  engage 
with  three  running  loosely  on 
the  end  of  the  feed-shaft,  B. 
The  shaft  is  grooved  to  hold  a 
sliding  key  pinned  into  a  collar, 
C,  moved  by  the  handle,  D. 
When,  therefore,  the  end  of  the 
key  slips  up  into  the  keyway  in 
any  of  the  three  loose  pinions, 
that  one  starts  to  drive  the  shaft, 
B.  Three  rates  are  therefore 
obtainable  by  simply  moving  the 
handle,  and  other  different  ones 
by  substituting  fresh  gears  on 
the  left-hand  end  of  A. 

Taper=turning  Attachment.  W7e  have 
seen  that  tapered  work  may  be  produced  either  by 
swivelling  the  top  slide  of  the  rest  or  by  setting  the 
poppet  over,  the  first  for  short  tapers,  the  second  for 
long  ones.  There  is  another  device,  more  common  in 
America  than  in  England,  which  avoids  the  necessity 
of  touching  the  poppet  setting,  and  shown  in  17, 
a  view  looking  down  upon  a  14-in.  swing  Pratt  & 
Whitney  engine  lathe,  as  the  most  complete  lathes 
are  termed.  The  part  of  the  slide-rest  which  moves 
at  right  angles  across  the  carriage  has  an  extension, 
to  the  end  of  which  is  pivoted  a  block,  resting  in  a 
grooved  slide  supported  on  brackets  at  the  back  of 
the  bed.  The  screw  of  the  slide  which  carries  the 
block  is  temporarily  disconnected :  if,  therefore, 
the  grooved  slide  is  swivelled  around  to  an  angle 
with  the  lathe  axis,  the  block  in  travelling  must  be 
coerced  and  drawn  over,  pulling  the  slide  with  it 
and  so  turning  taper.  The  exact  amount  is  deter- 
mined by  the  setting,  which  is  found  by  graduations 
on  the  grooved  bar.  This  attachment  is  applied 
also  to  lathes  cutting  tapered  screws,  and  holes  may 
be  bored  taper. 

Examples  of  Lathes.  Having  pointed  out 
the  main  features  of  lathes  of  the  more  usual  types, 
vve  may  consider  the  general  build  and  the  modi- 
fications introduced  for  special  functions.  The 
types  of  lathes  run  into  many  dozens,  but  they  all 
have  something  in  common'  with  each  other.  A 
typical  English  and  an  American  lathe  are  seen  in 


TURRET 


18  and  19,  embodying  many  of  the  points  already 
discussed.  Fig.  18  is  a  gap  lathe,  and  has  lead- 
screw  and  back  -  shaft,  while  in  19  the  lead-screw 
is  splined  to  form  a  feed-shaft. 

Fig.  20  is  a  modified  type  which  in  the  carriage 
bears  some  resemblances  to  American  practice,  but 
the  lathe  is  made  massively  for  work  with  high- 
speed steels.  The  belt  cones  are  much  larger  than 
usual.  The  feed-shaft  is  below  the  lead-screw. 

For  work  which  does  not  require  the  use  of  a 
poppet — such  as  turning,  boring  and  facing  wheels, 
discs,  etc,  held  on  a  face-plate  or  chuck,  the  sur- 
facing and  boring  lathes  are  employed  [21].  There 
is  no  lead-screw,  but  a  number 
of  changes  of  feed  are  obtained 
by  gears  in  the  box  in  front  of 
the  head  and  transmitted  to 
the  saddle  by  feed-shaft.  The 
nature  of  much  of  the  work 
done  on  these  lathes  requires 
frequent  changes  of  spindle 
speed,  as  when  facing  across  a 
broad  disc.  Messrs.  Lang  & 
Sons  have  brought  out  a  new 
type  of  headstock,  in  which  a 
range  of  speeds  may  be  grad- 
ually merged  from  the  slowest 
to  the  fastest,  or  vice  versa,  by 
means  of  a  special  belt  on  ex- 
panding cones. 

Break  lathes  are  those  having 
a  large  gap,  produced  by  bolt- 
ing the  bed  separately  upon  a 
base-plate,  so  making  a  break 

in  the  continuity  of  the  surfaces.  The  base-plate 
carries  one  or  two  rests  on  pillars,  and  the  separate 
bed  also  has  rest  and  poppet.  Fly-wheels  are  typical 
of  the  class  of  work  done  in  these  lathes. 

Double  railway  wheel  lathes  are  specially  designed 
for  turning  a  pair  of  wheels  simultaneously  on  their 
axle.  Figs.  24  and  25  show  an  example  by  Messrs. 
James  Spencer  &  Co.,  of  Hollinwood.  There  are 
two  heads,  A,  B,  the  first  of  which  is  the  main  one. 
Its  stepped  cones,  C,  drive  the  pinion,  D,  and  thence 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

two  of  which  are  seen  in  front  view  in  25,  to  grip 
tyres  for  boring,  when  there  are  no  wheels  to  be 
done.  These  jaws  are  moved  radially  by  screws, 
and  clamped  with  bolts.  Several  tee-slots  are  also 
made  in  the  plate  for  holding  the  driving  pins,  II  H. 
In  order  to  accommodate  differing  lengths  of  axles, 
the  head,  B,  is  made  to  move  along  the  bed  by  rack 
and  pinion,  seen  on  the  front,  a  final  adjustment  of 
the  point  centre  being  effected  by  the  hand  wheel, 
J,  operating  gears,  and  thence  a  screw  inside  the 
cast-iron  spindle.  Axles  are  removed  by  working  J 
to  withdraw  the  centre  sufficiently.  A  crane  is,  of 
course,  necessary  to  carry  the  axles  and  wheels  to 


30.    MASSIVE 


31.   AUTOMATIC    SCREW    MACHINE 
(Alfred  Herbert,  Ltd.) 

the  spur  wheel,  E,  the  last  being  keyed  on  a  shaft 
which  runs  through  the  bed,  and  drives  each  face- 
plate, F,  G,  simultaneously  by  a  pinion  beneath 
engaging  in  rings  of  spur  teeth  on  each  plate.  By 
this  means  both  wheels  are  driven  and  no  torsion 
comes  on  the  axle,  which  simply  rests  on  the  point 
centres  fitted  to  each  face-plate.  The  wheels  are 
driven  by  pins,  H  H,  shown  on  plate  G,  and  the 
plate  F  is  also  fitted  with  four  adjustable  jaws, 


LATHE   WORKING    ON  HYDRAULIC    JACII    BODIES 
(Alfred  Herbert,  Ltd.) 

and  from  the  lathe.  The  slide-rests,  K  K,  two  in 
number  as  snown,  or  duplex,  placed  at  front  and 
back,  are  carried  by  pillars  on  sole  plates,  resting 
partly  on  an  extension  of  the  bed,  and  the  neces- 
sary movements  are  imparted  by  working  the 
upper  slides  either  by  hand  or  self-actingly.  The 
self-acting  feed  is  derived  from  a  gear,  L,  driving 
another  beneath  it,  and  thence  a  slotted  crank- 
disc,  M,  which  reciprocates  a  connecting  rod,  N, 
jointed  to  one  crossing  the  bed,  O,  and  rocking 
a  shaft,  P,  at  the  front.  Two  quadrants  or 
part  wheels,  Q  Q,  reciprocate  chains  passing  up 
over  the  wheels  on  the  slide-rest  screw  ends,  and 
ratchets  inside  these  wheels  give  the  screws  an 
intermittent  motion,  feeding  the  rests  bit  by  bit. 
This  is  a  device  much  adopted  in  other  types  of 
lathes  though  it  has  given  place  in  many  cases  to 
continuous  feeding  by  shafts  and  gears.  The  rests, 
K,  have  two  circular  swivels,  as  seen,  the  object 
being  to  leave  the  lower  one  set  for  turning  the 
tapered  treads,  while  still  being  able  to  face  straight 
across  the  sides  of  the  wheels  with  the  upper  part 
set  squarely. 

Some  lathe  wheels  have  extra  attachments  in 
the  shape  of  boring  bars  for  boring  out  the  bosses 
of  wheel  centres. 

The  crank-shaft  lathes  are  characterised  by  mas- 
siveness  and  great  length  ;  they  are  employed  for 
turning  crank  and  other  heavy  shafting,  especially 
for  marine  engines. 

A  number  of  slide-rests  are  used.  Some  crank- 
shaft lathes  have  a  couple  of  specially  narrow 
rests,  to  pass  between  the  webs  of  cranks  which 
the  ordinary  rests  could  not  reach.  In  such 
heavy  lathes  as  these,  and  other  kinds,  the  lead- 
screws  are  sometimes  non-revolving,  a  nut  being 
made  to  rotate  around  them  instead,  and  so  move 
the  saddles  along. 

Gun  lathes  have  some  points  in  common  with 
crank-shaft  lathes,  but,  in  addition,  encircling 

4921 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

steady  rests  are  necessary  to  support  the  bodies.  In 
some  the  poppet  is  not  used  at  all,  but  the  gun 
i>  supported  only  at  the  headstock  end,  with 
one  or  more  steadies  between  that  and  the 
other  end  of  the  gun.  This  permits  the  use  of  a 
boring  bar  working  at  the  free  end.  When  there 
is  a  poppet,  support  may  be  also  given  by  a 
sti-adv-rest.  A  lathe  without  poppet  is  seen 
in  22,  two  steady-rests  being  in  use,  and  the 
slide-rest  is  shown  facing  across  the  muzzle. 
Lathes  adapted  for  boring  include  an  ex- 
tended bed,  carrying  a  boring  bench,  from 
which  the  long  bar  is  supported  and  fed 
into  the  gun.  Rifling  is  also  effected  by  a  bar. 

The  lathes  previously  illustrated  have 
all  borne  some  resemblances  to  those  of 
standard  type,  which  were  exemplified  by 
18.  Treating  now  of  more  specialised 
forms,  we  find  that  considerable  differences 
occur  in  heads.  In  the  axle-turning  lathes  [23] 
the  head  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  bed  length, 
leaving  both  ends  of  the  axle  free  to  be  turned 
simultaneously,  unencumbered  by  driving  tackle. 
Two  poppets  are  necessary,  the  point  centres  of 
which  support  the  axle-ends.  One  of  these  poppets 
has  a  cross-motion  by  screw  and  handle,  in  order  to 
allow  space  for  the  endlong  withdrawal  and  inser- 
tion of  axles.  The  head  has  a  running  sleeve 
driven  by  a  train  of  spur  gears,  and  two  prongs 
standing  out  engage  with  the  carrier  bolted  on  the 
axle.  The  principle  of  such  a  head  is  shown  on 
page  829  [80].  There  is  a  crane  combined  with 
this  lathe,  to  lift  axles  in  and  out. 

Roll  turning  lathes  are  of  a  rather  plain  cha- 
racter, but  differ  from  ordinary  practice  by  having 
supports  or  bearings  in  which  the  roll  necks 


run  during  turning,  instead   of   depending  on  tha 
point  centres. 

PvUey-turning  lathes  are  employed  to  turn 
pulleys  and  wheels  after  their  bosses  have  been  bored 
out  on  some  other  machine,  the  wheel  being  than 
put  on  a  mandrel  in  the  lathe,  and  the  rim  turned 


DETAILS    OF    AUTOMATIC    WIRE    FEED 

with  a  special  slide-rest,  which  may  have  provision 
by  a  ciirved  slide  for  putting  on  the  "  crowning  " 
which  helps  to  retain  a  belt  on  a  pulley. 

The  subject  of  capstans  opens  up  a  wide  field. 
The  introduction  of  the  fitting  has  created  many 
new  types  of  lathes  and  modified  others.  It  is  a 
simple  idea,  that  of  arranging  a  set  of  tools  for  a 
given  job  on  a  revolvable  mounting,  so  that  instead 
of  having  to  loosen  bolts,  take  out  tools,  and  insert 
others  (as  in  the  ordinary  lathe)  any  tool  may  be 
brought  into  action  by  the  simple  motion  of  a  handle. 
The  usual  provision  in  capstans  (or  turrets)  is  for 
five  or  six  tools.  Some  of  square  shape  carry  four  ; 
others  of  octagonal  form  hold  eight. 

The  plainest  type  of  capstan  has  four  recesses 
or  ledges  in  which  tools  are  pinched  with  set-screws, 
the  capstan  turning 
on  a  circular  facing, 
and  being  locked  in 
either   of   the   posi- 
tions required.    Cir- 
cular capstans  have 
tool  holes  bored   in 
the  body  [26],  and 
the       shanks       are 
clamped  therein  by 
set  -  screws      from 
above.      The 
capstan     is 
mounted  on  a 
cross  -  slide 
moving  on  the 
saddle  by  the 
internal 
screw,      actu- 
ated   by    the 
h  and  -  disc 
seen,    to   feed 
the    tools    up 
to  their  work. 
The  capstan  is 
locked  in  anv 


4922 


r 

33.    VERTICAL   LATHE    OF   30-IN.    CAPACITY      (Webster  &  Bennett,  Ltd.,  Coventry) 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 


of  its  five  positions  by  notches  around  the  base  (seen 
in  the  plan  view),  the  pivoted  handle,  A,  being  pulled 
back  a  little  sufficiently  to  revolve  the  capstan  with 
the  hand,  and  then  let  go,  when  the  projection  on 
the  handle  slips  into  a  notch,  as  seen,  the  coiled 
spring  in  the  box,  B,  retaining  it  there  through  the 
pressure  of  its  plunger  on  the  end  of  A. 

A  lathe  with  capstan  similar  in  style  to  26  is  illus- 
trated in  elevation  and  end  view  in  27.  It  is  of  the 
open-spindle  design,  a  kind  that  has  long  been  in 
favour  for  producing  bolts,  studs,  screws,  pins,  etc., 
from  long  pieces  of  bar  passing  through  the  head, 
and  cut  off  as  each  piece  is  turned.  The  special 
value  of  the  long  opening  through  the  spindle,  A, 
between  the  bearings,  is  that  bolts  and  pins  with 
heads  may  be  inserted  and  pushed  into  the  grip- 
ping chuck  at  the  nose,  the  opening  forming  a 
space  for  the  head  which  is  not  obtainable  in 
ordinary  bar  chucks  unless  the  jaws  are  made  to 
open  widely.  The  chuck  of  A  is  tightened  or 
loosened  with  a  large  spanner  on  the  outside,  the 
bar  being  gripped  with  taper-body  jaws  closed  in 
by  the  action  of  the  nut. 

The  spindle  is  locked  during  the  use  of  the 
spanner  by  handle,  B.  Driving  is  effected  by  the 
four-speed  belt  cone,  C.  The  self-acting  movement 
of  the  saddle  is  produced  by  belt  from  the  small 
pulley,  D  driving  E,  the  latter  transmitting  motion 
to  the  feed-shaft,  F,  through  the  box  of  change-gears 
interposed,  giving  three  changes,  by  the  handle,  G. 
The  shaft,  F,  turns  a  sliding  worm  in  the  box  on 
the  saddle,  rotating  a  worm-wheel  on  the  rack  pinion 
shaft.  Hand  movement  is  effected  by  a  handle  on 
the  squared  end  of  the  worm  and  rack  pinion  shaft, 
the  feed  being  thrown  out  of  action  by  the  small 
cross-handle  seen.  Adjustable  stops  are  mounted 
on  a  bar,  H,  to  arrest  the  travel  of  the  saddle  at 
predetermined  points  for  repetition  work.  There  is  a 
die-head  at  the  back  of  the  saddle,  that  may  be 
thrown  back  out  of  the  way  when  not  required  for 
screwing  bolts,  etc. 

The  capstan  in  these  illustrations  is  what  may 
be  termed  the  "  side-set  "  type,  because  it  is  placed 
in  front  of  the  work,  and  presents  tools  in  holders 
resembling  those  used  in  the  ordinary  slide-rest.  As 
there  is  no  support  to  the  bar  away  from  the 
chuck,  it  is  impossible  to  turn  a  long  piece  without 
it  springing  even  if  a  poppet  is  used.  But  with 
another  kind  of  capstan  which  is  centrally  set  in  line 
with  the  lathe  axis,  lengths  of  several  feet  may  be 
turned,  because  the  bar  passes  right  through  the 


35.     HEAVY    VERTICAL    LATHE    FOR    30  FT.     DIAMETER 
John  Hetherinyton  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  Manchester 


34.     VERTICAL    LATHE    WITH   TWO    TOOL   SLIDES 
(George  Richards  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Broadheath) 

turret,  and  is  steadied  by  guides  combined  with  the 
tools — box  tools.  For  such  long  movements  it  is 
clearly  impossible  to  have  a  central  bolt  standing 
up  in  the  turret  centre,  as  in  26,  and  a  sort  of  turn- 
table device  is  therefore  adopted,  leaving  an  open 
area  inside  the  turret. 

When  the  length  of  work  is  short  enough  to  allow 
of  a  central  bolt  standing  up,  the  construction 
shown  in  28  is  followed.  The  base  portion,  A,  is 
clamped  to  the  bed,  and  the  slide,  B,  moved  up  to 
and  back  from  the  headstock  by  the  pivoted 
handle,  C ;  the  stop-screw,  D,  at  the  rear  arrests 
the  movement  positively.  The  capstan,  is  not 
revolved  and  locked  separately,  but  time  is  saved 
by  making  the  backward  travel  perform  the  part 
rotation.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  plan  view,  in 
part  section,  that  a  ratchet  is  placed  in  the  capstan 
base  ;  one  of  the  teeth  strikes  against  the  lever.  E, 
pivoted  in  the  base,  A,  and  thus  forces  the  capstan 
to  make  a  part  revolution.  A  locking  plunger,  F, 
is  drawn  out  of  one  of  the  notches  seen  in  the 
capstan  before  the  revolution,  and  thrust  into 
the  next  notch  as  it  comes  round.  A  gib  strip  is 
laid  alongside  F  to  take  up  its  slack  when  wear 
develops.  The  tool  shanks  are  not  held  in  the 
capstan  by  plain  set- 
screws,  but  by  pads 
and  bolts,  as  shown  in 
the  detail  G.  The 
shank  is  gripped  be- 
tween the  concave 
edges  of  the  bolt  and 
its  pad  without  any 
damage  being  caused 
to  the  surfaces. 

A  lathe  (by  the 
makers  of  28)  with 
hexagon  hollow  turret 
is  illustrated  in  29. 
The  saddle  is  moved 
along  the  bed  by  the 
large  cross-handle  at 
the  front,  or  by  power 
from  the  gear-box  in 
front  of  the  headstock. 
The  headstock  is  un- 
like any  we  have 
shown,  the  various 

4923 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

speed  changes     being  derived  from  toothed  gears      driven  from    the  cone  pulley,  B.     The  handle,  C, 
inside  the  casing,  there  being  only  one  belt  pulley.      moves   clutches    to    obtain  ^two   different,  speed 
The  chuck  on  the  spindle  nose  is  opened  and  closed 
by  the  lever  while  the  lathe    is  running.     The  tray 
and  oil  guards  in  it  may  be  noted. 

A    more    massive    type   of   lathe   [30]    is   shown 
working  on  forged  steel  hydraulic  jack  bodies,  the 


turret  carrying  boring  and  facing  tools,   and  the 

cross  -    slide 

facing     tools 

on    a  square 

turret. 

Turret 
lathes  which 
carry  throngh 
their  opera- 
tions without 
attendance 
are  termed 
full  automa- 
tics, to  dis- 
tinguish them 
from  «ewzi-automatics. 
machine  is 


4-JAW    CHUCK 


Automatic  screw- 
more  specific  term,  because 
screws  and  bolts  were  the  primary  objects 
produced  at  first,  though  the  scope  has  been 
much  extended.  The  various  motions  are 
effected  by  cams,  usually  on  drums  and 
discs  beneath  the  framing  [31]  operating 
pins  and  levers  to  open  the  chuck,  feed  the 
bar  forward,  grip  it,  work  the  turret  and 
the  cross-slides,  and  in  some  cases  to  chuck 
separate  castings  in  succession,  all  auto- 
matically. The  cam  strips  seen  on  the  large 
drums  are  bolted  down  at  various  angles  [see 
pages  4323  and  4324]  so  that  as  the  drums 
revolve  the  strips  coerce  the  operating  pins  _ 
projecting  down  below  the  head  and  the  t 
turret  slide. 

The  feeding  and  chucking  mechanism  of 
automatics,  termed  wire-feed  (also  fitted  to 
hand  capstan  lathes),  includes  a  split,  springy 
nose  [A,  32],  which,  when  pushed  outwards, 
closes  in  and  grips  the  bar  inside  it.  The 
end  motion  is  given  by  a  cam  strip  (not  shown) 
on  the  drum,  B,  pushing  slide,  C,  along,  with  it 
the  circular  sleeve,  D,  so  thrusting  apart  the 
toggle  levers,  E,  and  making  their  other  ends  thrust 
the  tube  of  A  along.  The  feeding  forward  of  the 
bar  is  effected  by  the  split  tube,  F,  which  grips  the 
bar  with  sufficient  friction  to  move  it  forward  when 
the  chuck  is  opened.  F  is  slid  by  the  slide,  G,  at 
the  end,  also  actuated  by  a  cam  strip.  In  hand- 
operated  feeds,  the  places  of  C  and  G  are  occupied 
by  differently  designed  fittings,  slid  by  levers.  The 
spindle,  as  shown,  has  three  pulleys,  one  central  fast 
one  and  two  side  loose  ones,  having  reverse  belts, 
either  of  which  may  run  on  the  central  pulley  to 
drive  it  in  one  or  another  direction. 

A  class  of  lathe  which  usually  includes  a  turret 
is  the  chasing  lathe,  that  cuts  screws  by  the  use  of 
a  hob  —  a  short  s?rew  —  moving  the  nut  of  the  slide- 
rest. 

Boring  and  turning  mills,  or  vertical  lathes, 
h.ivr  the  advantages  arising  from  the  horizontal 
position  of  their  tables.  A  mill  of  30-in.  capacity 
in  diameter  is  illustrated  [33]  to  show  the  essential 
points  of  such  machines.  The  table,  A,  has  a  large 
t.i]KT  spindle,  and  it  runs  upon  an  annular  ring 


A  brake,  D,  arrests  the  table  quickly  by  hand,  to 
examine  work.  E  is  an  alternative  style  of  table 
with  loose  jaws.  The  turret  head  slide  has  cross 
and  down  feed  derived  from  the  pulley,  F,  which 
is  belted  up  to  a  cone,  G,  whence  a  train  of 
gears  connect  to  the  screw,  H,  for  cross-traverse, 
and  the  splined  shaft,  ,J,  for  down  feed,  produced 
through  gears  inside  the  turret  slide.  The  latter 
can  be  swivelled  for  tapered  turning  or  boring. 
The  worm-wheels,  K  K,  are  for  throwing  out  the 
feed  motions  at  any  desired  point ;  these  wheels 
are  rotated  slowly  by  worms  on  the  feed  rod  and 
shaft,  and  have  dogs  clamped  to  their  faces  by 
circular  tee-grooves.  The  dogs  are  set  to  strike 
the  levers,  L  L,  at  a  certain  point  of  the  rotation, 
and  so  to  throw  out  clutches  on  the  rod  and  screw, 
stopping  their  action.  The  entire  slide  is  counter- 
balanced by  the  weight  and  chains  seen. 

A  mill  with  two  tool-slides,  not  having  capstans, 
is  shown  in  34.  The  balancing  of  the  tool  rams 
is  by  enclosed  springs,  obviating  the  use  of 
the  rather  clumsy  chain  and  weight  device. 
A  mill  of  the  heaviest  class,  taking  30  ft. 
diameter  [35],  involves  a  large,  amount  of 
work  which  is  not  visible,  being  below  the 
ground  level.  The  table  normally  runs  on 
an  annular  path  of  nearly  the  full  diameter, 
but  a  footstep  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  spindle,  and  a  screw  device  is  fitted 
to  raise  the  weight  of  the  table  off  the 
large  path  and  take  it  on  the  small  step, 
which  results  in  easier  and  lighter  running 
for  trial  chuckings  and  light  boring. 

We  have  noted  several  chucks  incidentally 
in  the  various  lathes.  When  the  chuck  is 
made  separately,  to  screw  on  to  the  spindle 
nose,  it  is  usually  of  the  four-jaw  pattern 
[36],  with  the  jaws  moved  radially  by  square- 
threaded  screws,  and  clamped  by  nuts  and 
washers  on  the  back  when  the  work  is  set 
truly.  The  jaws  are  moved  independently, 
and  circles  are  scribed  on  the  chuck  face 
to  set  approximately  by.  Self-centring  chucks  have 
all  the  jaws  moved  simultaneously,  of  which  37  (by 
Charles  Taylor, 
Birmingham)  is 
an  example. 
The  three  ja-ws 
are  operated  by  _] 
threads  on  their 
backs,  moved  by 
a  ring  having  a 
set  of  spiral 
grooves  radiat- 
ing from  the 
centre.  One  of  three  bevel  pinions  is  turned  by  a 
square-hole  handle  to  revolve  the  spiral  ring.  Both 
independent  and  concentric  motions  are  included 
in  some  chucks.  Another  important  accessory  to 
the  lathe  is  the  Clements  driver  [38],  an  im- 
provement on  the  single  pin  driver  plate,  shown 
in  8,  which  bears  only  on  one  side  of  the  carrier 
on  the  work,  resulting  in  unequal  pressure.  The 
equalising  driver  here  shown  consists  of  a  loose 
plate,  A,  held  against  the  face  or  catch- plate,  B,  by 
a  couple  of  bolts,  C  C,  fitting  in  slots  in  A.  Driver 
pins,  D  D,  are  screwed  into  A,  two  sets  of  holes  of 


CLEMENTS      DKIVER 


bearing  close  up  under  the  face-plate  or  chuck.     A  different  radii  being  available!     As  the  pins,  D  D, 

spur-wheel,  th.3  bottom  of  which  forms  the  running  " -~A~ A~-i  —  -il-    "--  '       *  Jl 

portion,  rotates  the  table,  being  actuated  from  the 
train    of   gears    seen    inside    the    frame,    primarily 


4924 


into  contact  with  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
carrier  the  plate  A  slips  until  they  bea^  and  drive 
with  equal  pressure. 

Continued 


HOW  TO  BECOME  A  FORESTER 

Forest  Pests  and  How  to  Fight  Them.     Forestry  as  an  Industry. 
Wood  Pulp.     Theoretical  and  Practical  Training.     Best  Books 


Group  23 

APPLIED 

BOTANY 

5 

FORESTRY 

continued  from 
page  46SO 


By   HAROLD    C.    LONG 


UN] 


FDER  the  term  forest  pests  it  will  be  con- 
venient to  consider  several  agencies  which 
are  deleterious  to  forest  trees,  and  not  only  such 
of  them  as  insects  and  fungi.  Among  these 
agencies  wind,  snow,  frost,  fire,  domestic  and 
wild  animals,  birds,  weeds,  insects,  and  fungi 
may  be  included.  All  these  have  a  very  great 
influence  on  the  success  or  failure  of  the  forest 
to  produce  good  timber  ;  and,  while  the  damage 
wrought  by  the  two  last  is  generally  admitted 
to  be  the  most  serious,  yet  that  due  to  the 
other  agencies  is  frequently  enormous. 

Wind.  Very  considerable  harm  is  often 
done  in  positions  where  the  full  force  of  high 
winds  is  felt,  whole  plantations  being  at  times 
razed  to  the  ground  by  almost  cyclonic  force. 
In  very  exposed  situations  storm- firm  species 
should  be  planted  ;  deep  and  shallow  rooted 
species  may  be  intermixed  ;  and  shelter-belts 
may  be  employed,  these  being  left  when  the 
wood  is  cut  over,  the  trees  thus  becoming 
hardened  and  adapted  to  their  environment. 
Or  the  system  may  be  such  that  the  successive 
cuttings  are  arranged  to  take  place  towards  the 
direction  from  which  the  prevailing  storms  come, 
the  tops  of  the  trees  then  forming  a  kind  of 
inclined  plane  over  which  the  wind  may  sweep. 

Snow.  In  countries  where  heavy  falls  of 
enow  are  experienced,  snow  lodging  on  the  trees 
in  masses  may  do  great  damage  by  breaking 
branches,  and  by  bending  and  breaking  the 
tops,  especially  in  the  case  of  comparatively 
young  conifers.  Intermixing  the  species  may 
help  somewhat  in  obviating  trouble. 

Frost.  Intense  frost  may  cause  longitu- 
dinal cracks  in  the  stem,  often  extending  deeply 
into  the  tree  ;  and  small  plants  may,  in  light 
soils,  be  lifted  almost  out  of  the  ground  by 
expansion  of  the  absorbed  water,  falling  over 
when  thaw  supervenes.  In  nurseries  a  covering 
of  leaves  may  wevent  very  considerable  damage  ; 
damp  soils  s<  juld  be  drained;  and  nurses  of 
hardy  species,  for  example,  birch,  may  be  estab- 
lished for  tender  species. 

Fire.  Fires  are  chiefly  caused  by  railway  loco- 
motives, careless  throwing  down  of  matches,  and 
camp  fires.  Surface  fires,  where  litter,  bushes, 
etc.,  are  concerned,  may  often  be  beaten  out 
with  green  branches  ;  while  crown  fires,  which 
are  often  due  to  surface  fires,  may  be  arrested 
by  cutting  or  felling  a  belt  of  trees  across  which 
the  fire  cannot  pass.  In  some  countries — for 
example,  the  United  States — enormous  damage 
is  sometimes  done  by  fire.  The  great  fire  of 
Minnesota,  in  1904,  destroyed  a  huge  tract  of 
country,  including  seven  towns  ;  many  lives  were 
lost,  and  the  damage  caused  was  estimated  at 
some  five  millions  sterling. 


Weeds.  Weeds  of  all  descriptions  should 
be  allowed  no  place  in  a  forest,  as  they  do 
considerable  harm  by  hindering  natural  regenera- 
tion, while  they  aid  in  preventing,  percolation  of 
water,  hinder  the  growth  of  young  trees,  and 
harbour  injurious  animals  and  insects.  Under 
a  good  forest  cover,  where  the  soil  is  little 
exposed,  weeds  will  be  kept  in  check. 

Animals.  In  the  past  it  may  be  said  that 
woodlands  have,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  been 
looked  upon  more  as  game  preserves  than  as 
anything  in  the  nature  of  timber  producers. 
This  position  must  be  abandoned  before  the  best 
results  can  be  obtained.  Rabbits,  hares,  and 
deer,  all  do  much  harm  by  "  barking  "  trees, 
etc.,  as  also  do  squirrels,  which  frequently 
completely  girdle  young  top  shoots,  which,  in 
consequence,  die  off.  Black  game  and  pigeons 
are  also  injurious,  the  former  nipping  out  the 
buds  of  conifers  and  the  latter  breaking  off  the 
leading  shoots  of  spruce.  Small  birds  may 
occasion  loss  in  the  nursery.  Most  birds  are, 
however,  useful  to  forestry  owing  to  the  fact 
that  they  devour  insects. 

Insect  Pests.  A  large  number  of  insects 
are  injurious  to  forest  trees,  the  most  harmful 
of  all  being  those  which  attack  conifers.  In 
the  United  States  of  America  it  has  been  esti- 
mated that  the  average  annual  loss  due  to  insect 
pests  of  the  forest  approaches  £20,000,000 
sterling.  Damage  may  consist  in  defoliation  of 
trees,  spoliation  of  buds,  and  injury  to  the  bark 
and  timber,  and  by  such  means  the  increment 
of  the  wood  is  interfered  with  even  if  the  trees  be 
not  killed,  as  they  too  frequently  are.  Let  us  con- 
sider some  typical  species  of  injurious  insects. 

The  Cockchafer.  Not  only  to  farm 
crops  but  also  to  forest  trees  cockchafers  are 
exceedingly  harmful.  The  cockchafer  (Melolon- 
tha  vulgaris)  is  assisted  by  the  summer  chafer 
(Rhizotrogus  solstitialis)  and  the  garden  chafer 
(Phyllopertha  horticola)  in  its  work  of  destruc- 
tion. In  the  Jarval  stage  they  are  known  as 
"'  white  grubs,"  and  feed  at  and  damage  the 
roots  of  almost  all  kinds  of  crops  and  small 
forest  plants,  thus  retarding  the  growth  of 
the  plants  or  killing  them.  The  life  history 
extends  over  three  or  four  years,  during  most  of 
which  time  they  are  feeding  as  grubs.  In  the 
mature,  or  beetle,  state,  also,  they  are  still  harm- 
ful, feeding  on  the  leaves  of  forest  trees,  par- 
ticularly the  broad-leaved  species.  The  foliage 
is  much  damaged  and  the  trees  are  sometimes 
quite  stripped.  Young  oaks  and  pine  trees  often 
suffer  severely.  In  England  this  insect  is  a 
pest  in  nurseries  but  does  little  damage  to  trees 
in  plantations.  [See  NATURAL  HISTORY  and 
PLATE  facing  page  3361.] 

4925 


APPLIED  BOTANY 

The  beetle  [10]  is  about  one  inch  in  length, 
and  when  at  rest  presents  a  reddish -brown  appear- 
ance. The  whitish  fleshy  grubs  are  over  an  inch 
long,  and  when  fully  grown  have  three  pairs  of 
legs,  and  strong,  biting  jaws.  The  chief  method 
of  destroying  the  pest  is  by  collecting  the  beetles, 
as  is  done  on  the  Continent,  where  they  are  paid 
for  at  the  rate  of  about  6d.  to  Is.  per  bushel.  The 
larvse  also  may  bo  trapped  by  laying  on  the 
ground  pieces  of  turf,  grass  downwards,  the  grubs 
collecting  beneath.  The  beetles  are  eaten  by 
fowls  and  nightjars,  while  starlings,  rooks,  and 
plovers  are  very  partial  to  the  white  grubs. 

Large  Pine  Weevil.  The  very  harmful 
beetle  the  large  Pine  Weevil  (Hylobius  Metis) 
lays  eggs  on  stumps,  in  which  the  resulting  larvae 
soon  burrow,  the  mature  beetles  coming  forth 
during  the  following  summer,  and  gnawing  off 
the  soft  and  young  bark  of  the  Scots  fir,  larch, 
spruce,  etc.,  quite  young  plants  being  attacked. 
The  beetle  [9]  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  and 
dark  brown  in  colour  with  white  markings. 
Protective  methods  consist  in  the  removal  of 
stumps  and  roots,  which  may  be  burned  with 
all  rubbish.  Plants  of  mixed  species  may  be  used 
for  planting.  Destructive  methods  consist  in 
sticking  in  the  ground  young  branches  and  poles 
of  pine  and  spruce  in  full  sap,  or  laying  down 
pieces  of  the  bark  outside  upwards.  The  former 
will  be  used  for  egg-laying,  while  the  beetles 
will  collect  under  the  latter  for  feeding.  The 
branches  may  be  burned,  and  the  beetles  under 
the  bark  destroyed.  Newly-felled  areas  may  be 
separated  from  newly-planted  areas  by  trenches 
of  a  foot  in  depth.  Although  they  can  fly  over, 
the  beetles  are  sluggish,  and  many  will  fall  into 
the  trenches  in  crawling,  and  may  be  de- 
stroyed, 

Pine  Beetle.  Pine  beetles  (Hylurgua  pini- 
perda)  bore  galleries  between  the  bark  and  the 
wood  in  the  stems  and  larger  branches  of  Scots 
and  other  pines,  eggs  being  laid  on  dead  or  dying 
trees  when  possible,  the  resulting  larvae  boring 
in  the  inner  bark.  After  pupating  there,  the 
beetles  eat  their  way  to  the  exterior,  and  when 
many  beetles  are  present  the  bark  of  the  trees 
may  have  the  appearance  of  being  "  shot-holed." 
Mature  beetles  [8]  now  pass  to  the  young 
shoots  of  pines,  and  bore  their  way  up  these, 
eating  the  pith,  and  causing  the  shoots  to  break 
off  or  die,  this  being  the  chief  cause  of  damage. 
Sickly  trees  should  be  removed.  Trees  felled 
in  autumn  and  winter  should  be  left  until  near 
the  end  of  May,  when,  if  they  are  barked,  all 
larvae  between  the  bark  and  wood  are  destroyed. 
Traps  of  poles,  employed  from  February  to 
September,  will  attract  the  insects  for  egg-laying, 
and  the  bark  may  be  burned.  The  beetle  is 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  almost 
black  in  colour. 

Pine  Sawfly.  The  larvae  of  the  Pine 
Sawfly  (Lophyrus  pini),  as  well  as  those  of  its 
relative,  the  Fox  Pine  Sawfly  (L.  rufus)  do 
enormous  damage  to  young  pines,  the  needles 
being  ea.u-n.  and  t  h<-  hark  on  shoots  being  gnawed 
away  [12].  The  larvae  feed  during  June  and  July, 
and  a  second  brood  perhaps  in  autumn.  They 
]<-rmbK>  the  caterpillars  of  moths  and  butter- 

4920 


flies,  but  bear  twenty-two  legs.  They  are  green 
in  colour  with  black  eyes.  As  the  larvae  occur 
in  groups  they  may  be  destroyed  by  crushing,  or 
they  may  be  .jarred  off  the  trees  on  to  boughs 
spread  beneath,  and  then  burnt.  Spraying 
ornamental' trees  with  lead  arsenate,  or  hellebore, 
will  quickly  destroy  the  caterpillars.  In  large 
woods  (it  is  recorded  that  in  one  instance  2,000 
acres  were  invaded)  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
cope  with  the  pests,  but  all  leaves,  moss,  and 
rubbish  beneath  the  trees  and  containing  the 
cocoons  may  be  collected  and  destroyed. 

Oak  Leaf=roller  Moth.  The  little  Oak 
Leaf -roller  moth  (Tortrix  viridana)  lays  eggs  on 
oak  trees,  and  the  resulting  greenish  caterpillars, 
about  half  an  inch  long,  destroy  the  leaves,  rolling 
them  up  characteristically  [11.]  The  loss  of 
leaves  causes  a  loss  in  timber  production. 

Spruce  and  Larch  Aphides.  Among 
the  aphides,  or  plant-lice,  one  of  the  most  harm- 
ful is  the  species  which  infests  the  spruce  and 
larch  [14].  The  life  history  of  these  little  creatures 
is  somewhat  complex,  but  it  may  be  noted  that, 
piercing  the  young  twigs  of  the  spruce,  Chermes 
abietis  gives  rise  to  galls,  from  which  a  generation 
may  issue  and  fly  to  the  larch,  when  the  aphides 
are  known  as  Chermes  laricis.  These  pierce  the 
needles  and  suck  the  juices,  and  the  trees  appear 
as  though  lightly  besprinkled  with  snow. 
Much  damage  is  done,  the  needles  become 
"  kneed,"  and  weakening  of  the  trees  may 
culminate  in  their  death.  Much  good  may  be 
done  by  spraying  infested  trees  with  soap  and 
paraffin  emulsion,  but  this  can  hardly  be  carried 
out  on  a  large  scale. 

Other  Insect  Pests.  Many  other  insects 
are  very  harmful  to  forest  trees,  and  amongst 
these  it  may  be  mentioned  here  that  the  Pine 
Shoot  Moth  (Retinia  buoliana)  hollows  out  and 
damages  the  leading  shoots  of  Scots  pine ;  the 
larvae  of  the  Giant  Wood- wasp  (Sirex  gigas)  live 
in  and  tunnel  the  timber  of  pines ;  the  large 
caterpillars  of  the  Goat  Moth  (Cossus  ligniperda) 
tunnel  the  stems  of  many  broad-leaved  species 
(elm,  ash,  beech,  etc.),  rendering  the  wood 
useless  as  timber ;  and  the  minute  Felted  Beech 
Coccus  (Cryptococcus  jagi)  is  most  destructive 
to  the  beech,  the  bark  being  pierced  and  the 
juices  sucked. 

It  should  be  noticed  also  that  many  insects 
are  useful  to  the  forester,  owing  to  their  habit  of 
preying  on  injurious  species,  aiiv!  among  them 
certain  lady-birds  (Coccinellidae),  species  of 
Ichneumon  flies,  Clems  formicarius,  and  the 
genus  Rhizophagus,  are  of  much  value.  [See 
NATURAL  HISTORY.] 

Fungous  Pests.  Many  fungi  greatly  affect 
the  forester,  some  attacking  the  base  of  the  stem 
and  the  root  system,  others  the  main  stem  and 
branches,  and  others  the  leaves.  While  the 
most  important  species  are  to  be  found  among 
fungi  which  attack  conifers ;  yet  many  are  :n- 
jurious  to  broad-leaved  species.  The  following 
are  typical  examples  of  injurious  fungi : 

Larch  Canker.  The  terrible  scourge  Larch 
Canker  (Dasyscypha  calycina  or  Peziza  Will- 
kommii)  is  one  of  the  most  harmful  of  fungi, 
and  is  much  feared.  It  occurs  almost  wherever  the 


WOOD  ATTACKED  BY  il1 
ROT  -THE  WHITER  \\ 
PARTS  DESTROYED 


INSECT    AND  FUNGOUS    PESTS 

8.  Pine  Peetle  (Hylurgus  piniperda)        9.   Large  Pine  Weevil  (Hylobius  abietis)         10.  Cockchafer  (Melolontha  vulgarit 
1 1 .  Oak  Leaf -roller  Moth  (Tortrix  viridana)      1 2.   Pine  Sawfly  (Lophyt  us  pini)        13.  Larch  Canker  (Dasysciipha  calycina) 
14.  Spruce  Gall  Aphis   (Chermes  abietis)      15.  Root  Rot  (Trametes  radiciperda)        16.  Piue  Blister  .Peridermium  pini) 
17.  Seedling  Mildew  (Phrjtophthora    omnivora) 

4927 


APPLIED    BOTANY 

larch  is  found.  The  stem  and  branches  are 
attacked,  most  harm  being  done  to  seedlings  and 
young  trees  [13J.  The  disease,  according  to 
'•  Diseases  of  Forest  Trees,"  published  by  the 
Bpard  of.  Agriculture  in  1905,  is  "  caused  by  a 
minute  cup-shaped  fungus,  which  acts  as  a  wound 
parasite,  gaining  an  entrance  into  the  tree 
through  minute  fissures  in  the  bark,  caused  by 
late  spring  frosts,  or  through  the  punctures  made 
by  the  larch  aphis  (Chermes  laricis)"  Trees  are 
killed  when  ringed  by  the  fungus.  Damp,  low- 
lying  situations  should  be  avoided.  Larch  aphis 
should  be  suppressed.  Diseased  trees  should  be 
felled  and  burned.  Pure  larch  woods  must  be 
avoided.  A  system  of  combating  this  disease 
which  promises  to  provide  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  difficulty  is  described  in  the  "Journal  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  "  for  March,  1906. 

Root  Rot.  The  base  of  the  stem  and  the  root 
system  of  conifers  are  attacked  by  Root  Rot 
(Tramstes  radicipsrda)  [15].  Massee  says  that  it 
is  probably  the  most  destructive  of  fungi  attack- 
ing coniferous  trees,  and  that  as  the  disease  may 
spread  by  contagion  by  the  roots,  "diseased 
trees  should  be  removed  at  once,  and  the  site 
isolated  by  a  narrow  trench,  taking  care  to  in- 
clude within  the  trench  all  roots  of  the  diseased 
tree."  Perhaps  the  best  plan  is  to  plant  broad- 
leaved  trees  where  attacked  conifers  have  left 
blanks. 

Pine  Blister,  or  Conifer  Rust.  The  leaves 
alone  may  be  attacked  by  Pine  Blister  (Perider- 
mium  pini),  when  the  injury  will  be  negligible,  or 
the  branches  or  upper  part  of  the  stem  may  be 
infested,  the  disease  finally  reaching  the  wood, 
in  which  case  the  upper  branches  die,  giving  rise 
to  "resin-top"  or  "blister."  As  the  fungus 
passes  one  stage  on  the  leaves  of  Groundsel 
(Senecio  vulgaris]  and  Ragwort  (8.  Jacobcea) 
these  weeds  should  be  kept  down.  Affected 
trees  should  be  cut  down.  Various  pines  are 
attacked  [16]. 

Seedling  Mildew.  Seedlings  of  various 
trees  are  frequently  attacked  by  a  disease  com- 
monly known  as  "damping  off."  Beech  seed- 
lings are  especially  liable  to  be  attacked  by  this 
mildew  (Phytophtlwra  omnivora),  which  causes 
the  young  plants  to  rot  off  near  the  base  of  the 
stem  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  [17J.  Diseased 
plants  should  at  once  be  removed  and  destroyed, 
and  the  beds  sprayed  with  a  Bordeaux  mixture 
of  half  the  ordinary  strength  (2  lb.  copper  sul- 
phate, and  1  Jb.  quicklime,  in  20  gallons  of  water). 
Seedlings  should  be  grown  in  open  situations, 
and  not  damp,  sunless  po  iitions,  for,  as  the  name 
implies,  the  disease  is  favoured  by  damp. 

Other  Fungous  Pests.  Other  fungi, 
al  o.  are  very  injurious,  such  as  Heart-wood  rot 
(Polyp&nu  vulph-urewt}  Avhich  attacks  all  our 
forest  trees  ;  Tinder  fungus  (Fomes  fomen- 
tariiis),  a  large  "  bracket-like  "  fungus  especially 
found  on  beech  ;  Honey  agaric  (Agctricus  nu'l- 
leus),  which  proves  fatal  to  both  old  and  young 
treee,  especially  Scots  pine  and  spruce;  the 
\<-i-dl«'-r;licd(ling  fungus  (Hyxterium  pinastri), 
which  does  great  damage  to  Scots  pine  by  causing 
the  needles  of  the  young  plant  to  fall,  and  many 
others. 

4928 


Forestry  and  Industry.  Though  it 
must  be  freely  conceded  that  under  the  com- 
prehensive study  of  forestry  such  questions  as 
landscape  forestry,  the  influence  of  forestry 
on  climate,  prevention  of  erosion  and  avalanches 
and  so  on,  all  fall  to  be  considered,  it  is 
as  an  industry  that  forestry  is  especially  dealt 
with  in  this  course.  As  has  been  shown,  not  only 
are  well-managed  forest  lands  profitable  to  the 
owners,  but  in  large  forest  districts  minor 
industries  spring  up,  and  give  rise  to  the  profit * 
able  employment  of  great  numbers  of  rural 
workers.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  timber 
trade,  in  which  so  many  capable  men  are  profit- 
ably employed  in  Great  Britain,  the  manufac- 
ture of  wooden  utensils,  and  so  forth,  other 
industries  depend  to  an  enormous  extent  on  the 
production  of  good  timber  of  a  certain  class. 
The  beech  woods  of  the  Chilterri  hills  gave  rise 
to  a  chair  industry  which  led  to  the  employment 
of  thousands  of  men.  Artificial  horsehair  and 
yarn,  oxalic  acid,  acetic  acid  and  othei  products 
are  valuable  articles  prepared  from  timber.  An 
excellent  artificial  silk,  not  so  elastic  and  strong 
as  the  real  material,  but  equal  to  it  in  lustre,  can 
be  prepared  from  the  cellulose  made  from  spruce 
timber. 

Wood=pulp.  An  example  of  an  important 
industry  is  papermaking  from  wood-pulp,  which 
is  dealt  with  in  the  course  on  PAPER  AND  PAPER- 
MAKING.  In  1903,  Great  Britain  imported 
576,153  tons  of  wood-pulp  of  the  value  of 
£2,506,583,  by  far  the  larger  proportion  coming 
from  Scandinavia.  Not  only  is  wood-pulp 
utilised  for  the  production  of  coarse  grades  of 
pasteboard,  but  mechanically  prepared  pulp  is 
chiefly  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  inferior 
grades  of  paper.  The  trees  most  suitable  to 
pulp  making  are  young  trees  of  about  20 
years  old,  and  6  in.  to  20  in.  in  diameter  at  the 
base.  Soft,  coniferous  woods  are  most  suitable 
for  the  chemical  process,  the  species  chiefly 
used  in  Europe  being  spruce  and  silver  .fir,  while 
for  the  production  of  mechanical  pulp,  these  two 
species  are  used,  together  with  ash,  birch,  and 
poplar.  The  cost  of  the  wood  required  for  the 
production  of  one  ton  of  dry  pulp  is  estimated  at 
13s.  6d.  to  22s.  in  Canada,  and  25s.  to  30s.  in 
East  Norway,  while  the  net  cost  of  producing 
wet  pulp  (the  values  being  expressed  per  ton 
of  dry  material)  is  estimated  at  £1  17s.  6d.  to 
£2  10s.  in  Canada,  and  £3  in  modern  Norwegian 
mills,  or  5s.  less  in  Sweden.  It  is  also  stated  that 
on  a  fair  estimate  the  daily  requirements  of  a 
large  London  paper  would  represent  about  10 
acres  of  an  average  forest. 

How  to  Become  a  Forester.  Whether 
it  is  worth  while  becoming  a  forester  or  not  will 
depend  on  several  matters,  and  not  the  least  on 
the  inclination  of  the  student  for  the  work  to  be 
undertaken,  and  upon  the  ultimate  end  he  has  in 
view.  In  Germany,  the  excellent  schools  enable 
the  students  to  get  a  good  grasp  of  their  subject, 
but  upward  progress  is  slow,  high  rank  in  the 
forest  service  being  in  general  attained  only  after 
long  years  of  hard  and  faithful  work.  In  Great 
Britain,  such  training  as  is  given  on  the  Continent 
is  unobtainable,  but  forestry  education  is  rapidly 


improving,  and  more  teachers  will  almost  cer- 
tainly be  in  demand  within  the  next  few  years, 
while  skilled  and  competent  men  will,  no  doubt,  be 
required  to  supervise  private  and  other  planting. 
The  Indian  Forest  Service  is  also  attractive,  and 
has  within  the  last  year  or  so  had  to  refuse  the  loan 
of  officers  to  other  States,  owing  to  the  short- 
handedness  of  the  staff,  while  men  appear  to  be 
in  requisition  in  Africa,  Ceylon,  Siam,  and  various 
Colonies.  For  the  youth  fresh  from  a  good  school 
or  for  the  young  man  at  college,  who  is  able 
to  devote  a  year  or  two  to  practical  training, 
it  may  be  said  that  forestry  offers  plenty  of 
.'  cope  for  obtaining  a  livelihood.  Remembering 
what  we  have  seen  above,  as  to  the  importance 
of  our  subject  in  all  parts  of  the  world ;  in 
view  also  of  the  fact  that  capable  forest  officers 
are  even  now  in  request  in  many  parts  of  the 
British  Empire,  it  will  be  recognised  that  the 
prospects  for  the  forester  of  the  higher  grade  are, 
in  the  near  future,  likely  to  be  good.  At  present, 
however,  the  remuneration  of  the  forester  in 
Britain  is  altogether  inadequate.  Woodmen, 
perhaps,  earn  rather  more  than  agricultural 
labourers  on  the  whole,  but  the  most  important 
positions  are,  with  a  few  notable  exceptions,  of 
small  value,  and  scarcely  likely  to  attract  the 
better  class  of  well-educated  college-trained 
men.  For  the  energetic  young  man,  however, 
who  has  some  capacity,  who  sticks  to  work,  and 
is  glad  to  devote  himself  to  his  subject,  there 
is  no  doubt  a  future. 

Instruction  in  Forestry.  In  Great  Britain, 
theoretical  instruction  is  given  at  several  of  the 
agricultural  colleges  and  universities,  notably  at 
Edinburgh  University,  the  University  College 
of  North  Wales  at  Bangor,  the  Durham  College 
of  Science,  and  the  Royal  Agricultural  College, 
at  Cirencester.  There  is  a  school  of  forestry  for 
woodmen  in  the  Forest  of  Dean,  under  the  control 
of  his  Majesty's  Commissioners  of  Woods  and 
Forests  ;  and  courses  have  lately  been  started  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  Universities.  There  is 
also  a  course  in  Forestry  at  Wye  College,  in  Kent. 

Not  only,  however,  is  theoretical  instruction  in 
forestry  necessary  for  the  student  who  wishes  to 
take  up  this  subject  as  a  life's  work,  but  several 
allied  subjects  must  be  studied  with  it,  and 
their  relation  to  it  'recognised.  The  courses  for 
the  B.Sc.  degree  and  other  diplomas  in  agri- 
culture at  our  universities  and  colleges,  substi- 
tuting forestry  for  agriculture  and  omitting 
such  a  subject  as  veterinary  hygiene,  might 
form  an  excellent  theoretical  training.  Geology, 
botany,  zoology,  entomology,  surveying  and 
engineering  field-work,  chemistry,  and  physics 
are  all  important,  and  should  be  studied  to 
some  extent  at  least. 

Practical  Training.  While  theoretical 
study  is  very  necessary  it  must  be  distinctly 
understood  that  a  sound,  practical  training  is 
absolutely  essential.  To  some  slight  extent  this 
can  be  obtained  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  next  decade  or  so  the  British 
student  may  be  able  to  obtain  a  complete  forest 


APPLIED    BOTANY 

training  in  his  native  country.  At  present  this 
is  unfortunately  impossible,  for,  although  there 
are  some  well-managed  woods,  they  are  gener- 
ally inconveniently  situated  as  regards  the 
centres  of  learning,  while  there  are  no  demonstra- 
tion areas  and  nurseries  properly  so  called. 
Such  areas  are  even  more  necessary  in  sylvicul- 
ture than  can  be  the  case  in  agriculture,  as 
results  in  agriculture  may  usually  be  seen  by 
the  farmer  in  a  single  season,  whereas  in  sylvi- 
culture this  is  not  so,  a  long  series  of  years  being 
necessary.  It  is  of  the  utmost  value  to  the 
student  to  see  and  study  forest  crops  in  different 
stages  of  development,  and  grown  under  correct 
systematic  management.  Without  such,  indeed, 
he  is  unable  fully  to  comprehend  sylvicultural 
methods.  At  several  of  the  centres  of  instruc- 
tion above-mentioned,  a  certain  class  of  wood- 
lands under  management  may  be  visited  and 
examined,  this  being  especially  so  in  Edinburgh, 
where  the  proximity  of  several  well-managed 
wooded  areas  is  highly  satisfactory. 

A  Demonstration  Area  in  Wales.  A 
50-acre  demonstration  area  and  experimental 
station  is  being  started  in  North  Wales  under 
the  control  of  the  Denbighshire  County  Council. 
This  area  will  certainly  prove  of  much  value.  It 
may  be  said,  however,  that  although  we  are 
beginning  to  realise  the  need  of  forestry  educa- 
tion, we  are  seriously  handicapped  as  regards 
practical  sylvicultural  training.  Several  excellent 
permanent  nurseries  exist  in  several  parts  of  the 
country,  planting  is  being  carried  out,  and 
sound  systems  of  management  are  being  in- 
augurated. Of  such  the  students  should  see 
as  much  as  possible.  To  obtain  a  thorough 
grounding  in  sound  sylvicultural  principles,  a 
year  or  two  should  be  spent  at  one  or  other  (or 
two)  of  the  French  or  German  schools  of  forestry, 
of  which  there  are  many  of  a  first-class  character. 
This  has  in  the  past  been  the  principle  of  the 
Indian  Forest  Service,  many  of  the  officers  having 
received  their  training  in  Germany,  and  at 
Nancy,  in  France.  At  the  present  time,  however, 
students  can  be  trained  in  India. 

The  Best  Books  on  Forestry.  For 
further  information  on  the  whole  subject  of 
forestry,  the  following  works  may  be  consulted. 

"  Economics  of  Forestry,"  by  B.  E.  Fernow  (Spon. 
7s.  6d.)  ;  "  Timbers  and  How  to  Know  Them,  by 
R.  Hartig,  trans,  by  W.  Somerville  (Douglas.  2s.)  ; 
"  Diseases  of  Trees,"  by  R.  Hartig,  trans,  by  W. 
Somerville  and  H.  M.  Ward  (Macmillan.  10s.  6d.)  ; 
"  The  Forester,"  by  J.  Nisbet — Brown's  "  Forester," 
revised  1905— (Blackwood.  2  vols.,  42s.)  ;  "  Our 
Forests  and  Woodlands,"  by  J.  Nisbet  (Dent.  7s.  6d.); 
"  British  Forest  Trees,"  by  J.  Nisbet  (Macmillan. 
6s.)  ;  "  Studies  in  Forestry,"  by  J.  Nisbet  (Clarendon 
.Press.  6s.)  ;  "  Manual  of  Injurious  Insects,"  by  Miss 
E.  A.  Ormerod  (Simpkin,  Marshall.  5s.);  "  Manual  of 
Forestry, "  5  vols. — I.,  Introduction  to  Forestry  (6s.), 
II.,  Formation  and  Tending  of  Woods  (8s.),  and  III., 
Forest  Management  (9s.),  by  W.  Schlich  ;  IV.,  Forest 
Protection  (9s.),  and  V.,  Forest  Utilisation  (12s.),  by 
W.  R.  Fisher — (Bradbury,  Agnew)  ;  "  Timber  and 
Some  of  its  Diseases,"  by  H.  M.  Ward  (Macmillan. 
6s.)  ;  "  Practical  Forestry,"  by  C.  E.  Curtis  (Crosby, 
Lockwood.  3s.  6d.)  ;  "  English  Estate  Forestry," 
by  A.  C.  Forbes  (Arnold.  12s.  6d.). 


FORESTRY  concluded  ;  follmved  by  RUBBER  AND  GUTTA  PERCHA 


1  N 


4929 


Group  2 

GLASS 


Continued  from 
page  47:tti 


ORNAMENTAL  GLASS 

Optical  Glass.     Coloured  Glass.     Venetian   Beads.     The  Uses  of 
Water-glass.     Glass  Decorating  and  Etching.     Silvering  Mirrors 


Optical  Glass.  The  glass  used  for  optical 
instruments  is  now  obtainable  in  great  varieties, 
each  kind  differing  optically  in  its  effect  on  the 
light  rays  passed  through  it.  Dollond  was  the 
first  to  put  flint  and  crown  glass  together  to  make 
a  lens  in  which  each  corrected  the  colour  effect 
of  the  other.  Chance  Brothers,  in  1848,  produced 
a  number  of  special  silicate  crowns  and  flint 
glasses  for  optical  purposes,  and  hava.  since 
produced  other  barium  and  boro-silicate  glasses. 
Dr.  Schott,  in  1883,  took  up  the  subject  of  optical 
glass,  and  established  the  now  well-known  Jena 
Glass  Works.  The  firm  of  Schott  &  Gen  now 
make  sixty -eight  different  kinds  of  optical  glass. 

Opal  Glass.  Opal  glass,  alabaster  glass, 
enamel  glass,  bone  glass,  and  milk  glass  are 
names  given  to  glass  which  has  been  rendered 
opaque  by  the  addition  of  calcium  phosphate, 
tin  oxide,  arsenic,  felspar,  talc,  zinc  oxide,  fluor- 
spar, or  cryolite.  The  degree  of  opacity  varies 
even  with  the  same  receipt,  but  more  certainty 
of  obtaining  a  given  result  is  claimed  when 
covered  pots  are  used.  Glass  made  opaque 
with  talc  (French  chalk)  is  known  particularly 
as  alabaster  glass.  Calcium  phosphate  is  added 
in  several  forms,  bone  ash  and  guano  being  less 
pure  agents,  which  owe  their  power  of  imparting 
opacity  to  the  calcium  phosphate  they  contain. 
Tin  oxide  is  Yiot  now  often  used.  Cryolite  pro- 
duces a  beautiful  opal  or  milk  glass,  but  is  diffi- 
cult to  work  on  account  of  the  corroding  fumes 
of  hydrofluoric  acid  that  are  given  off  and 
do  much  damage  to  the  furnace. 

Coloured  Glass.  Coloured  glass  is  coloured 
throughout  or  flashed.  The  latter  term  means 
that  the  body  of  the  glass  is  ordinary  trans- 
parent glass,  and  has  been  covered  with  the 
coloured  glass.  The  workman  has  before  him 
two  vessels  of  glass,  one  white  and  the  other 
coloured.  He  dips  his  blowpipe  in  the  white 
pot,  and  having  collected  a  lump  of  the  required 
size,  he  dips  it  into  the  pot  of  coloured  metal, 
and  proceeds  to  blow  the  glass  in  the  manner 
described  in  the  section  on  ivindow  glass. 

Red  glass  is  obtained  with  cuprous  oxide,  gold 
salts,  antimony  oxysulphide,  or  selenium  salts. 
A  red  colour  is  also  sometimes  obtained  with 
ferric  oxide  or  red  ochre.  Purple  of  cassius  is 
the  salt  of  gold  mostly  used.  The  quantity  of 
gold  required  to  impart  a  rose  colour  to  glass 
is  exceedingly  small.  The  receipt  for  red  glass 
in  which  antimony  oxysulphide  is  used  is:  Silica, 
100  ;  calcium  carbonate,  20 ;  sodium  carbonate, 
50  ;  sawdust,  7£  ;  antimony,  4.  A  smaller  pro- 
portion of  antimony  gives  a  yellow.  The  colour 
develops  in  gold  and  copper  glass  on  cooling. 

Hint 'glass  is  obtained  with  copper  oxide  (black), 
«  ol);ilt  oxide  (or  zaffrc  or  smalts),  and  some- 
times from  iron.  Smalt*  is  a  powdered  cobalt 
Lil.iss  and  zaffre  an  impure  form  of  cobalt  oxide. 

4930 


Violet  glass  is  yielded  by  manganese  oxide. 

Green  glass  is  made  with  chromium  oxide, 
bichromate  of  potash,  or  a  mixture  of  antimony 
oxide  and  cobalt. 

Yellow  glass  is  obtained  from  uranium  oxide, 
antimony  oxide,  sulphur,  silver  salts,  or  carbon. 
The  colour  obtained  with  carbon  varies  from 
yellow  to  brown,  according  to  the  quantity  used. 
Glass  is  coloured  with  silver  by  applying  a  salt 
of  silver  to  the  surface  of  the  glass  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  500°  to  550°  C.  A  lace  design  is  given 
by  dipping  a  piece  of  lace  in  a  silver  solution, 
followed  by  a  solution  of  potassium  sulphide, 
and  then  placing  the  lace  on  the  heated  glass. 

Orange-coloured  glass  is  obtained  from  a  mix- 
ture of  iron  oxide  and  manganese  oxide. 

Black  glass  is  produced  from  a  mixture  of 
iron,  copper,  manganese,  and  cobalt  oxide. 
Iridium  oxide  and  sulphur  have  also  been  used 
for  obtaining  black  glass. 

Dichroic  or  two-coloured  glass  is  obtained  from 
uranium  oxide  with  copper  oxide  or  selenium. 
Such  glass  is  yellow  when  light  passes  through, 
but  greenish  when  looked  at. 

Aventurine  glass  is  a  glass  made  to  imitate 
aventurine  quartz  or  gold  stone,  which  exhibits 
beautiful  gold-like  spangles  throughout.  It  was 
formerly  only  made  in  the  Island  of  Murano, 
near  Venice.  The  following  are  receipts  for  two 
varieties  of  this  beautiful  glass.  Green  ave.n- 
turine :  Silica,  100 ;  sodium  carbonate,  35  ; 
fluorspar,  15  ;  felspar,  30 ;  barium  carbonate, 
25  ;  potassium  bichromate,  12 ;  manganese,  7. 
Blue  aventurine :  Silica,  100 ;  sodium  car- 
bonate, 35  ;  fluorspar,  15  ;  felspar,  30  ;  barium 
carbonate,  25 ;  potassium  bichromate,  10 ; 
manganese,  5 ;  cobalt  oxide,  \.  Pettenkofer 
and  Hautefeuille  devised  receipts  in  which  copper 
is  used,  the  copper  by  slow  cooling  being  thrown 
out  in  the  glass  pot  as  metallic  spangles. 

Porpora  glass  is  an  imitation  of  hematinone, 
a  glass  of  a  peculiar  red  colour  found  in  Pompeii 
excavations.  The  colour  is  due  to  copper  and 
iron.  An  imitation  of  hematinone  was  devised 
by  Pettenkofer  under  the  name  of  astralite. 

Agate  glass  is  obtained  by  melting  together 
waste  pieces  of  coloured  glass. 

Iridescent  Glass.  Iridescent  glass,  in 
imitation  of  ancient  glass  which  has  become 
iridescent  through  long  exposure  to  damp,  is 
made  by  exposing  glass  articles  before  annealing 
to  the  fumes  generated  by  placing  tin  chloride 
alone  or  mixed  with  the  nitrates  of  barium  or 
strontium  upon  a  hot  plate  in  a  muffle  furnace. 
Wittmann's  method  is  to  boil  the  articles  in 
hydrochloric  acid  under  pressure,  and  Brianchon 
employed  a  flux  of  auriferous  bismuth  oxide. 

Crackled  Glass.  Crackle,  craquele,  or 
ice  glass  is  made  by  plunging  the  freshly-blown 
glass  article  into  hot  water  and  reheating  in  the 


furnace.  A  similar  effect  is  obtained  by  sprinkling 
broken  glass  on  the  soft  glass  and  reheating  to 
incorporate  the  fragments.  Satin  glass  is  pre- 
pared by  covering  a  vessel  blown  from  coloured 
glass  in  which  depressions  have  been  formed  with 
lead  glass,  while  a  beautiful  matte  silver  ap- 
pearance is  obtained  by  covering  unglazed 
porcelain  with  a  layer  of  lead  glass. 

Glass  Beads.  Formerly  Venice  was  the 
only  place  where  glass  beads  were  made,  but 
factories  now  exist  in  France,  Bohemia  and 
Belgium.  Glass  of  the  required  colour  is 
draAvn  out  into  tubes.  The  work  is  executed 
by  a  foreman,  who  has  under  him  two  assistants 
arid  four  workmen.  One  of  the  assistants  dips 
the  end  of  an  iron  rod  about  4  ft.  long  into  one 
of  the  glass  pots.  He  then  rolls  it  on  an  iron 
table  to  reduce  it  to  a  cylindrical  form,  and 
makes  a  round  hole  on,  the  upper  part  of  the 
mass.  After  this  the  foreman  takes  the  rod  in 
his  hand  and  heats  in  the  furnace  the  portion 
of  glass  attached  to  its  end  by  giving  it  a  few 
turns,  taking  care  to  see  that  the  hole  is  exactly 
in  the  centre.  He  then  attaches  another  rod  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  mass,  the  two  rods  are  at 
once  delivered  to  two  workmen,  who,  running 
speedily  in  opposite  directions,  reduce  the  molten 
glass  to  a  very  long,  thin  tube.  The  glass  tubes 
are  then  chopped  up  into  small  pieces,  which  are 
mixed  with  sand  and  wood  ashes,  transferred  to 
an  iron  pot,  and  stirred  till  they  begin  to  soften. 
The  heat  rounds  the  edges,  and  when  cool  the 
sand  is  sifted  out  and  the  beads  finally  polished 
with  white  bran. 

Quartz  Glass.  A  glass  which  stands 
excessive  changes  of  temperature  with  indiffer- 
ence is  made  from  Brazilian  quartz.  The  quartz 
is  used  in  lumps,  but  cannot  be  worked  and 
melted  directly,  because  it  splinters.  At  1,700°  C. 
the  crystalline  quartz  becomes  vitreous,  and 
tubes  and  vessels  of  quartz  are  built  up  in  the 
heat  of  an  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe.  Shenstone, 
the  chief  English  worker  in  quartz,  has  devised 
a  furnace  for  melting  quartz  by  means  of  the 
electric  arc  and  oxyhydrogen  flame. 

Water=glass.  Silicate  of  soda  or  potash, 
made  by  fusing  together  sand  and  alkali,  dissolves 
in  water,  and  the  product  is  known  as  water- 
glass  or  soluble  glass.  Potash  water-glass  is  made 
by  fusing  together  in  a  reverberatory  furnace 
quartz  sand  45  parts,  potassium  carbonate  30 
parts,  and  powdered  charcoal  3  parts.  The  mass  is 
afterwards  boiled  with  water  to  form  a  solution, 
in  which  state  it  is  generally  found  in  commerce. 
Soda  water-glass  is  made  with  quartz  sand  5  parts, 
sodium  carbonate  23  parts,  charcoal  3  parts,  or 
with  quartz  100  parts,  sodium  sulphate  60  parts, 
and  charcoal  15  to  20  parts.  Double  water-glass 
is  made  with  quartz  sand  152  parts,  sodium 
carbonate  54  parts,  potassium  carbonate  70 
parts  ;  or  with  quartz  100  parts,  potassium  car- 
bonate 28  parts,  sodium  carbonate  22  parts, 
and  charcoal  6  parts. 

One  of  the  earliest  uses  of  water-glass  was 
as  an  addition  to  soap,  enabling  more  water  to 
be  taken  up  and  a  cheaper  product  to  be  obtained. 
For  rendering  fabrics  non-inflammable  they  are 
dipped  in  a  diluted  solution  of  water-glass. 


GLASS 

Water-glass  is  also  used  as  a  preservative  of 
wood  and  stone.  Ransome's  process  for  the 
production  of  artificial  stone  depends  on  the 
use  of  water-glass  for  binding  together  sand, 
the  compressed  bricks  being  soaked  in  a  solution 
of  calcium  chloride  to  form  an  insoluble  and 
thus  permanent  silicate  of  calcium.  Fuchs 
devised  a  process  of  fresco  -  painting  called 
stereochromy,  in  which  the  wall  is  prepared  by 
the  use  of  lime  and  water-glass,  and  the  colours 
used  in  the  painting  are  compounded  with 
water-glass,  with  the  object  of  increasing  the 
permanence  of  the  work.  Mineral  glue  is  the 
name  applied  to  a  cement  consisting  of  water- 
glass.  A  large  quantity  of  water-glass  is  now 
used  for  preserving  eggs.  The  water-glass,  as 
purchased,  is  diluted  with  water,  and  the  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  solution,  becoming  covered  with 
an  impervious  coating  which  excludes  the  air, 
and  so  keeps  the  eggs  fresh  for  months.  Water- 
glass  is  finding  a  use  also  in  the  alkali  process 
of  refining  mineral  oil. 

Glass  Decorating.  The  operation  of 
cutting  glass  is  particularly  suited  to  lead  glass, 
owing  to  the  greater  brilliancy  of  this  kind  of 
glass.  The  cutting  operation  consists  of  three 
stages  :  (1)  Roughing  out  by  means  of  an  iron 
wheel  ;  (2)  cutting  by  means  of  a  stone  wheel ; 
(3)  polishing  by  means  of  a  wheel  of  wood  or 
cork  [14].  The  roughing-out  wheel  is  supplied 
with  sand  to  assist  in  the  abrasion.  A  workman 
holds  the  article  against  the  conical  edge  of  a 
steel  wheel  secured  to  a  shaft  driven  by  belts  and 
pulleys  Fine,  sharp  sand  and  water  are  allowed 
to  drip  on  the  wheel  from  a  cone-shaped  bucket. 
The  article  is  pressed  against  the  rapidly  rotating 
wheel,  and  is  deeply  scored  or  cut.  The  heaviest 
and  principal  lines  in  the  pattern  are  roughened 
in  by  these  steel  wheels.  The  roughened 

article  is  now 
ready  for  the  wet 
smoothing-stone, 
which  resembles 
the  steel  wheels 
both  as  to  size 
and  edge,  but  no 
sand  is  employed. 
These  wheels  fol- 
low the  cuts 
made  by  the 
steel  wheels,  and 
also  cut  in  the 
finer  lines  of  the 
pattern.  The 
practically  fin- 
ished article  is 
now  ready  for 
the  polishing, 
which  is  done 


14.     SELF-CONTAINED    SMOOTH- 
ING AND  POLISHING  MACHINE 
(G.  G.  Rider,  Manchester) 


by  putty-powder  or  rouge-charged  wooden  wheels 
with  the  same  sized  edges  as  the  previously  used 
wheels.  In  place  of  wooden  wheels  felt-covered 
wheels  or  brushes  are  used ;  while  the  most  recent 
method  is  to  finish  the  polishing  with  hydro- 
fluoric acid.  The  hydrofluoric  acid  is  mixed 
with  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acid  in  about 
equal  proportions,  but  the  quantity  of  hydro- 
fluoric acid  is  increased  where  a  hard  glass  is 

4931 


GLASS 

being  chemically  polished.  Fire  polishing  has 
also  been  applied  to  cut  glass,  but  in  this  way 
the  appearance  is  not  much  tatter  than  that 
given  to  fire-polished  pressed  glass.  The  iron 
wheels  are  known  as  millers.  The  stone  wheels 
are  mined  in  Yorkshire,  Newcastle  and  Craigleith, 
the  last-named  producing  the  most  esteemed 
variety.  A  new  kind  of  wheel  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  alundum.  The  material  of  which  these 
wheels  are  made  is  bauxite,  which  is  fused  in 
electric  furnaces  at  Niagara  Falls. 

Glass  Bevelling.  The  edges  of  glass 
plates  are  bevelled  by  cementing  the  glass  upon 
a  heavy  horizontal  bench,  which,  receiving  a 
slow  to-and-fro  movement,  presents  the  edges 
successively  to  the  grinding  action  of  one  or 
more  small  grinders.  Machinery  has  been 
devised  to  minimise  the  handwork.  Like  glass 
cutting,  bevelling  is  done  in  stages  with  steel, 
stone  and  polishing  wheels. 

Etching  G  ass.  Etching  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  which  acts  on 
the  silica  of  the  glass  to  form  silicon  fluoride 
(a  gas  which  escapes  in  the  air)  and  water. 
Hydrofluoric  acid  alone  is  used,  or  a  mixture 
of  potassium  acid  fluoride  250  grammes,  hydro- 
chloric acid  250  grammes,  and  water  1  litre.  A 
strong  solution  of  ammonium  fluoride  acidified 
with  hydrochloric  or  acetic  acid  is  also  used ; 
while  Henrivaux's  receipt  for  etching  fluid  is 
calcium  fluoride  250  grammes,  hydrochloric  acid 
250  grammes,  sulphate  of  soda  140  grammes,  and 
water  1  litre.  The  parts  of  the  glass  which  it  is 
desired  to  protect  from  the  etching  fluid  are 
covered  with  a  varnish  composed  of  yellow  wax 
4  parts  and  turpentine  1  part,  but  various  other 
mixtures  of  gum,  dammar,  Venice  turpentine, 
asphalt,  resin.  Burgundy  pitch,  and  tallow  are 
employed.  Patterns  are  obtained  by  affixing 
tinfoil  to  the  glass  and  cutting  away  the  tinfoil 
at  the  parts  to  be  etched.  A  quicker  method  is 
to  print  the  pattern  on  the  tinfoil  in  a  grease 
pigment,  and  eat  away  the  plain  tinfoil  with 
mineral  acid  to  expose  the  glass,  which  is  then 
treated  with  hydrofluoric  acid. 

Dry  Etching.  Dry  etching  is  a  process 
in  which  ammonium  fluoride  is  used  in  the  solid 
state.  The  design,  which  must  be  of  compara- 
tively small  dimensions,  is  applied  to  the  glass 
by  printing  thereon  with  printers'  varnish  from 
an  indiarubber  plate,  or  in  any  suitable  way. 
While  the  impression  is  still  moist' some  powdered 
ammonium  fluoride,  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
about  105°  F.,  is  applied  to  the  surface  with  a 
soft  brush,  and  caused  by  gentle  pressure  to 
adhere  to  the  varnish,  all  superfluous  salt  being 
carefully  removed.  In  about  15  to  60  minutes, 
according  to  the  atmospheric  humidity,  the 
fluoride  will  have  become  liquid  and  have  pene- 
trated to  and  etched  the  glass  underneath.  The 
process  is  expedited  by  creating  an  artificial 
humidity  in  the  atmosphere.  The  printing 
medium  is  prepared  by  mixing  70  parts  of 
melted  resin  with  30  parts  of  olive  oil,  and 
colouring  with  dark-blue  aniline  dye.  Glass  is 
also  etched  by  throwing  against  it  a  stream 
of  sand  or  grains  of  quartz.  The  process  was 


Continued 


invented  by  Tilghman,  in  1870,  the  abrasive 
effect  of  the  sand  being  enforced  by  ejecting 
it  with  great  force  by  a  jet  of  steam  or  air. 
In  engraving  designs  on  glass,  air  is  most  con- 
venient, as  the  sand,  being  dry,  rebounds  and 
leaves  the  pattern  clear.  Designs  are  etched  by 
affixing  to  the  glass  a  paper  stencil.  The  paper 
is  stuck  on  with  glue,  the  parts  to  be  etched 
being  left  clear.  The  method  was  improved, 
in  1877,  by  Mathewson,  and  a  combination  of 
the  Tilghman  and  Mathewson  apparatus  is  now 
generally  employed.  Sand  blasting  can  also  be 
employed  for  boring  holes  in  glass,  the  blast 
being  allowed  to  impinge  on  one  spot.  It  should 
be  added  that  the  chemical  method  of  etching 
by  means  of  hydrofluoric  acid  gives  a  finer  grain, 
but  for  many  purposes  the  sand  blast  is  preferred 
on  account  of  its  quickness. 

Silvering  Mirrors.  Mirrors  are  pre- 
pared by  depositing  on  smooth  glass  a  coating 
of  mercury  or  silver.  The  use  of  mercury  has 
almost  been  abandoned  on  account  of  its  in- 
jurious effect  on  the  workmen.  Drayton,  in 
1843,  devised  a  process  in  which  silver  was 
deposited  on  glass  from  an  alkaline  solution  of 
silver  nitrate.  The  method  was  further  investi- 
gated by  Liebig,  in  1867,  and  processes  founded 
on  Liebig' s  recipes  have  now  replaced  the  older 
mercurial  process.  Two  solutions  are  required, 
the  silvering  liquid  and  the  reducing  liquid.  The 
silvering  liquid  is  made  as  follows : 

1.  Dissolve  1  part  of  fused  silver  nitrate  in  10 
parts  of  distilled  water. 

2.  Neutralise  pure  nitric  acid  with  ammonium 
carbonate,  and  dilute  it  until  the  liquid  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  1  "115,  or  dissolve  242  grammes 
of  ammonium  sulphate   in  sufficient  water  to 
make  1,200  o.c. 

3.  Prepare  a  soda  solution  of  a  specific  gravity 
of  1-050. 

Mix  140  volumes  of  solution  No.  1, 100  volumes 
of  No.  2,  and  750  volumes  of  No.  3. 
The  reducing  liquid  is  made  as  follows : 

1.  Make  50  grammes  of  white  sugar  candy  into 
a  thin  syrup  with  water,  and  boil  for  an  hour 
with  3'1  grammes  of  tartaric  acid,  diluting  finally 
with  water  to  make  500  c.c. 

2.  Moisten  2 '857  grammes  of  dry  tartrate  of 
copper  in  water,  and  add  caustic  soda  solution 
drop  by  drop  until  the  blue  powder  is  completely 
dissolved,  and  then  dilute  to  500  c.c. 

Mix  one  volume  of  No.  1,  one  volume  of  No.  2, 
and  eight  volumes  of  water. 

Fifty  parts  of  the  silvering  liquid  are  poured 
into  a  shallow  dish,  and  diluted  with  250  to  300 
volumes  of  water,  and  then  10  parts  of  the  re- 
ducing liquid  are  added.  In  winter,  warm  water 
is  employed,  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  being 
20°  C.  to  28°  C.  The  glass  plate  is  put  in  and 
left  for  some  hours,  the  silver  being  gradually 
precipitated  on  the  surface  of  the  glass. 

Gilding  and  Platinising  Glass.  Glass 
is  gilded  by  a  somewhat  analogous  process,  a 
dilute  solution  of  sodium  aurate  being  reduced 
by  means  of  a  saturated  solution  of  ethylene  in 
alcohol.  In  'platinising  glass,  platinum  is  pre- 
cipitated from  its  chloride  by  oil  of  lavender. 


4932 


PROBLEMS  IN  CONES  &  CYLINDERS 

Tne   Ellipse.      The    Hyperbola.      The   Parabola.      Envelopes  of 
Cylinders.    Sections  of  Joints.    Developments  of  Oblique  Cylinders 


Group  8 

DRAWING 
34 

TECHNICAL  DRAWING 

continued  from 


By   JOSEPH 

The  Ellipse.  Fig.  68  illustrates  the  develop- 
ment of  an  ellipse  from  a  cone  cut  in  the  plane 
AA.  Here  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  half  plan,  or 
whole  plan  view,  shown  below,  as  well  as  an 
elevation. 

Divide  the  base  into  any  convenient  number  of 
equal  parts  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  Draw  lines  thence 
to  the  centre  or  apex  in  the  plan  view,  and  to 
the  base  in  the  elevation,  and  from  the  base  to 
the  apex  o.  Prom  the  points  where  the  plane  A  A 
intersects  the  lines  of  division  last  drawn,  and 
also  from  A  A  project  lines  down  to  the  plan, 
cutting  the  lines  of  division  there  at  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f,g. 

From  these  the  actual  dimensions  of  the 
surface  in  the  plane  AA  are  obtained  on  a  centre 
line  BB,  parallel  with  AA.  On  BB  erect  per- 
pendiculars from  AA,  starting  from  the  suc- 
cessive points  of  intersection  of  AA.  with  the 
divisions  projected  up  from  the  circular  base. 
On  these  perpendiculars  the  widths  of  the  ellipse 
are  set  off  to  right  and  left  of  BB  ;  bb,  cc,  dd, 
ee,  //,  corresponding  to  the  dimensions  of  the 
distances  from  the  centre  plane  ag  of  the  section 
similarly  lettered  in  the  plan.  Lines  drawn 
through  the  successive  points  of  intersection, 
B&ccZe/B,  complete  the  ellipse. 

An  Alternative  Method.  Another  method 
of  obtaining  the  elliptical  section  of  a  cone 
is  given  in  69.  Let  AB  be  the  plane  of  the 
section.  Divide  AB  into  any  number  of  equal 
paits  A,  1,  2,  3,  4?  5,  B.  Through  these  points 
draw  horizontal  lines  B,  5a,  4b,  3c,  2d,  le,  A/. 
Obviously  these  will  correspond  with  circle 
sections  of  the  cone,  and  mav  therefore  be 
projected  as  such  to  the  plan  below,  and  struck 
from  the  centre  of  the  plan,  cutting  the  line 
DD,  as  BB',  aa',  bb',  cc',  dd',  ee',  //'.  From 
the  point  A  a  vertical  line  is  dropped,  cutting 
DD  at  A'.  So  that  A'  and  B'  correspond  in  actual 
plan  with  the  points  A  and  B  of  the  elliptical 
section  of  the  cone.  A'  also  is  tangent  to  the 
circle  A/,  projected  down,  and  B'  also  is  tangent 
to  the  circle  B,  similarly  projected.  Similarly, 
perpendiculars  projected  from  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  give 
respectively  g,  k,  i,  j,  k  on  the  line  DD ;  y  cuts 
the  circle  e'  at  II;  h  cuts  the  circle  d'  at  mm; 
i  cuts  the  circle  c'  at  nn,  and  so  on.  If,  now, 
the  distances  gl,  gl  are  taken  and  transferred 
to  IT,  IT  to  right  and  left  of  the  line  CC 
above,  and  the  distances  hm,  Tim  to  2m',  2m' 
above,  and  so  on,  and  a  line  drawn  through 
the  points  of  intersection,  the*  ellipse  will  be 
produced,  as  shown. 

The  Envelope  of  the  Ellipse.  To  obtain 
the  envelope  of  a  cone  from  which  the  surface 
has  been  cut  clliptically  [70,  71],  proceed  thus  : 

Strike  a  semicircle  on  the  base  AB  of  70,  and 
divide  it  equally  at  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  B.  Carry 
perpendiculars  up  to  AB,  cutting  AB  at  D,  E,  F, 


G.    HORNER 

etc.,  and  prolong  lines  thence  to  the  apex  o. 
These  will  cut  the  diagonal  CC  at  1',  2',  3',  4' 
5',  6',  7'.  Thence  carry  horizontal  lines  along 
to  cut  the  slant  edge  Ao  in  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g.  The 
lengths  Aa,  Ab,  Ac,  etc.,  will  be  the  real 
lengths  of  the  lines  Dl',  E2',  F3',  etc.,  since 
all  are  thus  measured  on  the  slant  edge. 

The  envelope  is  shown  in  71,  to  the  right.  With 
radius  oA  [70]  strike  an  arc  oAA  [71].  To 
right  and  left  of  a  centre  line  oB  mark  off 
the  equal  divisions  in  the  plan  of  the  cone 
7,  6,  5,  4,  3,  2,  1,  A,  so  completing  the  circum- 
ference of  the  base.  Next,  draw  lines  from  all 
these  points  of  division  to  the  apex  or  centre  o. 
On  these  lines  the  lengths  just  projected  have 
to  be  marked  thus  : 

Take  the  length  BK  [70],  and  set  it  off  from 
B  to  K  in  71.  Take  the  length  AL  in  70  and 
mark  it  off  at  each  end  AL  in  71.  Take  Aa  [70] 
and  mark  that  off  at  la,  la  [71].  Take  Ab,  and 
set  that  off  at  2b,  2b  [71],  and  so  on.  A 
line  LKL  drawn  through  all  the  successive 
intersections  wall  give  the  envelope  for  the  cone. 
Also,  if  the  envelope  for  the  upper  portion — all 
above  the  part  cut  in  section — were  required, 
that  would  be  given  by  the  supplementary 
portion  in  71  between  LKL  and  the  lines  going 
to  the  apex  o. 

The  seams  of  the  plate  are  added  along  the 
edges  AL,  AL.  The  seam  could  be  made  along 
BK,  but  this  would  not  affect  the  method  of 
marking  out,  but  only  the  starting  centre-line 
AL,  instead  of  BJfc. 

The  Hyperbola.  Fig.  72  shows  a  cone 
cut  CC,  parallel  with  the  axis,  which  yields  the 
section  of  a  hyperbola  on  the  cut  face.  Strike  a 
semicircle  on  the  base  AB,  and  prolong  the 
plane  CC  to  meet  it  at  D.  Divide  the  arc  DB 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  a,  b,  B,  and 
raise  them  as  perpendiculars  to  meet  AB  at 
a'b',  and  draw  lines  thence  to  the  apex  o,  cutting 
the  plane  CC  in  c  and  d.  From  c  and  d  hori- 
zontal lines  are  carried  out  to  cut  oB  at  c'  d'. 

For  the  envelope,  take  the  radius  oA  [72], 
and  strike  the  arc  A  A  in  73.  Taking  a  centre  B, 
set  off  to  right  and  left  the  distances  B6,  ba,  a!D, 
corresponding  with  B6,  ba,  aD  in  72,  and  draw 
lines  thence  to  the  centre  o.  Set  off  Be,  bd', 
ac'  [73],  cutting  Bo,  bo,  an,  equal  in  length  to 
Be,  Be',  Ed'  on  the  slant  of  the  cone  in  72. 
The  line  DeD  drawn  through  the  points  of 
intersection  [73]  is  that  of  the  outline  of  the 
hyperbolic  surface  cut  away  in  72. 

For  the  envelope  of  the  remainder  of  the  cone, 
divide  the  arc  AD  [72]  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts,  A,  /,  g,  h,  i,  D.  With  the  same  setting  of 
the  compass,  set  off  distances  from  D  [73]  to  right 
and  left,  D,  i,  h,  g,  /,  A.  Lines  drawn  from  A  to  o 
and  A  to  o  will  complete  the  figure  required. 

4933 


DRAWING 

Shape  of  the  Cut  Face.  These  are 
developments  of  the  cone.  But  to  obtain  a  flat 
sheet  to  correspond  with  the  cut  section  of  the 
hyperbola  proceed  as  in  74. 

'  I-;,.,  i  ;i.  perpendicular  AB  on  a  base  line  CD. 
Make  AC,  AD  each  equal  in  length  to  the  width 
of  half  the  base  CD  of  the  hyperbola  in  72.  Make 
AB  equal  in  height  to  the  length  of  the  major  axis 
of  the  hyperbola,  equal  to  the  height  CO  in  72, 
obtained  by  prolonging  the  plane  of  the  section 
CC  to  intersect  the  slant  height  Ao  prolonged. 
Draw  a  horizontal  [74]  at  a  height  AE  equal  to 
the  height  Ce  of  the  hyperbola  in  72.  Next  divide 
AC,  AD  [74]  and  the  height  CE  each  into  the 
same  number  of  equal  parts — four  in  the^  ex- 
ample, more  in  a  large  pattern ;  1, 2, 3,  C,  and  1',  2', 
3',E.  Draw  lines  from  1,  2,  3,  to  the  apex  B, 
and  from  1',  2',  3',  to  the  height  E.  A  curve 
drawn  through  the  points  of  intersection  will  give 
the  shape  of  the  hyperbola. 

The  Parabola.  Fig.  75  shows  a  cone  cut 
in  parabolic  section.  The  method  adopted  is  like 
the  previous  one.  The  parabolic  section  is  cut 
in  the  plane  CC,  parallel  with  the  slant  oB  ; 
and  CD  is  projected  perpendicularly  to  cut  the 
semicircle  AB  below.  The  arc  DB  is  divided 
equally  a,  b,  B.  DA  is  divided  also,  h,  i,  j,  k,  and 
lines  are  carried  to  h',  i',  j',  k'.  The  points  of 
division  outside  the  parabolic  section  are  pro- 
jected from  the  line  AB  to  the  apex  o,  and  the 
plane  of  the  parabola  intersects  them  at  c,  d,  e,  f. 

For  the  development,  the  radius  oB  is  taken, 
and  an  arc  BB  struck  with  it  [76],  and  a  middle 
line  of  division  oA  taken.  From  this  are  set 
off  to  right  and  left  the  divisions  taken  from 
A,  h,  i,  j,  k,  D  [75],  and  lines  drawn  thence  to  the 
centre  o.  Measurement  is  taken  from  A  to  y 
[75],  and  transferred  from  A  to  g  [76].  Next, 
from  A  to  /'  [75],  and  transferred  from  h  to  /  [76], 
then  from  A  to  e',  transferred  from  i  to  e,  and 
so  on  to  each  side  of  the  centre  A,  completing  by 
their  intersection  with  the  radial  lines  the  points 
in  the  developed  parabolic  outline.  Then,  from 
DB  [75],  the  divisions  Da,  6B,  are  taken  and 
transferred  to  76,  and  the  end  lines  Bo,  Bo 
drawn. 

To  obtain  the  outline  of  the  plane  parabolic 
section  [77],  draw  a  base  AB  the  length  of  each 
half  CA,  CB  being  equal  to  the  dimension  CD 
in  75.  Erect  a  perpendicular  CD  equal  to  the 
length  CC  in  75.  Divide  half  the  base  and  the 
total  height  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts. 
Erect  perpendiculars  from  the  base,  and  diagonals 
from  the  sides,  meeting  at  D.  Draw  the  para- 
bola through  the  points  of  intersection. 

Arc  and  Chord  Divisions.  The  difference 
between  arc  and  chord  measurements  as  they 
affect  (he  length  of  a  curved  envelope  is  shown  in 
78 and 79, •which  arc^-micircles.  both  divided  with 
chord  measurements,  but  in  78  the  divisions  taken 
are  longer  than  in  79  ;  the  difference  is  apparent 
in  the  lengths  nli  in  the  two  illustrations. 

Envelopes  of  Cylinders.  To  develop  the 
envelope  of  a  cylinder  jointing  up  against 
another  similar  cylinder  with  a  mitre  joint, 
proceed  thus  [80,  81].  In  80,  the  cylinder  A,  the 
envelope  of  which  is  desired,  has  its  circular  base 
projected  in  plan  below  for  the  purpose  of 


obtaining  points  of  equal  division  on.  the  circum- 
ference as  convenient,  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 
These  are  projected  up  to  the  election,  cutting 
the  plane  of  the  joint  ab  in  a,  1',  2',  3',  etc.  From 
these  points  of  intersection  horizontal  lines  are 
carried  along  to  81,  as  shown.  Also,  a  horizontal 
line  oo  [81]  is  carried  in  continuation  of  the 
base  cd  of  the  cylinder  A  in  80.  Now  make 
the  length  oo  equal  to  the  circumference  cor- 
responding with  cd,  either  by  multiplying  the 
diameter  cd  by  314159,  or  by  taking  the  points 
of  equal  division,  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  in  80,  and 
repeating  them  twice  over  in  81,  as  shown. 

Raise  perpendiculars  in  81  from  0, 1, 2,  3, 4,  etc., 
until  they  intersect  the  horizontal  lines  a,  I',  2', 
3',  4',  5',  etc.,  previously  drawn.  If,  now,  in  81  a 
curve  is  delineated  through  the  points  of  inter- 
section of  horizontals  and  verticals  o',  1',  2',  3',  4', 
etc.,  that  will  be  the  developed  edge  of  the  joint. 
This  curve,  with  the  horizontal  oo  and  the 
verticals  oo',  oo',  complete  the  envelope  for  the 
cylinder  A. 

Sections  of  Cylinders.  The  great  advan- 
tage of  exaggerating  a  doubtful  figure  is  now 
applied  to  sections  of  cylinders.  If  we  take 
two  cases  [82,  83],  we  have  in  one  [82]  two 
circular  cylinders ;  in  the  other  [83]  one  circular 
and  one  elliptical  cylinder  united. 

Equal  Angles.  In  82,  since  the  jointing 
plane  aa  of  the  two  cylinders  bisects  the  angle 
formed  by  the  edges  (or  centre  lines)  of  the 
cylinders,  so  that  the  angles  o,  o  are  alike,  the 
cylinders  A  and  B  must  be  alike  in  their  sections 
on  the  plane  aa,  and  also  at  the  ends  cc.  Such 
cylinders  may  have  circular,  or  elliptical  joints 
or  ends.  But  if  the  ends  cc  (and  bodies)  are 
cylindrical,  then  it  is  clear  that  along  the  joint 
aa,  both  alike  must  be  elliptical.  And  if  they 
are  of  circular  shape  on  the  plane  aa,  then  at 
cc  they  must  be  elliptical,  and  the  shorter  axis 
of  the  ellipse  must  be  from  c  to  c.  These  points 
are  illustrated  further  in  83. 

Unequal  Angles.  Here,  the  jointing 
angle  aa  is  not  alike  for  A  and  B,  but  o'  is 
wider  than  o.  It  follows  that,  though  A  and 
B  must  be  alike  on  the  plane  aa  (for  if  other- 
wise they  would  not  make  a  flush  joint),  they 
differ  in  section  away  from  that  joint,  because  it 
is  impossible  to  joint  two  like  bodies  except  at 
equal  angles.  If  in  83  the  cylinder  A  is  of 
circular  section,  then  B  must  be  elliptical,  and 
vice  versa. 

In  83,  the  plan  of  cylinder  A  is  drawn  below, 
that  of  B  is  drawn  above,  and  the  method  by 
which  its  shape  is  found  is  as  follows :  As 
the  joint  aa  is  perpendicular  to  the  sides  of 
the  cylinder  A,  and  A  is  of  circular  section,  we 
mark  the  circle  a'6  below  from  A'A'.  We  divide 
its  horizontal  axis  into  any  convenient  number  of 
equal  parts  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  raise  perpendicu- 
lars therefrom,  cutting  through  the  circumference 
at  6,  c,  d,  e,  /,  and  thence  to  cut  the  joint  aa  at 
b',  c',  d',  e',  /'.  Prolong  lines  from  these  points 
parallel  with  the  axis  of  B  to  cut  a  line  CC  above, 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  B,  and  having  a 
length  CC  equal  to  the  diameter  B'B'  of  B,  the 
lines  cutting  it  at  1',  2',  3',  4',  5',  as  shown.  On 
the  circle  below  take  the  distance  16,  and  set  it  off 


SECTIONS     AND     ENVELOPES     OF     CONES     AND     CYLINDERS 

68.  Elliptical  section  of  cone  69.  Another  method  of  obtaining  the  elliptical  section  ',0,  71.  Envelope  of  cone  cut  in 
elliptical  section  72.  Hyperbolic  .section  of  cone  73.  Envelope  of  same  74.  Shape  of  cut  portion  75.  Parabolic 
section  of  cone  76.  Envelope  of  same  77.  Shape  of  cut  portion  78,  79.  Effects  of  chord  measurement  80,81.  Envelope 
of  cylinder  82.  Jointing  of  cylinders  at  equal  angles  83.  Jointing  at  unequal  angles  84.  The  same  exaggerated 
85.  Development  of  cylinder  cut  at  an  angle  86.  Development  of  oblique  cylinder  87,  88,  89.  A  similar  development 

4935 


DRAWING 

from  1'  to  g  above.  Take  the  distance  2c  below, 
and  set  it  off  from  2'  to  h  above,  and  so  on. 
A  line  drawn  through  CghijkC  will  represent 
one  half  the  true  section  of  the  cylinder  B  ;  that 
is  the  shortest  section  corresponding  with  B'B', 
or  anywhere  else  parallel  therewith. 

Elliptical  and  Circular  Sections.  But 
•we  see  now  clearly  that  B  is  elliptical  in  real 
normal  section,  though  in  the  plane  aa  it  is 
circular.  Also  B'B'  is  the  minor  or  shorter 
diameter  of  the  ellipse.  This  reveals  itself  too, 
because  as  A  is  circular,  B  must  match  A  at 
the  joint  aa.  Yet  as  B  neither  stands  normally 
at  the  joint  aa,  nor  with  a  common  angle 
of  joint,  the  effect  of  these  conditions  must 
,be  to  shorten  B  along  the  lines  aa  and  B'B'. 
B  must  be  elliptical  in  section,  but  cutting 
it  along  aa  produces  a  circular  section  there. 
Suppose  A  and  B  to  be  shown  as  in  84,  the 
facts  just  stated  would  be  more  obvious.  It  is 
'also  clear  that  if  B  were  of  circular  section  in 
83,  A  must  be  elliptical,  but  in  this  case  the 
major  diameter  of  the  ellipse  would  be  along  aa. 

Development  of  Cut  Cylinders.  The 
development  of  the  portion  B  in  83  is  shown 
in  85.  To  avoid  confusion  of  lines,  the  construction 
'of  B  and  its  elliptical  shape  in  the  plane  B'B' 
[83]  is  transferred  to  85,  whence  a  new  set  of 
divisions  is  obtained  for  the  development,  as 
follows : 

Divide  the  semi-ellipse  CC  into  any.  con- 
venient number  of  equal  parts,  0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 
and  project  lines  from  these  points  of  division  to 
cut  the  sloping  joint  face  aa  at  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h. 
Draw  a  line  BB  to  the  left,  continuous  with  the 
plane  B'B',  and  make  its  length  equal  to  the 
circumference  of  B  by  stepping  along  with  com- 
passes twice  the  number  of  divisions  obtained  in 
the  half  plan  over  the  cylinder  B,  0',  1',  2',  3', 
4',  5',  6',  7',  8',  twice  repeated,  and  draw  lines 
therefrom  perpendicular  to  the  line  BB.  Carry 
horizontals  along  to  cut  these  lines  successively 
from  a  to  a',  b  to  &',  c  to  c',  etc.  Through  the 
points  of  intersection  draw  the  curve  shown, 
which,  with  the  horizontal  and  vertical  lines, -will 
complete  the  envelope  of  the  cylinder  B. 

Development  of  Oblique  Cylinders.  A 
method  of  drawing  the  envelope  of  this  is  shown 
in  86.  Let  ABCD  represent  the  cylinder  in  out- 
line, the  ends  being  circles,  as  shown  in  plan. 
Divide  the  "latter  into  any  convenient  number 
of  equal  parts,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  Project 
these  divisions  to  the  upper  plane  to  a,  b,  c,  d,  e, 
/.  <7,  D  and  C  being  the  boundaries.  Draw  lines 
D'A'  adjacent  to  DA,  and  parallel  with  DA. 
Draw  lines,  as  shown,  perpendicular  to  DA,  and 
starting  from  D,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  C.  Take  one  of  the 
equal  divisions  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  from  the  plan  with 
compasses,  and,  beginning  at  D',  set  it  off  first  to 
1',  cutting  the  perpendicular  from  a.  Then  set 
off  the  same  from  1'  to  2'  on  the  perpendicular 
from  b,  until  the  eighth  division  is  reached  at 
C',  aft<T  which  the  divisions  are  stepped  down 
to  7',  6',  5',  etc.,  until  D'  at  the  end  of  the  pattern 
is  readied.  A  line  drawn  through  these  points 
the  outline  corresponding  with  DC. 


For  the  other  edge,  take  the  slant  length  DA 
a,nd  set  it  off  on  all  the  lines  drawn  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  line  D'D',  and  draw  a  line  through 
the  points  of  intersection.  Then  A'B'A'  will 
give  the  outline  corresponding  with  the  edge 
AB  of  the  cylinder. 

An  Alternative  Method,  Another 
method  of  drawing  the  envelope  of  an  oblique 
cylinder  is  shown  in  87,  88  and  89.  The  cylinder 
differs  from  85  in  being  a  circular  one.  If  it 
were  not  circular,  the  method  to  be  described 
would  serve  equally  well. 

In  87,  ABCD  represents  the  oblique  cylinder 
in  elevation,  and  DE  [88]  is  the  plane  cutting 
it  at  right  angles  with  its  axis.  Prolong  the  sides 
AD,  BC  [87]  and  also  the  axis  Fc  upwards. 
Draw  the  line  GH  at  any  convenient  distance 
from  and  parallel  with  DE,  and  meeting  the 
prolonged  lines  AD,  BC  at  GH.  Divide  GH 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and 
through  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  draw  lines  parallel  with  the 
axis  Fc  of  the  cylinder.  Divide  the  axis  in  the 
plan  view  below,  projected  from  the  plane  DC 
above  to  D'C'  below,  into  the  same  number  of 
equal  parts  as  GH  above,  1',  2',  3',  4',  5',  6', 
and  draw  lines  through  these  at  right  angles 
with'  D'C',  meeting  the  upper  set  of  lines  at 
a,  $,  c.  d,  e.  The  ellipse  having  D'C'  for  its  major 
axis  may  have  been  described  by  the  method 
shown  in  a  previous  problem  [83]  by  divisions 
round  a  semicircle.  In  87  take  the  dimensions 
17',  I'/'  on  eacn  side  of  D'C',  and  set  these  off 
on  each  side  of  GH,  at  I/,  I/,  and  repeat 
the  operation  for  2'gr',  37i'.  etc.  A  curve 
GfghijHjihgfG  will  represent  the  true  section 
in  the  plane  DE. 

The  Envelope  of  the  Oblique 
Cylinder.  To  find  the  development  of  the 
envelope  of  87.  The  ends  are  ellipses,  as  shown 
in  the  lowe?  part  of  the  diagram.  The  cylindrical 
body  is  obtained  as  in  88  and  89. 

Fig.  88  is  the  upper  portion  of  87  repeated, 
but  with  new  divisions.  The  circular  plane  is 
divided  into  any  number  of  parts,  eight  on 
the  semicircle,  and  lines  are  drawn  from  these 
parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  oblique  cylinder, 
cutting  DC  at  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  /,  g,  and  prolonged 
to  DE. 

In  89,  draw  a  line  DD  equal  in  length  to  the 
circumference  of  DE  in  88,  by  setting  round  the 
equal  divisions  1  to  8  twice.  Draw  lines  through 
these  points  of  division  perpendicular  to  the 
line  DD.  Starting  from  D,  and  referring  to  88, 
take  the  distance  aa'  and  set  it  off  from  I  to  a 
[89].  Take  the  distance  &&',  and  set  it  off  from 
2  to  b  1 89],  and  so  on.  starting  from  each  end  D, 
until  at  the  centre  the  distance  8C  is  equal  to 
CE  in  88.  The  curve  drawn  through  D,  a,  b,  c, 
etc..  in  89  will  give  the  development  around  the 
plane  DC  in  88. 

Now  set  off  lengths  on  the  vertical  lines  from 
D,  a,  b.  c,  etc.,  each  equal  to  the  lengths  DA  or 
CB  in  88.  A  curve  ABA  drawn  through  the 
points  of  intersection  will  give  the  development 
around  the  plane  AB  in  88. 


Continued 


ITALIAN-FRENCH-SPANISH-ESPERANTO 

Italian  by  F.  de  Feo  ;  French  by  Louis  A.  Barb£,  B.A.  ;  Spanish  by 
Amalia  de  Albert    and  H.  S.  Duncan  ;  Esperanto  by  Harald  Cleg-g 


Group  18 

LANGUAGES 
34 

Continued  from  page  -1800 


ITALIAN 


By  Francesco  de  Feo 


IRREGULAR    VERBS 
Second  Conjugation— continued 

Verbs  in  ere  (short) — continued 
(Past  Def.  in  si.     Past  Part,  in  so  or  sto.) 

Intridere,  to  knead 
Past  Def. — Jntrisi,  intris  ,  intns&ro. 
Past  Part.—Intriso. 

Invadere,  to  invade 
Past  Def. — Invasi,  invase,  invdsero. 
Past  Part. — Invaso. 

Ledere,  to  offend 
Past  Def. — Lesi,  lese,  lesero. 
Past  Part.— Lc so. 

Mordere,  to  bite 
Past  Def. — Morsi,  morse,  morsero 
Past  Part.—Morso. 

Nascondere,  to  hide 
Past  Def. — Nascosi,  itascose,  nascoscro. 
Past  Part. — Nascosto. 

Perdere,  to  lose 

Past  Def.—Perdei,   perdetti,   persi;  perse,  perde, 
perdette  ;    perse.ro  and  perdettero. 
Past  Part. — Perso  «md  perduto. 

Prendere,  to  take 
Past  Def. — Presi,  prese,  presero. 
Past  Part.-Pre.so. 

Conjugate  like  prendere  :  intra  prendere,  to  un- 
dertake ;  sorprendere,  to  surprise. 

Radere,  to  shave 
Past  Def. — Rasi,  rase,  rdsero. 
Past  Part.—Raso. 

Rendere,  to  render 
Past  Def. — Pesi,  rese,  resero. 
Past  Part.—Reso. 
Conjugate  like  rendere  :  arrendersi,  to  surrender 

Ridere,  to  laugh 
Past  Def. — Risi,  rise,  rlsero. 
Past  Part.—Riso. 

Conjugate  like  ridere  ;  arrtdcre,  to  favour ; 
derldere,  to  laugh  at. 

Rispondere,  to  answer 
Past  Def. — Risposi,  rispose,  rispose.ro. 
Past  Part. — Risposto. 

Conjugate  like  rispondere :  corrispondcre,  to 
correspond. 

Rodere,    to    gnaw 
Past  Def. — Rosi,  rose,  rdsero. 
Past  Part.— Ro so. 
Conjugate  like  rodere  ;  corrodcrc,  to  corrode. 

Scendere,  to  go  down 
Past  Def. — Scesi,  scese,  scesero. 
Past    Part. — sceso. 
Conjugate  like  scendere  ;  accondiscenderc,  to  yield. 

Scindere,  to  separate 
Past  Def. — Scissi,  scisse,  sclssero 
Past  Part. — Scisso. 

The  compound  presclndere  (to  prescind)  makes 
in  the  Past  Def.  prescindei,  prcscindcsti,  etc. 
Presclndere  has  no  Past  Part, 


Spendere,  to  spend 

Past  Def. — Spesi,  spese,  spesero. 

Past  Part.—Speso. 

Conjugate  like  spendere  ;  sospendcre,  to  suspend. 
Tendere,  to  aim  at,  to  display 

Past  Def.—Tesi,  tcse,  tesero. 

Past  Part.—Teso. 

Conjugate  like  tendere  ; 
intendere,   to   understand,     soprintendcre,  to  super- 

to  hear  intend 

cstendere,  to  extend  contendere,  to  contend 

pretendere,  to  pretend  stenderc,  to  spread 

protendere,  to  stretch  out      sottintendcrc,  to   under- 
stand 
Uccidere,   to   kill 

Past  Def. — Uccisi,  uccisc,  uc.clscro. 

Past  Part.—Ucciso. 

EXERCISE  XLV. 

1.  II  povero  bambino  e  stato  morso  da  un 
cane.  2.  Ragazzi,  dove  avete  nascosto  il  cappello 
di  questo  signore  ?  3.  Abbiamo  gioeato  e,  seeondo 
il  solito,  abbiamo  perduto.  4.  Chi  ha  preso 
il  mio  temperino  ?  5.  Sono  sorpreso  della 
vostra  condotta.  6.  Fummo  sorpresi  alle  spalle 
e  dovemmo  arrenderci.  7.  Mi  sorprende  die 
non  abbiate  ancora  risposto  alia  mia  lettera. 
8.  Ho  speso  piu  di  quello  che  avrei  dovuto.  0.  I 
lavori  sono  stati  sospesi  fino  a  nuov'  ordine.  10. 
Avete  inteso  la  nuova  opera  di  Puccini  ?  11.  Vi 
ho  dato  due  mesi  di  stipendio.  Non  so  cosa  preten- 
dete  di  piu. 

ESERCTZIO  DI  LETTURA — continued 

Viva  e  moia,  son  le  parole  che  mandan  fuori  piu 
volentieri ;  e  chi  e  riuscito  a  persuaderli  che  un 
tale  non  meriti  d'essere  squartato'1',  non  ha  bisogno 
di  spender  piii  parole  per  convinccrli  che  sia  degno 
d'esser  portato  in  trionfo ;  attori,  spettatori, 
strumenti,  ostacoli,  seeondo  il  vento'-' ;  pronti 
anche  a  star  zitti,  quando  non  sentan  piii  grida 
da  ripetere,  a  finirla'3',  quando  manchino  gli 
istigatori(4>,  a  sbandarsi'5),  quando  molte  voci  ccn- 
cordi  e  non  contradett'e  abbiano  detto  :  andiamo  ; 
e  a  tornarsene  a  casa,  domandandosi  1'uno  con 
1'altro  :  cos'  e  stato  ?  Siccome  pero  questa  massa, 
avendo  la  maggior  forza,  la  puo  dare  a  chi  vuole. 
cosi  ognuna  delle  due  parti  attive  usa  ogni  arte 
per  tirarla  dalla  sua'"',  per  impadronirsene ;  sono 
quasi  due  anime  nemiche,  che  combattono  per 
entrare  in  quel  corpaccio,  e  farlo  movere:  fanno 
a  chi  sapra  sparger  le  voci  piu  atte  a  eccitar  le 
passioni,  dirigere  i  movimenti  a  favore  dell'  uno 
o  dell'  altro  intento  ;  a  chi  sapra  piu  a  proposito 
trovare  le  nuove(7>  che  riaccendano  gli  sdegni,  o  li 
affievoliscano'8',  risveglino  le  speranzc  o  i  terrori ; 
a  chi  sapra  trovare  il  grido,  che  ripetuto  dai  piu 
e  piu  forte,  esprima,  attest!  e  crei  nello  stesso 
tempo  il  voto  della  pluralitti,  per  1'una  o  per  1'altra 
parte. 

NOTES.  1.  To  be  quartered.  2.  They  are 
actors,  etc.,  just  as  the  wind  happens  to  blow. 
3.  To  give  up.  4.  When  there  is  no  one  to  prompt 

4937 


LANGUAGES-FRENCH 

them.  .">.  To  become  disbanded.  6.  To  draw  it  to 
their  side.  7.  To  hit  upon  the  news.  8.  To  weaken 
them. 

THE    ADVERB 

Adverbs  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs,  adjectives, 
and  other  adverbs,  as  :  Costui  parla  troppo,  He  talks 
too  much  ;  Quella  ragazza  e  molto  bella,  That  girl 
is  very  beautiful ;  Lei  parla  Vltaliano  molto  corrdta- 
mente,  You  speak  Italian  very  correctly. 

The  adverb  may  be  used  as  a  substantive,  and  very 
often  also  as  an  adjective.  Examples  :  Pensiamo 
alVoggi;  al  domani  qualche  santo  provvedera,  Let  us 
think  of  to-day ;  some  saint  will  provide  for  to- 
morrow. Un  mestiere  negli  anni  addietro  assai  lucroso, 
a  trade  (that  was)  very  lucrative  in  past  years. 

The  adverb  is  invariable. 

Adverbs  are  divided  into  several  classes :  adverbs 
of  quality,  manner,  time,  place,  quantity,  etc. 
Adverbs   of  Quality 

The  adverbs  of  quality  mostly  modify  verbs, 
and  are  formed  by  adding  the  substantive  mente 
to  the  feminine  singular  of  the  adjective.  Ex- 
amples :  caro,  dear ;  caramente,  dearly ;  sincero, 
sincere ;  sinceramente,  sincerely. 

The  adjective  is  made  feminine  because  it  must 
agree  with  the  substantive  mente,  which  is  feminine. 

1.  The  adjectives   ending   in  -e,  being .  of   both 
genders,  of  course  do  not  change  before  the  termina- 
tion mente.      Examples  :    forte,  strong ;  fortemente, 
strongly;    decente,  decent ;    dece.ntemente,  decently; 
diligente,  diligent ;    diligentemente,  diligently.     Ob- 
serve, however,  that   the   adjectives    ending  in-le 
and  -re  lose  the  final   e  if  they  are  preceded  by  a 
vowel.    Examples  :  fedele,  faithful;  fedelmente,  faith- 
fully ;  facile,  easy  ;    facilmente,   easily  ;    particolare, 
particular ;   particolarmente,  particularly. 

2.  But  if  -le  or  -re  are  preceded  by  a  consonant 
the  e  is  retained.     Examples :  follc ,  foolish ;   folle- 
mente,  foolishly  ;    acre,  harsh  ;    acrementc,  harshly. 

3.  Of  the  adjectives  in  -o,  leggero,  light,  drops  the 
final  o,  and  makes    leggcrmente.      The    masculine 
singular  of  many  adjectives  may  be  used  adverbi- 
ally,  as :   chiaro,   chiaramente,  clearly ;   forte,  forte- 
mente, strongly,  etc. 

4.  The  adverbs  admit  of  the  same  degrees  of  com- 
parison   as    the    adjectives    from    which    they    are 
formed.     The  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  mente 
to  the  superlative  feminine  of  the  adjective.     Ex- 
amples :  fortemente  (strongly ),comp.,piu  fortemente, 
superl.,  fortissimamente ;    elegantemente  (elegantly), 
comp.,  piu  elegantemente,  superl. ,  clegantissimamente, 
etc.     Instead  of  the  forms  fortissimamente,  elegan- 
tissimamente,     etc.,    the     periphrastic     expressions 
con  molta  forza,  con  molta  eleganza,  etc.  «re  often 


used.  The  superlative  may  also  be  expressed 
by  the  repetition  of  the  adverb,  as:  subito  snhilo, 
at  once  ;  piano  piano,  very  slowly  ;  forte  forte,  very 
strongly,  etc. 

5.  To  the  adjectives  with  irregular  comparatives 
and  superlatives  correspond  irregular  forms  of 
adverbs.  Exampbs :  adjectives,  buono,  migliore, 
ottimo ;  adverbs,  bene,  meglio,  ottimamente,  and 
benlssimo. 

(j.  Some  adverbs  may  also  take  diminutive  and 
augmentative  terminations,  as :  benino,  benonc., 
adagino,  etc. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XLIII. 
1.  See  whether  they  have  lighted  the  lamps 
in  the  dining-room.  2.  What  have  you  con- 
cluded ?  3.  They  hoped  to  obtain  who  knows 
what,  but  they  have  been  disappointed.  4. 
The  strikers  burned  a  large  quantity  of  corn. 
5.  He  asked  me  for  some  money,  but  I  did 
not  give  it  him.  6.  Shut  the  windows,  because 
a  great  storm  is  approaching.  7.  To-day  is  a 
holiday,  and  all  the  shops  are  shut.  8.  Every- 
one is  running  towards  the  church  ;  who  knows 
what  has  happened  ?  9.  They  decided  to 
start  at  once,  without  waiting  to  hear  from 
you.  10.  She  is  offended  because  we  have 
not  returned  her  visit.  11.  Italy  was  divided 
into  so  many  small  states.  12.  The  prisoner 
eluded  the  vigilance  of  the  guards  and  succeeded 
in  escaping.  13.  The  languages  were  confused. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XLIV. 
1.  Be  so  kind  as  to  tell  me  how  this  is  said  in 
English.  2.  When  we  arrived  in  the  church 
the  service  was  already  oter.  3.  Instead  of 
standing  here  doing  nothing,  you  had  much 
better  study  your  Italian  lesson.  4.  Have  you 
heard  from  Mr.  Charles  ?  5.  No,  we  haven't 
heard  any  more  of  him  ;  perhaps  he  is  not  in 
London.  6.  Leave  me  alone,  pray  ;  I  am  in  a 
bad  temper  to-day,  without  knowing  why. 
7.  If  you  happen  to  see  your  friend,  be  so  kind 
as  to  tell  him  to  come  to  me  this  evening, 
because  I  have  to  speak  to  him.  8.  I  am  sorry 
I  cannot  accompany  you  ;  I  have  to  write  some 
very  important  letters.  9.  According  to  me, 
the  hostilities  will  begin  again  in  the  spring. 
10.  What  is  the  use  of  these  tools  ?  11.  Help 
yourself,  sir  ;  as  you  see,  everything  is  ready. 
12.  What  is  the  use  of  dwelling  on  the  past  ? 
What  is  done  is  dene. 


Continued 


FRENCH 

Coiitinu 
page 

-d  from 
471* 

By 

Louis 

A. 

Barbe, 

B. 

A. 

DEFECTIVE    VERBS 

The  following  verbs  are  used  in  some  only  of 
their  tenses  : 

1.  Faillir,  to  fail,  to  miss,  to  escape  narrowly. 
Past  Part.,  failli,  from  which  all  the  compound 

tenses  may  be  formed.  In  practice,  the  use  of  this 
verb  is  limited  to  the  Past  Definite,  je  faillis,  etc., 
;md  tin;  /'d«t  Indefinite,  fai  failli,  etc.  11  a  failli 
en  mourir,  He  was  near  dying  of 'it. 

2.  Defaillir,    to     faint,     to     grow     weak,     is 
occasionally  used   in  the   plural  of  the  Ind.  Pres. — 
nous  tUfawons,  vrm«  d>'-fail/iz,  Us  defaillent. 

Imperf.—  je  def ail/a i«.       Past  Def.—je  defaillis. 
Past  Indef.—fai  de  failli. 


3.  Ferir,  to  strike,  is  used  in  the  single  expres- 
sion sans  coup  ff.rir,  without  striking  a  blow. 

4.  Gesir,  to  lie,   is  used  only   in   the    Present 
Part  id  file  — gisant. 

Ind.    Prts.—il  git,   noiis    gisons,    vous  gisez,    Us 
giscnt. 

Imperf.— je  gisais,  etc. 

Epitaphs  frequently  begin  with  Ci-git,  here  lies  — 
f'i-g'it   inn   femme.   Ah,   qu'elle  est  bien 
Pour  son  rcpos  et  pour  le  mien. 
Beneath  this  stone  my  wife  doth  lie  ; 
Now  she's  at  rest,  and  so  am  I. 


•>.  Ouir,  to  hear,  is  still  occasionally  used  in 
the  compound  tenses,  formed  with  the  Past  Parti- 
ciple— on'/.  It  is  usually  followed  by  dire — fal  ou'i 
dire,  I  have  heard  say;  The  old  Imperative  still 
subsists  in  the  English  criers'  "  O  Yes  !  "  corrupted 
from  oyez.  [See  ENGLISH,  page  1769.] 

6.  Querir,  to  fetch,  is  occasionally  used  in  the 
infinitive,  instead  of  cherchcr,  after  venir,  oiler 
and  envoy cr. 

I.  Saillir,  to  project,  saiUant,  sailli,  can  only 
be  used  in  the  third  person  singular  or  plural,  and 
has   no    Past    Definite  —il     saille,    Us   saillent ;     il 
saiflait,  etc.,  il  saillera,  etc.,  il  saitterait,  etc. 

8.  Choir,  to  fall ;   Past  Participle— chu. 

The  Future  chcrra  occurs  in  Perrault's  "  Fairy 
Tales."' 

9.  Dechoir,  to  fall  off,  decay,  dechu. 

10.  Echoir,  to  fall  due,  echeant,  cchu. 

Ind.  Prcs.  — il  echoit.  Past  Def.  — il  echut. 

Future —il  echerra.      Cond.  Pres.—il  echerrait. 

Subj.  Imperf.— qu'U  echut. 

II.  Seoir,  to  become,  to  befit;    seyant. 
Ind.  Pres.  — il  sizd,  Us  si-font. 

Imperf. — il  seyait,  Us  seyaient. 
Future — il  siera,  Us  sieront. 
Cond.  Pres.  — il  sierait,  Us  sieraient. 
Subj.  Pres. — quCil  siee,  quails  sieent. 

12.  Seoir,  to  be  situated,  scant,  sis,  sise. 

13.  .Surseoir,  to  put   off,   respite,   sursoyant, 
sursis,  is  conjugated  like  the  oi,  oy  form  of  asseoir — 
jesursois,  etc.,  but  has  the  Future  and  Conditional 
je  surseoirai,   etc.,   je  surseoirais,   etc.     It  is  used 
almost  exclusively  as  a  law  term. 

14.  Accroire,  to  believe,  is  used  only  in  the 
infinitive  after  faire,  in  the  expression  faire  accroire, 
to  make  someone  believe  what  is  not  true. 

15.  Braire,  to  bray. 

Ind.  Pres.  —il  bra  it,  Us  braicnt. 
Future — il  braira,  Us  brairont. 
Condit. — il  brairait,   Us  brairaicnt. 

10.  Bruire,  to  rustle,  to  murmur. 
Ind.   Pres. — il  bruit,  (Us  bruissent). 
Imperf.— il     bruissait,     Us    bruissaient,    and     il 
bruyqit,  Us  bruyaient. 

Subj.   Pres. — qidl  bruisse. 

17.  Clore,   to  close,  clos  is  used  in  all  its  com- 
pound tenses,  in  the   singular  of  the   Ind.  Pres.  — 
je  clos,  tu  clos,  il  dot,  and  in  all  the  persons  of  the 
Future  —je  dorai,  etc. ;   Cond.  —je  doirais,  etc.  ;  and 
Silbj.  Pres.  —que  je  dose,  etc.  » 

18.  Eclore,  to  be  hatched,  to  open  (of  flowers), 
is  used  in  the  third  person  singular  and  plural  of 
the  same  tenses,  and  of  all  the  compound  tenses, 
which  are  conjugated  with  ttre. 

19.  Frire,  to  fry,  is  commonly  conjugated  with 
the  different  tenses  of  faire,  to  make,  je  fais  frire, 
I  fry  (make  to  fry).     It  may,  however,  be  used  in 
the   singular    of   the   Ind.  Pres.  — je  fris,  tu  fris,  il 
frit;  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Future— je  frirai, 
etc. ;     the     Cond.     Pres.  — je    frirais,    and    in    the 
Imperat.  —second    person    singular— /n's. 

20.  Xraire,  to   milk,  tray  ant,  trait,  traite,  has 
no  Past  Definite. 

Ind.  Pres.  — je  trais,  tu  trais,  U  trait,  nous  trayons, 
rous  trayez,  Us  traient.  , 

Imperf. — je   trayais.         Future — je  trairai. 

Cond.  Pres.  —je  trairais 

Imperat. — trais,  qu'il  traie,  trayons,  trayez,  qii  Us 
traient. 


LANGUAGES- FRENCH 

Subj.  Pres. — quc  je  traie,  que  tu  traies,  qu'U 
traie,  que  nous  trayions,  que  rous  trayiez,  qidls 
traient. 

Abstraire,  to  abstract,  distraire,  to  divert,  distract, 
se  distraire,  to  amuse  oneself,  extraire,  to  extract, 
soustraire,  to  subtract,  and  se  sousfraire  (a),  to 
escape  from,  are  conjugated  like  traire. 

EXERCISE  XXXV. 

VOCABULARY 

un  arsenal,  arsenal  deplaire,  displease 

une  aventure,  adventure  descendre,  go  down 
le  bout,  end  determiner,  determine 

le  bruit,  noise  echapper  (.$'),  escape 

le  camarade,  comrade       ecouter,  listen 
le  chapon,  capon          .       egarer,  lead  astray 
le  charbonnier,  charcoal-  emporter,  to  carry  away, 

burner  take  away 

le  chemin,  road  entrer,  enter 

le  chevet,  head  (of  a  bed)  etendre,  to  stretch 
la  couronne,  crown  eveiller,  awaken 

le  couteau,  knife  examiner,  examine 

le  coutelas,  cutlass  hurler,  howl 

dejeuner,  breakfast       inviter,  invite 


le  diamant,  diamond 
le  dogue,  mastiff 
un  escalier,  staircase 
la  fente,  chink 
le  feu,  fire 
le  fusil,  gun 
la  gorge,  throat 


laisser,  leave 

marcher,  walk 

monterr  come  up 

omettre,  omit 

oser,  dare 

passer  (se),  pass  by,  go  by 

pendre,  hang 


une  hesitation,  hesitation  perdre,  lose,  undo 


un  hole,  host 

une  hotesse,  hostess 

le  j:imbon,  ham 

la  lampe,  lamp 

le  lendemain,  next  day 

le  lieu,  the  place 

la  mine,  appearance,  look  respirer,  breathe 

le  mot,  word  rester,  remain 

la  peine,  difficulty 

le  pistolet,  -pistol 

le  plafond,  ceiling 

le  sabre,  sword 

le  sens,  sense,  meaning    veUler,  watch 

le  sentier,  path  voyager,  travel 

le  so  in,  care 

le  souper,  supper 

le  soup$on,  suspicion 

la  tranche,  slice 

le  traversin,  bolster 

la  valise,  valise 


poser,  lay  down 
•prier,  request,  beg 
promettre,  promise 
raconter,  relate 
rassurer  (se),  regain  con- 
fidence 


retirer  (se),  retire 
saisir,  seize 
trouver,  find 
tuer,  kill 


ne  pas  se  faire  prier,  to 
require  no  pressing 


le  voyageur,  traveller 


practicable,  practicable 
precieux,  precious 
riche,  rich 


a  peine,  scarcely 
au  contraire,  on  the  con- 
trary 

au  dessous  de,  beneath 
aupres,  near 

haut,  upper  (after  noun)  aussitot,  immediately 
m,alheureux,  unhappy  autrement,  otherwise 
mont-agneux,  hilly,  moun-  dehors,  outside 

tainous  des  que,  as  soon  as 

pieds  nus,   barefooted       devant,  in  front,  ahead 
doucement,  gently 
du  mains,  at  least 
en  bas,  below,  downstairs 
eh  bien  !    well 
arriver,  to  arrive,  happen  enftn,     at     length,     now, 
causer,  to  chat  finally 

chercher,  to  seek,  look  for  pres  de,  near  to 
comprendre,  to     under-    tant  que,  as  long  as 

stand  tranquiliemcnt,  quietly 

consister,  to  consist  royons  !     let    us   see,    let 

coucher,  lie  down,  sleep       us  settle 
decouvrir,  uncover 

TRANSLATE  INTO  FRENCH 

In  a  letter  to  his  cousin    a  French  writer,  Paul 
Louis  Courier,  relates  a  terrible  adventure  which 

4939 


LANGUAGES-SPANISH 

happened  to  him  in  Italy  (Itnl'n-).  He  was  travelling 
in  Calabria  (Calnbrc)  with  a  friend.  It  is  a  hilly 
country,  and  the  horses  of  the  two  travellers 
walked  with  iiiueh  difficulty.  It  was  Courier's 
comrade  who  was  going  on  ahead.  He  saw  a  path 
which  seemed  to  him  more  practicable  and  shorter, 
took  it,  and  led  them  astray.  As  long  as  it  was 
(made)  clay  they  looked  for  their  road;  but  the 
more  they  sought,  the  more  they  lost  themselves, 
and  it  was  black  night  when  they  arrived  near  (to) 
a  very  black  house.  They  entered  it  (y),  not 
without  suspicion,  and  only  because  they  could 
not  do  otherwise.  There  they  find  a  whole  family 
of  charcoal-burners  at  table,  to  which  (ou)  the 
two  travellers  were  immediately  invited.  "  My 
young  man  did  not  require  to  be  pressed,"  says 
Courier.  "There  we  were  eating  and  drinking— he, 
at  least ;  for  as  to  (pour)  me,  I  was  examining  the 
place  and  the  appearance  of  our  hosts.  Our  hosts 
had,  indeed  (bien),  the  looks  of  charcoal-burners  ; 
but  the  holism — you  would  have  taken  it  for  an 
arsenal.  There  was  nothing  but  (ce  n'etaient  que) 
guns,  pistols,  swords,  knives,  cutlasses."  All  this 
displeased  him,  and  he  saw  plainly  (bien)  that  he 
was  displeasing  too.  His  comrade,  en  the  contrary, 
was  (one)  of  the  family ;  he  laughed,  he  chatted, 
he  said  whence  he  came,  where  he  was  going,  who 
he  was.  To  (pour)  omit  nothing  that  (of  what) 
could  undo  him,  he  played  the  rich  (man),  promised 
the  charcoal-burners  all  they  wanted  to  serve  (to) 
him  as  guides  next  day.  Finally,  he  spoke  of  his 
valise,  begged  them  to  tike  great  care  of  it  and 
to  put  it  at  the  head  of  his  bed.  He  did  not  want, 
he  said,  any  other  bolster.  The  charcoal-burners 
must  have  thought  (believed)  that  he  was  carrying 
the  crown  diamonds.  When  the  supper  was 
finished,  the  hosts  went  down  and  left  the  travellers, 
who  were  to  sleep  in  the  upper  room  where  they 
(on)  had  eaten.  The  younger  of  the  two  lay  down 
without  the  least  hesitation  (with)  his  head  on  the 
precious  valise.  The  other,  determined  to  watch, 
made  a  good  fire,  and  sat  near  (it).  The  night 
passed  quietly,  and  he  was  beginning  to  regain 
confidence,  when  about  the  hour  when  (ou)  it  seemed 
to  him  that  the  day(light)  could  not  be  far,  he 
heard  someone  speaking  beneath  him.  He  listened-. 
It  was  the  charcoal-burner,  who  was  saying  to  his 
wife  :  "  Well,  now,  let  us  settle ;  must  I  kill  them 
both  ?  "  The  unhappy  traveller  remained  scarcely 
breathing  ;  to  see  him,  one  would  not  have  known 
whether  he  was  dead  or  alive  (living).  He  dared 
not  call  or  make  any  noise  ;  he  could  not  escape 
all  alone.  The  window  was  not  very  high,  but 
below  there  were  two  mastiffs,  which  were  howling 
like  wolves.  At  the  end  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
which  seemed  to  him  very  long,  he  heard  someone 
on  the  staircase,  and  through  the  chinks  of  the 
door  he  saw  the  father,  (with)  his  lamp  in  one  hand, 
in  the  other  one  of  his  big  knives.  The  charcoal- 
burner  came  up,  his  wife  after  him.  He  opened 
the  door ;  but  before  entering  he  laid  down  the 
lamp,  which  his  wife  came  and  took;  then  he 


entered  barefooted,  and  she  from  outside  said  to 
him  :  "  Gently,  go  gently."  When  he  had  come 
near  the  bed  where  the  poor  young  man  was 
stretched,  offering  his  uncovered  throat,  with  (dc) 
one  hand  he  raised  his  knife  and  with  the  other  — 
he  seized  a  ham  which  was  hanging  from  the 
ceiling,  cut  a  slice  of  it,  and  retired  as  he  had  come. 
As  soon  as  day(light)  appeared,  all  the  family, 
with  (a)  great  noise  came  and  awakened  the  travel- 
lers. A  very  clean  and  very  good  breakfast  was 
served.  It  consisted  of  two  capons,  of  which  they 
must,  said  the  hostess,  take  one  away  (with  them) 
and  eat  the  other.  On  (en)  seeing  them,  Courier 
vinderstood,  at  length,  the  meaning  of  those  terrible 
words  :  "  Must  I  kill  them  both  ?  " 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XXXIV. 

1.  La  petite  Marie,  assise  dans  un  fauteuil,   lisait 
Thistoire   du    Petit   Chaperon    Rouge. 

2.  Quand  la  pauvre  fille  avait  fait  son  ouvrage, 
elle  allait  s'asseoir  dans  les  cendres,  c'est  pourquoi 
on    I'appelait    Cendrillon. 

3.  Ne  vous  asseyez  pas  sur  1'herbe,  elle  est  humide  ; 
vous  vous  enrlmmeriez. 

4.  11  parlait  a  chaque  instant  de  s%en  aller,  mais 
il  se  -rasseyait   toujours,   et  nous  ne  pouvions   (pas) 
nous  debarrasser  de  lui. 

5.  Pour  ernouvoir  ses  auditeurs  il  faut  que  1'orateur 
soit  emu  lui  meme  ;    on  n'emeut  pas  sans  etre  emu. 

6.  Une  armee  est  un   corps   anim6  d'une   infinite 
de    paHsions    differentes    qu'un    homme    habile    fait 
mouvoir  pour  la  defense  de  la  patrie. 

7.  Lorsqu'on   ne   peut   faire   ce   que   Ton   veut,   il 
faut  essayer  de  vouloir  ce  que  Ton  peut. 

8.  Nous    parlons    peu    quand    la    vanite    ne    nous 
fait  pas  parler. 

9.  Nous  oublions  aisement  nos  fautes,  lorsqu'elles 
ne  sont  sues  que  de  nous. 

10.  La  parfaite  valeur  est  de  faire  sans  temoins 
ce  qu'on  serait  capable  de  faire  devant  tout  le  monde. 

11.  Les  personnes  faibles  ne  peuvent  etre  sinceres. 

12.  Nous  sommes  plus  pres  d'aimer  ceux  qui  nous 
haissent,   que  ceux   qui  nous  aiment  plus   que  nous 
ne  voulons. 

13.  Un  philosophe  a  dit  que  peu  de  gens  savent 
etre  vieux. 

14.  La  vanite  nous  fait  faire  plus  de  choses  centre 
not  re  gout  que  la  raison. 

15.  Ce  que  nous  savons  est  peu  de  chose  en  com- 
paraison  de  ce  que  nous  ne  savons  pas  ;  et  quelquefois 
meme  ce  que  nous  ne  savons  pas  est  justement   co 
que  nous  devrions  savoir. 

16.  Savoir  qu'on  ne  sait  rien,  c'est  savoir  beaucoup. 

17.  L'homme  qui  se  vend  est  toujours  pave  plus 
qu'il  ne  vaut. 

18.  Les  grandes  pensees  viennent  du  cceur. 

19.  Le  proverbe  nous  dit  que  tout  vient  a  point 
&  qui  sait  attendre. 

.20.  Nous  disons  du  bien  de  nos  amis  .pour  deux 
raisons  ;  d'abord  pour  qu'ils  apprenneiit  que  nous 
disons  du  bien  d'eux,  et  ensuite  pour  qu'ils  discnt 
clu  bien  de  nous. 

21.  Ce     qu'une     judicieuse     preVoyance     n'a     pu 
niettre  dans  1'esprit  des  hommes,  une  maitresse  plus 
imperieuse,  je  veux  dire  1'experience,  les  a  forces  do 
le  croire. 

22.  Dites-nous  ce  qu'il  faut  faire  et  nous  le  ferons 
immediatement. 


Continued 


I  SPANISH 


By  Amalia  de  Albert!  &  H.  S.  Duncan 


ADVERBS 

Adverbs  nrc  simple,  derivative,  or  compound. 
•They  qualify  nouns,  verbs,  or  other  adverbs,  and 
denote  time,  place,  manner,  quantity,  affirmation, 
negation,  or  doubt. 

Simple  adverbs  consist  of  a  single  word,  as  pro  nlo, 
soon ;  liwjo,  directly. 

4940 


Derivative  adverbs  are  formed  by  adding 
to  adjectives,  according  to  the  following  rules. 
Formation   of   Derivative    Adverbs 

1.  With  adjectives  ending  in  o,  mente  is  affixed 
to  the  feminine  form.       Example  : 

cicrto,  certain  ciertamente,  certainly 

oryulloso,  proud  orgullosamentc,  proudly 


2.  With  adjectives  having  one  ending  for  both 
genders    matte    is    simply   added    to    the    ordinary 
termination.     Example : 

fdiz,  happy  felizmente,  happily 

prudenle,  prudent         prudentemente,  prudently 
cortes,  courteous  cortesmente,  courteously. 

3.  Mente  can  never  be  added  to  adjectives  not 
ending  in  o  which  have  a  feminine  form,  as  traidor, 
traidora,    treacherous.     These    can    only    be    used 
adverbially  with  the  phrase  de  una  manera. 

Example  :  De  una  manera  traidora,  treacherously, 
or,  in  a  treacherous  manner. 

4.  Most  adverbs  in  mente  can  be  turned  into  an 
adverbial  phrase  in  this  way  if  they  denote  manner. 

Example  :  Prudentemente,  prudently,  or,  de  una 
manera  pnidente,  in  a  prudent  manner. 

5.  These   adverbs   can   also  be   replaced   by   the 
preposition    con    and    a    noun.        Example :     Con 
prudencia-,  with  prudence. 

When  several  adverbs  follow  each  other  in  a 
sentence,  mente  is  only  added  to  the  last. 

Example  :  Franca^  justa  y  claramente,  frankly, 
justly,  and  clearly. 

Compound  Adverbs.  Compound  adverbs 
are  adverbial  expressions  composed  of  two  or  more 
words.  Examples : 

de  golpe,  suddenly  d  veces,  sometimes 

de  nuei-o,  anew  d  menudo,  often 

de  proposito,  purposely    en  lo  sucesivo,  henceforward 
a  porfia,  persistently        con  todo,  notwithstanding 

Adverbs  of  Time 
cuando,  when  temprano,  early 

ahora,  now  tarde,  late 

entonces,  then  antes,  before 

ayer,  yesterday  despues,  afterwards 

hoy,  to-day  yd,  already 

manana,  to-morrow  fodavia,  still 

siempre,  for  ever,  always     nunca,  never 
The  adverb  of  time,   recientemente,   recently,   is 
shortened  to  recien    before  a  participial  adjective. 
Example  : 

Mario  recientemente,  He  died  recently. 

Los  recien  casados.  The  newly-married  couple. 

El  nino  recien  nacido,  The  new-born  child. 

Adverbs  of  Place 
aqui,  here  end  ma,  above 

alii,  ahi,  there  debajo,  beneath 

acd,  hither  cerca,  near 

olid,  thither  lejos,  far 

adelante,  forward  adentro,  inwardly 

donde,  where  dentro,  within 

atrds,  backward  fuera,  afuera,  without 

arriba,  up  enfrente,  opposite 

abajo,  do\vn  junto,  near,  next  to 

1.  Aqui  and  alii  are  used  with  verbs  of  rest,  acd 
and  olid  with    verbs  of  action,  and  ahi  with  either. 

2.  Aqui   and    acd   denote    the    place    where    the 
speaker  is,  ahi  the  place  where  the  person  addressed 
is,  alii  and  alia  some  other  place  remote  from  both. 

3.  The  meaning  of   donde,  is  specialised  by  pre- 
positions,    i  A  donde  van  ?  Where  are  they  going  ? 
I  For  donde  pasa  ?    Which  way  does  he  go  ?     La 
ciudad  en  donde  nacio,  The  city  where  (or  in  which) 
he  was  born. 

Donde  assumes  an  accent  when  interrogative. 

Adverbs  of  Manner 
como,  how  redo,  strongly,  rapidly 

em,  so  quedo,  softly,  gently 

bien,  well  casi,  nearly,  almost 

mal,  badly  cast  casi,  very  nearly 

alto,  aloud  mejor,  better" 

bajo,  low  peor,  worse 

Most  adverbs  in  mente  are  also  adverbs  of  manner. 


LANGUAGES-SPANISH 

Adverbs  of  Quality 

cuanto,  how  much  dcmasiado,  too,  too  much 

mucho,  much  md*,  more 

muy,  very  Mrto,  sufficiently 

poco,  little  algo,  somewhat 

bastante,  enough  como,  how,  as 

apenas,  scarcely,  hardly  ademds,  besides 

1.  Care  must  be  taken   in  the  use  of  muy  and 
mucho.     The    English    "  very    much  ''     cannot    be 
translated   "  muy  mucfio,"   but   must  be  rendered 
by  the  superlative  of  mucho  —  i.e.,-  muchisimo. 

2.  Muy   qualifies   adjectives,    adverbs,    and   ad- 
verbial  phrases.     It  can   never   stand   alone,    but 
is  replaced  by  mucho.     Examples: 

Es  muy  rico,  He  is  very  rich.  $  Es  muy  rico  ?  Si 
m  ucho,  Is  he  very  rich  ?  Yes,  very. 

Esturo  mmi  enfermo,  pero  estd  muchisimo  mejor, 
He  was  very  ill,  but  he  is  very  much  better. 

Adverbs     of     Affirmation,     Negation, 
and  Doubt 

si,  yes  acaso  \ 

no,  no  talvez   j-  perhaps 

nunca,  never  quizdsj 

jamds,  ever,  never  apenas,  hardly 

siempre,  always  probablemente,  probably 

por  cierto,  certainly  dificilmente,  improbably 
por  supuesto,  of  course  ya  no,  not  now;  no  more 
nada,  not  at  all 

1.  With  some  verbs  si,  yes,  requires  the  conjunc- 
tion que,  that.    Examples  :  Digo  que  si,  I  say  "  yes." 
Temo  que  no,  I  fear  not.     Creo  que  si,  I  believe  so. 

2.  The  negative  terms  nunca  and  jamds  may  be 
used  together  to  emphasise  a  negative,  and  should 
be  translated    "  never  again/'     Example  :     No  le 
escribire  nunca  jamds,  I  will  never  write  to  him  again. 

3.  WThen  the  negative  terms  ni,  neither,  nor  ;  nin- 
guno,  none  ;    nunca,  jamds,  never  ;    nada,  nothing, 
follow  the  verb,  no  is  required,  but  not  -when  they 
precede  it.     Examples  : 


No  tengo  ni  vino  ni  agua\I  have  neither  wine  nor 
Ni  vino  ni  agua  tengo     )  water. 

Degrees  of  Comparison 

Adverbs  form  their  degrees  of  comparison  like 
adjectives,  but  without  variation  in  gender  and 
number. 

POSITIVE  —  Claro,  clearly  ;  cerca,  near. 

COMPARATIVE  —  Mas  claro,  more  clearly  ;  mas  cerca, 
nearer. 

RELATIVE  SUPERLATIVE  —  (Lo)  mas  claro,  the  most 
clearlv  ;  (lo}  mas  cerca,  the  nearest 

ABSOLUTE  SUPERLATIVE  —  Clarisimo,  very  clearly  ; 
cerquisimo,  very  near. 

1.  The    article    is    not    used    with    the    relative 
superlative  in  the  case  of  adverbs,   but   the   sense 
plainly    shows    whether    this    or    the    comparative 
is  intended. 

2.  The  absolute  superlative  of  adverbs  in  mente 
is   formed   by   changing   the   adjective   superlative 
isirno   into  isimamente.     Examples  : 
Doctamente,  learnedly,  doctisimamente,  very  learnedly. 

3.  The  forms  of  comparison  are  :    Mas  felizmente 
que,  more  happily  than  ;    menos  felizmente  que,  less 
happily  than  ;   "fan  felizmente  como,  as  happily  as. 

4.  The  following  adverbs  form  their  degrees  of 
comparison  irregularly. 

POSITIVE  —  Mucho,  much  ;  poco,  little  ;  bien, 
well  ;  mal,  badly. 

COMPARATIVE  —  Mas,  more  ;  menos,  less  ;  mejor  t 
better  ;  peor,  worse. 

4941 


LANGUAGES-SPANISH 

lli.i.v TIN  i:  Si  PKiiLATivE — (Lo)  inns,  the  IIK»<  : 
(lo)  menos,  the  least ;  (lo)  mejor,  the  best ;  (lo)  peor, 
the  worst. 

ABSOLUTE  SUPERLATIVE — MucJtitfinw,  very  much; 
poquisimo,  very  little  ;  malisimo,  very  badly. 

Adverbial    Phrases 

a  la  cturii.  openly,  manifestly 

d  la  larga,  in  the  long  run 

a  la  lit/era,  lightly,  superficially 

al  momenta;  instantly,  at  once 

por  lo  mas,  at  most 

por  lo  menos,  at  least 

de  buena  gana,  willingly 

de  todo  punto,  wholly 

en  seguida,  directly,  presently 

d  cieyas,  blindly 

por  si  acdso,  in  case 

aHora  mixmo,  this  very  moment 

muy  d  la  moda,  very  fashionably 

al  reves,  on  the  contrary,  quite  the  opposite 

de  reves,  from  left  to  right 

muy  de  prisa,  in  great  haste 

camino  adelante,  onward 

anos  atrds,  years  ago,  long  ago 

cuesta  arriba,  uphill 

d  mas  correr,  at  full  speed 

d  mas  no  poder,  with  all  one's  might 

cuanto  ante*,  as  soon  as  possible 

de  cvando  en  cimndo}  d    } 

de  vez  en  ciuindo        ) 

de  pfirte  d  parte,  through  and  through 

hoy  dia,  nowadays 

tanto  mas  6  menos,  so  much  more  or  less 

tanto  mejor,  so  much  the  better 

tanto  peor,  so  much  the  worse 

entretanto,  in  the  meantime 

algun  tanto,  a  little 

tanto  me  gusta,  I  like  it  so  much 

por  tanto,  therefore 

EXERCISE  XIX.  (1) 
Translate  the  following  into  Spanish: 

1.  It  is  certain  that  his  conduct  gave  proof  of 
valour.     Certainly  nobody  would  have  believed  it. 

2.  He  proudly  refused  the  reward  offered  him ;  in 
this  case  his  pride  was  just. 

3.  He  was  very  pleased  with  the  present  they 
made  him.     Was  he  pleased  ?     Very  pleased. 

4.  Very  many  people  thronged  to  see  the  pro- 
cession. 

[Do  not  use  the  superlative  :  it  would  be  sufficient 
to  say,  many  people  thronged.] 

5.  He  was  always  lazy,  and  he  will  never  correct 
himself  of  this  fault.     Let  us  not  lose  hope  ;    per- 
haps with  age  he  will  correct  it.     Perhaps  it  may 
be  so,  but  I  fear  not. 

0.  He    gave    proof    of    being    prudent    in    with- 
drawing from  the  contest.       I  should  say  he  pru- 
dently withdrew,  as  his  disadvantage  was  clear. 

7.  I  do  not  deny  that  he  is  courteous,  but  he  is 
not  an  agreeable  person,  and  I  should  like  to  bid 
him  farewell  courteously. 

8.  Our  friend  died  recently,  and  also  the  newborn 
baby. 

ExEKrisK   XTX.    (2) 
Translate  the  following  into  English  : 

1.  Feliz  es  el   que   pasa  una  vida   tranquila  sin 
grandes  acontecimientos,    muchos   tienen   la  dicha 
de  que  esto  Ics  SIK •»•<!, i. 

2.  Apenas    hubo   heredado  una  gran  for  tuna,  la 
derrocho. 

4942 


3.  Probablemente   el   publico  nos   prodigani   sus 
alabanzas   cuando   sepa   lo   que   hemos   hecho,   sin 
comprender  los  motivos  que  nos  impelieron. 

4.  Nuestro    amigo    se    acuesta    temprano    y    se 
levanta  tarde. 

5.  De   arriba   abajo,    dentro   y   fuera,    de    aqui, 
alii,  sin  cesar  todo  el  dia,  hasta  que  nos  cansamos 
de  verlo,  y  cerramos  la  puerta,  y  temo  que  jamas 
nos  perdone  la  afrenta. 

6.  Doctamente   nos   hizo  un   discurso,   explican- 
donos  varios  asuntos  doctisimamente  expuestos.  pei  <» 
sumamente  fasticlioso.s. 

7.  Dio  poco  mas  6  menos  todo  lo  que  poseia  a 
los  pobres  y  esto  era   poquisimo ;   de  buena  gan  i 
hubiera  yo  anadido  algo,  pero  temi  ofenderle. 

8.  El  cuarto  se  lleno  de  humo,  y  a  ciegas  busque 
la  puerta. 

9.  Al  momento  que  le  vi  Ic  conoci,  y  de  seguida  le 
hable. 

t  PPvOSE    EXTRACT   XV. 


From  l'  Notas  sobre  el 
tanico  en  el 
The  problem  of  trans- 
port is  of  vital  import- 
ance for  Spain,  and,  until 
it  is  solved,  it  is  useless 
to  think  of  the  mercan- 
tile and  industrial  de- 
velopment of  the  Penin- 
sula. Very  special  atten- 
tion has  been  and  is 
being  devoted  to  this 
subject  abroad.  In  the 
United  States,  for  ex- 
ample, one  of  the  reasons 
which  has  made  possible 
the  extraordinary  de- 
velopment of  the  metal 
industry,  apart  from  the 
possession  of  abundant 
iron  ore  and  coal  mines, 
is  found  in  the  great 
facilities  and  economy  of 
their  excellent  system  of 
communication,  not  only 
by  rail,  but  also  by  sea 
and  river,  which  shortens 
the  distances  to  an  amaz- 
ing extent  between  the 
mineral -producing  cen- 
tres and  the  coalfields,  it 
being  almost  incredible 
in  Spain  that  in  the 
principal  centres  of  the 
metal  industry  in  the 
United  States,  such 
as  Pittsburg,  Chicago, 
Youngstown,  and  Weel- 
ing,  the  mineral  and  the 
fuel  employed  are  some- 
times separated  one  from 
another  by  a  distance  of 
800  to  1,000  miles.  The 
deficiency  of  Spain,  as 
regards  this  important 
question  of  railways,  is 
mo-t  clearly  shown  up  if 
we  consider  that  the 
Peninsula,  with  a  terri- 
tory of  404,000  square 
kilometres  in  extent,  lias 
onlv  13.000  kilometres  of 


Comercio    Hispano-Bri- 

ano  1904." 

El  problema  de  trans- 
portes  es.de  vital  impor- 
tancia  para  Espana,  y. 
mientras  no  se  resuelva, 
es  inutil  pensar  en  el 
desarrollo  mercantil  <.'• 
industrial  dela  Peninsula. 
En  el  extranjero,  se  ha 
prestado  y  presta  a  dicho 
asunto  especialisima 

atencion.  En  los  Estados 
Unidos,  por  ejemplo,  una 
de  las  razones  que  ha 
hecho  posible  el  extra - 
ordinario  desarrollo 

adquirido  por  la  industria 
metal  urgica  esta,  a  parte 
de  la  posesion  de  abun- 
dante  mineral  dc  hierro  y 
de  minas  de  carbon,  en 
las  grandes  facilidades  y 
economia  del  excelente 
sistema  de  transporter, 
tanto  ferreos  como  mari- 
timo.s  y  fluviales,  que 
permite  acortar  las  dis- 
tancias  de  un  modo 
asombr.oso  entre  lo.s 
centres  productores  de 
mineral  y  los  yacimientos 
de  carbon,  siendo  casi 
inconcebible  en  Espana 
el  que  en  centros  princi- 
pales  de  la  industri-i 
metalurgica  de  los 
Estados  Unidos,  tales 
como  Pittsburg,  Chicago. 
Youngstown  y  Weeling. 
el  mineral  y  el  combus- 
tible empleado  hallanse 
a  veces  separado  uno  de 
otro  por  una  distanei  i 
de  800  a  1,000  millas. 
La  deficiencia  de  Espana, 
respecto  a  esta  impor- 
tante  cuestion  de  vias 
ferreas,  aparece  con  toda 
evidencia  si  pensamos 
que  la  Peninsula,  con  un 
territorio  de  404.000  kilo- 


railway,  while  Great  metros  cuadrados  de  ex- 
Britain,  with  a  smaller  tension,  cuenta  sola- 
area—  viz.,  314,000  square  mente  con  13,000  kilo- 
kilometres,  has  a  network  metros  de  ferrocarriles, 
of  railways  of  nearly  mientras  que  la  Gran 
40,000  kilometres.  Bretaiia,  con  un  terri- 

torio  menor,  6  sea  de 
314,000  kilometres  cua- 
drados, tiene  una  red  de 
caminos  de  hierro  de 
cerca  de  40,000  kilo- 
metros. 

It  is  true  that  the  Es  cierto  que  la  con- 
geological  formation  of  stitucion  geologica  de  la 
the  Peninsula  renders  the  Peninsula  dificulta  mucho 
construction  of  such  com-  la  obra  de  las  comunica- 
munication  very  difficult  ciones  y  la  hace  suma- 
and  extremely  costly,  as  mente  costosa,  pues  el 
the  average  cost  of  the  coste  medio  por  kilo- 
railway  per  kilometre  in  metro  de  los  ferrocarriles 
the  mountainous  districts  en  los  distritos  nion- 
of  Spain  is  between  tanosos  de  Espana 
120,000  and  150,000  asciende  de  120,000  a 
pesetas.  For  this  reason  150,000  pesetas  proxi- 
we  do  not  found  any  great  mamente.  Por  esta 

hopes  on  the  light  rail  way  razon       no       fundamos 
scheme  recently  promul-   grandes  esperanzas  en  la 
gated,        because        the  ley  de  ferrocarriles  secun- 
guarantee  of  4  per  cent,   darios   promulgada   ulti- 
on  the  basis  of  a  capital-   mamente,       porque       la 
isation  of  50,000  pesetas  garantia   de   4%,  sobre 
per  kilometre   is   insufli-   la    base     de    una    capi- 
cent  for  the  greater  part  talizacion       de       50,000 
of  the  proposed  lines.         pesetas  por  kilometre,  es 
insuficiente       para       la 
mayor  parte  de  las  lineas 
proyectadas. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XVIII.    (1) 


LANGUAGES— ESPERANTO 

3.  Maldiciendo  su  suerte,  se  suicide. 

4.  Bendigamos  la  providencia  por  sus  beneficios. 

5.  Oigamos  el  buen  consejo   que  nos  es  dado, 
y  despues  de  oido  sigamoslo. 

6.  Venid  cuando  el  deber  os  llama,  y  al   hacerlo 
(doing  so)  regocijarse. 

7.  El  mundo  nos  ha  absuelto  de  toda  culpa. 

8.  El  hijo  de  la  Sefiora  de  T.  esta  deformado. 

9.  Un  despota  oprime  a  los  que  lo  rodean,  pero 
oprimiendo  se  hace  aborrecer. 

10.  Prendieron  al  asesino.    Fue  preso  despues  de 
ofrecer  mucha  resistencia. 

11.  Hay  una  tienda  que  se  dice  ser  "  proveedor 
general."    Ha  provisto  a  muchos  desde  la  cuna  hast  a 
la  sepultura. 

12.  Se  ha  roto  mi  reloj,  y  el  criado  rompio  el 
vaso  despues  de  romper  la  fuente. 


r 


1.  No  se  puede  decir  "De  esta  agua  no  bebere." 

2.  Vain  os  esta  noche  al  teatro.     Iremos  en  coche. 


KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XVIII.  (2) 

1.  Old  chests  are  found  in  Holland,  carved  with 
great  skill,  which  are  much  prized. 

2.  Cupid's  quiver  is  full  of  treacherous  arrows. 

3.  I  went  to  the  florist  and  bought  choice  and 
sweet-smelling  flowers. 

4.  The  cat  scratched  me  with  its  claws. 

5.  The  art  of  spinning  has  gone  out  of  fashion. 
In  olden  times  even  queens  spun,   and  with  the 
thread  produced  by  their  wheels  they  wove  very 
fine  linen. 

6.  That  man  thinks  himself  a  first-class  writer, 
and  he  is  so  illiterate  that  all  his  quotations  are 
incorrect. 

7.  To  inflame  the  evil  passions  of  our  neighbour 
is  an  infamy. 

8.  Moss,    ferns,    and    wild   grass   are    found   on 
mountain  sides. 

9.  Sometimes  pebbles  of  a  certain  value  are  found 
in  the  sand  on  the  seashore. 

10.  We  put  the  apples  and  pears  to  ripen. 

Continued 


ESPERANTO 


Continued  frc 
page  4800 


By  Harald  Clegg 


PRONOUNS 

Possessive        Pronouns. 

These  are  formed  from  the  per- 
sonal pronouns  simply  by  the 
addition  of  a.  Mia,  my,  mine  ; 
•via,  your,  yours ;  ilia,  their, 
theirs,  etc.  Being  adjectival,  they 
follow  the  general  rule  of  taking 
j  for  the  plural,  and  n  for  the 
accusative.  The  only  pronoun 
which  does  not  submit  itself  to  any 
of  the  above  changes  is  oni.  It  is 
always  used "  in  the  nominative 
case.  In  translating  the  English 
words,  mine,  yours,  theirs,  and  so 
on,  the  article  may,  if  preferred, 
be  employed.  Examples : 

Mi  havas  viajn  librojn,  haj  vi 
havas  (la)  miajn,  I  have  your 
books  and  you  have  "mine.  Sia 
flo  frapis  (la)  mian,  Her  son 
struck  mine. 

Viaj  amikoj  estas  malbonaj,  la 
miaj  estas  bonaj,  Your  friends 
are  bad,  mine  are  good. 


Reflexive  Pronouns.  Iho 

pronouns,  sia,  sian,  siajn,  formed 
from  si,  will  demand  careful  atten- 
tion, and  as  they  are  dealt  with 
fully  in  another  lesson,  the  exer- 
cises at  the  end  of  this  lesson  will 
avoid  their  use. 

NUMERALS 

Cardinal  Numbers.  These 
are  unu  (1),  du  (2),  tri  (3),  kvar 
(4),  levin  (5),  ses  (6),  sep  (7),  ok  (8), 
nau  (9),  dele  (10),  cent  (100),  mil 
(1,000),  which,  being  root  words, 
are  invariable.  Nitlo  represents  0, 
and  being  a  noun  is  declined  in 
the  usual  way.  To  form  tens,  the 
above  digits  are  prefixed  to  the 
word  dek:  Dudek  (20),  kvardek 
(40),  sesdek  (60),  naudek  (90) ;  and 
to  form  the  hundreds,  thousands, 
and  millions,  the  same  process  is 
adopted :  Jcvincent  (500),  kvardek- 
mil  (40,000). 

The  intermediate  numbers  are 
placed  after  the  tens,  hundreds, 


thousands,  and  millions,  thus  :  dek 
tri  (13),  kvindek  sep  (57),  cent 
tri  (103),  mil  naucent  kvin  (1905), 
centmil  dek  (100,010).  Examples: 

La  knabo  vidis  dek  du  aglojn, 
The  boy  saw  twelve  eagles.  Jen 
estas  cent  funtoj  sterlingaj  por 
vi,  Here  is  one  hundred  pounds 
sterling  for  you.  Mi  haras  unu 
filon  kaj  ses  jratojn,  I  have  one 
son  and  six  brothers. 

All  the  above  numbers  may  take 
the  substantival  form  by  adding  o, 
when  they  may  further  use  the 
final  /  and  n  :  unuo,  a  unit ;  duo, 
a  pair  ;  dekduo,  a  dozen  ;  cento,  a 
hundred.  Examples : 

Miloj  da  homoj,  Thousands  of 
men.  Mi  acetis  dekduon  da  ovoj, 
I  bought  a  dozen  eggs. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  using  this 
noun  form  the  preposition  da  is  em- 
ployed before  the  complement. 
Never  say,  Mi  ha-ras  dudekon 
pomojn  for  "  I  have  a  score  of 

4943 


LANGUAGES-ESPERANTO 

;I|IJ)'H-S.V  (>nt  always  adopt  one  of 
the  two  following  forms  :  Mi  havas 
dxdck  porno jn  ;  mi  hctvas-  dudekon 
da  porno j. 

Ordinal  Numbers.  These 
are  formed  by  addng  a  to  the 
aliove  cardinal  numbers,  and  the 
rr-ultant  words  become  adjectives. 
Of  course,  if  an  ordinal  number 
is  composed  of  several  words, 
such  as  naudek-kvin  the  terminal 
a  is  only  affixed  to  the  last  word, 
but  the  words  are  then  hyphenated. 

Examples:  Li  vojagis  ducent 
ki-indek  ses  tnejlojn,  He  travelled 
two  hundred  and  fifty-six  miles. 
Li  atingis  la  ducent-kvindek- 
sc.san  mejUtonon,  He  reached  the 
two  hundred  and  fifty-sixth 
milestone. 

This  form  of  numeral  is  always 
employed  in  expressing  dates,  the 
time  of  day,  and  the  numbers  of 
pages.  Examples : 

La  deka  domo  sur  la  strata,  The 
tenth  house  in  the  street.  Mi 
alvenos  je  -la  kvara  horo,  I  will 
arrive  at  four  o'clock.  Li  legos 
la  pafpn  tricent-kvaran,  He  is 
reading  page  three  hundred  and 
four.  La  kvaran  de  Majo,  (on) 
the  fourth  of  May. 

Note  that  there  is  no  conjunc- 
tion in  the  compounded  numerals. 

Following  the  general  rule  these 
words  may  be  used  adverbially, 
and  so  we  obtain :  Unite,  firstly ; 
dcke,  tenthly.  Examples : 

Unue,  li  parolis  pri  morto, 
First  of  all  he  spoke  about  death. 

Oke,  vi  ne  devas  steli,  Eighthly, 
you  must  not  steal. 

The  words,  once,  twice,  thrice, 
etc.,  are  formed  by  adding  the  word 
foje  (fojo,  time)  to  the  cardinals. 
We  thus  obtain  unufoje  (once), 
dufojc  (twice),  trifoje  (thrice),  etc. 
The  substantive  may  also  be 
used  to  express  these  terms,  but  in 
this  event  it  is  generally  in  the 
accusative  case.  Examples : 

Tri  fojojn  mi  frapis  la  pordon, 
Three  times  I  knocked  at  the 
door.  Li  kriis  du  fojojn,  He  cried 
twice. 


aer',  air 
akr,  sharp 
at  end',    await, 

wait,  expect 
at  ing',    attain, 

reach 

eel',  aim,  object 
col',  inch 
capitr',  chapter 


dezir',  desire 
dole,' ',  sweet 
dorn'.  sleep 
ekzerc',  exercise 
elekt',  choose 
erar',  error,  mis- 
take 

fidel',  faithful 
fingr',  ringer 


flank',    side,  kat',  cat 

flank  Urn',  learn 

for',  flower  lert',  skilful 

forges',  forget  lum',  light 

freS',  fresh  lun',  moon 

fru',  early  peV,  drive,  chase 

fut',  foot  (mea-  pied',  foot 

sure)  tranc',  cut 

glav',  sword  trink',  drink 

grav' ',     impor-  tromp',  deceive 

tant,  serious  trotuar' ' ,    side- 
( lentil',  polite  walk 

hel',  clear,  glar-£w',  tower 

ing  vetur',  journey 
hor',  hour  (by   vehicle) 

intenc',  intend  viand',    meat, 
jun',  young  flesh 

juvel',  jewel  vie',  row,  rank 

kales',  carriage  vizag",  face 
kapabl',  capable  vok',  call 
kas',  hide  (v.  t.)volum',  volume 

EXEKCISE  VI. 

At  early  morning  the  air  is  very 
fresh.  The  sword  is  sharp,  and 
cuts  easily.  I  have  two  hands  and 
ten  fingers.  Firstly,  I  desire  to  tell 
the  truth,  and,  secondly,  I  want  to 
be  agreeable.  In  the  field,  at 
the  right-hand  side,  stand  two  old 
trees.  To-morrow  we  intend  to 
journey  to  London  in  the  carriage. 
A  foot  has  twelve  inches.  You 
must  not  forget  to  learn  Exercise 
6.  The  child  sweetly  sleeps  under 
the  clear  light  of  the  moon.  He 
read  the  tenth  volume  first.  The 


My  faithful  .dog  will  wait  for  me, 
and  I  shall  not  forget  to  give  him 
some  meat.  They  made  a  great 
mistake,  and  hid  the  beautiful 
jewel.  Your  young  friends  are 
very  capable.  My  error  is  not 
very  serioxis,  and  I  do  not  wish  to 
deceive  you.  Thirty-eight  and 
twenty-seven  make  sixty-five.  A 
week  has  sever  days.  The  first 
is  Sunday,  the  fourth  Wednesday, 
and  lastly  comes  Saturday.  They 
will  remain  at  home  (adv.)  during 
the  day.  To-morrow  morning 
(adv.)  I  will  await  your  arrival 
at  nine  o'clock.  The  skilful  and 
capable  boy  stands  in  the  first 
rank.  His  object  was  to  deceive 
the  king,  to  drive  away  -the  sol- 
diers, and  hide  himself. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  4. 

Hierau  mi  estis  malsana. 
Hodiau  mi  estas  sana.  La  birdo 
en  la  kago  estas  kanario.  Li 
kaptis  g»n  hierau.  La  cerizoj 
estas  maturaj,  kaj  vi  povas 
mangi  ilin.  La  skatolo  enhavas 
Continued 


cigaredojn  kaj  alumetojn.  Li 
abonas  la  jurnalon  kaj  la  gaze- 
ton.  Karasinjoro.  Tempo  flugas, 
kaj  ni  devas  eliri.  Esperanto 
estas  facila.  Li  havas  leteron  en 
la  mano,  kaj  jurnalon  sub  la 
brako.  Si  havas  blankan  cevalon 
kaj  belan  hundon.  Morgau  ni 
iros  al  la  teatro.  Ni  ridos  kaj 
estos  gajaj.  Li  estas  rica  kaj 
pagos  al  vi.  La  glora  heroo 
alvenos  morgau,  kaj  vi  vidos  lin. 
La  tablo  estas  alta  kaj  ronda. 
La  leono  estas  dangera  besto. 
Vi  trovos  la  ganton  kaj  la 
bastonon  sur  la  tablo  en  la 
gardeno.  Mi  skribis  la  leteron, 
kaj  li  detruis  gin.  La  generalo 
kun  la  barbo  estas  dika,  kaj 
la  malricaj  soldatoj  estas  maldi- 
kaj.  Hi  estas  sagaj,  kaj  amuzos 
sin.  Mi  povas  audi  la  ehon. 
La  kuzo  estas  malagrabla  hodiau. 
La  suno  estas  en  la  cielo.  Mor- 
gau mi  acetos  la  horlogon,  kaj 
gi  al  mi  apartenos.  La  soldatoj 
estas  honestaj  kaj  gajaj.  La 
afero  estas  malfacila.  Morgau 
mi  decidos  pri  gi,  kaj  vi  povas 
esti  certa  pri  la  rezultato. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  5. 
Vi  estas  prava  (or  pravaj), 
kaj  mi  estas  tute  malprava. 
Ni  ne  devas  stari  sur  la  ombro  de 
la  rego.  Vi  estos  felica,  kaj  mi 
devas  kore  gratuli  vin.  Li  estis 
tre  kolera  kaj  volis  min  bati. 
La  knaboj  lavis  sin  en  la  rivero. 
Vi  devas  iri  al  la  maldekstra  domo. 
Kelkaj  stratoj  en  la  urbo  estas 
tre  malbelaj.  Li  diris  al  mi 
diversajn  strangajn  detalojn  pri 
la  okazo,  kaj  mi  volonte  kredis 
al  li.  La  ovoj  estas  malbonaj, 
kaj  vi  ne  devas  mangi  ilin. 
Vivi  simple  estas  vivi  f  el  ice.  Vi 
povas  havi  la  brunajn  kovertojn, 
la  bluaj  ne  apartenas  al  mi.  En 
la  silentaj  kampoj  li  ofte  sidas, 
kaj  rigardas  la  birdojn  sur  la 
arboj,  kaj  la  gloran  sunon  sur  la 
cielo.  Senparole,  li  kolere  el  iris. 
Oni  ofte  vidas  strangajn  domojn 
en  vilagoj.  Hi  estas  ekstreme 
vanaj ,  kaj  sidas  aparte  de  ni.  La 
hundo  bojas  laute.  Gi  soifas 
kaj  deziras  akvon.  Kelkaj  knaboj 
volis  malfermi  la  fenestron. 
La  ceteraj  ne  aprobis  la  pro- 
ponon,  kaj  ne  volis  resti  en  la 
cambro.  Morgau  matene  oni 
povos  nin  trovi  ce  la  hotelo  kmi 
la  aliaj  sinjoroj. 


4944 


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•    VYM-R  NV!\IX>W.(  HR1ST  CHURCH  CATrHEDRAL. OXFORD 

UKSluNt  n   UY    S1K   KDWAK'l)  HDRNE    .JONKS.BART. 
v\\  < M -r>  i»   MY  MI  ssws   MOKUIS   tV COMPANY, MKRTON  ABBEY 


STAINED    GLASS 

How  to  Design  a  Coloured  Window.     Selecting  and  Cutting  the  G'ass.     Arranging 
the    Leads.      How  Shading  is   Applied.     Firing  the   Glass.     Application  of  Stain 


Group  2 

GLASS 


Continued  fn 
page  4!«W 


By  E.   J.    PREST 


"THE  art  of  -working  in  stained  glass,  although 
it  has  great  and  noble  possibilities,  is  com- 
paratively simple  in  its  methods.  It  is  essential, 
however,  in  order  to  attain  success,  that  the 
student  should  be  sufficiently  well  equipped  with 
a  facility  in  drawing  and  designing ;  a  knowledge 
of  the  harmony  of  and  a  natural  feeling  for 
colour,  and  an  acquaintance  with  style  in  archi- 
tecture and  decoration. 

Use  of  Coloured  Glass.  It  is  a  popular 
error  to  suppose  that  various  coloured  pigments 
are  used  in  the  production  of  a  stained  glass 
window,  such  as  a  landscape  or  portrait  painter 
would  use  in  his  picture.  Colour  is  obtained 
only  by  the  careful  selection  and  arrangement 
of  various  pieces  of  coloured  glass  cut  to  the 
necessary  simple  forms,  and  placed  together  in 
the  form  of  a  mosaic. 

Thus,  a  red  dress  is  cut  out  of  a  sheet  of  red 
glass,  the  head,  hands,  and  white  draperies  of 
a  figure  out  of  white  glass,  the  sky  probably  out 
of  blue  glass,  a  tree  out  of  green  glass,  and  so 
on.  The  pieces  of  glass  would  then  resemble  a 
picture  puzzle,  each  form  fitting  into  the  other. 

On  these  pieces  of  glass  the  outlines  are 
painted  with  a  specially  prepared  brown  pigment, 
the  only  colour  used  in  painting  glass — another 
important  principle  to  remember — and  by  this 
means  the  folds  are  indicated  on  the  piece  of 
red  glass  forming  the  dress,  the  drawing  of  the 
features  and  limbs  upon  the  Avliite  glass,  and  the 
leaves  of  the  trees  on  the  green  glass.  This  brown 
pigment  is  prepared,  as  will  be  more  fully  ex- 
plained, so  that  the  process  of  burning  or  firing 
the  glass  in  a  kiln  fuses  the  colour  into  the  surface, 
and,  the  outlines  and  shading  become  absolutely 
imperishable.  The  pieces  of  glass  are  finally 
joined  together  with  strips  of  lead,  grooved  at 
each  side  to  hold  the  glass,  and  soldered  at  the 
joints  where  the  leads  meet. 

This,  then,  is  roughly  the  process  followed  in 
ing  a  stained  glass*  window ;  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  there  is  ample  scope  for  the  exercise  of 
the  artist's  individuality— first  in  designing  his 
window  ;  further,  in  the  judicious  selection  of  his 
coloured  glass  in  which  to  carry  it  out ;  in  the 
painting,  and  in  the  final  stages  of  making  it  up 
into  a  wind  and  weather  tight  transparency — 
light-giving  and  yet  rich  and  subdued  in  effect. 

How  to  Become  a  Designer.  In  order 
to  design  and  draw  satisfactorily  for  stained  glass. 
careful  study  should  be  made  of  the  best  existing 
examples,  both  ancient  and  modern.  It  is  better 
to  begin  in  a  simple  way,  and  so  gain  a  knowledge 
of  the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  the  material. 
The  student  should  become  acquainted  with 
the  examples  at  South  Kensington  Museum, 
where  the  gradual  evolution  from  the  earliest 
to  the  latest  periods  of  mediaeval  glass  may  be 

1  o 


joinl 

J? 


seen,  as  well  as  interesting  specimens  of  modern 
work,  and,  above  all,  the  noble  and  dignified  full- 
size  cartoons  by  Burne-Jones  for  St.  Philip's 
Church,  Birmingham.  The  work  of  this  artist 
will  stand  as  the  most  typical  of  the  best  glass 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  one  of  his  windows  has  been  selected  as  an 
illustration  to  this  course. 

The  Coloured  Sketch.  It  is  usual  at 
the  outset  to  make  a  carefully  coloured  sketch 
to  1-in.  scale,  showing  the  design  of  the  window 
proposed  to  be  carried  out.  From  this,  in  turn, 
the  full-size  cartoon  is  drawn  in  chalk,  pencil,  or 
sepia.  If  the  beginner  does  not  feel  sufficient 
confidence  to  design  for  himself,  he  cannot  do 
better  than  enlarge  some  of  the  simple  figures 
drawn  for  glass  by  Ford  Madox  Brown,  or,  failing 
that,  some  of  the  early  German  prints  of  the 
school  of  Diirer,  such  as  the  "  Apocalypse." 
Fig.  2  is  an  example  of  a  stained-glass  cartoon, 
drawn  to  full  size  in  chalk  and  pencil,  of  a  figure 
forming  part  of  a  window  designed  to  illustrate 
Music,  and  carried  out  by  the  author,  and  it  is 
proposed  that  this  drawing  should  serve  as  our 
text  in  explaining  in  detail  the  various  stages  to 
be  gone  through  before  it  is  ready  for  placing  in 
position  in  the  building  for  which  it  was  designed. 

The  Cut  Lines.  Having  prepared  the 
full-size  cartoon,  a  piece  of  tracing  cloth  or  thin 
glazed  calico  is  laid  over  it,  and  on  this  is  traced, 
with  a  brush,  in  ink  or  black  water-colour,  the 
black  lines  showing  the  shapes  in  which  the  glass 
is  to  be  cut,  and  these  lines  indicate  what  will 
hereafter  form  the  leads  joining  the  various  pieces 
of  glass  together.  This  tracing  is  technically 
known  as  the  ';  cut  line  " — namely,  the  lines 
showing  the  cuts  [1],  and  is  usually  made  by  an 
intelligent  craftsman,  if  not  by  the  artist  himself, 
as  it  is  necessary  that  the  forms  should  be  as 
simple  as  possible  to  avoid  risk  of  breakage  in  the 
process  of  cutting.  Moreover,  it  will  be  seen  that 
many  cuts  are  added  to  those  shown  on  the 
original  cartoon  for  the  reason  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  fire  in  the  kiln  any  piece  of  glass 
more  than  about  10  in.  square  without  serious 
risk  of  breakage.  These  additional  cuts  are 
shown  in  1  and  are  omitted  in  2.  They  should 
be  dealt  with  boldly,  and,  as  far  as  practicable, 
at  right  angles  to  the  outlines  forming  the  draw- 
ing. Never  shirk  the  leads  ;  they  are  of  immense 
value  to  the  effect  of  the  window  ;  moreover, 
we  have  no  reason  to  be  ashamed  of  the  means  of 
our  craftsmanship — we  are  producing  a  window 
in  painted  and  leaded  glass,  not  a  picture  painted 
in  colour.  It  is  the  practice  of  some  to  mark  on 
the  cut  line  with  an  X  the  plain  pieces  of  back- 
ground to  a  subject,  as  shown  in  1.  This  saves 
time  in  laying  out  the  pieces  of  glass  on  the 
cut  line  hereafter. 

4945 


GLASS 

Selecting   the    Coloured   Glass.      The 

.•Hiisi  now  takes  the  cut  line  and  cartoon,  and, 
with  his  original  coloured  sketch  before  him, 
proceeds  to  the  all -important  and  intensely 
interesting-  task  of  selecting  the  coloured  glass  in 
which  his  design  is  to  be  interpreted.  The  kind 
of  glass  used  for  this  purpose  is  known  a* 
"  antique/'  made  in  sheets  about  2  ft.  by  !  ft.  4  in. 
ami  varying  from  -J-  in.  to  •$  in.  in  thickness,  the 
making  of  which  is  the  result  of  much  chemical 
research  and  subtle  handicraft,  and  is  de,-ilt 
with  fully  in  the  article  on  Glass  on  page  4930. 
Let  us,  however,  here  emphatically  deny  the 
popular  fallacy,  for  which  cathedral  vergers  are 
chiefly  responsible,  that  the  art  of  making 
coloured  antique  glass  is  lost.  Never  has 
there  been  such  an  exquisite  gamut  'of  colours 
to  select  from  as  we  have  now> 
and  the  indescribable  beauty  6f 
variation  in  the  best  antique  glass 
can  only  be  appreciated  when  seen 
in  the  full-sized  sheets  as  they 
come  from  the  maker. 

In  the  drawing  illustrated  the 
principal  figure  is  in  Avhite  and 
gold,  with  a  chaplet  of  roses 
around  the  head ;  the  lining  of  the 
cloak  is  greenish  Avhite,  and  the 
underdress  nearly  a  pure  white. 
The  background  consists  of  varied 
tones  of  rich,  deep  orange  arid 
russet.  The  cherub's  wings  are 
crimson,  technically  known  as 
"  ruby,"  while  the  chief  colour  note 
is  confined  to  the  lower  kneeling 
figure  playing  the  harp.  Here  the 
wings  are  in  exquisite,  varied,  rich 
peacock  blue  and  green,  and  the 
drapery  a  soft  purple  madder 
colour.  The  square  blocks  in  the 
border  are  blue  and  green  alter- 
nately, and  the  remaining  portions 
of  the  window  in  varying  tones  of 
white. 

In  order  to  produce  harmony 
of  tone  and  colour  in  a  window, 
the  white  glass  should  have  a  slight 
tone  of  grey-green  similar  to  the 
colour  of  a  soda-water  bottle.  The 
contrast  of  pure  white  glass  coming 
sharply  against  rich  colour  would 
be  spotty  and  suggestive  of  holes 
in  the  window,  which  is  emphasised 
again  by  the  solid  black  outlines  formed  by 
the  leads. 

Cutting.  The  various  sheets  of  glass  having 
been  carefully  selected,  the  next  step  is  to  get  it 
cut  to  the  shapes  shown  by  the  cut  line.  This 
operation  is  a  purely  mechanical  one,  but  re- 
quires a  considerable  amount  of  practice  and 
skill.  Xo\\.  if  this  diagram  of  the  cut  line  be 
carefully  examined  it  Avill  be  seen  that  none  of 
the  shapes  present  any  great  ditHeulty  in  cutting. 
Cure  should  be  taken  to  avoid  forms  like  those 
shown  in  5.  for  they  would  certainly  break  Avhere 
the  dotted  lines  occur. 

(Jutting  may  be  done  in  cither  of  the  two 
following  ways.  The  shapes  arc  cut  out  of 

49415 


stout  cartridge  or  brown  paper  ;  these  are  laid 
upon  the  glass,  and  the  diamond  [3A]  drawn 
around  them,  making  a  clean  cut  on  its  way. 
The  edges  of  the  glass  arc  then  easily  broken 
away  Avith  the  fingers,  or.  if  small,  with  pliers. 

The  second  method  is  the  one  now  generally 
adopted,  and  for  this  is  used  the  steel  cutting- 
wheel  [  SB],  which  can  be  bought  for  a  few  pence, 
and  is  quite  as  good  if  not  better  than  the 
expensive  diamond  for  cutting  glass  to  any  shape 
desired.  The  sheet  of  glass  is  laid  upon  the  cut  line, 
and  the  black  line  which  shows  through  is  (•arc- 
fully  followed,  freehand,  with  the  wheel.  This  is 
a  simple  process  with  white  or  light-coloured 
glass,  but  where  the  colour  is  too  dark  to  be  seen 
through  the  glass  should  be  breathed  upon, 
and  a  little  fine  whiting  dusted  upon  it  from  a 
pounce  bag,  which  is  a  small  piece 
of  muslin  or  linen  containing  dry 
whiting  tightly  tied  up.  The  glass 
is  then  placed  beneath  the  drawing, 
and  the  line  traced  over  with  a 
finely-pointed  stick,  or  the  edge  of  a 
blunt  knife,  when  the  shape  will  be 
found  marked  on  the  glass,  and 
can  be  easily  cut. 

Don't  waste  glass  unnecessarily 
in  the  cutting  process.  Antique 
glass  is  expensive  ;  therefore,  place 
your  pattern  carefully  on  the  sheet 
°f  glass  with  this  object  in  view, 
keeping  any  pieces  over  2  in.  or  3  in. 
square  in  small  wooden  boxes,  one 
for  each  colour  if  possible. 

Painting  Colour  on  the 
Glass.  The  glass,  being  all  cut 
to  shape,  is  now  laid  out  in  its 
propei1  place  on  the  cut  line  and 
every  piece  well  cleaned  to  remove 
greasiness.  The  next  operation  is 
to  trace  with  a  fine,  long-haired 
brush  called  a  tracer  [S\]  the  outlines 
of  the  drawing  upon  the  glass, 
using  the  brown  tracing  pigment 
already  referred  to.  This  pigment 
is  in  the  form  of  brown  powder, 
and  consists  of  iron  oxide  and 
manganese  ground  up  with  powdered 
flint  glass  or  other  silicate,  which, 
by  the  action  of  the  fire  when  in 
the  kiln  becomes  fused  into  tin- 
surf  ace  of  the  glass  and  forms  re-ally 
a  part  of  it,  whence  the  indelibility 
and  lasting  qualities  of  stained  glass. 

(! lass-painting  colour,  as  well  as  suitable 
brushes  for  tracing,  stippling,  and  other  methods 
of  painting  to  be  explained,  may  be  obtained 
from  the  artists'  colourman. 

To  prepare  the  colour,  get  a  slab  of  thick  glass. 
— ground  plate  is  the  best — and  a  muller. 
Take  a  little  of  the  powder  tracing  colour  and 
with  clean  water  grind  it  to  a  smooth  paste,  then, 
with  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  ordinary  gum . 
or  a  little  sugar  ground  well  up  with  the  muller 
into  the  colour  in  order  to  make  it  flow  freely. 
it  is  ready  for  use.  A  juilette.  knife  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  colour  well  mixed  together  during 
use.  and  in  the;  centre  of  the  palette  or  slab  for 


convenience  in -\vorking.  A  wooden  rest  [4] should 
l)e  used  to  raise  the  hand  above  the  glass,  which 
gives  greater  freedom  and  prevents  the  glass  from 
becoming  greasj^  from  contact  with  the  skin. 

The  Tracing  Process.  The  student  should 
begin  by  learning  to  use  his  tracer  freely 
in  strokes  such  as  are  shown  in  GA,  and 
then  go  on  to  simple  forms  such  as  SB, 
aiming  to  get  his  lines  clean 
and  true,  as  far  as  possible 
with  one  stroke  of  the  brush. 
This  will  entail  considerable 
practice,  but  a  good  beginning 
is  everything,  and  in  course  of 
time  he  will  be  able  to  under- 
take the  outlining  on  glass  of 
such  a  cartoon  as  we  have  illus- 
trated. To  do  this,  the  cartoon 
should  be  laid  upon  the  bench, 
and  each  piece  of  glass  taken 
separately,  one  at  a  time,  laid 
in  its  proper  position  over  the 
drawing,  and  the  outlines, 
tvhich  will  show  through, 
arefully  reproduced  on  the 
glass.  Many  artists  fire  in 
vhese  outlines  before  proceed- 
ing to  the  shading  in  colour  on 
the  glass,  and  the  beginner  may 
do  so,  but  as  he  gets  more 
experienced  he  will  find  this 
unnecessary,  and  will  get  better 
effects  by  sometimes  losing 
these  hard  outlines  in  the  sub- 
sequent shading,  especially  in 
very  delicate  work,  but  in  this 
case  he  should  use  gum  in  his 
colour  and  not  sugar. 

The  tracing  process  having 
.been  completed,  the  cut  line  is 
placed  face  upwards  upon  a 
bench  and  over  it  is  placed  a 
sheet  of  very  thick  sheet  or 
ordinary  plate  glass,  which  is 
called  the  easel  glass.  On  this 
aii  the  various  pieces  of  glass 
are  laid  out  in  their  proper 
places  as  shown  by  the  outline 
underneath  ;  this  is  like  the 
putting  together  of  the  map 
or  picture  puzzle.  Some  good 
beeswax  is  then  dissolved  to- 
gether with  a  little  resin  in  a 
small  saucepan,  and  dropped 
while  hot  and  melted  with  a 
small  strip  of  glass  in  between 
the  pieces  of  glass  at  the  points 
where  they  meet  each  other. 
By  this  means  the  whole  subject 
in  stained  glass  becomes  fixed  to 
the  easel  glass,  and  it  can  now 
be  safely  held  up  to  the  light, 
and  the  first  view  obtained 


(Cliapt-l  Royal,  Sa 


GLASS 

and  a  natural  gift  and  feeling  for  colour  that  quite 

satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained. 

Shading.      This  plate  glass  with  the  places 

of  glass  composing  the  subject  waged  or  stuck  up 

upon  it  is  now  placed  on  a  specially  constructed 
easel  used  by  glass -painters  in  front  of  a, 
A\  indow  with  a  good  light  for  the  shading 
process.  The  usual  and  most  successful 
method  is  to  wash  in  the  main 
shadows  in  water  colour  with  -i 
large  soft  camel-hair  brush  [Su], 
using,  of  course,  the  specially, 
prepared  shading  colour  for  this 
purpose.  The  edges  of  the 
shadows  should  be  softened  off, 
and  not  too  much  gum  used 
in  the  colour.  When  this  has 
been  done  all  over  the  window, 
and  is  quite  dry,  a  matt  or 
scum  of  full  colour  should  be 
laid  evenly  and  quickly  over 
the  whole  with  a  larger  flat 
camel-hair  brush  [Be],  and  while 
still  Avet  softened  and  made  even 
with  a  badger-hair  softener  [8nJ, 
and  then  stippled  or  dabbed  all 
over  with  a  stippler  [8E],  a  brush 
specially  made  for  this  purpose. 
This  is  a  process  requiring 
great  facility  and  rapidity  of 
handling,  as  it  must  all  be  done 
before  the  colour  dries,  and 
should  be  practised  upon  some 
plain  pieces  of  glass  first.  By 
this  means  a  granulated  and 
transparent  effect  is  produced, 
and  if  carefully  done,  the  out- 
lines, being  traced  in  gum 
colour,  will  not  be  disturbed  ; 
the  shadows  also,  being  in  softer 
colour,  will  work  up  into  the 
matt  and  add  to  its  strength. 

This  matt  of  colour,  when 
dry.  represents  the  whole  of  the 
window  in  shadow,  and  the 
process  of  modelling  or  shading 
is  just  the  opposite  to  what  the 
student  has  been  in  the  habit 
of  doing  in  making  draAvings  in 
chalk  at  an  art  school — the 
lights  are  taken  out  of  the 
shadoAvs  instead  of  the  shadows 
being  added  to  the  lights  ;  in 
other  words,  AVC  have  to  Avork 
from  dark  to  light  instead  of 
from  light  to  dark. 

Taking  out  the  Lights. 
First  of  all  the  broad  high 
lights  are  taken  out  by  re- 
moving the  colour  boldly  and 
sharply  with  a  soft-pointed  stick 
or  broad-pointed  quill  pen. 


of  the  colour  effect  and  tracing  lines  as  a  whole. 
It  may  be  found  necessary  at  this  stage  to  make 
some  alterations,  especially  in  the  first  essay. 
Colours  may  not  go  AA-ell  together,  others  be  too 
light  or  too  dark,  and  it  is  only  by  long  experience 


and  afterwards  the  matt  is 
gradually  brushed  aAvay  with  the  short  hog-hair 
brushes  called  scrubs  [8r],  copying  from  the  full- 
size  cartoon  and  getting  the  careful  shading  and 
modelling  of  the  various  parts  of  the  subject 
shoAAii  thereon.  This  part  of  the  work  requires 

4947 


CLASS 

the  greatest  care  and  artistic  feeling,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  explain  the  process  further  in  an 
article  of  this  nature.  Success  will  only  come  by 
long  practice,  or  by  watching  an  experienced 
glass-painter  at  work.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  work  with  a  view  to  the  ultimate 
position  and  distance  of  the  window  when 
fixed ;  if  close  to  the  eye,  it  should  be 
more  delicate  in  finish,  and  if  for  a  high 
clerestory  window,  broad  and  telling  in 
effect,  but  in  any  case  care  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  shadows  from  being 
dense  and  opaque.  If  they  are  found  too 
heavy  after  the  painting  is  completed  they 
may  be  reduced  and  lightened  by  using  a 
very  fine  needle  point  in  the  manner  of 
an  etching,  but  this  requires  judgment 
and  delicacy  of  handling. 

Firing.     After  the  painting  is  finished 
the  easel  glass  is  taken  down  and  again 


does  not  take  place  until  the  day  after  it  has 
been  fired,  it  is  taken  out  and  again  stuck  up 
with  wax,  as  before,  on  the  easel  glass.  The 
painter  will  probably  be  disappointed  with  the 
result  at  first  ;  he  will  find  that  the 
shadows  have  fired  away,  and  the  whole 
subject  looks  thin  and  weak.  It  is  letter 
so  than  that  the  first  painting  should  have 
been  too  heavy  and  the  shadows  coarse 
and  opaque. 

The  Second  Painting.  The  second 
painting  is  now  done,  but  in  a  more  general 
way  than  the  first,  greater  attention  being 
paid  to  breadth  of  effect  than  to  detail ;  in 
fact,  the  whole  thing  needs  pulling  together. 
A  second  stipple,  or  in  some  cases  a  matt 
only,  is  covered  over  the  parts  that  need 
strengthening,  and  instead  of  u^ing  the 
scrub,  a  better  and  softer  effect  is  ob- 
tained by  rubbing  the  colour  lightly  with 


P  P 

4.    HAND     REST     FOR     USE 
WHEN    TRACING   OUTLINES 


5.    SHAPES    TO 
AVOIDED    IN    CUT 
TING   GLASS 
A 


laid  flat  up~on  the  bench,  when' a  few  sharp  3.  DIAMOND  the  fil^er'  J.feome  ar1tlsts  fin^h  th\work 
taps  upon  the  edges  of  the  glass  with  the  CUTTERS  with  Ol1  medium  to  obtain  softness,  but  at 
handle  of  the  palette  knife  will  loosen  the  a  Glaziers  .Ha-  the  risk  of  losmS  transparency,  which  is 
pieces  and  they  may  be  easily  removed,  mond  b.  steel-  of  the  utmost  importance  in  stained  glas,?, 
care  being  taken  to  remove  or  chip  off  jS'JHg, ,  *^J  and  should  be  borne  m  mmd  as  an  im" 
all  the  loose  pieces  of  wax  at  the  edges.  views)  portant  principle  from  first  to  last. 
The  pieces  should  then  be  carefully  laid  in  At  this  stage,  the  diaper  patterns,  which 

shallow  wooden  trays  for  removal  to  the  kiln.       give  such  a  rich  effect  to  draperies,  should  be 
The  most  convenient  form    of    kiln   now  in       traced  in  outline  in  a  delicate  and  artistic  manner, 
use  is  known  as  the  closed  gas  kiln  [9].     The 

glass  is  placed  on  shallow        ; 

iron  plates,  which  are 
covered  with  a  bed  of 
powdered  whiting  or 
plaster  of  Paris,  and  sub- 
jected to  a  gradually 
increasing  and  intense 
heat,  which  fuses  the 
colour  into  the  surface 
of  the  glass  until  it 
becomes  incorporated 
with  it,  and  is  absolutely 
|jermanent.  The  actual 
amount  of  firing  neces- 
sary can  only  be  found 
out  by  long  experience, 
and  it  is  the  practice  of 
most  craftsmen  who  are 
keen  on  the  success  and 
]iermanence  of  their 
work  to  watch  the  firing 
themselves.  The  first 
firing  especially  should 
be  very  thorough,  and 
not  too  quickly  done  ; 
the  pigment  fuses  and 
unites  better  with  a  slow 
and  gradual  heat  than 
with  a  fierce  and  rapid 
one.  It  is  best  to  place 
all  the  pieces  of  white 
^lass  and  the  harder 
colours,  such  as  ruby, 
together,  as  these  stand 


ELEMENTARY 
TRACING 

a.  Simple  tracing 

b.  Simple  forms 


a  harder  fire,  while  the  soft  glasses,  such  as   blues 

and  greens,  fuse  at  a  slightly  lower  temperature. 

When  the  glass  has  become  quite  cool  in  the 

annealing  chamber  of   1he   kiln,  which  usually 

4948 


and  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
finished  painting  of  the 
heads  and  flesh  portions 
of  the  subject. 

The  glass  is  now  fired 
BE  as  before,  for  the  second 
time,  but  not  quite  so 
heavily,  and,  provided 
the  second  painting  has 
been  successful,  the  only 
thing  remaining  is  to 
apply  the  silver  stain, 
which  gives  such  exqui- 
site yellow  and  golden 
effects  in  stained  glass. 
SECTIONS  OF  LEADS  The  Value  of 

a.  Flat  outside  lead     b.  Ordinary  Silver  Staining. 

load  as  used  for  vary  ing  thicknesses  Q 

of  glass     c.  Beaded  lead  Staining    IS    applied    to 

the  back  of  the  glass. 
and  is  most  useful  for 
armour,  yellow  flowers, 
diaper  patterns  on  drap- 
eries, golden  hair  (when 
not  overdone),  and  on 
a  sensitive  blue  glass  for 
producing  green  foliage. 
This  stain  is  made  in 
the  following  way.  Into 
a  wide-mouth  bottle  put 
two  ounces  of  nitric  acid, 
and  three  ounces  of 
boiling  water :  then 
put  into  it  one  ounce 
of  pure  silver,  and  stand 
the  bottle  up  to  its  neck 
in  boiling  water.  The 


8.    BRTSMKS     lSi;i)     IN     TAINTING     GLASS 

//.  Tracer      b.  Camel-hair  for^washing  in   shadows    c.  Flat 

for   laying  matt  all  over    glass     tf.  Badger    for    softening 

matt     e.  Stlppler  for  giving  granulated  effect    /.  Hog-hair 

scrubs  for  taking  out  lights 


ilver  will  then  dissolve, 

and  take  the  form  of  a  nitrate.  This  must  be 
plunged,  into  boiling  water  and  precipitated  by 
the  addition  of  common  salt ;  the  precipitate  is 


again  washed  several  times  in  hot  water, 
collected  on  a  piece  of  absorbent  paper,  and 
thoroughly  dried.  One  part  of  the  dry  precipitate 
is  then  mixed  witb  two  parts  of  yellow  lake, 
and  thoroughly  well  ground  with  a  muller  on 
a  slab  of  glass,  mixed  with  either  water  or 
turpentine,  the  former  for  preference.  This  is 
now  in  the  form  of  an  opaque  yellow  mixture, 
which  is  applied  with  a  soft  brush  to  the  back  of 
the  glass  where  required,  and  the  glass  is  after- 
wards fired  for  a  third  time,  but  at  a  much  less 
degree  of  heat  than  was  necessary  for  the  colour. 

When  cool,  and  held  up  to  the  light,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  yellow  has  become  beautifully 
transparent,  and'is  a  perfectly  permanent  stain. 
It  is  well  to  test  small  pieces  of  glass  with  stain 
in  the  kiln  before  applying  it  to  an  important 
piece  of  work,  as  some  kinds  of  glass  are  much 
more  sensitive  than  others  to  the  action  of 
the  heat  in  staining. 

Glazing.  One  other  operation  remains  for 
the  glass  to  undergo,  but  it  is  purely  a  mechanical 
one — that  is,  the  glazing,  or  joining  the  pieces 
of  glass  together  with  the  grooved  leads,  illus- 
trated in  7.  The  cut  line 
is  pinned  down,  face  up- 
wards, upon  a  bench,  and 
the  pieces  of  finished  glass 
laid  out  on  it  in  their 
proper  places.  A  broad 
wooden  straightedge  is 
nailed  down  along  the 
side,  leaving  space  beyond 
the  edge  of  the  cut  line  for 
the  wide  and  flat  outside 
load,  which  fits  into  the 
rebate  or  groove  of  the 
window.  Another  straight- 
edge or  lath  is  nailed  at 
right  angles  to  this,  along 
the  bottom  of  the  cut  line, 
and  working  from  the 
corner  thus  formed,  each 
piece  of  glass  has  the 
pliable  grooved  lead  bent 
around  it  and  is  fitted  into  its  place.  Kach  of 
these  pieces  is  temporarily  held  in  position  by 
nails  until  the  next  is  fitted,  and  so  on  until 
the  whole  is  framed  together  in  lead.  The 
joints  where  the  leads  meet  are  then  soldered 
with  a  specially  constructed  gas  soldering  iron. 
When  this  is  finished  on  the  one  side,  the  window 
is  carefully  turned  over  on  the  bench  and  the 
joints  at  the  back  are  soldered  in  the  same  way. 

The  window  can  now  be  held  for  final  inspec- 
tion, and  it  will  be  seen  at  once  what  great  value 
is  gktm  by  the  black  outlines  formed  by  the  leads. 

A  word  of  caution  is  necessary  in  handling  a 
panel  of  stained  glass :  it  should  always  be 
carried  and  lifted  edgewise,  and  not  flat. 

Cementing.  In  order  to  make  the  window 
weather-tight  and  rigid,  a  stiff  cement,  made  of 
whiting,  plaster  of  Paris,  a  little  red  lead,  boiled 
oil  and  turps,  with  lampblack  to  colour  it. 
should  be  well  brushed  in  under  the  leads  with 
a  stiff  brush,  afterwards  cleaning  away  the 
cement  remaining  on  the  surface  with  clean 


9.    GAS     KILN    FOR     FIRING    GLASS 
a.  Chambers  in  which  glass  is  fired    b.    Annealing 
chamber  in   which  glass  is  cooled     c.  Gas  burners 

d.   Gas  supply  pipe 
(Payne  &  Co. ,  Kilburu) 


plaster  or  sawdust  and  another  stiff  brush,  like 
a  domestic  scrubbing  brush.  The  edges  of  the 
leads  are  then  picked  around  clean  with  a 
pointed  stick.  The  window  should  stand  for  a 
few  days  to  allow  this  cement  to  harden,  after 
which  it  will  be  ready  for  fixing. 

Where  to  Study.  This  is  briefly  the  story 
of  the  making  of  a  stained-glass  window  ;  but 
there  are  many  technicalities  and  methods  other 
than  those  explained,  which  are  learnt  by  ex- 
perience, and  can  scarcely  come  within  the  range 
of  a  short  article.  Several  of  the  County  Council 
Schools  of  Art  are  now  making  the  teaching  of 
stained  glasswork  a  special  feature,  and  the 
student  is  recommended  for  further  information 
to  get  Mr.  C.  W.  Whall's  book  on  "  Stained  Glass 
Work,"  which  is  lucid,  technical,  and  the  work 
of  an  enthusiast,  and  for  full  information  as  to 
the  history  and  evolution  of  the  art,  Mr.  Lewis 
F.  Day's  book  on  "  Windows." 

Much  can  be  learnt  from  the  careful  study  of 
good  work,  both  old  and  new,  when  one  is  able 
to  separate  the  wheat  from  the  chaff  as  regards 
the  latter  ;  the  frontispiece  to  this  part  is  an 
excellent  example  of  the 
art,  both  for  its  simplicity 
and  dignity  of  arrangement 
and  beauty  of  colour. 

It  serves  admirably  to> 
illustrate  the  general  prin- 
ciples laid  down  in  this 
article ;  the  simple  cutting 
forms  should  be  especially 
noted,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  leads  are  boldly 
carried  across  the  drapery 
where  required.  The  figures, 
in  pearly  white,  enriched 
with  delicately  traced  and 
stained  diapers  are  in  bold 
relief  against  the  full  rich 
blue  of  the  screen  back- 
ground ;  full  colour  is  judi- 
ciously used,  yet  the  whole 
effect  of  the  window  is 
light-giving  and  brilliant.  The  small  subjects 
below  are  masterly  in  their  simplicity  of  design 
and  arrangement.  Stain  is  sparingly  used,  and 
may  be  noted  in  parts  of  the  hair,  the  crown  of 
David,  the  diapers  on  the  robes,  and  in  touches 
on  the  blue  background  to  the  figures.  The  bands 
of  lettering  are  picked  out  of  a  deep  matt  of 
colour.  The  nimbuses  surrounding  the  heads  of 
the  principal  figures  are  in  brilliant  "  gold  pink  " 
glass,  left  unpainted,  the  exquisite  variation  in 
colour  being  produced  by  the  glass-maker. 

Other  windows,  by  Burne- Jones,  that  will  repay 
study  are  those  in  St.  Philip's  Church,  Birming- 
ham, and  Holy  Trinity  Church.  Sloane  Street, 
London.  There  is  little  old  work  to  be  found  in 
London,  and  most  of  it  is  late  in  character — 
namely,  the  east  window  in  St.  Margaret's 
Church,  Westminster,  and  some  windows  in  the 
gallery  of  St.  George's  Church,  Hanover  Square. 

The  city  of  York  is  a  veritable  treasure  store  of 
old  stained  glass,  and  much  fine  work  exists  at 
Malvern,  Tewkesbury,  and  Fairford. 


GLASS  concluded;   followed  In/  POTTERY 


4949 


Group  15 

HISTORY 
35 


Continued  fruij 
paae  4843 


QUEEN    ANNE 

War  of  the  Spanish   Succession.     The  Taking  of  Gibraltar.     The 
Career  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.     Union  of  England  and  Scotland 


By  JUSTIN  MCCARTHY 


A  NNE  was  born  at  St.  James's  Palace  on 
February  6th,  1665.  When  James  became 
a  Catholic  his  daughters,  whose  mother  had 
lately  died,  were  brought  up  as  members  of 
the  Church  of  England.  Anne's  religious 
opinions  never  underwent  any  change.  When 
in  her  twentieth  year  she  was  married  to 
Prince  George,  brother  of  the  King  of  Denmark, 
who  was  an  idle,  good-natured,  and  utterly 
unintelligent  person. 

The  Succession.  When  the  great  political 
crisis  occurred  Anne  and  her  husband  abandoned 
the  cause  of  King  James,  and  in  1689  the  Crown 
of  England  was  settled  on  her  as  successor  to 
William  III.  The  question  of  succession  was 
one  of  great  difficulty.  As  the  Commonwealth 
system  had  been  entirely  overthrown  it  was 
necessary  still  to  maintain  the  conditions  of 
hereditary  rule,  while  it  was  desirable  also  to 
shut  out  the  Stuart  claimant,  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  from  all  chance  of  governing  the  State. 

Anne's  succession  to  the  Crown  was  a  matter 
of  compromise,  and  the  question  of  a  successor 
to  her  had  to  be  a  matter  of  compromise  also, 
for  Anne's  many  children  nearly  all  died  at 
birth,  or  during  infancy.  It  was  at  last 
determined  that  her  successor  should  be 
George,  son  of  the  Elector  of  Hanover  and 
Sophia  his  wife.  The  Electress  of  Hanover  was, 
by  her  mother's  side,  the  grand-daughter  of 
James  I.,  but  she  belonged  to  a  German  family 
which  was  not  likely  to  have  any  sympathy  with 
the  Stuart  cause.  Thus,  by  the  Act  of  Settle- 
ment of  March  12th,  1701,  the  way  Avas  secured 
for  the  Hanoverian  dynasty  in  England. 

This  was  before  Anne  came  to  the  throne,  but 
only  a  year  had  passed  when,  on  the  death  of 
William  III.,  Anne,  the  last  of  the  Stuart  dynasty, 
l>ecame  Queen  of  England.  She  took  little 
interest  in  politics,  was  easy-going,  and,  like 
other  Stuart  sovereigns,  loved  to  be  under  the 
guidance  of  some  favourite.  One  of  her  earliest 
favourites  was  her  Lady  of  the  Bedchamber, 
Sarah  Jennings,  wife  of  Lord  Churchill,  after- 
wards Duke  of  Marlborough,  who  soon  obtained 
a  complete  control  over  the  Queen,  which  she 
exercised  in  favour  of  her  husband. 

The  Duke  of  Marlborough.  Marl- 
borough  must,  under  any  conditions,  have 
made  a  great  name  in  history,  and  the  time  was 
\\<ll  suited  to  create  a  stage  for  his  brilliant 
qualities.  He  had  many  defects  of  character: 
lie  \\HS  selfish,  ambitious,  unscrupulous;  but  he 
had  also,  apart  from  his  genius,  qualities  which 
\\(>n  him  admiration  and  affection.  He  had  a 
handsome  presence,  and  manners  both  winning 
and  stately.  Mis  chief  aim  had  always  been 
1o  advance  his  own  prospects.  He  stood  by 
James  II.  as  lontr  us  it  seemed  to  be  for  his  own 


interest,  but  as  soon  as  he  saw  that  the  King's 
cause  was  hopeless  he  deserted  to  William  of 
Orange.  The  Duchess  Sarah  is  conspicuous  in 
history  because  of  her  influence  over  Anne,  and 
their  correspondence  is  an  historical  document. 
"If  ever  you  should  forsake  me,"  the  Queen 
wrote  on  one  occasion,  "I  should  have  nothing 
more  to  do  with  the  world  ;  for  where  is  a  crown 
when  the  support  of  it  is  gone."  However,  when 
the  separation  took  place  Anne  found  a  new 
favourite  in  Abigail  Hill.  Under  her  influence  a 
Tory  Ministry  was  formed,  St.  John  and  her 
cousin  Robert  Harley  being  at  the  head  of  the 
Government. 

The  words  "Whig"  and  "Tory"  had  not 
the  same  meaning  then  as  in  more  modern 
times.  The  Tories  in  Queen  Anne's  day  were 
generally  in  favour  of  Divine  right  and  the 
Stuart  dynasty,  while  the  Whigs  believed  in 
hereditary  succession  on  the  principles  of  the 
Act  of  Settlement.  The  Tory  leaders  when 
Anne  succeeded  were  Robert  Harley  and 
Henry  St.  John.  Harley  was  a  man  of  great 
capacity,  while  St.  John  was  a  man  of  genius. 
So  far  as  Anne  had  any  political  creed  she  was 
opposed  to  that  principle  of  constitutional  liberty 
which  had  secured  her  own  succession. 

Defoe  and  the  State  Church.  There 
were  many  religious  troubles  at  the  time 
l>esides  the  struggle  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants.  The  Dissenters  were  increasing, 
and  the  members  of  the  Established  Church 
endeavoured  to  suppress  the  right  of  private 
judgment,  and  to  shut  out  from  office  all  those 
who  deviated  from  the  doctrine  or  practice  of 
the  State  Church.  But  the  Dissenters  were 
becoming  more  powerful,  both  in  England  and 
Scotland,  and  were  setting  themselves  vigorously 
against  the  rigid  rules  of  the  Church  of  England. 
The  sympathies  of  the  Queen  were  believed  to  be 
with  those  who  maintained  the  supremacy  of 
the  State  Church  over  all  forms  of  Dissent. 
During  this  crisis  appeared  Daniel  Defoe's 
famous  pamphlet.  Defoe  was  the  son  of  a 
London  butcher,  and  was  educated  at  a  Dis- 
senting school.  He  took  part  in  Monmouth's 
rebellion,  but  was  fortunate  enough  to  escape. 
He  afterwards  served  in  King  William's  army, 
and  travelled  in  France  and  Spain.  He  wrote 
several  successful  pamphlets,  and,  being  a  staunch 
supporter  of  the  cause  of  the  Dissenters,  he  pub- 
lished in  1702  his  famous  pamphlet,  "  The 
Shortest  Way  with  the  Dissenters  " — a  forcible 
satire  which  was  taken  by  most  of  the  public  to 
be  the  sincere  declaration  of  the  policy  of  a 
rabid  Churchman. 

When  the  satire  was  general^  recognised  as 
such,  the  High  Church  party  brought  the 
pamphlet  before  the  notice  of  the  House,  and 


Defoe  was  sent  to  prison,  where  he  published 
the  "  Review,"  the  predecessor  of  the  more 
famous  "Spectator."  Among  those  who  had 
the  courage  to  plead  his  cause  was  William 
Perm,  the  Quaker  who  founded  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania  in  America,  called  after  his  father, 
Admiral  Penn.  William  Penn  was  sent  down 
from  Christchurch,  Oxford,  when  he  became  a 
Quaker,  and  had  been  imprisoned  for  his  re- 
ligious opinions.  He  was  naturally  in  sympathy 
with  Defoe,  and  exerted  himself  to  obtain  his 
release.  Defoe  was  released  in  1704  by  the 
influence  of  Harley.  who  hoped  to  win  him  to 
the  Tory  side.  He  was  again  imprisoned  in  1711, 
and  again  released  by  the  exertions  of  Harley. 
His  most  famous  work,  "Robinson  Crusoe,"  did 
not  appear  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

A  Time  of  War.  Anne  was  naturally  of  a 
peaceful  disposition,  but  it  was  her  fate  to  reign 
at  a  time  that  will  ever  be  remembered  for  its 
wars.  Europe  was  then  in  a  most  disturbed 
condition.  The  great  ambition  of  the  King  of 
France  was  to  make  France  the  mistress  of  the 
Continent,  and  to  this  end  he  desired  to  take 
from  Spain  all  that  was  left  of  her  power,  and 
to  prevent  the  States  of  the  Netherlands  from 
rising  into  real  influence.  Louis  XIV.  well 
knew  that  he  would  have  to  count  on  the 
opposition  of  England.  The  two  States  had 
long  been  enemies,  and  the  policy  of  Louis 
made  that  enmity  stronger.  Germany  was  still 
in  a  very  unorganised  condition  ;  Austria  was 
the  greatest  German  State  and,  though  the 
Emperor  was  still  elected  to  the  throne  like  the 
Princes  of  Saxony,  Bavaria  and  others,  the 
Emperor  was  as  sure  of  election  when  his  pre- 
decessor died  as  if  the  principle  of  hereditary 
succession  had  been  acknowledged  in  Austria. 
The  Electorate  of  Brandenburg  soon  after  this 
became  the  great  Kingdom  of  Prussia.  England 
and  Holland  joined  in  an  alliance  to  prevent 
Louis  XIV.  from  adding  Spain  to  his  dominions. 
Some  of  the  German  States  joined  England  and 
Holland,  and  some  took  the  side  of  France.  The 
Methuen  Treaty  with  Portugal  was  concluded 
in  1703  by  Paul  Methuen,  the  English  Ambas- 
sador at  Lisbon.  It  gave  an  advantage  to,  the 
wines  of  Portugal  over  that  of  France,  and  helped 
to  secure  the  alliance  of  Portugal. 

War     of     the     Spanish     Succession. 

France  had  few  allies  of  importance  when  the 
war  broke  out.  The  Duke  of  Vendome  and  the 
Duke  of  Berwick  were  among  the  great  soldiers 
who  led  the  armies  of  France.  England  was  much 
embarrassed  at  this  time  by  the  discontent  in 
Scotland  caused  by  the  opposition  of  the  Scottish 
Parliament  to  the  Union  scheme,  and  France 
was  much  troubled  by  the  rebellion  in  the 
Cevennes  Mountains  caused  bv  the  intolerant 
policy  of  Louis  XIV.  A  rising  took  place  there 
immediately  after  war  had  been  proclaimed. 
The  Dutch  allies  of  England  put  their  forces 
under  the  command  of  Maryborough,  who  in 
this  war  proved  himself  one  of  the  greatest 
commanders  of  all  time.  Prince  Eugene  was 
his  most  distinguished  comrade,  and  helped  him 
in  some  of  his  greatest  battles.  Marlborough 


HISTORY 

determined  to  drive  the  French  into  a  pitched 
battle,  and  thus  to  gain  a  decisive  victory. 

Great  Battles.  While  the  French  were 
still  uncertain  of  his  plans,  he  suddenly  crossed 
the  Neckar,  pushed  through  Germany  towards 
the  Danube,  which  he  crossed,  and  made  his 
way  to  Bavaria,  where  he  joined  his  forces 
with  those  led  by  Prince  Eugene.  There  he 
encountered  the  French  and  Bavarian  Army, 
under  Marshal  Tallard,  of  60,000  men,  the 
English  Army  numbering  40,000.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  August  13th,  1704,  was  fought  the  famous 
Battle  of  Blenheim,  where  Marlborough  won  a 
complete  victory.  The  loss  on  the  French  side 
was  enormous,  and  Tallard  was  taken  prisoner. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Spanish  War  Lord 
Ormond  had  been  sent  to  Spain  with  Sir 
George  Rooke  to  assist  Spain  against  France. 
In  1704  another  expedition  went  out  under 
Rooke,  who  captured  Gibraltar  for  the  English, 
to  whom  it  has  ever  since  belonged. 

In  1705  Charles  Mordaunt,  Earl  of  Peter- 
borough, one  of  the  most  brilliant  figures  of  that 
time,  who  had  begun  his  career  as  a  naval  officer 
but  soon  entered  the  Army,  captured  Barcelona, 
and  established  the  authority  of  Charles  II.  of 
Spain  in  Catalonia  and  Valencia.  After  his  great 
success  he  quarrelled  with  the  Archduke  Charles, 
and  left  Spain  rather  than  submit  to  the  com- 
mand being  divided  between  himself  and  Galway. 
In  1707  he  returned  to  Spain  as  a  volunteer,  but 
was  recalled  by  Sunderland,  who  was  a  friend 
of  Galway.  In  1706  Marlborough  won  the 
battle  of  Ramillies,  in  Flanders,  where  he 
encountered  the  French  Army  under  Marshal 
Villeroi.  The  Allies  thus  gained  the  whole  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  Marlborough  then  wanted 
to  besiege  Mons,  but  the  delay  of  the  Dutch  in 
forwarding  supplies  prevented  this.  In  Italy 
Prince  Eugene's  brilliant  relief  of  the  Siege  of 
Turin  compelled  Italy  to  join  the  Grand  Alliance. 
Louis  XIV.  unsuccessfully  tried  to  make  peace, 
and  the  war  continued.  The  following  year,  was 
less  successful  for  Marlborough.  In  1708 
Vendome  captured  Ghent  and  Bruges,  and 
besieged  Oudenarde.  Marlborough  won  the 
battle  of  Oudenarde  in  July,  and,  being  soon 
after  joined  by  Prince  Eugene,  took  Lille 
and  recaptured  Ghent  and  Bruges.  Berwick 
had  in  the  meantime  reinforced  the  French.  On 
September  llth,  1709,  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
encountered  Villars  at  the  Battle  of  Malplaquet, 
which  was  almost  as  disastrous  for  the  Allies, 
who  won,  as  for  the  French,  who  lost ;  and  the 
following  year  saw  Marlborough's  last  campaign. 

Politics  at  Home.  We  must  now  return 
to  the  events  which  occurred  in  England  while 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  was  going  on. 
In  November  of  1703  a  great  storm  broke  out 
over  a  large  part  of  Europe.  The  Navy  suffered 
much  from  the  fury  of  the  tempest,  and  whole- 
fleets  of  merchant  vessels  were  torn  from  their 
anchorage  and  cast  ashore.  The  Eddystone 
Lighthouse  of  that  time  was  utterly  destroyed, 
and  with  it  perished  all  those  within.  Many 
important  political  events  were  occurring  at 
this  time  in  England.  There  was  a  growing 
struggle  between  the  House  of  Lords  and  the 

4951 


HISTORY 

House  of  Commons,  which  foreshadowed  many 
a  later  dispute  as  to  the  relative  power  of  the 
hereditary  and  the  representative  system.  The 
Union  between  England  and  Scotland  was 
finally  established  in  1706.  William  III.  had 
declared  himself  strongly  hi  favour  of  it  not 
long  before  his  death,  but  many  difficulties  had 
intervened. 

The  trading  and  commercial  rivalries  between 
the  two  countries  had  caused  much  trouble, 
and  the  strong  attachment  among  some  of  the 
Scotch  to  the  Stuart  cause  made  many  English- 
men dread  a  Jacobite  rising  in  the  north  of 
the  country.  When  Anne  succeeded  she  had 
been  advised  by  her  Ministers  to  appoint  a 
Commission  to  treat  with  Commissioners  from 
Scotland  on  the  subject.  The  successful  ac- 
complishment of  the  Union  was  due  chiefly 
to  Lord  Somers. 

The  Union  of  England  and  Scotland. 
The  Scotch  proposal  that  the  Union  should 
be  federal  was  not  accepted,  and  after  much 
discussion  the  twenty-five  Articles  of  Union  were 
drawn  up  The  more  important  among  them 
provided  that  on  May  1st,  1707,  England  and 
Scotland  should  be  united  in  one  Kingdom ; 
that  the  succession  to  the  crown  should  be  the 
same  in  both  countries,  and  that  the  United 
Kingdom  should  be  represented  by  one  Parlia- 
ment. It  was  further  provided  that  there  should 
be  complete  free  trade  between  the  people  of  the 
"  Island  of  Great  Britain  "  ;  that  weights  and 
measures,  laws  of  trade  and  customs  should 
be  the  same  in  both  countries.  In  all  other 
laws  the  Scotch  insisted  on  retaining  their  own 
systems  and  the  independence  of  their  own 
Church.  The  Act  was  passed,  and  on  March  7th, 
1707,  the  Queen  gave  her  Royal  assent  to  the 
union  of  the  two  countries.  The  first  Parliament 
of  Great  Britain  met  on  October  23rd,  1707. 

Harley  had  been  appointed  Secretary  of  State 
in  1706,  and  St.  John,  Secretary  for  War  ;  and 
they,  as  heads  of  the  Tory  Government,  began 
to  fear  that  Maryborough's  incessant  and  brilliant 
victories  would  make  him  too  popular,  and, 
consequently,  too  powerful  in  England.  They 
wished  to  prove  the  possibility  of  winning 
victories  without  his  aid,  and,  on  the  suggestion 
of  St.  John,  resolved  to  send  an  expedition 
against  the  French  in  Quebec,  and  thus  distract 
the  attention  of  Louis  XIV.  by  an  attack  on  a 
distant  part  of  his  dominions.  The  attempt 
proved  an  utter  failure. 

The  End  of  the  War.  The  Government 
now  began  negotiations  for  peace  with  Louis. 
Marl  borough  was  urgent  to  continue  the  war, 
and  Prince  Eugene  came  to  England  to  try 
to  persuade  the  Government  to  sanction  his 
views.  He  was  unsuccessful,  and  Marlborough 
Mas  dismissed  and  Ormond  appointed  in 
his  place.  But  he  had  none  of  Marlborough "s 
genius,  and  the  Alliance  and  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  both  came  to  an  end.  The 
Conference  was  opened  at  Utrecht  on  January 
291  h.  171-2.  and  on  April  llth,  1713,  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht  was  signed,  one  of  the  most  important 


conditions  being  that  which  placed  the  grandson 
of  Louis  XIV.  on  the  Spanish  throne,  with  the 
title  of  Philip  V.  Louis  was,  however,  com- 
pelled to  promise  that  he  and  his  successors 
would  give  no  support  to  the  House  of  Stuart, 
that  Prince  James  Edward  should  leave  France, 
and  that  the  Protestant  succession  through  the 
Hoase  of  Hanover  should  be  acknowledged 
by  France.  A  permanent  severance  of  the  crowns 
of  France  and  Spain  was  also  promised;  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Territories  were  ceded  to  England  ; 
the  Spanish  Netherlands  were  given  to  the 
Dutch,  and  Lille  given  back  to  France.  By 
the  "  Assiento,"  the  grant  of  slave  trade  was 
taken  from  France  and  given  to  England. 
Queen  Anne  endeavoured  to  secure  protection 
for  the  Catalans,  but  with  little  success.  The 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  had  caused  the 
sacrifice  of  many  gallant  lives,  had  caused  also 
enormous  financial  loss  to  the  people  of  England, 
and  the  struggle  had  promised  no  satisfactory 
result  to  this  country. 

Anne's  husband  had  died  in  1708,  and  the 
Queen,  who  was  much  attached  to  him,  refused  to 
marry  again,  though  there  was  no  direct  heir  to 
the  throne.  In  1709  the  famous  Dr.  Sacheverell 
preached  his  two  sermons,  attacking  the  Whig 
Ministry,  and  Godolphin  in  particular,  whom  he 
called  "  Volpone."  The  Government  unwisely 
impeached  him,  and  he  was  tried  in  Westminster 
Hall,  and  found,  in  the  first  instance,  to  be 
guilty ;  but  the  failure  of  a  subsequent  motion  was 
considered  equivalent  to  an  acquittal,  with  the 
immediate  result  that  he  became  a  popular  hero. 
He  was  afterwards  given  a  living  in  Shropshire. 
Simderland  and  Godolphin  were  dismissed,  and 
a  Tory  Government  came  in  under  Harley. 

The  Fall  of  Marlborough.  The  fall 
of  Marlborough — the  most  important  event  of 
the  last  years  of  Anne's  reign — was  brought 
about  by  Harley  and  St.  .John  when  the 
duke  returned  to  England  in  1710.  He  was 
accused  of  having  received  £63,000  on  the 
contracts  for  supplying  the  Army  with  food, 
and  £177,000  on  the'subsidies  for  foreign  troops. 
Marlborough  defended  himself  in  an  eloquent  and 
moving  speech  ;  but  his  enemies  triumphed,  and 
he  Avas  deprived  of  all  his  offices  on  the  last  day 
of  the  year.  On  the  death  of  Godolphin,  Marl- 
borough  went  abroad. 

St  John  was,  in  1712,  created  Viscount  Boling- 
broke.  His  intrigues  against  his  rival  and 
colleague,  Harley,  were  successful,  and  on  July 
2nd,  1704,  Harley  was  dismissed  from  office. 
Bolingbroke  had  not  long  gained  the  undivided 
power  he  craved  when  the  Queen  died.  He  hesi- 
tated whether  he  should  support  the  Stuart  or 
the  Hanoverian  cause ;  but  the  Whig  dukes 
seized  their  opportunity,  came  into  office,  and 
proclaimed  George  the  Elector  King. 

The  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  which  came  to 
an  end  on  August  1st,  1714,  was  the  age  of 
Jonathan  Swift,  of  Addison  and  Steele,  of  the 
"  Spectator "  and  the  Tatler,"  of  Alexander 
Pope,  and  of  many  other  men  whose  names  give 
a  distinctive  character  to  their  era. 


.  'ont-inued 


4952 


THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

A  Brief  Guide  to  the  Points  of  Form,  Plumage, 
and  Colour  of  all  the  Pure  Breeds  of  Poultry 


Group  1 

AGRICULTURE 
35 


roui.TEV 

ntinued  from 

page  4809 


By   Professor  JAMES   LONG 


L7ROM  time  to  time  standards  of  excellence  have 
been  published  describing  in  minute  detail 
the  points  of  the  birds  of  both  sexes  of  all  the 
pure  breeds  of  poultry.  But  it  has  happened  that 
authors  differ,  and  that  fashions  change.  We 
have  therefore,  while  disclaiming  any  standard 
description,  arranged  in  sufficient  detail  for  the 
purposes  of  the  poultry -keeper  the  principal 
points  of  all  the  important  varieties  of  poultry 
known  in  this  country.  The  reader  will  find 
that  each  description  will  prove  a  useful  guide, 
whether  he  desire  to  verify  the  name  of  a  breed 
or  to  ascertain  whether  one  or  more  specimens 
are  eligible  for  the  purposes  of  exhibition. 

The   Breeds   of  Poultry 

Dorking  j 

oHafcm.]  Kwefo,!--  ««« 

Indian  game  rj  Game  varieties.     Sitters. 

Malay 

Aseef  / 

Brahma      -\ 

Cochin         /Asiatic  varieties.     Sitters. 

l,;,ngshan  J 

Plymouth  Rock  i  . 

Wyandotte          /American  varieties.     Sitters. 

Orpington    .  .      English  utility.     Sitters. 
Spanish         A 

JSSritt  U^^rranean    laying  breeds.      Non- 
Ancona         I  sitters- 

Leghorn       J 


-\ 


I  ^n£n'su  'aymg  breeds.     Non-sitters. 


Houdan 

(  ,'reve 

Flee  he  French  varieties.    Table  and  layers. 

Faverolle    I 

Bresse         J 

Campine     .  .      Belgian  variety.    Layers. 

Scotch  grey   1  ^ 

Dumpie*    3     [Scotch  varies.     Utility. 

Polish 


Sultan 
Silky 


-Fancy  varieties. 


Bantams  (various)J 

Dorkings.  Comb,  single  or  rose,  except  in 
silver-greys  (these  single)  ;  erect  in  the  cock,  falling 
over  in  the  hen.  Face  and  ears,  red.  Wattles,  red 
;.ixl  pendent.  Beak,  dark  horn  coloured  in  the  dark, 
lighter  in  the  silvers  and  cuckoos,  and  white  in  the 
white  variety.  Head,  large  and  broad.  Eye,  red  or 
yellow.  Body,  massive  and  square,  with  deep, 
broad  breast,  and  straight  keel.  Back,  medium  in 
length,  broad  and  straight.  Wings,  large,  and 
••Josely  carried.  Neck,  well  furnished,  medium  in 
length.  Tail,  large  and  abundantly  furnished  with 
broad  sickles  and  coverts.  Legs  and  feet,  white, 
and  freu  from  feathers  ;  rive  toes.  Carriage,  bold  and 
brisk,  yet  massive  and  grand. 


Plumage.  DARK  or  COLOURED.  Cock :  Saddle 
and  hackle,  white  or  light  straw-coloured,  some- 
times striped  with  black  ;  shoulders  to  match  ;  out- 
side webs  of  flight  feathers,  white  ;  breast,  thighs, 
and  under  parts,  glossy  black;  wing-bar,  green-black. 
Hen  :  Hackle,  white,  striped  with  black ;  breast, 
dull  salmon-red,  the  feathers  tipped  with  black  or 
dark  grey ;  body,  a  greyish  brown,  every  feather 
being  laced  with  black,  and  provided  with  a  white 
shaft.  There  is,  however,  no  arbitrary  standard  of 
colour  in  the  Coloured  Dorking.  [See  3,  page  4661.  J 

SILVER-GREY.  Cock:  Hackle,  back,  saddle, 
shoulder,  and  outside  webs  of  secondary  flight 
feathers,  silvery  white  ;  remainder  of  the  plumage, 
brilliant  black.  Hen  :  Hackle,  pure  silver  striped 
with  black  ;  breast,  salmon-red,  gradually  becoming 
dull  reddish  grey  as  it  approaches  the  legs ;  re- 
mainder of  plumage  pure  grey,  sprinkled  or  deli- 
cately traced  throughout  with  dark  grey.  [See  1, 
page  4855.] 

WHITES.     Snow-white  throughout. 

CUCKOOS.  Cocks :  Bluish  grey  ground,  every 
feather  marked  or  uniformly  barred  with  a  much 
darker  tint  of  blue-grey. 

Game.  Head,  long,  narrow,  snaky.  Comb, 
single,  usually  removed  with  ears  and  wattles—- 
this is  termed  dubbing.  Beak,  curved,  strong,  horn 
colour  in  black-reds,  dark  horn  in  brown-reds,  or 
nearly  black  ;  yellow  in  piles,  horn  in  silver,  and 
dark  horn  in  golden  duckwings.  Eye,  keen,  red 
in  all  except  the  brown-reds,  in  which  it  is  black. 
Neck,  long.  Body,  short,  wedge  shape.  Breast,  wide, 
tapering  to  the  tail.  Back,  flat.  Wings,  hard, 
strong,  short.  Butts  and  shoulders,  prominent. 
Tail,  tine,  the  feathers  curved,  narrow,  close, 
whipped,  and  carried  back.  Legs  and  feet,  very  long, 
round,  straight,  and  muscular,  willow  in  the  black  - 
reds  and  the  duckwings,  black  in  the  brown-reds,  and 
yellow  in  the  piles.  Carriage,  vigorous,  alert,  bold, 
and  upstanding,  showing  great  length  of  legs  and 
great  height  to  the  head. 

Plumage.      Generally  crisp,  short,  and  hard. 

BLACK-BREASTED  REDS.  Cock:  Hackles  and 
wing-bow,  orange;  saddle,  crimson;  outer  edge  of 
secondary  flights — namely,  the  exposed  webs — 
bay.  Remainder  of  plumage,  metallic  green-black. 
Hen  :  Hackle,  gold,  striped  black.  Breast,  salmon, 
merging  into  the  ashy  tint  of  the  thighs;  remaining 
feathering,  brown  or  partridge  colour,  delicately 
pencilled  throughout,  inner  tail  feathers  being  black. 

BROWN-BREASTED  REDS.  Cock  :  Hackle,  lemon 
striped  with  black.  Back,  saddle,  and  wing-bow, 
lemon.  Shoulders,  metallic  black  at  the  points, 
lemon  behind.  Breast,  black,  each  feather  edged  or 
laced  with  lemon.  Remainder  of  plumage,  black. 
Hen :  Hackle,  lemon,  the  lower  portion  striped 
with  black.  Breast  to  match  the  cock.  Remainder 
of  plumage,  olive,  or  green-black. 

PILES.  Cock  :  Hackle  and  saddle,  orange  ;  back, 
wing-bows,  and  top  of  .saddle,  maroon.  Exposed 
webs  of  flight  feathers,  chestnut.  Remainder  of 
plumage,  white.  Hen :  Hackle,  white  and  gold. 
Breast,  salmon.  Remainder  of  plumage  white. 

4953 


AGRICULTURE 

SILVER  DUCK vviyc:s.  Cock.  Hackle,  back, 
saddle,  and  u  ing-bows,  silvery  white.  Bars  of  wing, 
metallic  blue.  Remainder  *of  exposed  plumage, 
rich  metallic  black.  Hen  :  Hackle,  silver-striped 
black.  Breast,  pale  salmon.  Thighs, 
ash  colour.  Remainder  of  plumage, 
light  grey,  delicately  pencilled.  Tail, 
black,  outside  feathers  excepted. 

GOLDEN  DUCK  WINGS.  Cock : 
Hackle,  light  cream.  Back,  saddle, 
and  wing-bows,  light  orange.  Out- 
side web  of  flight  feathers,  white. 
Remainder  of  plumage,  metallic  black. 
Hen  :  Hackle,  silver,  streaked  Avith 
black.  Breast,  salmon.  Thighs,  ash 
colour.  Remainder  of  plumage,  deli- 
cately pencilled  steel  -  grey.  Tail, 
black,  outside  feathers  excepted. 

Among  other  less  known  varieties 
are  the  red  and  the  silver  wheaten, 
the  birchen,  the  tasselled,  the  duns, 
the  blacks,  and  the  brassy- winged 
game. 

Old  English  Game.  Cock: 
Head,  of  medium  length  and  breadth. 
Comb,  single,  rather  small  [33j. 
Eye,  red  ;  exceptions,  in  brown-reds,  blacks,  and 
brassy-winged,  red  or  dark ;  in  spangles,  red  or 
daw.  Face,  ears,  and  wattles,  red.  Beak,  strong, 
matching  the  legs  ;  exceptions,  in  brown-reds,  dark 
horn  :  in  whites,  yellow ;  in  blacks  and  brassy- 
winged,  darker  horn.  Body,  broad  in  front,  flat 
on  the  top,  straight  breast,  tapering  from  breast 
to  tail.  Wings,  longer  than  in  other  game  fowls. 
Tail,  long,  full,  flowing,  with  abundant  broad 
sickles,  and  hangers.  Legs  and  feet,  of  medium 
length,  set  on  short,  strong  thighs,  and  of  any  clear 
colour  peculiar  to  game  ;  exceptions,  dark  in  brown  - 
reds,  willow  or  white  in  piles  :  white,  willow,  blue, 
or  olive  in  silver  duckwings  :  white  or  willow  in 
white  game ;  in  the  spangled  variety 
they  may  be  mottled.  Carriage,  proud 
and  courageous,  the  body  firm. 

Plumage.       BLACK  -  BREASTED    REDS. 
Cock :    Hackle    and    saddle,    orange-red. 
Back,  shoulder  and  wing-bow,  darker 
red.      Bar    of    wing,    metallic     blue- 
black,   exposed   web    of   flights,  bay. 
Remainder  of  plumage,  black.     Hen: 
Hackle,    golden   striped 
black.       Breast,     salmon. 
Body  and  wings,  partridge- 
brown.   Tail,  black,  shaded 
with      the     same     brown 
colour. 


black. 

Hen 


WHITE  AND  BLACK.  Puce  white  and  metallic 
black  throughout.  Brassy-winged  game,  resembling 
black,  but  marked  with  bright  orange  on  shouldens. 

SILVER  DUCKWINGS.  Cock :  Hackle,  shoulders, 
saddle,  back,  and  wing-bow,  clear,  silvery  white. 
Bar  of  wing,  blue-black.  Breast,  thighs,  and  tail, 


20.     LACED-FEATHERED 
INDIAN  GAME  HEN 


BROWN-REDS.  Cock : 
Hackle  and  saddle,  orar.ge- 
red,  striped  with  black. 
Shoulders  and  back,  red. 
Breast,  brown,  black  shad- 
ing. Wing,  black  or  dark 
!>;<>\vn.  Tail,  black.  Hen: 
Hackle,  black,  striped 
gold.  Tail,  black.  Rest 
of  body,  black,  or  dark 
bnnvn  mottled. 

I'II.KS.  Cock:  Hackle 
.UK!  saddle,  orange  or 
bright  chestnut  red. 
Shoulders  and  back,  darker 

red.  Bar  of  wing,  white.  Exposed  web  of  nights, 
bay.  Breast,  belly,  and  tail,  white.  Hen  :  Hackle, 
bright  chestnut.  Breast,  darker  chestnut.  Thitrhs. 
lighter  chestnut.  Remainder  of  plumage,  white. 

4954 


Exposed    web    of    flight    feathers,    white. 
Hackle,    silver    white    with    black    stripes. 
Breast,     fawn.       Tail,     grey     black. 
Back  and  wings,  dark  grey. 

Indian  Game.  Cock:  Head, 
broad,  lengthy,  heavy  over  the  eyes. 
Comb,  pea.  Face,  wattles,  and  ears, 
red.  Eye,  varying  with  the  plumage, 
light  yellow  to  red.  Beak,  varying 
from  yellow  to  horn.  Body,  broad- 
breasted,  narrow  behind.  Shoulders, 
prominent,  deep,  thick.  Wings,  short 
and  closely  carried.  Tail,  close,  of 
moderate  length,  metallic  black. 
Legs  and  feet,  orange  or  yellow, 
thick,  powerful,  medium  in  length. 
Carriage,  bold,  erect.  Back,  sloping 
towards  tail  which  droops.  [See  5, 
page  4062.  J 

Plumage.  Hard.  Cock :  Hackle, 
saddle,  shoulders  and  back,  metallic  black,  some- 
times mixed  with  chestnut.  Bow  of  wing,  black, 
mixed  with  chestnut.  Wing-bar,  green-black. 
Exposed  web  of  flights,  chestnut.  Remainder  of 
plumage,  black.  Hen :  Black,  partly  striped  witli 
chestmit.  Exposed  web  of  flights,  chestnut,  slightlv 
laced  with  green-black.  Remainder  of  plumage, 
chestnut,  with  green-black  lacing  or  edging,  less 
definite  on  thighs  and  under  parts,  more  definite  on 
upper  parts  of  body,  especially  the  bars  of  the 
wing  [20J. 

Malays.  Comb,  warty:  has  been  described  as 
resembling  a  half- walnut,  red  [25].  Eye,  yellow  or 
pearl.  Beak,  yellow  or  horn  coloured.  Face, 
wattles,  and  ears,  red.  Body,  very  broad  in 
front,  narrow  behind,  deep,  full.  Back,  sloping 
downwards,  the  tail  falling  still  lower  at  a  wide 
obtuse  angle.  Carriage,  gaunt :  extremely  tall, 
head  being  carried  high ;  expression  cruel.  Large 
size.  Legs  and  feet,  very  long, 
yellow. 

Plumage.  Cock :  Feathers  very 
short  and  hard.  Hackle  and  back, 
dark  red.  Breast,  under-feather- 
ing, and  tail,  rich  black, 
the  tail  rather  short. 
Wing-bar,  metallic  green- 
black.  Hen :  Dark. 
WHITES,  pure  snow- 
white.  PILE,  or  PIED, 
closely  resembling  the  pile 
game' [21  J. 

Aseel.  Comb,  pea 
shape,  or  triple,  small. 
Eye,  yellow  or  pearl,  pink 
or  white.  Ears,  small. 
Face  and  throat,  red. 
No  wattles.  Body,  short 
and  wide,  broad  in  front, 
narrow  behind,  hard. 
Leos  and  feet,  stout  and 
muscular,  and,  like  body, 
lightly  feathered,  match- 
ing back  in  colour.  Car- 
riage, erect  and  angular,  very  hard  and  heavy. 

/'/tnitrtf/r.  dose,  tight,  and  hard.  No  fixed 
colouring,  but  there  are  BLACKS,  REDS.  WHITES, 
and  RED  and  BLACK  SPANGLES. 


Brahmas.  Comb,  triple  or  pea  [11,  page  4857]. 
Face  and  ears,  red.  Wattles,  full,  rounded,  red. 
Eye,  red  or  pearl.  Beak,  dark  yellowish  horn,  or 
yellow  and  black,  short  and  strong ;  yellow  in  the 
light  variety.  Head,  rather  small  and  promi- 
nent over  the  eyes.  Back,  broad  and  short, 
the  saddle  gracefully  rising  to  the  tail.  Breast, 
broad  and  prominent.  Wings,  medium.  Tail, 
short,  the  feathering  broad,  and  the  coverts 
abundant.  Legs  and  feet,  orange  or  dusky 
yellow,  heavily  feathered 
to  the  ends  of  the  three 
outside  toes.  Carriage, 
dignified  and  erect. 

Plumage.  DARK  BRAH- 
MAS. Cock:  Head,  hackle, 
saddle,  back,  shoulder, 
and  outside  web  of  flight 
feathers  silvery  white ; 
hackle,  striped  with  clear, 
dense  black  down  the 
centre  of  each  feather ; 
saddle,  the  end  of  each 
feather  densely  striped 
with  black,  or  the  stripes 
may  extend  through  the 
whole  of  the  feather ; 
wing-bar,  lustrous  green- 
black  ;  tail,  the  curved 
feathers  edged  with  white.  Hen :  Head  and  hackle, 
silvery  white,  the  latter  striped  with  dense  black  ; 
tail  black,  the  principal  feathers  edged  with  silver- 
grey  ;  remainder  of  the  plumage,  pure  silver-grey, 
each  feather  clearly  marked  with  crescent  pencil- 
lings  of  dark  grey  or  grey-black. 

LIGHT  BRAHMAS.  Silvery  white,  soft  and  abun- 
dant ;  the  hackles  sharply  and  densely  striped 
with  rich  black  ;  saddle  of  the  cock  slightly  striped 
at  the  end  of  each  feather.  Tail,  short;  feathers 
broad  and  a  lustrous  green- black;  the  sickles  laced 
with  white;  covert  feathers  of  hen,  laced  with  white. 

Cochins.  Comb,  single,  straight,  and  rather 
small.  Face,  ears  and  wattles,  red.  Eye,  orange 
or  pearl;  in  cuckoos,  red:  in  blacks,  red. 
Beak,  yellow,  shaded  in  partridges  and 
cuckoos.  Body,  very  deep,  broad, 
rounded.  Back,  short,  gently  risin 
the  tail.  Wings,  small  and  tight.  ] 
short  and  heavily  feathered.  Tail,  5 
without  sickle 
feathers;  well  sup- 
plied with  coverts. 
Legs  and  feet 
short,  abundantly 
feathered  to  the 
end  of  the  middle 
toes,  and  yellow ; 
dusky  in  the  part- 
ridge variety. 
Carriage,  massive, 
stately.  The  hens, 
gentle  in  appear- 
ance. 

Plumage.  BUFFS: 
Soft  and  mellow 
lemon  buff,  varying 
in  shade  in  different 
birds,  but  uniform 
in  each  specimen. 
The  pointed,  glossy 

feathers  of  the  cock,  brighter  and  richer.     The  entire 
absence  of  black,  wh  ite,  and  other  colours  than  buff. 

WHITES:   Pure  silvery  white.     [See  9,  page  485(5.  ] 

BLACKS  :    Brilliant  metallic  black  throughout. 


BLUE- LACED  ANDALUSIANS 


AGRICULTURE 

PARTRIDGE.  Cock :  Metallic  black  throughout 
except  hackle  and  saddle,  which  are  orange-red 
striped  clearly  with  black ;  back  and  shoulder,  deep 
rich  red  :  outside  webs  of  the  flight  feathers,  bay. 
Hen :  Hackle,  gold,  striped  to  the  end  of  each 
feather  with  black ;  rest  of  the  plumage, 
rich  brown,  every  feather  marked  with 
crescent-like  pencilling  of  a  much  darker 
brown ;  legs  and  feet,  dusky  yellow ; 
}  beak,  horn  or  yellow. 

CUCKOOS.  Ground 
colour,  a  light  grey  slate, 
Every  feather  marked 
across  with  broad  bars  or 
penc  ill  ings  of  dark  slate. 
Langshans.  Cock : 
Comb,  single.  Eye,  dark. 
Ear,  pendent,  red.  Face. 
red.  Body,  large  and 
broad.  Breast,  deep. 
Back,  long  and  well  fur- 
nished. Wings,  rather 
large.  Neck,  full.  Tail, 
full  and  abundantly  fur- 
nished, carrying  a  pair  of 
sickles.  Carriage,  tall, 
upright,  and  alert.  Hen  : 
Body,  gracefully  rounded, 
carried  well  off  the 
ground ;  absence  of  cushion.  Tail,  full.  Other 
points  as  in  the  cock.  Beak,  in  blacks,  very  dark 
horn ;  in  whites,  white  ;  in  blues,  horn  colour.  Legs 
and  feet,  in  blacks,  dark  grey  ;  in  whites,  light  grey. 
Toe-nails,  white.  [See  19,  page  4859.] 

Plumage.    BLACKS.    Brilliant  metallic  black. 
WHITES.     Glossy  silver- white. 
BLUES.      Pointed    male    feathers   of    the    cock, 
deep,    rich,    glossy    slate ;     other   plumage,   slaty 
blue ;     the    feathers    definitely    laced   with    dark 
slate  to  match  the  darker  plumage. 

Plymouth  Rocks.  Comb,  single.  Face,  ears, 
and  wattles,  red.    Eye,  brown.   Beak,  yellow.  Bod}% 
large  and  squarely  built,  with  breadth  and  depth  of 
breast.        Tail,    short,    the     curved 
feathers    slightly    more     developed 
than  in  the  Cochin.    Legs  and  feet, 
yellow.       Carriage, 
upright,  proud. 

Plumage.  Or- 
dinary steel-grey 
ground,  every 
feather  crossed 
with  definite  slaty 
black  bars.  This 
marking  should 
cover  the  entire 
plumage.  [See  12. 
page  4857.] 

BUFFS.  Rich 
buff  of  any  shade, 
uniform  through- 
out, more  brilliant 
in  the  male  feathers 
of  the  cock. 

WHITES.  Pure 
silver-white. 

Wyandottes. 
Comb,  rose  [30]. 
Face,  ears,  and 
wattles,  red.  Eye. 

bay.  Body,  medium  and  well  rounded,  with  full 
breast  and  short  beak.  Wings,  medium.  Tail,  full 
and  spread.  Sickles,  of  medium  size.  Beak,  horn, 
with  vellowish  tinge,  with  these  exceptions — yellow 

4955 


WHITE    LEGHORXS 


AGRICULTURE 

in  white's  and  buffs,  yellowish  horn  in  buff  laced. 
Legs  and  feet,  yellow.  Carriage,  neat  and  sym- 
metrical. The  hen  corresponding  in  all  but  male 
points.  [See  13,  page  4857.] 

Plumage.  GOLDENS.  Cock :  Golden  bay,  the 
centre  feathers  striped  with  black  on  the  neck  and 
saddle.  The  remaining  plumage  and  the  plumage 
of  the  hen,  laced  or  edged  as  clearly  as  possible 
with  lustrous  black ;  tail,  metallic  black ;  the 
thighs  and  under-feathering,  dark  slate,  imperfectly 
marked  with  golden  bay. 

SILVERS.  Closely  resembling  the  golden  variety — 
substituting  silver  for  bay  ground  colour. 

WHITES.    Silvery  white  throughout. 

BUFFS.  Pure  lemon  or  soft  mellow  buff  of  one 
tint  throughout,  the  pointed  or  male  feathers 
of  the  cock  the  most  brilliant. 

BUFF  LACED.  Similar  to  the  buffs,  but  each 
feather  laced  with  white,  except  in  the  pointed  male 
feathers  of  the  cock  on  the  neck  and  saddles,  which 
are  buff,  striped  in  the  centre  with  white.  The 
back,  shoulders,  and  the  bow  of  the  wing,  pure 
buff.  Tail,  white  ;  under-colour,  white.  [See  4, 
page  4662.] 

PARTRIDGES.  Cock  :  Neck  and  saddle,  orange, 
with  a  black  centre  stripe.  Back  and  wings,  red. 
Wing-bar,  breast,  and  tail,  black.  Hen:  Neck  as 
in  the  cock.  Tail,  black,  slightly  pencilled  at  the 
ends  of  the  feathers.  Body  plumage  and  wings,  an 
even  lightish  blue;  the  feathers  delicately  pencilled 
with  darker  blue. 

Orpingtons.  Comb,  single  or  rose.  Face,  ears, 
and  wattles,  red ;  red  or  brown  in  the  buffs.  Eye, 
black.  Beak,  black,  but  white  or  light  horn  colour  in 
the  buffs.  Legs  and  feet,  rather  short  and  black. 
Body,  full  and  deep,  with  broad  chest  and  short 
hack.  Wings,  closely  carried.  Tail,  of  medium  size, 
well  furnished.  Carriage,  bold  and  compact.  [See 
14,  page  4858.] 

Plumage.   BLACKS.   Metallic  black  throughout. 

BUFFS.  Rich  buff  of  any  tint,  always  uniform ; 
the  male  feathers  of  the  cock  more  brilliant. 

Spanish.  BLACK.  Cock :  Comb,  large,  erect, 
fine  texture,  the  serrations  clean-cut  and  uniform 
1 28].  Hen:  Fine,  falling  over.  Face,  very  large, 
pure  white,  kid-like,  reaching  well  over  the  eye  and 
behind  the  ear,  free  from  folds  and  large  wrinkles. 
Kar,  pure  white,  smooth,  largely  developed,  deep  and 
broad.  Beak,  dark  horn.  Wattles,  long,  red.  Tail, 
large,  full,  flowing,  nearly  erect.  Legs  and  feet, 
almost  black.  Carriage,  upright,  showy. 

Plumage.   Brilliant,  glossy  green-black. 

Minorcas.  Comb,  single,  large.  Face  and 
wattles,  red,  the  former  long.  Ear,  almond-shape, 
white,  smooth.  Eye,  dark  in  the  blacks ;  red  in  the 
whites.  Beak,  dark  horn;  white  in  the  white 
variety.  Neck,  arched  and  full.  Body,  broad, 
square,  compact,  large  as  possible.  Back,  broad 
and  long.  Wings,  medium  and  rather  close  fitting. 
Breast,  full,  rounded.  Tail,  full,  with  long,  broad 
sickles.  Legs  and  feet,  medium  black  or  dark 
slate.  Carriage,  upright,  graceful,  alert,  The  comb 
of  tin  hen  falls  over  to  one  side. 

I'lmiKHjc.  ("ossy  metallic  black  or  pure  silver- 
white.  [See  Id,  page  4858.] 

Andalusians.  Comb,  large,  single,  red  :  in 
the  lien  large,  falling  over  to  one  side.  Face.  red. 
Wattles,  red,  long.  Ear,  rather  large,  oval,  white, 
smooth.  Eye,  red  or  orange.  Legs  and  feet,  clean, 
dark  slaty  black.  Body  and  carriage  resemble  th<- 
.Minorca,  but  slightly  less  com  pact:  tail,  full,  flowing. 

Plumage.  Bright  slate,  every  feather  laced  with 
dark  slate  or  black,  except  the  hackle,  saddle,  back, 
and  other  male  plumage  of  the  cock,  which  are 

4950 


very  dark,  glossy,  velvety  looking,  slaty  black. 
Tail,  slaty  black  [22 J. 

Anconas.  Comb,  single,  erect,  medium  size, 
falling  over  in  the  hen.  Face  and  wattles  red  ; 
beak,  yellow  with  dark  shading.  Legs  and  feet, 
yellow,  mottled  black.  Body,  compact,  deep, 
broad.  Tail,  large,  flowing,  the  feathers  broad. 
Carriage,  brisk  and  active. 

Plumage.  Brilliant  green-black,  mottled  white, 
the  white  chiefly  at  the  ends  of  the  feather. 

Leghorns.  Comb,  large,  single,  erect  in  the 
cock  [29],  falling  over  in  the  hen.  Face  and 
wattles,  red.  Ear,  white,  large,  smooth,  cream 
colour  admitted.  Eye,  red.  Beak,  yellow  in  the 
whites  and  buffs  ;  yellow  or  horn  in  other  varieties. 
Body,  wide  in  front,  becoming  narrow  behind. 
Breast,  rather  prominent.  Tail,  full,  gracefully 
ca  rr ied,  curved  feathers,  rather  broad.  Legs  and  feet, 
yellow  or  orange.  Carriage,  graceful,  alert,  dignified. 

Plumage.  WHITES.    Silver-white  throughout  [23J. 

BROWNS.  Cock :  Neck  hackle,  orange-red,  the 
feathers  striped  with  black  ;  breast  and  under-part 
of  plumage,  black  :  remainder  of  plumage,  deep  red, 
resembling  the  black-breasted  red  game,  but  less 
brilliant  in  colour ;  tail,  black.  Hen  :  Hackle,  golden, 
striped  black:  breast,  salmon ;  thighs,  ashy;  tail, 
black,  in  part  brown  pencilled;  rest  of  plumage, 
brown,  finely  pencilled  with  darker  shade.  [Seel, 
page  4660.]  * 

CUCKOO.  Ground  colour,  bluish  grey,  the  bars 
across  each  feather  dark  greyish  blue. 

PILE.  Neck  hackle,  orange ;  saddle,  maroon : 
shoulders  and  wing-bow,  dark  red.  Breast,  thighs, 
wing-bar,  and  tail,  white.  Hen :  Neck  hackle, 
white  and  gold,  as  in  the  Pile  game.  Breast, 
salmon  :  body,  white. 

GOLDEN  DUCK  WING.  Cock  :  Neck  hackle,  straw 
colour  ;  saddle,  gold  ;  back,  deeper  gold  ;  shoulder, 
bright  gold ;  coverts  of  the  wing  or  bar,  metallic 
blue-black :  breast,  under-parts  and  tail,  black. 
Hen  :  Hackle,  white,  striped  with  black  or  very 
dark  grey  ;  breast,  salmon  ;  tail,  grey  ;  remainder 
of  plumage,  a  dark  greyish  black  pencilling  on  a 
lighter  grey  ground. 

SILVER  DUCKWING.  Cock :  Hackle  and  saddle, 
shoulders  and  wing,  covert  excepted,  silver  ;  wing, 
coverts  or  bar,  blue-black  :  thighs,  under-fluff,  and 
tail,  black.  Hen :  Hackle,  silver,  striped  with 
black  or  very  dark  grey  :  breast  and  under-fluff, 
light  salmon,  shading  off  to  grey ;  saddle  and 
wings,  a  silvery  grey  pencilled  with  black  or  dark 
grey  :  tail,  darker  grey  than  the  body. 

Hamburghs.  Comb,  double  or  rose,  rather 
small  in  the  pencilled  varieties,  the  spike  long. 
[See  10,  page  4857.]  Face  and  wattles,  brilliant 
red.  Ear,  white,  smooth,  round,  the  size  of  a 
shilling  in  the  cock,  and  of  a  sixpence  in  the  hen, 
except  in  the  blacks,  where  it  may  reach  the  size 
of  a  florin.  Eye,  red  in  the  pencilled  and  gold- 
s] >angled  and  black :  dark  hazel  in  the  silver- 
spangled.  Beak,  horn  in  the  pencilled  and 
spangled  ;  black  or  dark  horn  in  the  black 
variety  ;  yellow  or  horn  in  the  white  and  buff. 
Body,  rather  small  and  rounded.  Hackles,  full.  Tail, 
long,  the  feathers  broad,  carried  at  right  angles 
to  the  back,  the  side  sickles  or  "  hangers"  abundant. 
Legs  and  feet,  blue  in  all  but  the  blacks,  in  which 
this  colour  is  darker.  Carriage,  alert  and  jaunty. 

I 'I  a  mage.  SILVER -PENCILLED.  Brilliant  silver- 
white  ground.  Cock:  White  throughout  the  ex- 
posed plumage,  except  the  tail,  which  is  metallic 
black,  the  sickles  and  secondaries  or  hangers 
delicately  laced  or  edged  with  white.  Hen  :  White 
neck  hackle,  the  remainder  of  plumage  marked  with 


grcm-bluck  and  almost  mathematical  bars  across 
each  feather  from  the  throat  to  the  tip  of  the  tail. 

GOLDEN  -  PENCILLED.  Cock  :  Brilliant  bright 
golden  bay  throughout,  except  the  tail  and  hangers, 
which  are  metallic  black,  laced  with  golden  bay. 
Hen :  Golden  bay  ground  throughout,  the  whole 
plumage,  the  neck  hackle  excepted,  being  pencilled 
or  barred  across  every  feather.  [See  2,  page  4661.  J 

SILVER-SPANGLED.  Cock  :  Silver-white  ground, 
every  feather  tipped  with  a  bold  green- black  moon 
or  spangle.  Exceptions  :  The  hackle,  shoulder,  and 
saddle  of  the  cock  are  tipped  with  diamond 
spangles ;  the  hackle  of  the  hen  is  striped,  the  tail 
is  white,  with  spangles  at  the  end  of  each  feather. 
[See  8,  page  4856.] 

GOLDEN -SPANG  LED.  Cock:  Rich  golden  bay, 
marked  as  in  the  silver-spangled ;  the  hackle  of 
the  cock,  however,  is  well  and  clearly  striped  ;  the 
tail  is  green-black  throughout. 

BLACKS.  Metallic  black  throughout,  the  sheen 
especially  brilliant.  [See  17,  page  4859.] 

WHITES.     Silvery  white  throughout. 

BUFFS.  Buff  of 
any  rich,  even  shade 
throughout  the  plu- 
mage. 

Redcaps.  Comb, 
large,  rose  -  shaped  : 
spike,  long  [31j.  Eye, 
ml.  Beak,  horn.  Face, 
wattles,  and  ears,  red. 
Body,  full,  neatly 
rounded,  broad.  Tail, 
carried  well  up,  curved 
feathers  broad  and 
long.  Legs  and  feet, 
slate.  Carriage,  alert, 
graceful,  jaunty. 

Plumage.  Cock: 
Hackle  and  saddle, 
red  with  a  black  stripe 
in  the  centre.  Wing- 
bar,  black  ;  breast  and 
under  -  fluff,  black  : 
tail,  and  all  curved 
feathers,  black.  Hen: 
Rich  brown-red,  every 
feather  well  and  uni- 
formly spangled  with 
a  well-defined  black 
half-moon. 

Houdans.  Comb, 
leaf-shape,  the  outer 
edges  somewhat  ser- 
rated, and  to  some 
extent  antler-like  [35]. 
Face  and  wattles,  red. 
Ear,  quite  small,  white 
or  white  and  pink. 

Eye,  red.  Beak,  light  horn.  Crest,  large  as  possible. 
compact,  globular.  Beard,  large,  bell-like,  and 
extending  to  the  whiskers  at  foe  sides  of  the  face. 
Body,  broad,  deep,  of  medium  length.  Neck  hackle, 
full.  Tail,  long,  full,  the  sickles  and  hangers  broad 
and  flowing.  Legs  and  feet,  slate  or  black  and 
white,  mottled.  Carriage,  alert. 

Plumage.  Mottled  throughout,  brilliant  metallic 
black  and  white,  evenly  distributed,  slightly  darker 
in  young  birds  ;  usually  whiter  after  the  first  moult. 
The  dark  mottling  preferred. 

Crevecceurs.  Comb,  two-horned,  clean,  finely 
pointed  and  right-angled  [34].  Face,  ear,  and 
wattles,  red.  Eye,  red  or  black.  Beak,  dark  horn. 
Crest,  large,  globular.  Beard,  full  and  well  formed. 


THE  VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  COMB,  CREST,  AND  BEARD 
24.  Cup  comb  (a  fault)     25.  Malay  or  warty  comb    26.  AVhite  crest 
27.  Beard  and  whiskers    28.  Single  comb,  white  faced  lobe 


AGRICULTURE 

Legs  and  feet,  black  or  deep  slate.  Body,  large, 
square,  deep,  and  rather  long.  Tail,  large,'  flowing 
in  the  cock,  the  feathers  broad.  Carriage,  the  cock 
brisk,  bold,  and  active;  the  hen,  sedate. 

Plumage.  Brilliant  metallic  black  throughout. 
La  Fleche.  Comb,  two-horned  (V-shaped), 
clean,  round,  symmetrical  [15,  page  4858].  Face 
and  wattles,  red.  Beak,  dark  horn.  Ear,  large, 
rounded,  white.  Legs  and  feet,  black  or  dark  slate. 
Body,  large,  square,  long,  and  thick.  Tail,  large  and 
flowing,  the  curved  feathers  broad.  Carriage,  brisk 
and  active.  [See  18,  page  4859.] 
Plumage.  Full,  rich  metallic  black. 
Faverolles.  Comb,  single,  erect,  even, 
serrated,  medium  size.  Face,  ear,  and  wattles,  red. 
Eye,  hazel  or  grey.  Beak,  horn  or  white.  Beard 
and  whiskers,  black,  with  a  little  white  [27]. 
Legs  and  feet,  white,  five-toed.  Body,  thick  and 
characteristic  of  the  table  fowl.  Tail,  rather  short, 
neatly  curved. 

Plumage.     Cock  :   Hackles  and  wing-bows,  straw- 
coloured  ;    breast  and  wing-bar,  black ;    beak  and 

shoulders,  black   and 

white  mixed  with 
brown;  tail  and 
thighs,  black.  Hen : 
Whiskers  and  beard,  a 
straw  white;  hackles, 
rich  brown,  striped 
with  darker  brown ; 
back  and  wings, 
brown,  the  shade  vary- 
ing :  tail  to  match ; 
remainder  of  the 
plumage,  cream. 

Bresse.  Comb, 
single,  large,  upright, 
falling  over  in  the  hen. 
Face  and  wattles,  red. 
Ears,  white.  Beak, 
horn.  Legs  and  feet, 
light  slate.  Body, 
m  e  d  i  u  m ,  rounded . 
Tail,  flowing ;  feathers, 
broad,  medium  length. 
Plumage.  Three 
sub-varieties,  metallic 
black,  white,  and  grey. 
In  the  grey  Bresse  the 
colour  of  the  back  is 
bluish  and  the  feathers 
pencilled;  the  variety, 
however,  is  not  yet 
bred  to  a  standard. 

There    are      other 
French  varieties,    the 


35 


s     30.  Curved  rose  comb     31.  Rose  comb     32.  Double  spike  to    R.,rhp7  he  Mai 

rose  minb  (a  fault)      33.  Single  comb      34.  Crest,  beard,  whiskers,    J^"62    ,ux,  MU,. 

and  horned  comb    35.  Leaf  comb,  crest,  beard,  and  whiskers  and     the    Courtes 

Pattes,  which,  among 

others,  we  described  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  after 
the  great  Paris  Exhibition  ;  but  the  French  are 
very  slow  in  breeding  to  any  standard,  and  these 
so-called  varieties  are  still  much  as  they  were. 

Campines.  Comb,  single,  erect,  falling  over  in 
the  hen.  Eye,  nearly  black.  Face  and  wattles,  red. 
Ears,  almond-shaped.  Carriage,  erect,  alert,  graceful. 
Plumage.  Hackle,  white.  Saddle  of  cock,  white, 
with  somewhat  indefinite  pencilling.  Tail,  black, 
the  curved  feathers  mackerel-marked  on  each  edge  ; 
remainder  of  plumage  pencilled,  as  in  the  Silver- 
pencilled  Hamburgh.  The  size  and  character  of 
marking  in  course  of  transition. 

GOLDEN    CAMPINES.      Resemble    the    whites   or 
silvers,  except  that  the  ground  colour  is  golden  bay. 

4957 


AGRICULTURE 

Scotch  Greys.  Comb,  .single,  straight,  me- 
dium si/e.  Face,  ear  and  wattles,  red.  Kye, 
red.  Beak,  white  or  white  streaked  with  black. 
Legs  "lid  feet,  white,  or  with  a  little  black.  Body, 
broad,  deep,  and  substantial.  Tail,  flowing,  medium 
length,  the  feathers  broad.  Carriage,  gracef ul,  erect. 

/V/IHHHJC.  Bluish  grey  ground,  every  feather 
evenly  crossed  with  dark  greyish  blue  bars. 

Scotch  Dumpies.  Comb,  single,  upright, 
medium  size  in  cock.  Eye,  red.  Beak  matches 
th<-  legs.  Face,  wattles  and  ears,  red.  Body, 
broad,  very  deep — this  point  is  marked — square. 
Carriage,  heavy,  owing  to  the  depth  of  body  and 
shortness  of  legs.  Tail,  full,  long,  sickles  flowing. 
Legs  and  feet  very  short,  white  in  darks  and  silvers; 
bl aek  or  slate  in  blacks ;  mottled  in  cuckoos. 

Plumage.  Black,  cuckoo,  or  resembling  the  Dark 
and  Silver-grey  Dorkings. 

Polish  Varieties.  Cock  :  Crest,  very  large 
globular,  and  compact.  Comb,  two  tiny  horns,  but 
unnecessary.  Face  and  wattles,  red.  Ears,  white, 
tinged  blue ;  exception,  in  white  and  white-crested 
blues  and  white-crested  blacks,  ear  lobes  white. 
Eye,  red.  Beak,  horn  or  dark  blue ;  exception, 
in  whites  and  white-crested  blacks  and  blues, 
dark  blue.  Body,  rather  deep,  long.  Breast, 
well  rounded,  and  wings  large.  Tail,  rather  full  and 
open.  Legs  and  feet,  medium  length,  fine,  clean, 
dark  blue,  approaching  black  in  the  white-crested 
varieties.  Carriage,  proud,  erect. 

Plumage.  SILVER-LACED.  Cock :  Crest,  white, 
with  black  at  the  roots  and  tip  :  beard,  laced ;  body 
plumage,  silver;  hackle  feathers,  tipped  or  spangled 
black ;  back  and  saddle,  laced  or  spangled  at  tips  of 
featUers ;  shoulders  and  wings,  and  rest  of  body, 
every  feather  clearly  laced  with  black,  the  lacing 
rather  broad.  Hen :  Crest,  silver,  black-edged 
throughout  [26] :  beard,  laced  or  mottled  ;  rest  of 
plumage,  silver,  every  feather  black -laced. 

GOLDEN-LACED.  Plumage  resembling  the  silvers 
except  that  the  ground  colour  is  golden  bay. 

CHAMOIS  OR  BUFF  POLISH.  Cock :  Crest,  buff, 
white  at  roots  and  white-tipped ;  beard,  buff, 
mottled  or  laced  white  ;  hackle,  buff  tipped  with 
white;  remainder  of  plumage,  buff,  except  that 
the  bars  of  wings  and  exposed  web  of  flights,  tail 
sickles  and  hangers  are  laced  with  white.  Hen  : 
Buff,  white-edged  ;  beard,  resembling  that  of  cock; 
hackle  and  rest  of  plumage,  buff,  white-edged. 

WHITE-CRESTED  BLACKS.  Crest,  white,  like  a 
snowball ;  remainder  of  plumage,  metallic  black. 

WHITE-CRESTED  BLUES.  Crest,  large  and  white  : 
rest  of  plumage,  dark  blue.  [See  6,  page  4855.] 

WHITE  POLISH.     Snow-white  throughout. 

Sultans.  Comb,  two  very  small  spikes 
buried  in  the  crest.  Crest,  large,  round,  compact. 
Beard  and  whiskers  full.  Eye,  red.  Back,  white 
or  light  blue.  Comb,  face,  ears,  and  wattles,  red. 
Body,  deep.  Breast,  prominent.  Beak,  short. 
Tail,  broad,  well  carried,  long,  flowing.  Lc-s 
and  feet,  light  blue,  five-toed;  the  feathers  of  the 
thighs,  vulture-like.  Carriage,  compact,  Polish-like. 

/'funifigc.     Abundant,  snow-white. 

Silkies.  Comb,  wart-like,  purple.  Eye.  black. 
Beak,  slaty.  Face  and  wattles,  dark  purple. 
Ears,  light  blue:  skin,  violet.  Body,  full,  short, 
rather  broad.  U\gs  short:  feet,  five-toed,  lead 
colour.  Carriage,  quaint,  and  yet  c-raeeful. 

P/iniiugc.      White,  soft,  silk-l'ike.  fluffy. 

Frizzled  Fowls.  Comb,  rose-shaped.  Body, 
quaint  in  appearance  and  small  in  size. 

Phim<i</<-.  Black,  white  or  brown,  every  feather- 
being  curled,  the  tail  excepted. 


Continued 


Old   English   and    Modern    Bantams. 

GAME.     Points  in  all  respects  as  in  the  large  breeds. 
Exceptions  in  modern  game :  cockerels,  not  to  exceed 

20  oz.,  cocks,  24  oz.,  pullets,  18  oz.     Old  English 
game:  outside  weight  of  cocks,  22  oz.,  hens,  20  oz. 

BLACKS.  Comb,  rose.  Face  and  wattles,  red. 
Ear.  perfectly  round,  smooth,  white,  the  size  of 
a  sixpence  as  a  minimum.  Breast,  broad,  very 
prominent.  Wings,  slightly  drooping.  Tail,  full ; 
feathers  broad,  carried  back.  Legs  and  feet,  rather 
short,  black. 

Plumage.  Metallic  green-black.  Weight,  maxi- 
mum, 16  oz.  Hen  :  smaller  in  proportion  in  size 
in  comb  and  ear. 

WHITES.     Beak,  white.     Eye,  red.     Legs,  white. 

Plumage.  White  throughout.  In  all  other  points 
resembling  the  blacks. 

Sebrights.  SILVER -LACED.  Comb,  rose. 
Beak,  horn  or  dark  blue.  Eye,  black,  or  nearly 
black.  Face,  wattles,  and  comb,  dull  red  or 
purple.  Ears  to  match.  Legs  and  feet,  blue- 
slate.  Body,  prominent  and  bold  in  breast,  short 
back,  wings  drooping.  Tail,  square,  spread. 
Carriage,  short  and  strutting.  Weight  of  cock, 

21  to  22  oz.  :  of  hen,  18  oz. 

Plumage.  Silver  -  white  ground  throughout, 
every  feather  sharply  and  distinctly  edged  or  laced 
with  metallic  green-black.  The  cock's  plumage 
resembles  that  of  the  hen,  without  male  feathers. 

GOLD.     Beak,  dark  horn. 

Plumage.  Ground  colour,  golden  bay.  In  other 
respects  resembling  the  silvers. 

Pekin  Bantams.  Pekin  Bantams  are  tiny 
birds  and  closely  resemble  the  Cochin  ( 'hina.  Comb, 
small,  single.  Eye,  red  or  orange  tending  to  be 
golden  in  the  buffs  and  blacks,  red  in  the  cocks. 
Beak,  yellow.  Dark  shading  in  the  partridge,  black 
with  yellow  edges  in  the  blacks.  Face,  wattles,  and 
ears.  "red.  Body,  deep,  short,  and  thick.  Breast, 
full.  Back,  short,  rising  at  the  saddle  into  the  short, 
full  tail.  Legs  and  feet,  short,  heavily  fea-thered  to 
the  end  of  the  middle  and  outer  toes,  yellow. 
Carriage,  resembling  that  of  the  Cochin.  Weight. 
30  to  33  oz.  ;  hens,  27  oz.  to  28  oz. 

Plumage  BUFF  PEKINS.  Rich,  even,  lemon,  or 
orange-buff.  The  Partridge  resembles  the  Partridge 
Cochins  as  closely  as  possible. 

WHITE.     Snow-white. 

BLACK.     Rich,  glossy  black. 

CroKOOS.     Resemble  the  Cuckoo  Cochins. 

Booted  Bantams.  Comb,  single.  Face, 
ears,  and  wattles,  red.  Eye,  red ;  in  the  blacks,  dark 
red  or  brown.  Beak,  white  :  in  the  darks,  black  or 
dark  horn.  Body,  compact.  Breast,  prominent. 
Feathering, .jJpng.  Tail,  large,  abundant,  almost 
upright.  "Legs  and  feet,  white :  in  the  blacks, 
black.  Carriage,  strutting.  Weight  of  cocks,  23  oz. 
to  25  oz.  ;  hens,  18  oz.  20  oz. 

Plumage.  White  in  the  white  and  whiskered 
varieties,  black  in  the  blacks.  Heavily  feathered  to 
the  tips  of  middle,  and  outside  toes. 

Other  Varieties  of  Bantams.  The 
Frizzled,  Andalusian,  Aseel.  Indian  Game,  Malay, 
Polish.  Spanish.  Minorca,  Leghorn,  Hamburgh, 
Sultan.  Scotch  Grey,  and  Brahma  Bantams,  closely 
follow  the  varieties  of  which  they  are  diminutive 
imitations.  The  .Japanese  bantams  are  very  short 
in  body  and  leg.  They  have  dropping  wings,  and 
are  bred  in  several  colours.  There  are  whites,  blacks, 
greys,  and  buffs.  The  curved  tail  feathers  in  the 
whites  are  black,  sharply  laced  with  white  around 
edges.  Comb,  single  and  large.  Beak,  yellow.  Face, 
wattles,  and  ears,  red.  Legs  and  feet,  yellow. 


4958 


FOOD  CROPS 


Temperate  and  Tropical  Root  Crops.    Stimulants  and  Narcotics. 
Tea,    Coffee,   and    Cocoa.      The    Pulses.       The    Sugar    Cane 


Group  13 

COMMERCIAL 
GEOGRAPHY 

5 

Continued  from  page  4370 


By  Dr.  A.  J.  HERBERTSON,  M.A.,  and  F.  D.  HERBERTSON,  B.A. 


DOOT  crops  play  a  great  part  in  temperate 
*^  agriculture.  The  most  important  are  the 
potato,  a  staple  food  in  temperate  lands,  turnips 
and  mangels  for  stock,  and  the  sugar-beet. 

Potatoes,  Turnips  and  Mangels. 
The  potato,  a  native  of  South  America,  is 
now  cultivated  from  the  tropics  to  the  Arctic 
Circle.  Its  cultivation  became  important  in 
Ireland  by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Thence  it  spread  to  Lancashire,  and  had  become 
general  in  the  British  Isles  by  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  became  popular  in 
France,  Germany,  and  other  parts  of  Europe 
by  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  potato  crop  is  very  liable  to  disease  ; 
too  exclusive  reliance  on  it  may  mean  famine, 
as  in  Ireland  in  the  middle  of  last  century. 
The  production  per  head  is  greatest  in  Ireland 
and  Germany.  In  North  Germany  the  potato 
is  the  chief  food  of  the  working  classes,  but 
a  large  proportion  of  the  crop  is  used  for 
distilling  a  cheap  spirit.  Starch  is  largely 
manufactured  from  potatoes. 

Many  varieties  of  potatoes  are  cultivated. 
New  ones  are  constantly  introduced,  and,  like  the 
famous  Northern  Star  a  few  years  ago,  may  for 
a  time  command  fabulous  prices.  Except  in 
such  cases,  the  potato  is  too  bulky  to  pay  for 
long  transit,  and  the  trade  is  chiefly  between 
neighbouring  countries.  Early  potatoes,  which 
fetch  big  prices,  are  imported  from  Malta, 
France,  and  the  Channel  Islands  especially. 
They  are  grown  for  the  American  market  in 
the  Bermudas.  [See  AGRICULTURE,  page  1665.] 

Turnips  and  mangel  wurzels,  a  species  of 
beet,  are  largely  groAvii  as  a  Held  crop  for  feeding 
stock.  The  turnip  has  long  been  grown  in 
India,  and  is  cultivated  as  a  vegetable  in  most 
parts  of  the  cool  temperate  zone.  As  a  field 
crop  it  became  important  in  Britain  about  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  marked 
a  new  era  in  agriculture  by  improving  the 
rotation  of  crops,  and  by  supplying  winter  food 
for  stock,  so  that  fresh  meat  became  available 
all  the  year  round.  It  is  comparatively  little 
used  for  this  purpose  in  North  America,  Avhere 
the  climate  does  not  suit  it.  Like  the  potato, 
it  is  too  bulky  to  bear  the  cost  of  transport. 

Beet  Sugar.  The  cultivation  of  the  sugar- 
beet,  now  so  important  on  the  poorer  soils  of 
North  and  Central  Europe,  dates  only  from  the 
continental  wars  of  a  century  ago,  when  French 
ports  were  closed  to  tropical  produce.  The 
cultivation  of  sugar-beet  has  led  to  a  fall  in  the 
price  of  sugar  and  a  vastly  increased  consump- 
tion, especially  among  the  Teutonic  races.  In 
1840,  when  beet  sugar  formed  only  about  four 
per  cent,  of  the  world's  produce,  the  average 


consumption  per  head  in  this  country  Avas  15  Ib. 
per  annum,  while  noAV,  Avhen  beet  sugar  forms 
approximately  half  of  the  Avorld's  production 
and  tAvo-thirds  of  the  commercial  article,  it  has 
increased  to  six  times  that  quantity  [see  Sugar- 
in  FOOD  SUPPLY,  page  4047]. 

Cane  sugar  needs  less  labour  in  cultivation, 
is  richer  in  sugar,  involves  less  costly  machinery, 
and  is  grown  Avhere  labour  is  cheap.  Beet 
sugar  requires  annual  planting,  a  high  state  of 
cultivation,  considerable  expense  in  fertilisers, 
expensive  processes  of  manufacture,  and  is 
carried  on  where  labour  is  dear.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  the  advantage  of  proximity  to 
markets,  and  the  refuse  forms  a  valuable  feeding- 
stuff  for  cattle.  It  is  much  more  widely  culti- 
vated in  Europe  than  in  the  United  States, 
where  it  is  grown  in  California  and  Michigan. 
Germany  produces  beet  sugar  to  the  value  of 
about  £15,000,000,  Austria-Hungary  £10,000,000, 
France  £8,000,000,  and  Russia  £9,000,000.  The 
total  value  of  all  the  beet  sugar  produced  in 
the  world  is  about  £55,000,000. 

Tropical  Root  Crops.  Few  tropical  root 
crops  are  commercially  important.  Manioc, 
or  cassava,  a  native  of  Brazil,  is  widely  cultivated 
throughout  the  tropics.  It  is  propagated  by 
cuttings,  and  needs  almost  no  attention.  In 
its  preparation  a  poisonous  juice  must  be 
extracted  by  heat  before  it  is  fit  for  food.  In 
South  America  the  dried  and  grated  root, 
knoAvn  as  farinha,  is  a  staple  food.  Tapioca,  a 
preparation  of  manioc,  is  imported  into  this 
country  from  the  West  Indies,  and  from  the  East 
Indies  through  Singapore.  Much  so-called 
tapioca  is  in  reality  only  potato  starch. 

'Arrowroot  is  a  highly  digestible  starch  ex- 
tracted from  the  roots  of  various  tropical  plants. 
It  is  obtained  from  both  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  but  the  finest  comes  from  Bermuda  and 
Jamaica. 

TAVO  other  tropical  roots,  though  of  no  com- 
mercial value,  may  be  mentioned,  the  yam 
and  taro.  The  yam  is  an  important  food  in  the 
West  Indies  and  other  tropical  regions.  Its 
roots,  Avhich  are  rich  in  starch,  attain  the  weight 
of  30  Ib.  in  some  of  the  Polynesian  species. 
Taro,  Avidely  cultivated  in  the  Pacific  islands, 
is  an  edible  root  of  a  species  of  arum.  It  is 
boiled  or  ground  into  a  species  of  rneal.  Its 
leaves  serve  as  a  vegetable. 

Ginger  has  long  been  cultivated  for  its  pungent 
root  in  the  East  Indies,  and  is  noAV  also  cultivated 
in  the  West  Indies  and  West  Africa.  The  root 
stock,  the  ginger  of  commerce,  is  scalded  and 
dried.  Preserved  ginger,  a  SAveetnieat  made  by 
preserving  the  young  root  in  syrup,  is  exported 
from  China  and  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

4959 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Stimulants  and  Narcotics.  Stimulants 
and  narcotics  include  hops,  tobacco,  opium, 
ica.  coffee,  cocoa,  and  others  of  less  importance. 
Hops  are  chiefly  used  for  imparting  a  bitter 
flavour  to  beer.  They  are  an  expensive  and 
uncertain  crop.  They  require  a  rich,  deep,  well- 
Avorked  soil,  which  they  rapidly  exhaust.  They 
In-ill1  in  the  third  year,  but  the  crop  is  very  liable 
to  tail  or  be  short.  In  1906  the  yield  Avas  only 
about  6  cAvt.  to  the  acre,  against  13  cwt.  in  1905. 
Kent,  Surrey,  Sussex,  Hereford  and  Hampshire 
are  the  chief  hop  counties.  On  the  Continent 
hops  arc  extensively  grown  in  BaAraria,  Avhich 
breAVS  famous  beers,  Bohemia,  and  Alsace 
Lorraine.  In  the  United  States,  California 
and  Oregon  groAv  most  hops.  Beer,  the  com- 
monest beverage  in  Northern  Europe,  is  made 
from  barley  or  other  cereals,  AArhich  are  malted 
by  a  process  of  partial  germination  Avhich  con- 
verts the  starch  into  sugar.  Water  and  hops 
are  added,  and  the  whole  fermented.  Germany 
leads  in  the  production  of  beer,  followed  by 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  Certain  towns, 
such  as  Munich  in  Bavaria,  Pilsen  in  Bohemia, 
Burton  in  England,  or  Milwaukee  in  the  United 
States,  acquire  a  special  reputation,  but  breAving 
is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  most 
large  toAvns.  [See  BreAving  in  FOOD  SUPPLY.] 

Tobacco.  Tobacco,  the  leaf  of  a  plant  of 
the  nightshade  family,  is  a  native  of  the  New 
World,  Avhere,  at  the  time  of  the  European 
conquest,  it  was  knoAvn  from  Canada  to  Pata- 
gonia. It  Avas  introduced  into  Europe  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  Avhere  its  use  Avas  at  first 
vehemently  opposed.  Its  popularity  makes  it  a 
favourite  source  of  revenue.  In  several  European 
countries  the  manufacture  is  a  GoA^ernment 
monopoly.  The  tobacco  plant  is  cultivated  from 
Avithin  30°  or  40°  of  the  equator,  where  it 
does  best,  to  the  latitude  of  Southern  SAveden. 
Tobacco  requires  protection  against  frost,  a  good, 
Avell-drained  soil,  and  a  moist,  Avarm  climate. 
The  product  is  of  varying  excellence,  according 
to  the  soil,  climate,  and  method  of  preparation. 
The  finest  tobacco  in  the  Avorld  is  groAvn  in  certain 
districts  of  Cuba,  and  is  made  into  the  famous 
Havana  cigars.  Much  tobacco  is  imported  from 
the  Philippines  into  Cuba,  Avhere  the  climatic 
conditions  seem  specially  suitable  for  cigar- 
making.  To  avoid  the  heavy  American  customs 
duties,  considerable  quantities  of  Cuban  tobacco 
are  .sent  to  Key  West  in  Florida,  and  made 
into  excellent  substitutes  for  HaAranas  by 
Cuban  labour,  under  climatic  conditions  very 
similar  to  those  of  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Mexico, 
and  Brazil  all  grow  excellent  tobaccos,  though 
these  are  less  in  demand  than  that  of  the 
Philippines. 

The  quality  of  the  Manila  product  ranks  next 
to  that  of  Havana.  Sumatra  tobacco  is  also 
of  high  quality,  and  its  fine  bright  leaAres  are  in 
great  demand  for  Avrapping.  In  the  United 
States,  which  produces  about  one-third  of  the 
world's  crop,  tobacco  is  Avidely  groAvn,  but  the 
southern  states,  and  particularly  Kentucky, 
lead.  The  great  tobacco  markets  of  the  United 
States  ate  Louisville.  Ky.  :  and  Richmond. 
Va.  There  is  an  immense  import  and  re-export 


trade.  Nearly  all  the  snuff  in  use  is  made  in  the 
United  States.  The  finest  cigarette  tobacco  is 
groAvn  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  Tobacco  is  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  in  South  Africa,  Rhodesia, 
Uganda,  British  Central  Africa,  etc.  In  Europe 
it  is  groAvn  in  Austria -Hungary,  Germany,  Russia, 
the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  France.  India  is 
an  important  source  of  supply,  though  the  pro- 
duct is  not  of  the  finest  quality. 

The  annual  A-alue  of  the  American  tobacco 
crop  is  about  £12,000,000,  of  India  £6,000,000. 
and  of  Cuba,  Russia,  and  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
about  £3,500,000  each.  The  value  of  the 
tobacco  produced  in  the  Philippines  is  about 
£500,000,  a  figure  which  will  doubtless  greatly 
increase  Avith  the  development  of  the  archipelago. 
The  largest  importing  countries  are  Germany 
and  the  United  Kingdom.  The  consumption 
per  head  is  highest  in  the  Netherlands  and  Bel- 
gium, Avhere  it  is  double  that  of  Germany,  and 
more  than  three  times  that  of  this  country. 
[See  TOBACCO,  page  4270.  J 

Opium.  Opium  is  a  dried  juice  obtained 
from  the  unripe  capsules  of  the  opium  poppy, 
which  is  cultivated  in  India,  Persia,  China,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Egypt.  Opium,  Avhich  possesses 
narcotic  properties,  is  one  of  the  most  Avidely 
used  drugs  in  the  Avorld.  It  is  the  source  of 
laudanum  and  morphia,  both  largely  used  in 
medicine.  Opium  is  much  used  as  a  stimulant 
and  narcotic  in  China,  by  inhaling  from  a 
specially  prepared  pipe. 

India  is  the  chief  support  of  the  opium  trade. 
In  British  territory  its  cultivation  is  a  Govern- 
ment monopoly,  permitted  only  in  parts  of 
Bengal,  and  of  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oude.  The  cultiArator  must  sell  his  Avhole  crop 
at  fixed  prices  to  Government  agents,  Avho  for- 
Avard  it  to  the  GoA-ernment  factories  at  Patna 
and  Gharipur.  The  product  is  sold  by  auction 
monthly  at  Calcutta  for  export  to  China.  The 
proceeds  form  an  important  item  in  the  Indian 
reA^enue,  Avhich  also  receives  a  contribution  from 
the  excise  opium,  or  the  opium  consumed  in 
India.  Opium  is  groAArn  in  many  of  the  native 
states  of  Rajputana  and  Central  India,  but  if 
exported  to  China  pays  a  heaA-y  duty  at  the 
British  frontier.  The  total  net  reA*enue  from 
opium  is  slowly  declining.  In  the  ten  years 
ending  1899  it  Avas  not  far  short  of  £4,000,000, 
but  in  the  ten  years  ending  1904  it  had  declined 
to  a  little  under  £3,000,000. 

The  cultivation  of  opium,  though  nominally 
prohibited  in  China,  is  very  general,  especially 
in  SzechAvan.  The  present  Chinese  administra- 
tion proposes  to  stop  the  cultiA-ation  and  use  of 
opium  Avithin  a  short  period.  Opium  is  also 
extensively  groAvn  in  Persia  for  the  Chinese 
market.  The  British  supplies  are  chiefly  draAvn 
from  Asia  Minor. 

Tea.  Tea  is  a  stimulant  beverage  obtained 
by  infusing  the  dried  leaves  of  an  eA-ergreen  shrub 
of  the  camellia  family,  Avhich  is  groAvn  chiefly  in  the 
monsoon  lands  of  Asia,  Introduced  into  Europe 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  it  has  become  a  neces- 
sary of  life  to  all  classes,  and  is  an  important 
source  of  rcA'enue.  Until  the  middle  of  last 
century  the  world's  supply  of  tea  Avas  almost 


exclusively  derived  from  China,  where  the  tea 
shrub  has  been  cultivated  since  the  sixth  century 
A.D.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  a  variety 
was  found  wild  in  Assam,  and  experiments  led  to 
the  rapid  development  of  the  tea  industry.  Tea 
is  now  extensively  grown  in  the  Himalayas,,  in 
the  Nilgiri  Hills  of  Southern  India,  and  in  Ceylon 
since  the  failure  of  coffee  about  1881.  In  1871,  out 
of  about  124,000,000  Ib.  used  in  this  country, 
110,000,000  Ib.  came  from  China,  and  only 
14,000,000  Ib.  from  India.  By  1901  the  position 
of  1871  was  reversed,  China  supplying  only 
17,000,000  Ib.,  while  India  and  Ceylon  supplied 
238,000,000  Ib.,  of  which  India  furnished 
148,000,000  Ib.  The  introduction  of  Indian  tea 
has  led  to  a  rapid  fall  of  prices  and  a  greatly 
increased  consumption. 

Where  the  Tea  Plant  Thrives.  The 
tea  plant  has  a  considerable  climatic  range,  and 
is  hardy  enough  to  resist  occasional  frost.  It 
prefers  a  warm,  moist  climate  and  a  rich,  well- 
drained  soil.  New  plantations  in  India  and 
Ceylon  are  generally  on  mountain  edges,  where 
good  drainage  is  ensured,  where  the  soil  is  rich 
in  vegetable  mould,  and  where  water  power  is 
available  for  the  machinery  which  has  replaced 
hand  labour  in  the  younger  tea  countries.  Tea 
is  grown  up  to  7,000  ft.  in  Darjiling  and  Ceylon. 
Growth  is  more  rapid  at  lower  elevation,  but  that 
grown  at  high  elevations  has  a  special  delicacy  of 
flavour.  The  average  yield  is  from  300  to  500  Ib. 
an  acre,  but  in  favourable  situations  and  seasons 
it  may  exceed  1,000  Ib.  The  Assajn  plant  grows 
to  the  height  of  50  ft.,  and  has  a  large  leaf  The 
Chinese  tea  plant  is  a.  low  shrub,  with  smaller 
leaves.  A  hybrid  of  the  two  is  generally  culti- 
vated in  new  plantations. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  tea  on  the  market, 
due  to  variations  in  the  climate  and  soil,  the 
season  of  picking,  the  size  of  the  leaf,  and  the 
method  of  preparation.  The  latter,  including 
labour,  requires,  it  is  computed,  a  man's  labour 
for  a  day  to  prepare  a  pound  of  tea.  Tea,  therefore, 
can  be  profit  a  b[y  grown  only  where  labour  is 
abundant  and  cheap,  and  for  this  reason,  rather 
than  climatic  causes,  it  is  practically  confined  to 
the  monsoon  lands.  Picking  is  everywhere  done 
by  hand,  and  in  full  season  a  good  picker  can 
gather  from  20  Ib.  to  30  Ib.  a  day.  In  India  and 
Ceylon,  the  picking  takes  place  every  few  days. 
In  the  latter,  where  there  is  practically  no  winter, 
tea  is  produced  almost  all  the  year  round.  In 
China  the  subsequent  processes  are  done  by 
hand  or  foot,  but  in  India  and  Ceylon  machinery 
is  used,  as  cleaner,  quicker,  and  more  efficient. 
The  tea  is  graded  and  packed  in  chests  lined  with 
sheet  lead  or  in  airtight  packages.  Brick  tea  is 
moulded  under  pressure.  The  cheaper  grades  of 
brick  tea  consist  chiefly  of  refuse,  and  are  sent 
to  Tibet  and  other  parts  of  Central  Asia. 

Tea  is  also  grown  in  Japan  (chiefly  exported 
to  the  States),  Java,  Brazil,  Transcaucasia, 
the  south-east  of  the  United  States,  Jamaica, 
Natal,  and  Madagascar. 

How  Tea  is  brought  to  Europe. 
The  routes  followed  by  the  tea  trade  have  been 
greatly  modified  in  the  last  half-century.  Before 
the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  tea  for  Western 

1  P 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

Europe  came  round  the  Cape  in  special  fast 
clippers.  It  now  comes  by  the  Suez  Canal.  The 
finest  teas  for  Western  Europe,  and  for  Russia, 
are  forwarded  by  the  Siberian  line,  as  an  ocean 
voyage  somewhat  injures  the  flavour.  The 
American  tea  formerly  went  by  the  Suez  Canal 
and  the  Atlantic,  but  is  now  forwarded  to 
the  Pacific  ports,  and  sent  overland  to  the 
market  of  the  East. 

The  British  Empire  is  the  largest  consumer 
of  tea.  The  consumption  in  Australia  exceeds 
7  Ib.  a  head  ;  in  the  United  Kingdom  it  is  over 
6  Ib.,  and  in  Canada,  4  Ib.  Holland,  the  largest 
consumer  outside  the  British  Empire,  uses  only 
li  Ib.  a  head. 

The  so-called  Paraguay  tea,  or  yerba  mate, 
which  also  grows  in  Southern  Brazil,  consists  of 
the  leaves  of  a  species  of  holly.  Its  stimulating 
properties -resemble  those  of  tea.  It  is  much  used 
in  South  America,  but  is  in  no  demand  in 
Europe. 

Coffee.  Coffee,  with  similar  stimulating  pro- 
perties, is  obtained  by  drying,  roasting,  and 
grinding  the  seeds  or  beans  of  a  tropic  shrub  of 
the  same  family  as  the  cinchona.  This  attains  a 
considerable  height  when  wild,  but  is  pruned  to  a 
bush  under  cultivation.  It  bears  a  red  berry  not 
unlike  a  cherry,  which  contains  one  or  two 
seeds.  These  are  first  pulped  and  then  dried,  a 
less  good  result  being  obtained  if  these  processes 
are  reversed,  as  in  Brazil.  The  seeds  are  then 
deprived  of  the  endocarp,  cleaned,  and  sorted, 
processes  in  which  machinery  is  now  largely  used. 
The  quality  of  coffee  depends  partly  on  age, 
partly  on  the  mode  of  sorting.  Java  coffee, 
formerly  a  Government  monopoly,  used  to  be 
seasoned  for  several  years.  Machine  sorting,  as 
practised  in  the  New  World,  secures  a  uniform 
size,  but  does  not  reject  bad  berries.  The  famous 
Arabian  coffee,  still  called  Mokha.  though 
the  market  is  now  Hodeida,  is  hand-sorted, 
and  in  Cairo  and  Constantinople  fetches  an 
enormous  price.  The  finest  never  reaches  Western 
Europe. 

The  Home  of  the  Coffee  Plant.  The 
coffee  plant  is  less  hardy  than  tea,  and  is  very 
sensitive  to  frost.  It  is  chiefly  grown  within 
the  tropics,  but  near  the  equator,  where  the 
lowlands  are  too  hot,  it  is  grown  up  to  6,000  ft. 
Generally  the  range  is  up  to  about  3,000  ft.  Moun- 
tain slopes  cleared  of  trees  suit  it  well  in  suitable 
latitudes.  The  young  plants  require  shade,  and 
bananas  and  other  frail  trees  are  grown  for  this' 
purpose.  The  plant  is  probably  a  native  of 
Abyssinia,  where  it  has  long  been  cultivated.  It 
was  introduced  into  Arabia  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  became  generally  known  in  Europe 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1650  the  Dutch 
introduced  it  into  Java,  and  in  the  eighteenth 
century  it  was  introduced  into  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America.  The  Brazil  provinces  of 
Rio  Janeiro  and  Sao  Paulo  are  now  the  great 
source  of  the  world's  coffee,  producing  over 
10,000,000  Ib.  annually,  valued  at  over 
£20,000,000.  The  other  coffee-producing  lands 
are  Colombia  (70,000.000  Ib.),  Java,  Venezuela, 
Guatemala,  India,  where  it  is  grown  in  the 
cleared  slopes  of  the  Western  Ghats,  Ceylon, 

4901 


COMMERCIAL.     GEOGRAPHY 

where  the  cultivation  is  now  insignificant,  Mexico, 
Porto  Rico,  Salvador,  Costa  Rica,  Arabia 
(11,000,000  lb.),  Haiti,  West  Africa,  and  the 
Shire  Highlands.  It  has  also  been  successfully 
introduced  into  Queensland.  The  Liberian 
plant,  though  inferior  in  flavour,  withstands 
the  leaf  fungus  better,  and  is  now  being  intro- 
duced into  Ceylon  and  elsewhere.  The  -chief 
coffee-importing  countries  are  the  United  States 
(871,000,000  lb.),  Germany  (370,000,000  lb.) 
France  (185,000,000  lb. ),  Holland  ( 103,000,000  lb. ) 
and  Austria-Hungary  (97,000,000  lb.).  Holland 
is  the  largest  consumer  (14|  lb.  per  head),  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  the  United  States  and  Belgium 
consume  over  10  lb.,  while  the  consumption  per 
head  in  this  country  is  under  f  lb. 

Coffee  is  frequently  adulterated  with  chicory, 
parched  grain,  pase,  etc.  Of  these,  chicory  is 
the  least  objectionable. 

Cocoa,  Cocoa,  or  to  be  correct,  cacao,  is 
obtained  from  the  seeds  of  a  tropical  tree  indi- 
genous to  Mexico  and  tropical  America,  where  it 
was  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  European  discovery. 
It  requires  a  hotter  climate  than  coffee,  a 
deep,  rich  soil  and  abundant  moisture.  If  grown 
under  shade  it  is  well  suited  to  the  tropical  low- 
lands. It  is  chiefly  grown  in  Ecuador  (market, 
Guayaquil),  Venezuela  (market,  Caracas),  Brazil, 
some  of  the  West  Indies,  Ceylon,  and  Java.  The 
large,  bright,  fleshy  pods  are  allowed  to  ferment, 
and  are  then  dried  in  the  sun.  When  roasted  and 
split,  they  are  known  as  cocoa  nibs.  The  flesh  is 
rich  in  nutritive  as  well  as  in  stimulating  proper- 
ties. It  contains  a  large  proportion  of  fat  (cocoa 
butter)  and  starch.  The  former  is  extracte<i  in 
the  manufacture  of  chocolate  and  cocoa.  The 
latter  is  frequently  adulterated  by  the  addition 
of  a  large  quantity  of  starch.  Chocolate  is  the 
favourite  beverage  in  Spain,  where  it  was  early 
introduced  by  the  Spanish  conquerors.  It  is  also 
much  used  in  France. 

Coca  and  Kola.  To  these  stimulants  may 
be  added  coca  and  kola.  Coca  is  the  leaf  of  a 
shrub  indigenous  to  South  America.  It  is  said 
to  render  exertion  easy,  even  with  scanty  food 
and  sleep,  and  facilitate  respiration  at  high  alti- 
tudes. It  is  consequently  highly  valued  by  the 
Indians  of  South  America.  It  forms  an  ingre- 
dient in  some  tonic  wines.  Cocaine,  an  alkaloid 
obtained  from  it,  is  used  as  a  local  anesthetic. 
The  kola  nut,  the  seed  of  a  West  African  tree 
now  cultivated  in  Mauritius,  the  West  Indies, 
and  tropical  America,  is  similarly  used  in  the 
Sudan  and  other  parts  of  Africa.  In  Europe  it  is 
employed  as  a  tonic  and  as  an  ingredient  in  some 
cocoas. 

The  Pulses.  The  pulses,  or  pod-bearing 
plants,  are  represented  in  this  country  by  the  pea 
and  bean.  The  pea  is  suited  to  the  cooler  parts 
of  the  temperate  zone,  and  is  imported  into  this 
country  from  Denmark  and  North  America. 


The  chick  pea,  cultivated  in  Southern  Europe. 
India,  and  tropical  South  America,  is  an  im- 
portant article  of  food  and  trade  in  this  region. 
The  bean  has  many  varieties  suited  to  different 
climates.  It  is  used  both  as  food  and  fodder. 
The  beans  imported  into  this  country  come 
from  Egypt  and  Mediterranean  countries.  Soya 
beans  are  an  important  crop  in  China,  Japan, 
and  India.  Lentils  are  grown  in  Germany. 
Southern  Europe  and  Egypt.  The  carob,  or 
locust,  is  imported  from  Cyprus  and  Portugal, 
chiefly  as  cattle  food.  Various  pulses  are 
grown  as  fodder  plants  in  this  country,  and  still 
more  in  the  Mediterranean  and  other  regions 
with  dry  summers.  Alfalfa,  or  lucerne,  one  of 
the  more  important,  has  deep  roots  adapted  to 
a  dry  climate,  and  is  extensively  grown  round  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  the  drier  parts  of  North 
and  South  America.  [See  AGRICULTURE.] 

Sugar  Cane.  Until  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  world's  supply  of  sugar 
was  derived  wholly  from  the  sugar  cane,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  grass  family,  somewhat  resembling 
maize  in  its  unripe  state,  and  yielding,  under 
pressure,  a  strongly  saccharine  juice.  The 
European  discoverers  of  the  New  World  intro- 
duced the  sugar  cane  into  the  W^est  Indies 
and  the  adjacent  mainland,  where  it  was  grown 
on  a  large  scale  by  slave  labour.  The  abolition 
of  slavery,  and  the  competition  of  beet  sugar 
under  a  system  of  bounties,,  has  led  to  a  decline 
in  the  sugar  cane  industry,  especially  in  the  West 
Indies.  [See  FOOD  SUPPLY,  page  3652.] 

Except  in  tlie  basins  of  the  Amazon  and  Congo 
the  sugar  cane,  \vhich  requires  heat  and  moisture, 
is  widely  grown  within  34°  of  the  equator. 
India  and  China  are  large  producers,  but  ex- 
port little.  .Cuba,  Java,  the  Gulf  Coast  of  the 
United  States,  Mauritius,  the  Philippines,  and 
Hawaii  are  the  chief  sources  of  the  commercial 
supply.  The  cane  is  also  cultivated  in  Natal 
and  tropical  Australia.  The  yield  per  acre  varies 
from  10  or  12  tons  up  to  34  in  Hawaii. 

A  liquid  residuum  formed  during  manufacture 
is  known  as  molasses,  and  is  used  for  making  rum 
and  for  other  purposes. 

The  Enormous  Consumption  of 
Sugar.  Sugar,  a  costly  luxury  little  more  than 
a  century  ago,  is  now  almost  a  necessary  of  life, 
and  a  valuable  article  of  diet.  The  consumption 
among  the  Teutonic  races  is  very  large,  a  con- 
siderable proportion  being  in  the  form  of  jam 
and  confectionery.  In  Australia  the  annual 
consumption  reaches  10 1|  lb.  a  head,  in  New 
Zealand  96£  lb.,  in  the  United  Kingdom  88|  lb.. 
and  in  the  United  States  68}  lb. 

All  the  agricultural  crops  hitherto  described 
are  food-stuffs.  The  groups  treated  in  the  next 
article  include  those  of  industrial  importance. 
These  are  the  fibre  plants,  the  oil  seeds,  dyeing 
and  tanning  materials,  drugs  and  miscellaneous 
useful  plants. 


Continued 


4  !)()L> 


SOAP,GLYCERIN&ESSENTIALOILS 

The  Materials  and  Processes  in  Soap-making.     The  Manufacture  and  Uses 
of  Glycerin.     Essential  Oil  Distillation.      Making  Otto  of  Roses.     Perfumes 

Group  5 

APPLIED 
CHEMISTRY 

6 

Continued  from 
1>RL'0  484H 

SOAP                                               ferment,  or  enzyme,  present  in  castor  seed,  by  allow- 
TCv    Tnwx   Mr\RTHTTT>                                   m-  if  to  act  l'P°n  the    glyceride  kept  in  a  state 

J>*     dUH.N     mt-ABTHUK                                                             r                  i     •             i           ..Ko.V.tU,      anirlnlaforJ      Ai/ator-         T^  ^ 

Soap,  in  a  strictly  chemical  sense,  is  a  general 
term  applied  to  salts  of  fatty  acids,  or  compounds 
formed  when  a  base  combines  with  a  fatty  acid. 
Industrially,  however,  the  term  is  restricted  to  the 
compounds  of  the  alkalies  potash  and  soda  and 
fatty  acids. 

The  art  of  soap-making  dates  from  very  early  times. 
Pliny,  in  the  first  century,  describes  a  crude  soap 
made  from  goat's  tallow  and  the  ashes  from 
beech-trees  ;  while  among  the  ruins  of  Pompeii, 
destroyed  by  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  in 
70  A.D.,  some  soap  and  the  remains  of  a  soap- 
making  establishment  have  been  discovered.  In 
early  times  various  oils  and  fats  were  saponified 
by  treatment  with  the  alkaline  ashes  of  wood  and 
seaweed,  but  with  the  introduction  of  Leblanc's  pro- 
cess for  the  manufacture  of  soda  [see  Alkalies] 
and  the  discovery  of  the  constitution  of  fatty  bodies 
by  Clievreul,  the  industry  was  placed  on  a  scientific 
as  well  as  a  practical  basis,  and  has  now  assumed  im- 
mense propprtions  in  all  the  civilised 
countries  of  the  world. 

Properties  of  Soaps.     Soaps  are 
known    as  Hard    (soda)     soaps   and    as 
Soft    (potash)    soaps,    according    to    the 
base  employed.     They  are  easily  soluble 
in    water  and    in  alcohol,  their   aqueous 
solutions  possessing  characteristic  lather- 
ing  properties.      When  solutions  of  hard 
soaps    are    mixed    with      salt     (sodium 
chloride)   the  soap  is  precipitated;  but 
in   the   case  of  soft  soaps  the  action 
is   different,  a   double  decomposition 
taking    place,    whereb}'   a    soda-soap 
is    formed,     and    potassium   chloride 
remains  in   solution.       The  detergent 
power  of  soap  is  generally  understood 
to   be   due   to   the   hydrolysis  taking 
place     in    presence    of    water,    when 
the  soap  is  partially  decomposed  with   forma- 
tion  of    an    acid-soap    and    free     alkali,    the 
latter   .enabling     the     water     to     come     into 
intimate    contact    with     the    surface,    by    re-     (C 
moving     the     greasy    film     which    resists    the 
action  of  the  water   alone.      The  cleansing   power 
of    soap    has    also    been    explained     by    the     in- 
herent   property — which   soap  solutions  possess — 
of  emulsifying  fats,  and  thus  releasing  the  foreign 
matter. 

Raw  Materials.  The  most  important  fats 
and  oils  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hard  soaps 
are  tallow,  various  greases  of  animal  origin,  lard, 
coconut  oil,  palm  oil,  pa  1m -kernel  oil,  cottonseed 
oil,  etc.,  as  well  as  resin  and  fatty  acids.  For  soft 
soaps  vegetable  oils  are  generally  used,  such  as 
cottonseed,  linseed,  olive,  etc.,  and  sometimes  the 
fatty  acids  derived  from  these  oils ;  also  the  better 
qualities  of  fish  oil.  The  fatty  acids  are  sometimes 
obtained  by  the  hydrolysis  of  the  fat  by  the  Twit- 
ohell  process,  referred  to  in  discussing  Candles.  It 
has  been  recently  shown  by  W.  Connstein  and  others 
that  it  is  possible  to  hydrolyse  glycerides  by  the 


fact  has  been  utilised  industrially  for  obtaining 
fatty  acids  of  good  colour  from  such  liquid  oils 
as  cottonseed,  linseed,  etc.,  with  the  object  of 
employing  the  fatty  acids  in  the  making  of  soap 
and  recovering  the  glycerin. 

The  alkalies  are  used  in  the  form  of  a  strong 
solution,  or  "  lye,"  of  the  hydrate  of  the  respec- 
tive base,  soda  or  potash.  Many  manufacturers, 
instead  of  dissolving  the  solid  caustic  soda  for  the 
purpose,  find  it  more  economical  to  caustic ise  a 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  or  soda-ash,  by 
means  of  lime,  and  concentrate  the  solution  to 
the  required  strength  in  vacuum  evaporators. 
The  reaction  taking  place  is  represented  by  the 
equation  : 

Sodium  Slaked  Sodium  Calcium 

carbonate  lime  hydrate         carbonate 

Na,C03  +  CaH.,0.,  =   2NaHO  +  CaCO, 

Silicate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  soda,  and  borax 
are  sometimes  employed  to  increase 
the  detergent  properties  of  hard  soaps 
and  to  harden  them  :  and  a  neutral 
salt,  such  as  sulphate  of  soda,  is  often 
added  for  the  latter  purpose,  as  well 
as  to  add  weight. 

Making  Hard  Soaps.    The  pro- 
cess of  saponification   of  oils  -and   fats 
by     alkalies     for     the     production     of 
soaps    depends    upon     the    conversion 
of    the    glycerides  into  salts  of  the 
alkali       metals,       glycerol        being 
eliminated.        This     is      shown     by 
the       following       equation,      which 
represents    the     reaction    with     tri- 
stearine     (the     principal     glyceride 
in      tallow)      and    caustic 


STEEL    SOAP   FRAME 
(W.  J.  Fraser  &  Co.) 


Tri-stearine 


present 

soda  : 


Sodium 
hydrate 


Sodium 
stearate 


Glycerol 

+  C324o, 


The  principal  methods  of  effecting  saponification 
are  : 

1.  By   the   direct   neutralisation   of    fatty   acids 
by  a  solution  of  caustic,  or  carbonated  alkali,  oleic 
acid  being  generally  used. 

2.  By  heating  the  neutral  fat  and  alkali,  in  pre- 
sence of  water,  in  a  closed  boiler,  or  autoclave,  under 
pressure 

3.  By  the  cold  process,  consisting  in  acting  upon 
the  neutral  fat  with  an  adjusted  quantity  of  alkaline 
lye  just  sufficient  to  effect  the  saponification. 

4.  By  the  boiling  process,  in  which  the  neutral 
fat   is  first  saponified  with  a  comparatively  weak 
solution   of  caustic   soda,  the   soap   ''  salted   out," 
to  be  afterwards  finished,  and  the  glycerin  separated. 

The  last  two  processes  named,  which  are  those 
most  extensively  used,  will  now  be  briefly  de- 
scribed. 


2.    SLABBING    MACHINE 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 


The  Cold  Process.  This  process 
the.  ixlvantagc  of  sini])licity,  and  can  be  carried  out 
with  small  quantities  of  material  and  with  inex- 
pensive plant.  The  vessel  in  which  the  process  is 
conducted  consists  of  a  steam-jacketed  pan,  pro- 
vided with  a  mechanical  agitator.  The  fatty  matter, 
preferably  coconut  oil  or  tallow,  or  a  mixture  of  the 
two,  is  heated  to  about  35°  to  45°  C.,  and  strong 
caustic  soda  lye,  of  1*25  to  T35  specific  gravity, 
gradually  added,  while  the  mass  is  thoroughly 
mixed  by  continuous  agitation.  The  strength 
of  the  lye  depends 
upon  the  nature  of 
the  fatty  matter,  and 
the  quantity  must  be 
carefully  measured  and 
be  adjusted  so  that 
only  a  sufficiency  is 
used  for  the  fatty 
matter.  The  mass  is 
then  run  into  a 
shallow  wooden 
f  r  a  m  e  ,  an  d 
covered  up  so  : 
that  the  heat 
may  be  retained  ; 
the  temperature 
meanwhile  rises, 
and  the  saponi- 

fication  becomes  complete  in  about  twenty-  four 
hours.  It  is  obvious  that  the  materials  used  must 
be  of  the  best  quality,  as  any  impurities  present 
necessarily  remain  in  the  soap  ;  the  glycerin, 
eliminated  from  the  fatty  matter,  is  also  present 
in  the  finished  soap.  Soaps  made  by  this  process 
are  liable  to  contain  a  slight  excess  of  free  alkali, 
or  of  neutral  fatty  matter,  and  are  not  generally  of 
the  finest  quality. 

The  Boiling  Process.  This  process  is  by 
far  the  most  important  of  those  referred  to  :  it 
serves  for  the  manufacture  of  the  great  bulk  of  the 
soaps  generally  met  with,  and  yields  products 
superior  in  quality  to  those  obtained  otherwise. 

The  iron  vessel,  known  as  soap-copper,  soap-pan, 
or  kettle,  in  which  the  saponification  is  carried  out, 
is  generally  cylindrical  in  form,  and  capable  of 
making  30,  60,  and  even  100  tons  of  soap.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  two  coils,  one  perforated,  for  supplying 
"  open  "  steam,  the  other  closed,  for  "  close  " 
steam.  The  fatty  matter  is  first  boiled  with  weak 
soda-lye,  and  the  boiling  continued  until  a  sample 
on  examination  appears  somewhat  firm,  and  lias 
only  a  faint  caustic  taste.  Considerable  experience 
is  required  to  know  when  the  first  stage  of  the 
process  has  been  completed,  and,  indeed,  this 
remark  applies  to  the  successful  carrying  out  of  all 
the  details  of  soap  manufacture.  With  the  object 
of  separating  the  partially  formed  soap  from  the 
excess  of  water,  from  the  glycerin  derived  from  the 
fatty  matter,  and  from  the  impurities  of  the  alkali, 
salt,  in  the  solid  state  or  as  strong  brine,  is  added 
to  the  contents  of  the  copper,  when  the  soap  rises 
to  the  surface  as  a  more  or  less  granular,  curdy  mass. 
This  part  of  the  process  is  known  as  graining  or 
cutting  the  soap.  The  lower  layer  or  "  spent  lye  "' 
is  removed,  and  treated  separately  for  the  recoverv 
<>f  the  glycerin  and  of  the  salt  [see  Glycerin], 
The  granulated  soap  is  then  boiled  with  water  and 
fresh  lye,  in  order  to  complete  the  saponifieation  of 
the  fatty  matter,  and  the  "  half-spent"  lye  is 
removed  after  settling,  and  may  be  used  for  the 
saponification  of  another  quantity  of  fresh  fat.  The 
contents  of  the  copper  are  boiled  once  more  with 
free  steam  and  added  lye,  to  ensure  complete 

4964 


saponification,     this     operation     being    known     as 
milking  the  soap. 

Three  qualities  of  ''  boiled  "  soap  are  generally 
recognised,  known  respectively  as  curd,  mottled, 
and  fitted,  the  distinction  depending  mainly  upon 
the  manner  of  the  treatment  of  the  soap  subsequent 
to  the  various  operations  just  described. 

Curd  and  Mottled  Soaps.  Foi  the  manu- 
facture of  these  varieties,  when  the  soap  has  been 
"  made,"  the  boiling  is  continued  by  means  of 
close  steam,  in  order  to  concentrate  the  lye,  and 
the  soap  is  removed  after  settling.  Tallow  is 
generally  used  for  the  best  quality  of  curd  soaps. 
Genuine  mottled  soaps  are  made  from  darker  fats 
"than  those  employed  for  curd  soaps,  such  as  melted 
tats,  bone  fats,  etc.  Their  characteristic  appear- 
ance, from  which  they  derive  their  name,  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  impurities  in  the  materials  used, 
which  segregate  .as  the  mass  cools.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  produce  artificial  mottling  of  soaps  of 
this  class  by  the  introduction  of  oxide  of  iron, 
ultramarine,  etc.  When  a  solution  of  silicate  of 
soda  is  added,  as  well  as  of  other  salts,  a  hard  soap 
inay.be  obtained,  although  as  much  as  50  per  cent, 
of  water  may  be  present,  or  more  than  double  that 
contained  in  a  genuine  mottled  soap,  needless  to 
say,  to  the  serious  loss  of  the  user.  In  justice, 
however,  to  the  honest  manufacturer,  it  should  be 
stated  that  in  many  cases  the  demand  for  cheap 
soaps  has  compelled  him  to  place  upon  the  market 
products  of  inferior  quality,  which  he  cannot 
conscientiously  recommend.  Mottling  cannot  now 
be  always  regarded,  as  it  was  some  fifty  years  ago, 
as  an  indication  of  good  quality. 

The  practice  of  liquoring,  or  stiicating,  is  by  no 
means  confined  to  soaps  of  the  mottled  description. 
Mottled  soaps  are  largely  used  for  laundry  work. 

Fitted,  or  Yellow  Soaps.  The  best 
qualities  of  soaps  of  this  class  are  made  from  tallow 
of  good  colour,  and  the  inferior  qualities  front  dark- 
coloured  tallow,  greases,  etc.,  resin  being  an  essential 
component  of  both  qualities.  When  the  soap  has 
been  "  made,"  as  already  explained,  the  contents 
of  the  copper  are  allowed  to  stand  for  some  hours, 
the  lye  run  off,  and  the  whole  boiled  with  more  lye, 
if  necessary,  to  ''  fit  "  the  soap,  so  that,  while  it 
contains  the  proper  proportion  of  water,  it  may 

still  be  suffi- 
ciently >;  open  '" 
to  allow  the 
impurities  to 
settle  out.  The 
mass  is  then 
allowed  to  stand 
for  some  days, 
when  a  separa- 
tion into  three 
layers  takes  place 
— a  soapy  scum 
or  "  fob  "  on  the 
surface,  which 
can  be  worked 
up  in  the  next 
batch  of  soap  ;  the  finished,  or  "  neat  "  soap  in  the 
centre,  which  is  removed  for  cooling ;  and  the 
''  nigre,"  or  dark-coloured  alkaline  lye  underneath, 
which  can  be  utilised  for  the  making  of  soaps  of 
dark  colour. 

In  England,  under  the  general  designation  of 
ifa-sher*,  but  distinguished  .by  various  fancy  names. 
there  have  been  recently  introduced  certain  yellow 
soaps,  made  principally  from  cottonseed  oil,  and 
generally  smaller  proportions  of  tallow,  coconut 
oil  or  palm -kernel  oil,  and  resin.  These  have  an 


3.    BARRING    AND    TABLETTING 
MACHINE 


extensive  sale,  and  are  preferred  in  many  house- 
holds to  ordinary  yellow  soap  on  account  of  their 
ready  lathering  properties. 

Other  Varieties  of  Hard  Soaps.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  hard  soaps,  in  the  preparation 
of  which  certain  ingredients  are  used  to  render 
them  suitable  for  the  specific  purpose  for  which 
they  are  intended.  Disinfectant  soaps  are  pre-  jg. 
pared  by  crutching  into  the  melted  soap  such 
materials  as  carbolic  and  cresylic  acids,  creosote, 
and  other  disinfectant  and  antiseptic 
Agents.  In  the  same  way,  .naphtha 
or  paraffin  oil  is  sometimes  intro- 
duced, the  product  being  useful  for 
laundry  work.  .  Such  materials  as 
sand,  silica,  fullers'  earth, 
powdered  pumice,  etc..  are 
often  incorporated  with  the 
melted  soap,  the  mixtures 
yielding,  on  cooling,  more 
or  less  hard  blocks,  which 
are  serviceable  for  the 
.-leaning  and  polishing  of 
metallic  surfaces  and  for 
the  cleansing  of  greasy  paint, 
kitchen  utensils,  etc.  Murltn- 
soaps,  which  can  be  used 
with  sea-water,  are  pro- 
ducts prepared  by  the  cold 
process  from  coconut  oil 
and  caustic  soda,  and  often 
contain  little  genuine  soap. 
Cn/d  icfttcr  soaps,  which  are 
supposed  to  possess  the  ad- 
vantage of  lathering  freely  with  cold  water,  are 
often  hardened  by  the  addition  of  silicate  and 
carbonate  of  soda,  arid  are  generally  of  inferior 
quality  and  wasteful  in  use.  Besides  those 
mentioned,  special  soaps  are  also  made  for 
manufacturers'  use,  such  as  for  the 
scouring  of  wool,  yarn,  and  cloth,  and 
the  "  milling  "  of  woollen  goods;  the 
washing  of  printed  calico :  in  the  dyeing 
of  cotton  and  silk  goods,  etc. 

Framing  and  Cutting 
Hard  Soaps.  When  the 
manufacture  of  the  soap  has 
been  completed  by  any  one  of 
the  processes  described,  the 
product  is  obtained  as  a  pasty 
mass,  which,  on  cooling,  solidi- 
fies to  a  somewhat  soft  sub- 
stance. When  no  "  filling  " 
agents  are  added,  the  liquid 
soap  is  run.  or  pumped,  from 
the  copper  into  cooling-frames, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  solidity. 
In  the  case  of  inferior  qualities, 
the  soap  is  first  mixed 
with  solutions  of  the  salts, 
as  required.  The  cooling- 
frames  are  capable  of  hold- 
ing from  10  cwt.  to  1,~> 
ewt.  of  soap,  although 
in  certain  cases  it  is  pre- 
ferable to  have  them  much 
smaller.  They  are  of  two 
kinds.  Where  slow  cooling 
is  desirable,  as  in  the  case 
of  mottled  soaps,  they  are 
made  of  wood,  but  east  iron  and  steel  frames  [1] 
are  more  convenient,  and  are  more  extensively 
used.  The  frames  are  constructed  so  that  when 
the  soap  has  become  solid,  the  sides  can  be  removed, 


4.    MILLING   OR    CRUSHING    MACHINE 
(A.  Saalfeld  &  Co.) 


5.    PLODDING   OR  SQUEEZING   MACHINE 
(A.  Saalfeld  &  Co.) 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

when  the  rectangular  block  of  soap  remains,  to 
be  afterwards  cut  into  slabs,  and  these  again 
into  bars. 

The  cutting  into  slabs  is  sometimes  done  by  hand, 
a  thin  wire,  in  the  form  of  a  loop,  being  drawn 
horizontally  through  the 
block  of  soap  along  parallel 
lines,  the  position  of  which 
has  already  been  marked  by 
a  "  scribe.''  consisting  of  a 
bar  of  wood,  with  metal 
teeth  placed  at  equal  in- 
tervals. 

The  cutting  into  bars  of 
the  desired  size  may  also  be 
done  by  hand,  by  means  of 
a  strong  wooden  frame,  or 
lever,  with  wires  stretched 
across,  which  cut  the  slabs 
into  bars  as  the  lever  ia 
caused  to  descend.  Slabbing 
and  barring  machines  are 
generally  employed  in  largo 
factories.  Fig.  2  shows  one 
of  the  former,  the  cutting 
into  slabs  being  also  effected 
by  wires.  The  machine 
•shown  in  3  serves  for  the 
cutting  of  the  slabs  into  bars. 
which  generally  weigh  about 
3  Ib.  These,  again,  can  be 
cut  into  tablet  form  by 
turning  the  handle  on  the 
left  of  the  figure.  The  bars 
or  tablets  are  then  exposed  to  the  air,  or  to  a 
slightly  heated  atmosphere,  to  render  them  ex- 
ternally dry.  The  stamping  with  the  particular 
brand  of  the  soap,  and  with  the  name  of  the 
maker,  is  also  done  by  hand  or  by  machinery. 

Soft    Soaps.     As  already  in- 
dicated,   soft    soaps   are  generally 
manufactured     from     the      liquid 
vegetable  oils,  such  as  cottonseed 
and  linseed,  and  sometimes    from 
the     fatty     acids      derived     from 
these ;      resin     and     fi,sh    oils     are 
employed    in    the    inferior 
qualities.     The  alkali  used 
is    potassium    hydrate,   in 
the  form  of  a  strong  lye. 
The  saponification  is  car- 
ried   out    by   boiling    the 
oil    with    the    lye    in    an 
iron  copper    by   means  of 
"  open  "  steam,  the  opera- 
tion being  'generally  com- 
pleted    by     fire -heat    or 
"  close  "   steam.       Care    is 
required    to   see   that    the 
lye  is  not  present  in  large 
excess,      and       that      the 
finished   soap  contains  the 
proper  proportion  of  water. 
It  is  then  run  into  barrels, 
kegs,    or   tins,    for  use   by 
the  consumer. 

Soft  soaps  generally  ap- 
pear as  transparent  jellies  ; 
.sometimes  in  cold  weather 
they  become  partly  opaque, 
due  to  the  formation  of  small  white  crystals  of 
alkaline  stearate,  this  condition  being  known  as 
'•  figging."  When  fatty  oils  are  used,  the  glycerin 
resulting  from  the  saponification  remains  with  the 

4905 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 


customary  to  mix   those   materials   with   the  dried 
ribbons  of  soap. 

The  milling  or  crushing  machine  [4]  consists 
of  a  number  of  powerful  granite  rollers ;  between 
these  the  dried  soap  is  made  to  pass  several  times 
in  order  to  incorporate  the  colouring  matter  and 

They  are  largely  employed  for  general  household  perfume,  and  make  the  soap  thoroughly  homo- 
purposes,  such  as  the  scrubbing  of  woodwork,  etc.,  geneous.  The  ribbons  of  soap,  as  they  leave  thr- 
and  by  woollen  manufacturers  in  the  various  milling  machine,  are  afterwards  subjected  to  great 
operations  of  washing  and  "  fulling "  their  pressure  in  what  is  called  a  jjlodding  or  squeezing 

machine  [5],   in    which,  by  means  of   a    powerful 


soap,  ns  in  the  making  ()t  ')an'  soaps 

Soft  soaps  contain  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
water  than  hard  soaps,  and  generally  contain  also 
an  excess  of  caustic  alkali,  as  well  as  carbonate,  and 
other  impurities  present  in  the  materials  used. 


^oods. 
Toilet    and     Fancy    Soaps.      The  best 

((iialities  of  toilet  soaps  are  made  by  the  boiling 
process,  and  lower  qualities  by  the  cold  process. 
Many  of  the  cheap  toilet  soaps  are  prepared  by 
re-melting  stock  soaps  of  good  quality,  incorporat- 
ing some  perfume  and  colouring  matter, 
and  transferring  to  cooling-frames,  when 
the  soap  is  afterwards  cut  up  and 
stamped  into  tablets. 

A  very  important  improvement  has 
taken  place  of  late  in  the  preparation 
of  toilet  soaps,  by  the  introduction  of 
the  milling  process.  A  well-made  soap 
obtained  by  the  boiling  process  is 
generally  selected  for  the  purpose,  care 
being  taken  that  all  traces  of  free 
alkali  have  been  completely  neutralised. 
A  soap  of  this  kind  contains  about 
30  per  cent,  of  water,  and,  as  a 
preliminary,  to  the  milling  process, 
the  soap  requires  to  be  deprived  of 
the  bulk  of  the  water  by  drying. 
This  may  be  done  by  cutting  the 
I  .a  is  of  'soap  into  shreds  and  ex- 
posing these  in  a  steam -heated 
chamber.  In  large  and  modern 
establishments  the  drying  is  carried 
out  continuously  in  a  special  form 
of  apparatus  introduced  by  M."M. 
( Yessonnieres,  of  Brussels  (English 
Patent  No.  2,446,  1890).  For  this  purpose  the 
molten  soap  is  first  passed  between  a  series  of 
iron  rollers,  whereby  it  i«  cooled  to  some  extent. 


6.    STAMPING    MACHINE 
(\V.  J.  Fraser  &  Co). 


screw  or  worm  forcing  the  mass  through  an  orifice 
of  the  desired  size,  the  soap  is  formed  into  a 
compact  bar,  which  is  then  cut,  and  stamped  into 
tablets  in  moulds  [6],  the  name  of  the  soap,  etc., 
appearing  in  well-defined  letters  on  the  surface. 
The  most  important  qualification  of  a 
good  toilet  soap  is  freedom  from  un- 
eombined  alkali  and  other  irritants  of 
the  skin.  It  should  also  yield  a  rich. 
creamy  lather,  and  be  delicately  per- 
fumed. In  the  preparation  of  #tipcr- 
f ntted  soaps,  a  small  quantity  of  neutral 
fatty  matter  was  at  one  time  added,  to 
ensure  absence  of  free  alkali,  but  such  sub- 
stances as  lanolin  and  spei  maceti  are  now 
generally  preferred,  in  oi-ler  to  produce 
an  emollient  effect  upon  the  skin. 
Glycerin  is  also  frequently  added. 

The  best  transparent  soaps  are 
prepared  by  dissolving  a  good  soap 
in  spirit,  distilling  (iff  the  excess  of 
the  latter,  and  allowing  the  re- 
maining soap  sol  it  I  ion  to  solidify. 
The  soap  is  then)  cut  into  tablets, 
.and  these  exposed  to  the  air  for 
several  weeks  or  months.  Inferior 
qualities  contain  a  considerable 
proportion  of  sugar. 

Composition  of  Soaps. 
The  following  table  gives  the  com- 
position of  representative  soaps  of  the  various 
qualities  which  have  been  referred  to ;  thev  are 
all  of  English  manufacture. 


Yellow, 

Coconut 

Toilet, 

l^g 

Toilet, 

— 

Cnnl 

lirfilNiiic) 

Mottled 

iLVinuni't 

MnttU-.l 

(•UJcated) 

Yell** 

I'-rnuiU'.'l 

Yellow 
(dlloftted) 

'•  \\;isli<T" 
variety 
(genuine) 

(made  bv 
••coM  " 
proceM) 

Ektf 
(potash] 

"rallied" 

(superior 
quality) 

Hilt 

*  |l='r 

pin-cut 
(inferior 

•  liiiilitvl 

Fattv  anhydride 

(12-02 

64-20 

40-44 

ill  -12 

41-18 

63-80 

50-02 

40-22 

80-08 

80-64 

40-87 

Alkali,  Nu,(> 

7'82 

7-70 

6*78 

7-00 

6-39 

8-00 

7-88 



10-12 

8-97 

.5-95 

„       K20 



9-23 



— 

Silica,  810 





1'88 



2-01 





— 

— 



— 

Salts     (including     little 

2-46 

2-61 

4-60 

2'64 

3-26 

2*62 

— 

— 

1-49 

2-15 

— 

glycerin) 

Glycerin  (including  small 













9-70 

7-43 

— 



— 

quantity  salts) 

Sugar   (including  small 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

—    • 

— 

— 

— 

— 

28*23 

quantity  sate) 

Water 

"7-70 

2.">  '40 

46'80 

29'24 

17'  It', 

25*58 

32'40 

43'12 

8-31 

,S'24 

24-95 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

Fatty  a^ids,  Titre  T.     .  . 

39'7 

38-9 

87'2 

4-2-0 

42-0 

28-3 

23  -6 

31-1 

38-9 

41-7 

31-1 

Sapon.  value 

214 

203 

210 

196 

195 

216 

267 

198 

212 

— 

— 

I'.y  means  of  a  row  of  iron  teeth  impinging 
upon  the  bottom  roller,  the  soap  is  removed  in 
tin-  form  of  thin  >hreds,  or  ribbons,  and  in  this 
condition  it  falls  upon  an  endless  band  of  fine  wire 
gauze,  and  is  carried  through  a  heated,  well- 
veni  ilated  chamber,  where  it  is  rendered  com- 
(...lalivcly  dry.  about  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  water 
remaining  in  the  product.  The  colouring  matter, 
>\hi«-h  i<  i:eiierally  an  aniline  derivative,  and  the 
jiorfumc  may  be  added  before  drying,  but  it  is 
4966 


Soap  or  Washing  Powders.  These  con- 
sist of  mechanical  mixtures  of  soda  crystals  (Xa.. 
('0;}.  10H..O),  or  soda-ash  (Xa-,('0;;),  and  dry  soap". 
and  are  prepared  by  grinding  the  materials  together 
until  the  mass  is  reduced  to  a  state  of  fine  powder. 

They  are  powerful,  although  not  economical, 
detergents,  and  are  useful  for  the  cleansing  of 
kitchen  ulensils  and  other  greasy  article-. 

The  following  table  gives  the  percentage  com- 
position of  three  well  -  knosvn  brands:  1  and 


2   are  of  English, 

fact are  : 


and  3  is    of    American,    inanu- 


..-. 

i 

•2 

Fatty  anhydride  .  . 
Alkali.     Na^O,     combined 

18-16 

18-76 

22'83 

as  soap 

2-08 

2'20 

2'43 

Sodium     carbonate, 

Na,  COj 

32"22 

37-05 

50-18 

Water         

44-68 

38-35 

21-06 

Salts            

2-86 

3-64 

2-60 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

GLYCERIN 

Bv  JOHN  MCARTHUR 

Glycerin,  or  glycerol,  C»H5(OH);.,  was  first 
isolated  by  the  Swedish  chemist  Scheele,  in  1779, 
in  the  preparation  of  lead  plaster  from  olive  oil 
and  litharge,  and  named  by  him  the  "  sweet 
principle  of  oils.'' 

...  It  is  now  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the 
hydrolysis  or  saponification  of  oils  and  fats  in  the 
stearine  candle  and  soap  industries,  a  fat,  like 
tallow,  yielding  about  10  per  cent,  of  glycerol. 
Within  comparatively  recent  years  much  of  the 
resulting  glycerin  was  run  to  waste,  but  the  im- 
•  provement  in  the  methods  for  its  recovery  and 
purification,  and  at  the  same  time  its  extensive 
application  in  various  industries,  have  enabled 
manufacturers  to  convert  this  formerly  waste 
product  into  one  of  value  and  profit.  The  crude 
glycerin  of  commerce  varies  in  quality  with  the 
particular  process  of  saponification  employed ; 
the  principal  qualities  are  saponification  or  cdndlc- 
glycerin  and  soap-lye  glycerin. 

Saponification  Glycerin.  This  is  ob- 
tained in  the  making  of  stearine,  discussed  under 
Candles.  The  glycerin-water,  or  "  sweet-water," 
obtained  by  the  hydrolysis  of  the  fat,  is  concentrated 
by  means  of  steam,  preferably  in  a  vacuum  evapora- 
tor,  until  a  specific  gravity  of  about  I  '240  is  reached, 
corresponding  to  about  90  per  cent,  of  glycerol. 
This  product  varies  in  colour  from  light  yellow  to 
dark  brown  or  black,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  raw  fats  employed,-  and  contains  generally 
from  0'25  to  TOO  per  cent,  or  more  of  salts,  con- 
-  sisting  of  lime,  magnesia,  etc.,  from  the  base  used  in 
the  hydrolysis,  besides  dissolved  organic  impurities. 
-  -  Soap=lye  Glycerin.  The  spent  lyes  result- 
ing from  the  "  cutting "  of  the  soap  generally 
contain  from  4  to  8  per  cent,  of  glycerol :  common 
salt  is  also  present  in  considerable  quantity,  besides 
smaller  proportions  of  caustic  soda,  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  soap.  The  lyes  are  purified  by  treatment 
with  mineral  acid,  in  presence  of  certain  chemicals 
such  as  sulphate  of  alumina  or  ferric  sulphate ; 
by  this  combined  treatment  the  alkali  is  neutralised, 
the  soap  decomposed,  and  the  fatty  and  resinous 
acids  as  well  as  organic  impurities  precipitated. 
The  solution  is  filtered,  neutralised  with  sodarash, 
again  filtered,  and  concentrated  in  a  vacuum 
evaporator,  which  is  constructed  so  that  the  excess 
of  salt,  as  it  separates  from  the  lye,  can  be  removed 
from  the  evaporator  while  the  process  is  in  operation. 
The  finished  crude  glycerin  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  T300,  and  contains  generally  about  80  per  cent, 
of  glycerol  and  10  per  cent,  of  salt. 

This  quality,  on  account  of  the  higher  per- 
centage of  salt  and  the  lower  percentage  of  glycerol 
present,  has  not  the  same  commercial  value  as 
saponification  glycerin. 

Purification  of  Glycerin.  The  first 
successful  process  for  the  purification  of  crude 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

glycerin  was  that  invented  in  1855,  by  the  late 
Mr.  G.  F.  Wilson,  F.R.S.,  of  Price's  Patent  Candle 
Company  Limited  (English  Patent  No.  301,  1855), 
whereby  the  well-known  ''  Price's  Glycerin  "  was 
manufactured.  This  process  consists  in  distilling 
the  glycerin  in  an  atmosphere  of  superheated 
steam,  and  although  its  original  form  has  now 
been  somewhat  modified,  the  process  is  universally 
used. 

The  stills  and  condensers  employed  vary  in  form, 
but  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  used  for  fatty 
acids  [see  Candles]  They  are  made  of  copper  or 
steel,  and  the  glycerin  is  distilled,  in  some  cases  by 
superheated  steam  with  the  assistance  of  fire,  and 
in  other  cases  by  steam  alone.  The  whole  apparatus 
is  generally  worked  under  a  vacuum,  which,  by 
reducing  the  temperature  of  distillation,  assists  in 
preventing  the  decomposition  of  the  glycerin. 
Strong  glycerin  of  1  '240  to  1  '260  specific  gravity 
is  collected  from  those  condensers  near  to  the  still  ; 
the  weaker  glycerin  from  the  other  condensers  is 
generally  concentrated  in  vacuo  and  re-distilled. 
The  strong  glycerin,  which  is  pale  yellow  in  colour, 
is  decolorised  by  treatment  with  animal  charcoal 
and  filtered,  and  is  sold  as  distilled  glycerin,  or  it 
may  be  concentrated  to  a  specific  gravity  of  1  '202 
for  dynamite  glycerin. 

Chemically  pure  glycerin  is  obtained  by  a 
second,  and  sometimes  by  a  third,  distillation, 
and  is  generally  finished  by  treatment  with 
a  small  quantity  of  pure  charcoal,  and  afterwards 
filtered. 

Properties  of  Chemically  Pure  Gly= 
cerin.  Chemically  pure  glycerin,  as  required  by 
the  British  Pharmacopoeia  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  1'260  at  15'5°  C.  ;  it  is  not  absolutely  free  from 
water,  containing  between  2  and  3  per  cent.,  the 
chemical  substance,  glycerol,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  T267  at  15'5°  C.  Chemically  pure 
glycerin  is  a  colourless  syrupy  liquid,  free  from 
odour,  and  possessing  a  sweet,  pleasant  taste. 
It  should  be  free  from  arsenic,  metallic  and  earthy 
impurities,  and  from  fatty  and  mineral  acids. 
When  exposed  to  cold  for  some  time,  at  or  below 
0°  C.,  it  forms  rhombic  crystals,  which  rapidly 
deliquesce  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  It 
boils  at  290°  C.,  and  at  a  higher  temperature  burns 
with  a  non-luminous  flame.  Glycerin  has  a  great 
affinity  for  water,  and  mixes  with  it  and  with  alcohol 
in  all  proportions,  but  it  is  insoluble  in  ether.  It 
is  a  very  powerful  solvent,  dissolving  many  sub- 
stances which  are  practically  insoluble  in  water. 

Applications  of  Glycerin.  Chemically 
pure  glycerin  is  extensively  employed  in  pharmacy 
and  surgery.  Its  solvent  action  renders  it  useful 
in  making  solutions  of  various  drugs.  On  account 
of  its  nutritive  value,  it  is  often  taken  internally 
as  a  substitute  for  cod-liver  oil.  It  is  largely  used 
as  an  application  in  diseases  of  the  skin,  being  em- 
ployed as  a  vehicle  for  medicaments ;  and  in 
combination  with  such  antiseptics  as  boric  and 
salicylic  acids,  it  is  useful  as  an  application  in  certain 
diseases  of  the  throat.  Glycerin  is  useful  also  as 
a  preservative  fluid,  and  on  this  account  it  forms 
an  important  constituent  of  vaccine  lymph. 

Distilled  glycerin  is  used  in  calico-printing,  in 
the  preparation  of  leather,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  copying  inks  and  printers'  rollers,  and  for  mixing 
with  water  to  lower  its  freezing-point.  But  by 
far  the  most  extensive  application  of  distilled 
glycerin  is  for  the  making  of  nitro-glycerin  for 
dynamite  and  other  explosives  :  for  this  purpose 
the  glycerin  should  contain  as  little  water  as 
possible. 

4967 


are    Formed. 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

ESSENTIAL  OILS  AND  PERFUMES 

Essential  or  volatile  oils  are  an  important  class 
of  oils  which  differ  from  the  division  known  as 
fixed  oils  by  the  fact  that  they  are  more  or  less 
vapourisable  without  alteration,  and  possess  dis- 
tinctive odours.  This  definition  cannot  be  strictly 
applied  in  every  case,  but  it  suffices  for  all  practical 
purposes.  It  is  the  possession  of  characteristic 
odours  and  the  ready  volatility  that  make  essential 
oils  of  such  value  to  perfumers. 

Distribution  in  the  Plant.  Essential 
oils  are  of  vegetable  origin,  and  are  distributed  in 
all  parts  of  the  plant — flower,  fruit,  stem,  bark  and 
root ;  but  this  is  not  always  so  in  the  same  plant. 
Pine  trees  are  an  example  of  the  occurrence  of 
the  same  oil  in  all  parts  of  the  plant,  but  in  the  rose 
the  perfume  or  essential  oil  is  found  only  in  the 
flower  petals.  The  orange  tree  is  peculiar  in  yield- 
ing distinctive  perfumes  from  various  parts  of  the 
plant — the  flowers  yield  oil  of  neroli.  the  leaves  oil 
of  petit  grain,  and  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  oil  of 
orange  peel.  White  flowers  are  more  often  per- 
fume yielders,  and  give  by  far  the  most  pleasant 
scents. 

How  Essential  Oils 
Ckarabot  has  conducted  a  series 
of  experiments  with  a  view  to 
tracing  the  elaboration  of  per- 
fumes in  plants,  using  for  the 
purpose  peppermint  and  basil. 
There  appears  to  be  no  doubt 
that  the  essential  oil  is  pro- 
duced in  the  chlorophyll-bear- 
ing parts  of  the  plant.  It  was 
noted  that  the  essential  oil 
derived  from  the  chlorophyll- 
bearing  (green)  parts  is  richer 
in  esters,  the  more  odorous  part 
of  essential  oils,  and  becomes 
richer  as  vegetation  advances. 
Suppression  of  inflorescence  was 
found  to  cause  an  accumula- 
tion of  the  oil  in  the  green 
parts.  The  flowers  as  formed 
become  richer  in  water,  the 
petals  containing  a  higher  pro- 
portion of  water  than  the  rest 
of  the  organs.  During  the 
fuller  development  of  a  flower 
the  essential  oil  becomes  richer  in  esters  and  in 
alcohols.  In  the  case  of  the  basil  plant  the  essen- 
tial oil  is  formed  mostly  in  the  green  parts  before 
the  period  of  flowering,  and  decreases  during  the 
jwriod  of  flowering. 

Influence  of  Soil.  Sunlight  favours  the 
formation  of  terpene  compounds,  and  experiments 
are  being  conducted  to  see  what  effect  the 
addition  of  certain  chemicals  to  the  soil  will 
have  on  the  composition  of  the  oil.  As  an 
instance  of  the  difference  in  the  composition 
of  the  essential  oil  yielded  by  the  same  plant 
on  different  soil  lavender  may  be  mentioned. 
Plants  grown  at  Mitcham,  in  Surrey,  contain  only 
about  7  to  10  per  cent,  of  linalyl  acetate,  whereas 
Iho  same  plants  grown  in  the  South  of  Franco 
frequently  contain  over  35  per  cent,  of  the  same 
body.  Peppermint  plants  cultivated  in  soil  to 
which  sodium  chloride  or  sodium  nitrate  has  been 
.:«ldcd  yield  an  oil  richer  in  ester  than  one  cultivated 
\\  ithout  such  addition. 

Chemical  Composition.  The  chemical 
constituents  of  volatile  oil<  have  been  the  subject 
of  long  investigations  by  chemists.  The  following 
are  the  chief  organic  constituents  :  (])  the  terpenes, 

4968 


comprising  pinene,  camphene,  limonene,  dipentene, 
thujene,  fenchene,  sylvestrene,  phellandrene,  ter- 
pinolene,  terpinene,  cadinene,  carvestrene,  car- 
yophyllene  and  cedrene ;  (2)  camphor  compounds 
such  as  borneol,  camphor,  terpineol,  pulegiol  and 
menthol ;  (3)  the  geraniol  and  citronellol  series, 
including  geraniol,  linalol,  geranaldehyde,  and 
citronellol ;  (4)  benzene  compounds,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  cymene  and  its  isomers, 
chavicol,  eugenol, 'safrol,  thymol,  carvacrol,  benzyl 
alcohol,  benzaldehyde,  salicylic  aldehyde,  cinna- 
mic  aldehyde,  carvone, ,  benzoic  acid,  salicylic 
acid  and  cinnamic  acid  ;  (5)  aliphatic  compounds, 
other  than  the  geraniol  and  citronellol  series, 
which  comprise  methyl  alcohol,  ethyl  alcohol, 
propyl  alcohol,  acetic  acid,  valeric  acid,  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  allyl  thiocyanate  and  the  paraffins. 

Many  essential  oils  consist  of  a  mixture  of  fluid 
and  solid  constituents,  the  fluid  being  known  as 
the  eloeoptene,  and  the  solid  part  as  the  stearoptene. 
Terpeneless  oils,  or  concentrated  essential  oils,  are 
obtained  by  depriving  oils  of  their  terpene,  usually 
the  odourless  portion. 

Processes  of  Extraction.  The  methods 
of  obtaining  the  essential  oil  of  plants  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  delicacy  of  the  oil.  The 
chief  methods  are  :  (a)  distillation  : 
(b)  expression ;  (c)  extraction  by 
solvents. 

Distillation.  The  process  of 
distillation  is  the  one  most  frequently 
used.  The  vegetable  matter  is  placed 
in  a  copper  still  [7]  with  water. 
and  heat  is  applied.  This 
causes  the  water  to  rise  as 
steam,  containing,  mixed  with 
it,  the  essential  oil  of  the  plant. 
The  steam  is  led  through  a 
worm  or  condenser,  the  result- 
ing liquid  being  allowed  to  rest 
for  some  time,  when  it  separates 
into  two  layers —  oil  and  water. 
The  oil  is  separated  by  a  simple 
expedient  of  decantation.  Modi- 
fications of  the  above  process 
consist  ,in  the  use  of  steam 
pipes  as  the  heating  agent 
and  the  suspension  of  the 
vegetable  matter  in  a  wire 
cage,  the  object  being  to  prevent  scorching.  The 
water  which  comes  away  with  the  oil  is  strongly 
flavoured  with  the  plant  perfume,  and  is  vised  in 
medicine  for  flavouring  purposes,  or,  as  in  the 
case  of  rosewater,  for  toilet  articles. 

Making  Otto  of  Rose.  As  an  illustration 
of  the  distillation  process  the  manufacture  of  otto 
of  rose  may  be  cited.  The  pure  odour  of  the  rose 
is  "  unique,  undefinable  and  incomparable."  Oteo, 
or  attar,  is  the  name  given  to  the  oil  of  rose.  The 
rose  garden  of  the  world  is  situated  in  the  Balkans, 
the  most  important  centre  of  the  industry  being 
Kezanlik.  Rosa  Damascena  is  the  particular 
variety  of  rose  cultivated  in  Btilgaria.  The  flowers 
PTOWII  for  the  distillation  of  the  otto  are  gathered 
before  they  begin  to  open  and  just  before 
sunrise.  The  time  of  gathering  has  an  important 
influence  on  the  otto,  both  in  yield  and  odour.  A 
garden  of  an  acre  yields  about  100  Ib.  of  flowers 
every  day  for  three  weeks.  The  distilleries  are, 
as  a  rule,  primitive  buildings.  The  still  [8]  is  of 
copper,  about  5  ft.  high,  resting  on  a  furnace  built 
of  bricks  or  stones.  The  condenser  is  simply  a 
straight  tube  passing  obliquely  through  a  wooden 
vai.  The  fuel  for  heating  the  furnace  consists  of 


ESSENTIAL   OIL    STILL 


wood.  Water  for  condensation  is  supplied  by  a 
wooden  gutter  suspended  over  the  condenser. 
The  still  is  charged  with  10  kilogrammes  of  flowers 
just  as  they  are  gathered  and  75  litres  of  water, 
and  the  joints  of  the  still  are  luted  with  clay. 
The  fire  is  then  lighted,  and  after  an  hour  and  a 
half  10  litres  of  liquid,  having  distilled  over  the 
lire,  is  withdrawn.  The  distillate  is  received  in 
two  flasks  of  5  litres  each  and  placed  on  a  shelf  to 
cool.  The  still  is  then  recharged,  and  when  40 
litres  of  distillate  have  been  collected,  this  quantity 
is  put  in  the  still  and  5  litres  of  distillate  collected, 
containing  all  the  otto  of  the  larger  quantity. 
The  liquid  is  placed  in  a  glass  vessel  of  special 
shape,  and  the  otto  that  floats  on  the  water  is 
separated  by  a  small  funnel-shaped  dipper.  The 
yield  from  3,000  kilogrammes  of  flowers  is  1  kilo- 
gramme of  otto.  Modern  methods  of  distillation 
are  now  used  in  the  newer  factories. 

Expression.  This  is  the  process  used  in 
Southern  Italy  for  obtaining  essential  oil  from 
lemon,  orange,  and  bergamot  peels,  but  in  reality 
very  little  pressure  is  employed.  The  principle  on 
which  the  extraction  is  carried  out  maybe  illustrated 
by  bending  a  piece  of  orange  peel,  when  a  fine 
shower  of  oil  and  water  will  be  seen  to  be  ejected. 
In  peeling  a  lemon  or  orange,  a  little  of  the  oil  is  in 
this  way  often  ejected  into  the  eye,  causing  consider- 
able pain.  If  a  piece  of  sponge  be  pressed  on  the 
bended  peel,  the  oil  is  absorbed,  this  being  the 
method  which  goes  by  the  name  of  the  spugna  process. 
The  peel  of  a  lemon  or  orange  is  cut  off  in  three 
slices  by  a  workman,  who  passes  them  to  an  assistant 
sitting  on  a  low  chair,  with  a  common  quality  bath 
sponge,  worth  about  sixpence,  in  one  hand.  With 
the  other,  he  presses  the  slice  of  peel  against  the 
sponge,  pressing  the  edges  of  the  peel  only  with  the 
lingers,  the  object  being  to  press  the  convex  piece 
of  peel  as  nearly  flat  as  possible.  The  amount  of 
pressure  used  is  very  slight.  The  sponge  is  periodi- 
cally squeezed,  a  workman  by  this  method  producing 
1 1  Ib.  of  oil  of  lemon  per  day.  Another  process  is  the 
scorzetla  process.  The  fruits  are  cut  into  halves, 
the  pulp  removed  by  a  kind  of  spoon,  and  all  parts 
of  the  peel  are  then  pressed  against  a  sponge  by 
constantly  turning  it  in  the  palm  of  the  hand.  The 
machina  process  is  a  mechanical  method  applied 
principally  to  bergamot,  as  the  round,  regular  shape 
of  the  fruit  makes  it  very  suitable  for  mechanical 


ENFLEURAGE 


treatment.  A  dozen  bergamots  of  equal  size  are 
placed  in  a  round  copper  receptacle  provided  with 
a  heavy  lid,  which  rests  on  the  fruit ;  the  interior 
of  this  receptacle  is  provided  with  fine,  small  teeth, 
and  the  whole  revolves  round  an  axis ;  the  teeth 
rasp  off  the  outer  layer  of  the  peel,  which  contains 
the  oil,  and  this  pulp  is  filled  into  long  woollen  bags, 
irom  which  the  oil  drops  on  gentle  pressure. 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

Extraction  by  Solvents.  Enfleurage  [9]  is 
a  process  employed  for  extracting  the  perfume  from 
flowers,  and  is  applicable  to  those  flowers  like 
jasmin  and  tuberose,  which  contain  only  an 
insignificant  amount  of  perfume,  but  continue  to 
develop  and  emit  perfume.  A  thousand  kilo- 
grammes of  jasmin  by  distillation  yield  178  grammes 
of  essential  oil,  but  "by  enfleurage  1,784  grammes 


8.    BULGARIAN   OTTO   OF   ROSE    STILL 


are  obtained.  The  process  consists  in  spreading 
upon  glass  trays,  framed  with  wood,  about  3  in.  deep, 
a  layer  of  specially  prepared  fat,  about  J  in.  thick.' 
The  tray  is  then  sprinkled  with  the  flowers,  which 
are  renewed  from  day  to  day,  the  fat  in  time 
becoming  saturated  with  the  odour  of  the  flowers. 
The  perfume,  or  essential  oil,  is  dissolved  out  from 
the  fat  by  means  of  alcohol,  forming  an  extract,  but 
the  perfumed  fat  is  sold  as  a  pomade.  In  some 
factories,  warm,  melted  fat  is  employed  for  extracting 
the  odour  of  flowers,  the  heat  being  maintained  at 
a  definite  temperature.  Volatile  solvents  are  also 
employed  instead  of  fat,  examples  of  these  being 
])etroleum  ether,  chloroform,  carbon  bisulphide, 
and  methyl  chloride. 

The  table  on  next  page  gives  the  names  of  best- 
known  essential  oils,  the  sources,  the  parts  yielding 
the  oil,  and  the  use  of  the  oil  being  briefly  indicated. 

Various  Aromatic  Products.  Balsam  of 
Gilead  and  Balmm  of  Mecca,  oleo-resins,  considered 
to  be  derived  from  Balsamodendron  gileadense, 
Kunth,  or  its  varieties.  When  fresh,  the  oleo-resin 
is  of  the  consistency  of  honey,  of  a  greenish  yellow 
colour,  and  with  a  powerful,  pleasant  odour,  recalling 
that  of  rosemary.  It  is  highly  esteemed  in  the  East 
as  a  cosmetic  unguent. 

Balsam  of  Peru  is  a  fragrant  balsam  extracted 
from  the  trunk  of  Myroxylon  pc.reirce,  Klotzsch, 
whch  grows  in  the  western  part  of  the  State  of  San 
Salvador.  It  is  a  dark-brown,  thick  liquid,  with  a 
smoky,  balsamic  odour,  which  becomes  very  agree- 
able when  warmed.  It  is  used  in  ointments  and  in 
incense. 

Balsam  of  Tolu.  is  obtained  by  exudation  after 
incision  in  the  bark  of  Myroxylon  toluifera.  It  is  a 
light- brown,  soft  resin,  which  becomes  harder  by 
aee,  but  softens  by  the  warmth  of  the  hand.  It  is 
used  in  fumigating  compounds,  and  largely  in 
medicine  as  a  cough  remedy. 

Benzoin  is  a  gum  obtained  from  Styrax  benzoin. 
There  are  two  chief  kinds  in  commerce,  Sumatra 
and  Siam.  Both  are  imported  in  blocks,  the  Siain 
being  the  better  on  account  of  its  delicate  odour, 
recalling  that  of  vanilla.  Both  yield  benzoic  acid 
when  heated.  Benzoin  is  used  in  incense,  in  medi- 
cine, and  as  an  ingredient  in  face  lotions. 

Camphor  is  derived  from  Cinnamomum  camphora, 
Xees  and  Ebermaier,  by  boiling  the  wood  of  the 

4969 


SOURCES    AND    USES    OF    THE    CHIEF    ESSENTIAL    OILS 

K'um.of  KsM-i.tUlOil. 

JV.taiiiciil  Sounv. 

Niituntl  Or.U-r. 

P;irt  Y  it-Mi  ii',' 
the  Oil. 

he  Oil. 

Almond  oil  (bitter) 

Prunus  amygdalus,  var.  amara  ])e  C.  .  . 

Rosacea1 

seed 

flavour 

Amber  oil 

Pinites  succinifer,  Goeppert  (extinct).. 

Conifera 

fossil  resin 

medicine 

Ambrette  seed  oil 

Abelmoschus  moschatus,  Moench 

Malvace;e 

seed 

perfume 

(Musk  seed) 

Anise  oil    .  . 

Pimpinella  anisum,  Linne 

Umbellifer.e 

fruit 

medicine  and  flavour 

Arnica  root  oil      .  . 

Arnica  montana,  Linne 

Composite 

root 

medicine 

Basil  oil     .  . 

Ocymum  basilicum,  Linne 

Labiate 

herb 

perfume 

Beech  tar  oil 

Fagus  silvatica,  Linue 

Cupuliferfe 

tar  from  wood 

medicine 

Bergamot  oil 

Citrus  bergamia,  Risso  et  Poiteau 

Rutacea- 

rind  of  fruit 

perfume 

Birch  tar  oil 

Betula  alba,  Linne 

Cupulifera? 

tar  from  wood 

perfume 

Cade  oil     .  . 

Juniperus  oxycedrus,  Linne   .  . 

Conifera- 

wood 

medicine 

Cajuput  oil 

Melaleuca  leucadendron,  Linne 

Myrtacea' 

leaves 

medicine 

Camphor  oil 

C'innamomum  camphora  (LinuS),  Nees 

Lauracea- 

camphor  by- 

medicine 

et  Ebermaier 

product 

Caraway  oil 

Carum  carvi,  Linne 

Umbelliferse 

fruit 

medicine  and  flavour 

Cardamom  oil 

Elattaria  repens  (Sonnerat),  Baillon   .  . 

Scitaminea- 

seeds 

flavour 

Casiua  oil  .  . 

C'innamomum  cassia 

Lauracese 

wood 

flavour  and  perfume 

Cedar  oil    .. 

Juniperus  Virginiana,  Linne 

Conifera- 

wood 

perfume 

Celery  oil 
Chamomile  oil 

Apium  graveolens,  Linne 
Anthemis  nobilis,  Linne 

Umbellifera? 
Composita? 

fruit 
flower  heads 

flavour 
medicine 

Cherry  Laurel  oil 

Prunus  lauro-cerasus,  Linne 

Rosacese 

leaves 

flavour 

Cinnamom  oil 

Cinnamomum  zeylanicum,  Breyn 

Lauracea? 

leaves  and  bark 

medicine  and  flavour 

Citronella  oil 
Clove  oil    .  . 

grass 
flower  heads 

perfume 
medicine  and  flavour 

Eugenia  aromatica  (Linne),  O.  Kuntze 

Myrtacea? 

Copaiba  oil 

Copaiba  Langsdorffi  (Desfontaines),  0. 

Leguminaceae 

oleo-resin 

medicine 

Kuntze 

Coriander  oil 

Coriandrum  sativum,  Linne 

Umbellifera? 

'   fruit 

medicine  and  flavour 

Cubeb  oil 

Piper  eubeba,  Linne  ftlius 

Piperacea? 

unripe  fruit 

medicine 

Cumin  oil 

Cuminum  cyminum,  Linn6        .  .    < 

Umbellifera? 

fruit 

medicine  and  flavour 

Dill  oil 

Anethum  graveolens,  Linne 

Umbelliferse 

fruit 

medicine 

Eucalyptus  oil 

Eucalyptus  globulus,  Labillardiere,  E. 

Myrtacese 

fresh  leaves 

medicine 

Oleosa,  F.  von  Mueller,  and   other 

Fennel  oil 

species 
Fceniculum  capillaceum,  Gilibert 

Umbellifera? 

fruit 

medicine 

Gaultheria  oil  (win- 

Gaultheria procumbens,  Linne 

Ericacea? 

leaves 

flowers 

ter  green) 

Geranium  oil 

Several  species  of  pelargonium 

Geraniacea* 

herb 

perfume 

Guaiacum  oil 

Guaiacum  officinale,  Linne,  and  G.  sanc- 

Zygophyllacese 

wood 

perfume 

Hop  oil 

tum,  Linne 
Humulus  lupulus,  Linne 

Urticacea< 

strobiles 

flavour 

Horsemint  oil 

Monarda  punctata,  Linne        •     . 

Labiatse 

herb 

medicine 

Hyssop  oil 

Hyssopus  officinalis,  Linne 

Labiata- 

herb 

medicine  and  flavour 

Juniper  oil 
Lavender  oil 
Lemon  oil 

Juniperus  communis,  Linne 
Lavandula  officinalis,  Chaix 
Citrus  limonum,  Risso 

Conifera? 
Labiate 
Rutacea' 

fruit 
fresh  flowers 
fresh  peel 

medicine  and  flavour 
medicine  and  perfume 
medicine  and  perfume 

Lemon  grass  oil    .  . 

Cvmbopogon  flexuosus,  Stapf  

Graminacea? 

grass 

perfume 

Limes  oil   .  . 

Citrus  limetta,  Risso 

Rutacea? 

rind  of  fruit 

perfume 

Mace  oil     .  . 

Myristica  fragrans,  Houttuyn 

Afvristicace?e 

arillode  of  seed 

flavour 

Marjoram  oil 

Origanum  majorana,  Linne 

Labiatse 

herb 

medicine  and  flavour 

Mustard  oil  (vola- 

Brassica nigra  (Linn£),  Koch     . 

Crucifera? 

seeds 

medicine 

tile) 

Myrciaoil  (Bay  oil) 

Myrcia  acris,  D.C.            

Myrtacese 

leaves 

perfume 

Myrtle  oil  .  . 

Myrtus  communis,  Linne 

Myrtacese 

leaves 

medicine 

Nutmeg  oil 

Mvristica  fragrans,  Houttuyn    . 

Myristicacea? 

seeds 

flavour 

Olibanum  oil 

Species  of  Boswellia 

Burseracea' 

gum  resin 

perfume 

Opoponax  oil 

Opoponax  chironium,  Koch 

Umbellifera? 

gum  resin 

perfume 

Orange-flower    oil. 

Citrus  vulgaris,  Risso 

Rutaoeee 

fresh  flowers 

perfume 

(neroli  oil) 

Orange  peel  oil  .  . 

Citrus  vulgaris,  Risso,  or  C.  Aurantium, 

Rutacea? 

fresh  peel 

flavour  and  perfume 

Linne 

Orris  oil     .  . 

Iris  germanica,  Linne,  I.  pallida,  Lam., 

Iridacea? 

rhizome 

perfume 

and  I.  florentina,  Linne 

Parsley  oil 

Petroselinum  sativum,  Hoffmann 

Umbellifera' 

fruit 

medicine 

Patchouli  oil 

Pogostemon  patchouli,  Pellet    .  . 

Labiate 

leaves 

perfume 

Pennyroyal  oil 

Mentha  pulegium.  Linne 

Labiata? 

herb 

medicine 

Peppermint  oil 

Mentha  piperita,  Smith  

Labiata- 

herb 

medicine  and  flavour 

Petit  grain  oil     .  . 

Citrus  bigaradia,  Duhamel 

Rutacea? 

leaves  and  fruit 

perfume 

Pimento  oil 

Pine  oil 

Pimenta  officinalis,  Lindley 
Pinus  silvestris,  Linne 

Myrtacea? 
Conifera- 

nearly  ripe  fruit 
leaves 

medicine 
medicine 

Rose  oil   (Otto  of 

Rosa  damascena,  Mueller 

Rosa  cere 

fresh  flowers 

perfume  and  flavour 

rose) 

Rosemarv  oil 

Rosmarinus  officinalis,  Linne 

Labiatse 

leaves 

perfume  and  medicine 

Santal  oil 

Santalum  album,  Linne 

Santalacert1 

wood 

medicine  and  perfume 

Sassafras  oil 

Sassafras    variifoliiun    (Salisbury  ),  O. 

Lauracea 

bark  of  root 

perfume  and  flavour 

Kuntze 

Savine  oil 

.liiiiiperus  sabina.  Linne 

Conifera' 

tops 

medicine 

Spearmint  oil 

.Mentha  viridis,  Linne      

Labiate 

fresh  herb 

medicine 

Star  anise  oil 

Tlliciinn  verum,  Hooker  filius 

Bfagnoliacese 

fruit 

medicine  and  flavour 

Tansy  oil 

Tanacetum  vulgare,  Linne 

Composite 

herb 

medicine 

Tar  oil 

Pinus  palustris.  Miller,  and  other  species 

C'onifera1 

tar  of  wood 

medicine 

Thyme  oil 

Thymus  vulgaris,  Linne 

Labiate 

leaves  and  flowers 

medicine 

Turpentine  oil 

I'inus  palustris.  .M  iller,  and  other  species 

Conifera? 

oleo-resin 

medicine  and  arts 

Vetiver  oil 

Vetiveria  zizanioides.  Stapf. 

Graminacete 

root 

perfume 

Ylang-Ylang  oil   .  . 

Cananya     odorata.     Hooker     lilius    et 

Anonaeea- 

flowers 

perfume 

Thomson 

4970 


tree  in  water,  and  leading  the  steam  (which  contains 
the  camphor  in  the  form  of  vapour)  into  inverted 
earthenware  pots.  It  is  re-sublimed  in  England  by 
heating  with  quicklime  and  charcoal,  the  vapours 
being  led  into  glass  bell  jars.  Camphor  is  a  white, 
lough,  semi-crystalline  solid  mass,  very  soluble  in 
alcohol,  and  slightly  soluble  in  water.  It  finds 
numerous  uses  in  perfumery  and  medicine. 

Frankincense,  or  Olibanum,  is  used  principally  for 
compounding  incense  for  use  in  churches.  It  is 
obtained  from  various  species  of  Boswdlia. 

Myrrh  is  a  reddish  oleo-resin,  obtained  from 
Jialsamodendron  myrrha,  Nees,  much  used  in  toilet 
perfumery. 

Storax,  or  Styrax,  is  yielded  by  Styrax  oflicinalis, 
Linn.  It  is  an  opaque,  grey,  semi-fluid  resin,  of  the 
consistency  of  honey,  exported  from  Arabia.  It  is 
used  in  incense. 

Tonka,  or  Tonquin  bean,  is  the  seed  of  a  legu- 
minous tree,  Dipterix  odorata,  Willd.,  which  inhabits 
Guiana  and  Venezuela.  It  contains  about  1'5  per 
cent,  of  an  odorous  principle,  coumarin.  Tonka 
bean  is  largely  used  to  flavour  tobacco,  in  sachet 
powder,  and  for  flavouring  purposes. 

Vanilla  is  obtained  from  Vanilla  planifolia,  which 
is  grown  in  Mexico,  Reunion,  the  Seychelles,  and 
Java.  It  is  in  the  form  of  thin  pods,  6  in.  to  12  in. 
long.  The  aromatic  principle,  vanillin,  occurs  in 
quantities  varying  from  1  to  2 '75  per  cent.  It  is 
also  made  artificially.  Vanilla  is  used  as  a  flavour 
for  chocolate  and  confectionery,  and  in  the  com- 
pounding of  numerous  liqueurs  and  perfumes. 

Perfumes  of  Animal  Origin.  Musk  is 
obtained  from  the  musk  deer,  Moschus  moschiferus, 
Linn.,  in  bags  or  pods,  containing  an  average 
quantity  of  half  an  ounce.  The  pods  are  often 
adulterated,  the  high  price  being  a  great  incentive 
to  sophistication.  It  is  a  most  persistent  perfume, 
and,  like  other  animal  perfumes,  is  much  employed 
as  a  fixing  agent  in  perfumery.  A  tincture  in  weak 
alcohol,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
ammonia,  or  fixed  alkali,  is  the  form  in  which  musk 
is  employed.  Artificial  musk  is  referred  to  in 
next  column. 

Various  animals  give  out  an  odour  of  musk.  These 
are  Ondrata  zibeifiica  (the  Canadian  musk  rat), 
Mygale  moscovita  (Russian  musk  rat),  Sorex  indicus 
(Indian  musk  rat),  Bos  moscJmtus  (musk  ox),  and 
Antelope  dorca-s,  but  they  are  very  little  employed 
in  perfumery. 

(,'ivet  is  a  secretion  of  the  civet  cat,  Viverra 
ivetta  and  V.  zibetha.  The  odour  is  more  powerful 
than  musk,  but  its  diffusiveness  is  not  so  great. 
On  being  much  diluted,  the  odour  of  civet  becomes 
bearable,  and  even  fragrant. 

Ambergris,  the  biliary  ^concretion  of  the  spermaceti 
whale  (Physeter  macrocephalus),  is  a  product  of 
disease.  It  has  an  odour  recalling  musk,  but  is  more 
delicate.  Its  use  is  for  giving  permanence  to  other 
odours,  and  a  handkerchief  scented  with  ambergris 
retains  the  odour  even  after  being  washed.  It  is 
a  rare  product,  but  is  occasionally  found  in  large 
pieces  by  lucky  whale  fishers.  Ambergris  costs 
about  £5  to  £10  an  ounce,  but  is  often  grossly 
adulterated. 

Synthetic  Perfumes.  The  modern  in- 
dustry of  manufacturing  perfume  from  coal-tar  is  but 
a  small  part  of  the  great  triumphs  which  chemistry 
can  claim  to  have  achieved.  Some  of  the  most 
exquisite  odours  in  modern  perfumes  are.  manu- 
factured entirely  from  aniline  products,  and  although 
some  perfumers'  allege  that  the  natural  floral  odours 
have  a  bouquet  which  art  cannot  match,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  popularisation  of  perfumery  has  in 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

a  great  measure  been  brought  about  by  the  origin- 
ality of  synthetic  perfumes.  Oil  of  almonds  may  be 
said  to  be  the  first  synthetic  odour,  Mitscherlich, 
in  1834,  discovering  the  exact  counterpart  in  nitro- 
bcnzol — a  coal-tar  product.  Nitrobenzol  is  known 
as  oil  of  mirbane,  and  although  the  odour  is  the 
same  as  bitter  almonds,  its  poisonous  properties 
prevent  it  being  used  as  a  flavour.  Benzaldehyde  is 
another  artificial  oil  of  almonds  which  is  soluble  in 
alcohol.  These  artificial  products  are  employed  in 
perfuming  soap.  Artificial  vanillin,  which  repro- 
duces the  odour  of  vanilla,  was  first  made  by 
Tiemann,in  1874,  from  coniferin,  but  now  the  most 
important  method  of  preparing  vanillin  is  by  the 
oxidation  of  eugenol,  the  chief  constituent  of  "oil  of 
cloves.  The  eugenol  is  first  converted  into  iso- 
eugenol  by  treating  it  with  caustic  potash.  The 
acetylation  product  is  oxidised,  by  which  aeetyl- 
vanillin  is  chiefly  formed,  and  this  yields  vanillin 
by  splitting  off  the  acetyl  group.  Vanillin  is  in 
fine  white  needles,  possessing  an  intense  odour 
of  vanilla,  and  dissolves  in  alcohol,  water,  and 
glycerin.  Coumarin  is  the  peculiar  odour  of  Tonka 
bean,  which  is  employed  in  making  "  New- Mown 
Hay"  perfume.  It  is  now  made  artificially  by  the 
action  of  caustic  soda  on  phenol,  a  sodium  salt  of 
salicylaldehyde  being  formed ;  this  is  acetylated, 
and  the  acetyl  compound,  heated  to  a  high  tern 
perature,  splits  up  into  coumarin  and  water.  Cou- 
marin dissolves  in  alcohol  and  oil,  a  little  oil  being 
usually  associated  with  it  for  fixing  purposes. 
Heliotropine,  or  piperonal,  is  an  artificial  product 
with  a  delightful  odour  of  heliotrope.  It  was  origin- 
ally made  from  piperine,  the  active  principle  of 
pepper,  but  is  now  made  from  safrol,  the  principal 
constituent  of  oil  of  sassafras.  It  is  used  to  make 
"  White  Heliotrope  "  perfume.  Aubepine,  or  anisic 
aldehyde,  is  the  substance  used  to  give  "  May 
blossom  "  or  "  Hawthorn  "  perfume.  It  is  obtained 
as  a  by-product  in  making  coumarin,  or  can  be  made 
from  aniseed  oil.  Cinnamic  aldehyde  is  artificial 
cinnamon  made  by  the  action  of  caustic  soda  on 
benzaldehyde  and  acetic  aldehyde.  Terpineol  is  a 
liquid  exactly  reproducing  the  odour  of  "  White 
Lilac."  It  is  made  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  on  terpene  hydrate.  lonone,  or  artificial 
violet,  is  the  basis  of  the  popular  ''Parma  Violets  " 
perfume.  It  was  first  made  by  Tiemann,  in  1893. 
by  submitting  a  mixture  of  citral  (obtained  from 
lemongrass  oil)  and  acetone  to  the  action  of  hydrates 
of  the  alkaline  earths  in  the  presence  of  water,  and 
then  converting  the  ketone-pseudo-ionone  into  ionone 
by  the  action  of  dilute  acids.  It  is  sold  commercially 
as  a  10  per  cent,  solution,  which  is  diluted  to  make 
violet  perfume.  Artificial  musk  was  first  made  in 
1842  by  the  action  cf  nitric  acid  on  oil  of  amber, 
but  the  artificial  musk  of  to-day  is  made  by  the 
Baur  expired  patent,  and  is  a  tri-nitro  derivative  of 
butyl  toluol.  It  is  a  white  crystalline  powder,  soluble 
in  organic  solvents.  Artificial  neroli  is  the  methyl 
ester  of  aiithranilic  acid,  but  other  compounds  are 
also  sold  in  imitation  of  orange  flowers.  Other  arti- 
ficial perfumes  are  amyl  salicylate  (resembling- 
orchid  and  trefoil),  benzyl  acetate  (like  jasmin  and 
vlang-ylang),  gcraniol  (rose  odour),  rhodinol  (syn- 
thetic rose),  and  vetivdl  (like  oil  of  vetiver).  Many 
artificial  ethers  have  the  odour  of  fruits,  and  are 
employed  in  compounding  fruit  essences  for 
llavouring  purposes  and  aerated  waters. 

Analysis  of  Essential  Oils.  The  chief 
points  in  the  examination  of  essential  oils  for  the 
detection  of  adulterants  are  the  determination  of 
its  specific  gravity,  refractive  index,  rotation, 
melting  and  solidifying  points,  and  boiling  point. 

4971 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

The  specific  gravity  is  taken  in  a  graduated 
specific  gravity  bottle  of  a  capacity  of  25  cc.  or  50 cc. 
The  bottle  must  be  carefully  checked,  and  allow- 
ance made  for  any  deviation  from  accuracy.  The 
temperature  of  60°  F.  or  15*5°  C.  is  that  most  con- 
veniently employed  in  this  operation.  The  specific 
gravity  of  very  small  quantities  of  oil  is  determined 
in  snicall  Sprengel  tubes.  The  refractive  index  of 
an  essential  oil  is  determined  in  an  ordinary  spectro- 
scope. The  figure  for  the  refractive  index  of  essen- 
tial oils  is  always  high,  but  on  account  of  the  small 
limits  within  which  ofla  differ  its  determination  is 
not  of  great  practical  value.  The  rotation  of  an 
essential  oil  is,  however,  of  much  use  in  establishing 
identity  and  detecting  adulteration.  The  polariscope 
io*  used  for  .determining  the  rotation  of  an  oil,  the 
instrument  being  described  in  the  article  on  Sugar 
Analysis.  The  melting  and  solidifying  points  are 
determined  by  means  of  an  accurate  thermometer 
heat  or  a  freezing  mixture  being  employed  according 
to  the  object  of  the  test.  The  boiling  point  is  deter- 
mined by  means  of  a  thermometer,  while,  if  the 
examination  is  directed  to  discovering  the  con- 
stituent fractions  of  an  oil,  special  fractionating 
iiasks  are  employed. 

Detecting  Adulterations.  Fixed  oils 
are  detected  by  placing  a  few  drops  on  a  piece  of 
absorbent  paper.  Essential  oils  evaporate  and  leave 
no  residue,  while  a  fixed  oil  leaves  a  greasy  spot 
on  the  paper.  Alcohol  is  detected  by  shaking  the 
essential  oil  with  ten  times  its  volume  of  water  in 
a  graduated  tube.  If  the  oil  is  appreciably  reduced 
in  volume,  the  presence  of  a  considerable  quantity 
of  alcohol  may  usually  be  inferred.  Turpentine 
may  be  often  detected  by  the  polariscope. 

Perfume  Recipes.  The  following  are  given 
ns  characteristic  recipes  for  compound  perfumes. 
They  show  the  method  of  preparing  these  products, 
and  give  an  idea  of  how  the  various  odours  are 
blended.  The  alcohol  used  is  that  known  as  recti- 
fied grain  spirit,  or  deodorised  alcohol,  as  it  is 
important  that  the  basis  shall  be  quite  free  from 
any  odour  that  would  modify  the  resulting  per-  . 
fume. 

'Lavender  Water.  Oil  of  English  lavender,  8  oz.  ; 
rose  water,  1  pint ;  alcohol,  8  pints.  Distil  till 
S  pints  of  product  is  obtained. 

Eau-de-Cologne.  Oil  of  neroli,  34  oz.  ;  oil  of 
rosemary,  1-1-  oz.  ;  oil  of  orange  peel,  8  oz.  ;  oil  of 
b«Tgamot,  l|  oz.  ;  alcohol,  5  gallons. 

// angary  Water.  Oil  of  rosemary,  ]0  dr.  ;  oil 
of  lemon,  3£  dr.  ;  alcohol,  }\  pints. 

Honey  Water.  Oil  of  bergamot,  7J-  dr.  :  oil  of 
lemon,  5  dr.  ;  oil  of  lavender,  4  dr.  :  oil  of  cloves, 

4  dr.;     tincture  of  orris  (1   in  4),   1   pint:  orange- 
flower  water,  1  pint ;   alcohol,  2  pints. 

/,'«  Bouquet.  Otto  of  rose,  4  drops  :  oil  of  neroli, 
'1  drops  ;  essence  of  musk  (2  dr.  in  15  oz.  alcohol), 
40  drops  :  jasmin  extract,  5  oz.  :  tincture  of  orris, 

5  o/.  :    alcohol,  4  pints. 

.Fnckey  Club.  Jasmin  extract,  8  oz. :  rose  extract, 
2  oz.  ;  essence  of  musk,  2  oz.  :  tincture  of  Tonka 
bean  (1  in  4),  4  oz.  :  alcohol.  1  pint. 

While  Lilac.   Terpineol,  10  dr.  :   alcohol,  1  pint. 

Optimum:  Musk.  ]  oz.  ;  vanilla,  8  oz.  ;  Tonka 
beans,  4  oz.  ;  alcohol,  10  [tints.  Macerate  a  month, 


and  add  tincture  of  orris.  4  pints:  millefleur  ex- 
tract, S  oz. :  oil  of  orange  peel,  2  oz. ;  oil  of  berga- 
mot, 2  oz.  ;  otto  of  rose,  H-  oz.  ;  oil  of  opopoiiax, 
\  oz. 

While,  Ifose.  Oil  of  geranium,  40  drops  :  otto  of 
rose,  100  drops  ;  jasmin  extract,  4  oz.  :  tincture  of 
orris,  4  oz.  ;  water,  4  oz.  :  alcohol,  1  pint. 

Parma   Violet.     lonone,  3  dr.  ;    tincture  of  orris, 

10  oz.  ;    chlorophyll,  to  colour  ;    alcohol,  30  oz. 
Ylang-  Ylang.   Oil  of  neroli,  6  drops  ;   oil  of  lemon, 

6  drops  ;  otto  of  rose,  15  drops  :  oil  of  ylang-ylang. 
50  drops ;  essence  of  musk,  I  dr.  :  alcohol,  2 
pints. 

Florida  Water.  Oil  of  lavender,  -}  oz.  :  oil  of 
lemon,  i  oz.  ;  oil  of  bergamot,  |  oz.  ;  oil  of  neroli, 
2  dr.  :  oil  of  melissa,  1  dr.  :  otto  of  rose,  20  drops ; 
alcohol,  3  pints. 

Bay  Rum.  Oil  of  bay,  1  dr.  ;  oil  of  orange-] »ee!, 
1  dr. :  oil  of  pimento,  1  dr.  :  water,  4  pints  :  alco- 
hol, 8  pints. 

Millcfleur  Sachet.  Powdered  orris  root,  lf»  oz. : 
musk,  5  gr.  ;  civet,  10  gr.  :  otto  of  rose,  20  drops; 

011  of  neroli,  20  drops  :    oil  of  cloves.   \  dr.  :  oil  of 
bergamot,  1  dr. 

Pot-Pourri.  Orris  root,  1  oz.  ;  vanilla,  1  oz.  ; 
cinnamon  bark,  1  oz. :  cloves,  1  oz. :  oil  of  lavender, 
10  drops,  oil  of  neroli,  10  drops. 

Incense.  Olibanum,  20  oz.  :  benzoin,  0  oz.  ; 
storax,  ^  oz. 

Books  on  Essential  Oils.  Books  on  the 
subject  of  essential  oils,  which  may  be  recom- 
mended, are  as  follow  : 

"Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils  and  Artifi«-i  ul 
Perfumes,"  by  E.  J.  Parry,  1800.  (Scott,  (Jreen- 
wood  &  Co.,  London.) 

"Notes  on  Essential  Oils."  by  T.  H.  W.  Tclris. 
M.P.,  1900.  (Iclris  &  Co.,  London.) 

"  Die  Atherischen  Oele,"  by  E.  Gildemeister  and 
F.  Hoffman,  1899.  (Springer,  Berlin.) 

An  English  translation  is  published  in  the 
United  States. 

"  Die  Atherischen  Oele,''  by  F.  W.  Semmler, 
1906.  Two  volumes  are  now  published.  (Von 
Vert  &  Co.,  Leipzig.) 

"  Les  Huiles  Essentielles,"  by  E.  Charabot.  J. 
Dupont,  and  L.  Pallet,  1899.  (Berangef,  Paris.) 

Books  on  Perfumes.  Treatises  on  perfumes 
include  the  following  : 

"  Perfumes  and  their  Preparations,"  by  CJ.  W. 
Askinson,  1892.  (Spon,  London.) 

"  Les  Parfums  Artificiels,"  by  E.  Charabot, 
1900.  (Bailliere.  Paris.) 

"Art    of   Perfumery,"    by    C.    H.    Piesse,    ISO! 
(Piesse  &  Lubin,  London.) 

"Book  of  Perfumes,"  by  Eugene  Rimmel.  ISiiS. 
(Chapman  &  Hall,  London.)  • 

"  Treatise  on  Perfumery,"  by  R.  S.  Cristiani, 
1877.  (Sampson  Low,  Marston,  London.) 

"  Odorographia  :  Natural  History  of  Raw 
Materials  and  Drugs  used  in  the  Perfume  Industry." 
Two  volumes,  1894.  (Gurney,  London.) 

"  Essays  on  Certain  Processes  and  Products  of 
Perfumery,"  by  M.  A.  Theulier  and  M.  J.  Rodie, 
1005.  (Lautier,  Crasse.) 

Die    Synthetischen    und    Isolirten    Aromatica," 
by  J.  M.  Klimont,  1800.     (Baldamus.  Leipzig.) 


Continued 


4972 


WHAT  ARE  WOMAN'S  RIGHTS? 

A  Woman's  Education.     The  Woman's  Movement  at  Home  and  Abroad. 
The    Rights    of   a    Woman    are    to   be    a   Woman,    not    to    be    a    Man 


Group  3 

SOCIOLOGY 
9 


Continued    fn 
page  4828 


By   Dr.  C.  W.  SALEEBY 


The     Womanliness    of    Woman.      It 

lias  been  maintained  by  some  that  any  educa- 
tion of  woman  is  undesirable,  since  it  tends 
to  make  her  discontented  with  her  proper 
position  and  duties.  At  the  other  extreme  is 
the  notion  that  woman  ought  to  be  subjected  to 
an  educational  discipline  similar  in  kind  and  in 
amount  and  in  rigour  to  that  which  is  now 
undergone  by  men.  We  have  seen  that  the 
consequence  of  this  is  simply  defeminisation. 
What,  then,  are  AVC  to  regard  as  the  true  rights 
of  woman  in  this  respect  ? 

It  will  surely  be  evident  to  the  reader  that  any 
laying  down  law  as  to  details  would  be  mon- 
strously absurd,  for  individual  women  vary  at 
least  as  much  as  individual  men.  But  we  can  lay 
down  certain  principles.  The  first  unquestionably 
is  that  any  form  of  education  which  tends  to  p)~oduce 
a  woman  who  is  no  woman  is'  vicious  and  false. 
It  is  no  less  vicious  and  false  than  would  be  a 
mode  of  education  which  produced  men  who  were 
no  men.  Provided,  however,  that  this  fatal 
mistake  is  not  made,  as  it  has  lately  been  made 
in  America,  we  cannot  for  one  moment  deny  the 
right  of  women  to  a  liberal  education,  including 
even  what  is  called  higher  education.  Its  dangers 
must  be  recognised  from  the  first.  It  must  be 
adapted  to  the  peculiar  needs  and  peculiar 
psychical  tendencies  of  the  female  sex.  Neglect 
of  these  precautions  has  led  in  America  to  the 
most  disastrous  results,  which  have  lately  under- 
gone critical  statistical  examination.  The  subse- 
quent history  of  thousands  of  college-trained 
girls  has  been  examined.  It  is  found  that  the 
marriage  rate  among  them  is  abnormally  low  ; 
that  those  who  do  marry  are  relatively  incapable 
of  bearing  children,  and  that  of  the  fevr  who  bear 
children  only  very  few  are  able  to  nurse  them.  To 
state  these  facts  is,  of  course,  to  condemn  such 
education  outright.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
numerous  instances  which  fortunately  prove 
that  when  the  higher  education  of  woman  is 
undertaken  with  due  precautions,  it  is  perfectly 
compatible  with  the  retention  of  womanliness. 

Each  Sex  is  Necessary  to  the  Other. 
Dr.  Clouston  has  pointed  out  that  "  it  is  the  most 
nervous,  excitable,  and  highly-strung  girls  who 
throw  themselves  into  the  school  and  college  com- 
petition most  keenly,  and  they,  of  course,  are 
just  those  most  liable  to  be  injured  by  it.  Girls 
take  a  personal  animus  more  than  lads,  and  do 
not  take  a  beating  so  quietly.  The  whole  thing 
takes  greater  hold  on  them,  and  is  more  real.  .  .  . 
Young  women  at  adolescence  are  apt  to  have  in 
large  degree  the  feminine  power  of  taking  it  out 
of  themselves  more  than  they  are  able  to  bear 
for  long.  Womanhood  is  apt,  after  such  educa- 
tion, to  be  entered  with  a  handicap.  Nature  has 


not  got  the  material  nor  the  force  to  build  up  the 
form  towards  the  fair  woman's  ideal,  and  there- 
fore personal  beauty  and  grace  of  movement 
have  not  been  attained  to  the  extent  that  might 
have  been.  A  store  of  latent  energy,  sufficient 
for  future  use,  should  have  been  laid  up  all  this 
time  for  woman's  special  work,  for  motherhood, 
and  for  the  race  of  the  future.  .  .  .  Once 
fully  formed  as  a  woman,  she  can  then  stand 
much.  She  is  capable  of  taking  up  any  role  that 
falls  to  her,  whether  it  be  teacher,  daughter,  or 
mother.  Whether  she  is  an  actual  mother  or 
not,  she  is  infinitely  the  better  for  having  the  full 
capacity  of  motherhood." 

These  facts  have  to  be  recognised  by  the  prac- 
tical sociology  of  the  future  in  its  attempt  to  find 
out  the  true  spheres  and  work  of  each  sex,  and  to 
regulate  our  social  system  in  accordance  with 
that  knowledge.  We  must  entirely  abandon  and 
repudiate  the  notion  that  there  should  be  any 
rivalry  between  the  two  sexes — "  one  of  the 
most  preposterous  and  unscientific  feelings  that 
has  ever  been  expressed.  Each  sex  has  a  place 
and  a  work  which  the  other  cannot  do.  Each 
is  necessary  to  the  other  ;  each  completes  the 
happiness  of  the  other." 

The  Value  of  Education  to  a  Woman. 
Having  insisted  upon  our  principles,  let  us  con- 
sider the  personal  and  sociological  value  of  the 
rational  education  of  woman,  with  the  under- 
standing that  at  the  end  of  the  process  she  is  to 
remain  a  woman,  and  not  to  be  a  sexless  creature 
for  whom  no  name  exists  in  our  vocabulary. 

In  the  first  place,  we  must  recognise  the  great 
personal  value  to  the  woman  herself  of  larger 
interests  and  knowledge.  This  adds  to  the  value 
of  her  life,  and  tends  to  relieve  her  from  the 
opprobrium  of  being  petty -minded  and  a  gossip. 
Men  have  always  blamed  women  for  this  ten- 
dency, but  if  men  limited  their  own  education, 
as  they  have  limited  woman's  education  in  the 
past,  they  also  would  become  petty-minded 
gossips.  What  do  uneducated  men  talk  about  ? 

Secondly,  we  must  observe  that  the  adequat( 
education  of  woman  is  of  the  utmost  value  in 
relation  to  marriage  and  the  family.  If  the 
education  be  more  than  adequate,  marriage,  the 
family,  and  the  race  suffer.  Mental  characters 
tend  to  be  transmitted  in  the  same  proportion 
as  bodily  characters.  This  has  been  proved 
by  Mr.  Francis  Galton  and  Professor  Kail 
Pearson.  It  follows  that  the  mental  evolution 
of  the  race,  which  is  the  only  kind  of  evolution 
that  matters,  will  unquestionably  be  hastened  by 
the  choice  of  the  more  intellectual  rather  than 
the  less  intellectual  women  as  the  mothers  of 
the  future.  This  proposition  offers  a  fatal  objec- 
tion to  the  over-education  of  women.  The 

407:5 


SOCIOLOGY 

disastrous  course  has  been  followed  in  America. 
and  is  now  being  followed  by  us.  of  choosing  the 
mo-:t  intelligent  girls  and  then  submitting  them 
to  a  discipline  which  makes  them  incapable 
of  motherhood.  Obviously,  no  more  fatal 
proceeding  could  be  imagined.  Other  things 
being  equal,  every  society  wants  the  most 
intellectual  women  to  be  the  mothers  of  its  sons 
and  daughters,  so  Jhat  their  mental  powers  may 
be  transmitted  to  future  generations.  A  form 
of  education  which  takes  the  women  most  valu- 
able for  motherhood,  and  then  makes  them 
incapable  of  it,  stands  self-condemned. 

Over=education  and  Under=educa= 
lion.  An  equally  important  consideration  for 
those  who  think  closely  enough  depends  upon 
the  changes  which  over-education  produces  in 
woman's  physique.  Our  quotation  from  Dr. 
Clouston  shows  that  her  "  personal  beauty  and 
grace  of  movement"  are  interfered  with.  She 
therefore  becomes  less  attractive  to  men,  who 
for  ages  to  come  will  certainly  continue  to  choose 
their  partners  largely  on  physical  grounds.  Thus, 
over- education  not  only  tends  to  make  a  woman 
incapable  of  maternity,  but,  as  experience  has 
shown,  very  seriously  reduces  her  chances  of 
obtaining  the  opportunity  for  maternity. 

Let  us  now,  on  the  other  hand,  observe  the 
consequences  of  under-education  in  relation  to 
marriage  and  the  family.  The  first  unquestion- 
able fact  is  that,  as  men  become  more  and  more 
educated,  they  become  less  and  less  content  with 
physical  attractions,  and  those  alone,  in  their 
partners.  They  want  intellectual  as  well  as 
physical  companionship.  The  smallest  acquaint- 
ance with  the  social  life  of  ancient  Greece  will 
remind  us  of  the  danger  to  monogamy  which  is 
involved  in  the  marriage  of  wholly  uneducated 
dolls,  while  the  company  of  brilliant  and  highly- 
educated  women  is  to  be  found  outside  the 
marriage  bond.  The  adequate  education  of 
women  is  therefore  earnestly  to  be  desired  in  the 
interest  of  marriage.  It  is  also  earnestly  to  be 
desired  in  the  interests  of  the  children  of  such 
marriages.  If  biography  proves  anything  what- 
ever, it  is  that  a  promising  boy  can  have  no 
better  advantage  than  the  possession  of  a  loving 
and  educated  mother.  Such  mothers  have  again 
and  again  well  and  truly  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  education  which  has  afterwards  brought 
their  sons  to  eminence. 

An  Educated  Woman's  Value  to 
Society.  Finally,  let  us  endeavour  to  appre- 
ciate the  value  for  society  at  large  of  the  adequate 
education  of  women.  Very  numerous  instances 
may  be  cited,  but  we  cannot  do  better  than  accord 
the  first  place  to  the  case  of  medical  women.  As 
most  people  know,  the  endeavour  of  women  to 
obtain  medical  education  was  strenuously  fought 
in  the  seventies  of  last  century.  There  still  lives 
tin-  distinguished  lady,  Mrs.  Garrett  Anderson, 
who,  in  1865,  obtained  the  first  medical  qualifi- 
cations gained  by  a  woman.  The  medical 
education  of  women  is  capable  of  serious  abuse 
in  accordance  with  what  we  have  already  said. 
Not  a  few  women  injure  themselves  by  their 
keenness  and  some  are  defeminised,  though  the 
woman's  blood  in  most  of  them  will  not  be  con- 

4974 


quered.  But  it  is  now  certain  not  only  that 
women  are  capable  of  the  necessary  education — 
capable  both  intellectually  and  physically,  and 
most  conspicuously  capable  morally — but  also 
that  such  women  may  be  of  the  utmost  value  to 
society  at  large.  There  are  very  many  kinds  of 
medical  work  for  which  a  Avoman  is  pre-eminently 
suited,  nor  are  AVC  thinking  merely  of  the  work 
which  approximates  to  nursing. 

Women  and  Vital  Problems.  The 
Council  of  the  London  School  of  Medicine  for 
Women  has  lately  stated  that  "  as  time  goes 
on  the  peculiar  fitness  of  highly-trained  medical 
women  for  public  service  Avill  become  more  and 
more  apparent."  We  may  take  it  as  certain  that 
the  medical  inspection  and  supervision  of  school- 
children Avill  shortly  be  established  in  this  country. 
The  necessity  for  it  and  its  value  have  long  been 
beyond  dispute.  NOAV  it  has  already  been  shown 
that  for  this  kind  of  Avork,  which  is  of  such 
importance  to  the  community,  medical  women 
possess  a  very  special  capacity  and  fitness. 
Again,  there  is  the  great  problem  of  infant  mor- 
tality— one  of  the  greatest  national  problems  to 
be  faced  by  an  empire  with  a  home  and  colonial 
birth-rate  continuously  and  rapidly  falling. 
Meanwhile  our  infant  mortality  is  as  high, now 
as  it  was  sixty  years  ago,  and  it  is  practically  all. 
preventable.  It  has  been  proved  by  the  energy 
and  philanthropy  of  Mr.  Benjamin  Broadbent, 
the  Mayor  of  Huddersfield,  that,  at  the  first 
attempt,  the  infantile  mortality  can  be  halved 
by  the  employment  of  medical  women  "  \vhose 
duties  are  to  give  the  mothers  adArice  as  to 
the  nursing  and  rearing  of  their  children,  to 
encourage  them  in  every  way  to  follow  Nature's 
method  of  bringing  up  their  OAvn  children,  and  to 
inquire  into  infantile  deaths  in  their  districts/' 
The  National  Conference  on  Infantile  Mortality, 
held  in  London  in  1906,  passed  the  following 
resolution :  "  That,  in  the  opinion  of  this 
Conference,  the  appointment  of  qualified  women, 
specially  trained  in  the  hygiene  of  infancy,  is 
necessary  as  an  adjunct  to  public  health  Avork." 

A  Necessity  for  Civilisation.  Those 
Avho  watch  the  signs  of  the  times  are  convinced 
that  in  a  very  feAV  years  such  women  will  be 
employed  in  every  city,  town,  and  hamlet  in  the 
land,  doing  the  AA'ork  of  keeping  babies  alive — 
Avhich  women  have  been  doing,  and  Avomen  alone, 
ever  since  babies  were  imented.  Experience 
proves  that  no  man,  hoAA-ever  tactful  and  skilful, 
can  possibly  meet  Avith  similar  success  in  work 
of  this  kind.  A  woman  Avill  listen  to  a  woman 
on  such  matters,  when  she  Avill  not  merely  ignore 
a  man  but  Avill  deeply  resent  his  interference. 
In  addition  to  this  public  Avork.  it  is  quite 
certain  that,  eA^en  in  pmTate  practice,  there  are 
very  many  cases,  such  as  child-birth  and  the 
diseases  of  children,  for  Avhich  Avonien  are  \~ery 
specially  fitted.  The  higher  education  of  Avomen 
for  this  profession,  when  conducted  Avith  reason, 
and  Avhen  the  subjects  are  AA-ell-chosen.  has 
conclusiA-ely  proA'ed  itself  to  be  of  the  very 
greatest  value  to  society,  and  this  A'alue  Avill 
1  >o(o me  more  apparent  as  time  goes  on. 

It  must  be  freely  admitted  that  it  is  only 
parodying  Nature,  and  not  really  obeying  her, 


for  a  woman  to  look  after  another  woman's 
children  instead  of  her  own,  and  the  higher 
education  of  women  for  the  purpose  of  following 
any  profession,  even  including  that  of  medicine, 
will  always  be  open  to  such  a  criticism.  Never- 
theless, as  we  have  seen,  the  higher  education  of 
women,  at  any  rate  to  an  extent  corresponding 
to  an  ordinary  University  course  in  Arts,  is  abun- 
dantly justified,  and  indeed  may  be  regarded  as 
necessary  for  the  continuance  of  our  civilisation. 

Services  Lost  to  the  State.  Now,  we  have 
to  remember  that  the  average  expectation  of  life 
of  women  has  markedly  increased  during  the 
last  few  decades — being  now,  indeed,  higher  than 
that  of  men.  Hence  there  are  now  great  numbers 
of  women,  active  physically  and  mentally,  who 
have  passed  the  child-bearing  period,  and  for 
whom  society,  as  at  present  constituted,  makes 
little  provision — its  failure  to  do  so  injuring 
itself  also.  Our  civilisation  is  producing  many 
women  who  cannot  content  themselves  with  the 
ordinary  vegetative  processes  of  eating  and  sleep- 
ing and"  sitting  in  the  sun,  such  as  satisfied  their 
ancestors.  The  woman  who  has  led  a  busy  life 
in  the  control  and  direction  of  her  home  and 
children  finds  herself  destined  to  pass  her 
declining  years  in  the  home  of  a  married  child, 
perhaps,  where  she  has  no  duties  of  any  kind  to 
perform.  The  best  thing  that  can  happen  to  her 
is  that  she  shall  soon  have  grand -children  to 
think  about  and  help  to  care  for.  There  is  a 
very  definite  and  very  much  to  be  pitied  class 
of  the  community  for  whom,  only  quite  lately, 
and  only  among  the  most  advanced  nations, 
is  any  adequate  mental  occupation  provided— 
the  elderly  women,  whose  children  have  taken 
Aving,  but  whose  activities,  especially  their 
mental  activities,  are  potentially  unabated,  but 
have  nothing  to  act  upon.  They  have  experience, 
patience,  insight,  and  their  invaluable  feminity ; 
but  society  does  not  yet  choose  to  avail  itself  of 
them.  As  the  years  advance  such  women  run 
a  great  risk  of  becoming  self-centred,  losing  their 
sense  of  proportion,  and,  since  they  have  nothing 
worth  while  to  concern  themselves  with,  worrying 
about  things  that  are  not  worth  while. 

The  Injustice  of  Oxford  and  Cam= 
bridrge.  A  more  sensible  society  would  recognise 
and  utilise  the  social  worth  of  such  women.  In 
this  connection  it  is  pitiable  to  note  that  recent 
legislation  (1899)  has  temporarily  cut  such  women 
off  from  certain  forms  of  municipal  service.  Such 
a  retrograde  step,  however,  cannot  long  be 
accepted.  Women  of  this  class,  who,  as  we  have 
said,  are  becoming  increasingly  numerous,  fur- 
nish a  most  valuable  complement  to  men  in 
various  forms  of  administration,  just  as  the 
mother  furnishes  a  valuable  complement  to  the 
father  in  the  administration  of  a  family. 

In  this  country  women  still  labour  under 
very  serious  disabilities  imposed  by  men.  After 
a  very  long  fight  thej^  have  at  last  obtained  for 
themselves  the  right  of  higher  education.  They 
can  obtain  degrees  in  arts  and  medicine  from  all 
the  universities  in  this  country  except  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  Our  two  oldest  universities, 
though  they  will  permit  a  woman  to  avail 
herself  of  their  educational  opportunities,  will 


SOCIOLOGY 

not  accord  her  any  recognition  of  her  work 
other  than  the  receipts  for  her  gratefully  accepted 
fees.  This  disgraceful  fact  applies  not  merely  to 
degrees  in  medicine,  but  even  to  degrees  in  arts. 
Thus  we  recently  had  the  extraordinary  spec- 
tacle of  a  woman  being  placed  above  the  Senior 
Wrangler  in  the  Mathematical  Tripos  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  yet  being  compelled  to  leave  the 
University  without  the  degree  which  was  readily 
conferred  upon  men  to  whom  she  could  give  a 
start  of  ninety  marks  in  a  hundred  and  a  beating. 
No  respectable  argument  has  yet  been  advanced 
in  favour  of  this  quite  monstrous  distinction. 
It  is  amusing  to  observe,  however,  that  the 
authorities  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  now 
confer  arts  degrees  upon  women  who  have 
qualified  for  them  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge.  As 
finance  is  thus  introduced  into  the  question, 
there  is  some  hope  that  the  argument  thence 
derived  may  move  the  authorities  in  whom  the 
sense  of  justice  and  the  sense  of  humour  seem  at 
present  to  be  so  deficient. 

The  Legal  Injustice  to  Women.  But 
the  university  disabilities  of  women  affect  only 
the  very  few,  and,  after  all,  do  not  affect  them  in 
any  vital  manner.  We  must  now  consider  a 
number  of  much  graver  disabilities  under  whicb 
women  still  labour  on  account  of  their  sex  and 
that  alone.  The  number  of  these  has  certainly 
been  greatly  reduced  since  attention  was  so 
conspicuously  drawn  to  them  by  the  famous 
little  book,  "  The  Subjection  of  Women,"  pub- 
lished by  the  great  sociologist,  John  Stuart  Mill, 
in  1869.  This  work  has  lately  been  reissued, 
and  can  be  purchased  for  a  few  pence.  There 
still  remain,  however,  some  conspicuous  injus- 
tices. Of  these,  the  most  conspicuous  are  to  be 
found  in  the  divorce  laws.  The  lunacy  law  also 
makes  invidious  and  unjust  distinctions,  and  so  do 
the  laws  relating  to  libel  and  slander.  The  same 
is  true  in  the  case  of  contract  law— "A  wife  cannot 
bind  her  husband's  estate,  but  a  husband  can 
bind  all  his  wife's  property  not  being  her  separate 
estate."  A  man  may  sue  in  the  High  Court 
without  giving  security,  whereas  a  woman  may 
not,  The  criminal  law  distinguishes  in  favour  of 
men  in  regard  to  misbehaviour  on  the  streets. 
Company  law  shows  similar  inequalities. 

Penalising  Women  Workers.  Women 
workers  are  at  a  grave  disadvantage  compared 
with  men  workers  as  regards  their  hours  of  labour, 
though  this  case  is  in  a  different  category  because 
the  restrictions  on  women's  labour  have  all  been 
devised  in  their  own  interest.  But  an  essential 
injustice  is  involved  in  the  fact  that  the  women 
are  allowed  no  voice  in  the  making  of  these  laAvs. 

As  regards  wages  for  work,  women  suffer 
severely,  quite  independently  of  the  quality  or 
quantity  of  work  that  they  do.  They  are  paid 
less,  simply  because  they  are  women.  This  is 
countenanced  not  merely  by  an  enlightened 
body,  such  as  the  Manchester  Education  Com- 
mittee, but  also  in  the  Government  services,  such 
as  the  Post  Office,  where  "  women  are  invariably 
paid  less  than  men  for  precisely  the  same  work." 

There  is  at  present  before  Parliament  a  pro- 
posal—the Local  Authorities  (Qualification  of 
Women)  Bill— which  proposes  to  remove  a  host 

4975 


SOCIOLOGY 

of  disabilities  under  which  women  labour  in 
regard  to  public  work.  Says  Lady  Grove 
("Fortnightly  Review,"  July,  1906):  "It  will 
enable  electors  to  place  directly  elected  women 
on  education  authorities,  and  to  secure  their 
services  in  other  matters  of  local  government, 
such  as  the  housing  of  the  poor,  the  looking  after 
public  lodging-houses,  the  management  of  the 
female  side  of  lunatic  asylums,  the  regulation  of 
the  employment  of  children,  provision  for  the 
prevention  of  cruelty  to  children,  the  supervision 
of  industrial  schools  (containing  children  from 
three  years  of  age),  the  supervision  of  midwives 
and  of  baby  farms,  of  homes  for  inebriate  women, 
of  police  courts  and  police  court  waiting-rooms 
(outside  the  metropolis),  and  generally  to  secure 
their  co-operation  in  matters  relating  to  the 
public  health.  Could  women  ask  to  be  allowed  to 
do  anything  more  womanly,  more  sane,  more 
profitable  to  themselves  and  those  they  are 
willing  to  serve  than  to  fulfil  the  offices  above 
enumerated  ?  That  they  have  done  it  well  is 
not  only  not  disputed,  but  paeans  of  praise  are 
raised  by  all  intelligent,  honest  men  who  have 
worked  on  public  bodies  with  women." 

It  may  be  thought  that  Lady  Grove  is  a  biassed 
witness,  and  therefore  we  may  quote  the  opinion 
of  Lord  Reay,  Chairman  of  the  late  London 
School  Board,  who,  after  describing  the  invalu- 
able work  done  by  a  lady  for  that  body,  says : 
"  It  should  further  be  noted  that  much  of  the 
work  described  could  only  be  done  by  a  lady, 
and  that  the  exclusion  of  ladies  would  deal  a 
fatal  blow  to  the  efficiency  of  this  Board." 

The  "  Woman  Question "  Abroad. 
Certainly  Lord  Hobhouse  seems  to  have  been 
justified  in  using  the  term  "  criminal  imbecility  " 
to  describe  the  action  of  the  late  Government 
in  refusing  to  allow  the  State  to  profit  by  this 
almost  unlimited  source  of  public  beneficence 
which  is  at  present  lying  idle,  absolutely  wasted. 
And,  as  has  been  said,  the  injustice  to  the  State 
is  almost  greater  than  the  injustice  to  women. 

Before  we  consider  the  present  form  which  the 
woman  question  has  taken  in  this  country,  it  will 
be  well  for  us  to  acquaint  ourselves  with  the 
extremely  interesting  movement  among  women 
on  the  Continent,  notably  in  Germany.  We 
shall  see  that  this  has  taken  a  form  of  its  own, 
and  further,  we  shall  see  that  that  form  can  find 
abundant  biological  warrant.  It  is,  in  the  first 
place,  not  at  all  what  we  understand  in  this 
country  by  a  "  woman's  rights  movement,"  It 
does  not  concern  itself  with  the  obtaining  of  the 
franchise,  but  "  is  based  on  the  demands  of  the 
woman  as  mother,"  and  "  so  far  from  making 
;i-  its  ideal  the  imitation  of  men,  bases  itself  on 
that  which  most  essentially  marks  the  woman  as 
unlike  the  man."  The  most  characteristic  organ 
of  Iliis  movement  is  called  Mutterschutz — which 
means  the  protection  of  the  mother.  In  dis- 
cussing the  main  characters  of  this  movement 
we  are  indebted  to  a  recent  article  by  Mr.  Have- 
lock  Ellis.  He  takes  as  its  spokeswoman  the 
Swedish  woman  Ellen  Key,  who  at  the  outset 
seeks  to  distinguish  IHT  ,'.n<ls  fron,  the  aim  of 
women  in  America.  She  will  have  nothing  to  do 
with  tin-  trinlmcy  fur  woman  "to  seek  to  cap- 

4<)7ti 


tu re  the  activities  which  may  be  much  more 
adequately  filled  by  the  other  sex,  while  at  the 
same  time  neglecting  the  far  weightier  matters 
that  concern  her  own  sex."  She  declares  that 
such  women  are  birds  that  may  have  a  gorgeous 
plumage,  but  cannot  sing.  "  Man  and  woman 
are  not  natural  enemies  who  need  to  Avaste  their 
energies  in  fighting  over  their  respective  rights 
and  privileges,  but  in  spiritual  and  in  physical 
life  they  are  only  fruitful  together."  Ellen  Key 
regards  the  elevation  of  the  race  through  their 
influence  as  the  proper  function  of  women  in 
society,  and  Mr.  Havelock  Ellis  has  pointed  out 
the  manner  in  which  her  ideas  are  complementary 
to  those  of  Mr.  Francis  Galton,  to  whose  "  Euge- 
nics" a  reference  has  been  made  in  PSYCHOLOGY. 

The  Proper  Sphere  of  Women. 
We  would  desire  the  reader  to  pay  special 
attention  to  the  main  characters  of  the 
feminist  movement  in  Germany,  because  it  is  so 
admirably  in  accord  with  the  fundamental  facts 
of  biology.  What  could  possibly  be  wiser,  for 
instance, 'than  the  recognition  of  the  fundamental 
truth  that  "  women  must  use  their  strength  in 
the  sphere  for  which  their  own  nature  fits  them. 
Even  though  millions  of  women  are  enabled  to 
do  the  work  whicl>,men  could  do  better,  the  gain 
for  mankind  is  nil.  The  physical  and  spiritual 
elevation  of  life  is  women's  supreme  work,  and 
to  send  them  away  from  the  home  to  do  men's 
work  is,  she  declares,  as  foolish  as  to  set  a 
Beethoven  or  a  Wagner  to  do  engine  driving." 

We  cannot  do  better  than  quote  the  conclusion 
of  Mr.  Havelock  Ellis's  valuable  article.  Speak- 
ing of  the  women  of  Germany,  he  says  : 

"  They  are  not  imitating  the  methods  of  their 
Anglo-Saxon  sisters  ;  they  are  going  to  work  in 
their  own  way.  They  are  spending  very  little 
energy  in  waving  the  red  flag  before  the  fortress  of 
male  monopoly.  They  are  following  an  emotional 
influence  which — strangely  enough,  it  may  seem 
to  some — finds  more  support  from  the  biological 
and  medical  side  than  the  Anglo-Saxon  movement 
has  been  able  to  win.  From  the  time  of  Aristo- 
phanes down  wards,  whenever  they  have  demon- 
strated before  the  masculine  citadels,  women  have 
been  roughly  bidden  to  go  home.  And  now,  here 
in  Germany,  where  of  all  countries  that  advice  has 
been  most  freely  and  persistently  given,  women 
are  adopting  new  tactics ;  they  have  gone  home. 
Yes,  it  is  true,  they  say  in  effect,  the  home  is  our 
sphere.  Love  and  marriage,  the  bearing  and 
training  of  children — that  is  our  world.  And 
we  intend  to  lay  down  the  laws  of  our  world.'" 

The  Protection  of  Motherhood.  We 
may  briefly  note  the  directions  in  which  in 
various  parts  of  the  world  society  is  beginning 
to  pay  proper  attention  to  the  protection  of 
motherhood.  Only  the  smallest  beginning  has 
yet  been  made  by  legislation,  and  we  have  to 
recognise  that,  as  is  hinted  by  Lady  Grove,  there 
tends  to  be  a  conflict  of  interests,  some  declaring, 
for  instance,  that  the  law  which  does  not  pc-rmit 
a  woman  to  work  in  a  factory  until  three  months 
after  the  birth  of  a  child  constitutes  a  handicap 
and  an  injustice,  while  others  will  regard  it  as  a. 
protection  of  the  woman  by  society.  We  may 
certainly  take  it,  however,  that  before  very  long 


e  shall  recognise  the  wholly  vicious  character 
of  married  woman's  labour,  arid  even  before  that 
is  generally  recognised,  we  shall  at  least  follow  in 
this  country  the  example  of  Switzerland,  where 
no  pregnant  or  nursing  woman  is  allowed  to  work 
for  several  weeks  before  or  after  her  confinement. 
There  is  at  the  present  time  in  this  country  a 
great  deal  of  opinion  in  favour  of  the  establish- 
ment of  municipal  creches,  and  of  school  meals 
for  children,  on  the  ground  that  infants  and. 
children  cannot  properly  be  attended  to  by 
mothers  who  have  to  work  in  factories  or  else- 
where outside  the  home.  Without  entering  intt- 
any  argument  for  the  present  as  to  such  institu- 
tions as  the  municipal  creche  or  the  school  meai 
we  must  at  least  go  back  to  our  first  'principle 
that  neither  the  municipality  nor  the  school,  but 
the  family,  is  the  unit  of  the  State,  and  that  the 
tendency  indicated  by  these  devices  is  in  the 
direction  of  weakening  the  family,  strengthening 
the  deadly  grip  of  married  women's  labour  upon 
the  heart  of  society,  and  cannot  be  regarded  as 
in  any  proper  sense-a  means  of  relief  or  protec- 
tion for  mothers.  It  only  tends  to  make  more 
secure  the  bonds  of  their  unnatural  slavery. 

The  Difference  Between  the  English 
and  German  Movements.  In  this  country 
the  woman  question  is  very  different  indeed  in 
form  from  that  which  we  have  seen  in  Germany. 
It  cannot  claim,  as  can  the  German  movement, 
hearty  medical  and  biological  support.  The 
rights  for  which  the  women  tend  to  fight  in  this 
country  are  not  the  rights  of  a  woman  to  be  a 
woman,  but,  apparently,  the  rights  of  a  woman 
to  be  a  man.  That,  perhaps,  expresses  accu- 
rately enough  the  difference  between  the  English 
and  the  German  movements.  This  is  the  more 
remarkable,  perhaps,  because  woman  has 
obtained  a  far  greater  proportion  of  her  political 
rights  in  this  country  than  in  Germany.  But 
there  is  no  need  to  linger  any  longer  at  the  out- 
skirts of  the  question  ;  let  us  frankly  ask  our- 
selves what  opinion,  as  sociologists,  we  can  form 
as  to  the  question  of  the  franchise  for  women. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  hope  of  women  obtain- 
ing the  franchise  in  Germany  for  many  a  long 
day,  and  they  do  not  even  seem  desirous  of 
possessing  it  :  but  in  this  country  the  franchise 
is  the  centre  of  their  ambition,  and  therefore  the 
question  may  be  stated  in  the  simple  form  :  Aiv 
men  wise  and  right  in  denying  to  women  what 
they  formally  ask  for  ?  It  is  admittedly  a  case 
of  the  exercise  of  male  power.  Is  it  warranted  ? 
Should  Women  Vote  ?  Now,  this  is  a 
question  on  which  opinions  will  differ  for  perhaps 
another  generation,  and  we  have  to  recognise 
that  sociological  opinion  is  divided.  Here,  the 
present  writer  can  only  state  what  he  believes 
to  be  true  and  reasonable  arguments.  Herbert 
Spencer,  who  can  be  instantly  acquitted  of  any 
bias  against  women  by  all  who  know  his  ideal 
of  womanhood  and  his  writings,  was  of  opinion 
that  women  were  not  entitled  to  the  franchise 
because  they  cannot  bear  arms.  This  objection 
is  frequently  quoted  even  at  the  present  day. 
The  man  who  votes  for  war  knows  that  he  may 
have  to  go  and  fight  himself  :  A\bereas  woman 

Canti 


SOCIOLOGY 

may  vote  for  war  but  may  stay  at  home.  To  the 
present  writer,  at  any  rate,  this  argument  is 
absolutely  incomprehensible.  It  seems  to  him 
that  woman  suffers  more  than  man  from  war, 
even  though  she  does  not  herself  bear  arms  ; 
and  that,  on  the  whole,  her  votes  would  tend 
to  be  cast  in.  favour  of  peace — notwithstanding 
the  apparent  assumption  that,  if  she  had  a  vote, 
.  she  would  be  liable  to  vote  for  war,  knowing 
that  her  own  skin  was  not  threatened.  Farther, 
it  seems  to  him  that  women  perform  services  to 
the  community  at  least  equal  in  value,  though 
different  in  kind,  to  the  services  of  the  soldier, 
and  it  seems  to  him  to  be  a  novel  reading  of 

•  history  to  suppose  that  the  men  who  make  wars 
are  .commonly  to  be  found  in  the  fighting  line. 

Would  the  Franchise  Spoil  Women  ? 
There   may,    of   course,    be   sound   arguments, 

•  unfit  for  laughter  or  tears,  against  the  admission 
of  women  to  the  franchise  if  they  desire  it ;  but 
if  there  are  such  arguments,  it  is  a  pity  that  they 
are  mot  brought  forward  into  the  light.     That 
which  we  have  examined  is  apparently  regarded 
as    the    most    valid    one.     Those    commonly 

f  adduced  have  only  to  be  named  to  be  scorned. 
Exponents  who  have  never  said  a  word  against 
married  woman's  labour,  or  who  themselves 
employ  such  labour,  will  be  heard  declaring  that 
if  a  woman  votes — the  process  occupying  one 
morning,  say,  in  five  years — she  will  be  unable 
to  attend  to  her  own  business.  Let  those  who 
know  Staffordshire  and  Lancashire  appraise  this 
argument  at  its  due  worth.  There  is  also  the 
argument  that  women  are  incapable  on  intel- 
lectual grounds.  Let  those  who  know  for  what, 
and  against  what,  the  men  of  this  country  have 
voted  in  times  past  contemplate  this  argument. 
There  is  also  the  argument  that  intermixture 
with  politics  causes  feminine  deterioration.  This 
is  commonly  advanced  by  distinguished  persons 
whose  wives  are  Primrose  Dames  ! 

The  Best  Women  Will  Use  It. 
If  it  were  to  be  the  case  that  the  possession  of 
the  franchise  would  turn  into  political  nuisances 
women  who  would  otherwise  be  happy  and  useful 
wives  and  mothers,  no  further  discussion  of  the 
question  would  be  possible.  But  where  is  the 
psychologist  to  be  found  who  would  suppose 
that  such  a  radical  change  could  be  so  wrought  ? 
Indeed,  when  women's  franchise  is  a  fact  it  will 
doubtless  be  found  that  a  very  large  number  of 
\vomen  do  not  want  it,  and  will  not  use  it, 
as  in  New  Zealand,  This,  by  the  way,  has  been 
advanced  as  an  argument  for  the  exclusion  from 
the  franchise  of  women  who  do  want  it.  The 
argument  is  in  worthy  company  and  may  pair 
oft'  with  that  which  avers  that  the  giving  of  a 
vote  to  wives  would  lead  to  the  disruption  of 
many  happy  homes  !  It  will  doubtless  be  found 
that  the  franchise  is  chiefly  exercised  by  that  class 
of  elderly,  sober,  experienced  women  for  whose 
potential  activities  society  makes  so  little  pro- 
vision at  the  present  day.  To  suppose  that  their 
influence  would  not  make,  on  the  whole — as  it 
does  now  with  less  effect— for  that  righteousness 
which  alone  exalteth  a  nation  is  to  be  offen- 
sively ignorant,  or  still  more  offensively  dishonest. 


Group  28 

TEXTILES 
35 

Continued  from 
page  4881 


THE    LACE   FACTORY 

Lace-making     Machinery    and    its     Operation.         Curtain 
Looms.      Lace-finishing  Processes.      Warehouse  Finishing 


By  W.    S.    MURPHY 


IN  the  year  1813,  John  Levers,  a  loom  builder 
1  of  Nottingham,  took  out  a  patent  for  im- 
provements to  be  applied  to  the  lace  loom. 
The  main  idea  of  Levers  was  to  obtain  full 
control  of  every  part  of  the  machine.  As  a 
means  of  effecting  his  purpose,  he  placed  all 
the  bobbins  in  one  tier,  a  thing  which  Heath- 
coat  had  seen  to  be  an  advantage,  but  des- 
paired of  accomplishing.  Simple  though  it 
seems,  this  alteration  involved  considerable 
changes  in  the  structure  of  the  loom  and  in 
the  form  of  the  bobbins  and  carriages.  Most 
important  of  all,  it  opened  up  the  way  to  the 
application  of  the  jacquard  to 
the  lace  loom.  Desiring  to  place 
double  the  number  of  bobbins 
in  the  same  space  •  as  those  on 
the  bobbin-net  machine,  Levers 
needed  carriages  half  the  thick- 
ness of  those  used  by  Heathcoat. 
To  put  twenty  to  thirty  car- 
riages bearing  bobbins  contain- 
ing thread  within  an  inch  of 
space  required  very  fine  work- 
manship on  the  carriages  and 
immovable  steadiness  in  the 
structure  of  the  loom.  That 
Levers  accomplished  his  purpose 
was  largely  due  to  the  fact  that 
he  had  the  services  of  Thompson, 
an  unrivalled  mechanic  and 
himself  an  inventor  of  no  mean 
ability.  In  structure  and  work- 
manship the  bobbin  and  carriage 
of  the  Levers  loom  set  a  high 
standard,  which  has  ever  since 
been  maintained.  In  its  first 
form  the  Levers  loom  was  a  circular  machine 
of  which  we  give  a  diagram  [224],  illustrative 
of  its  details.  As  will  be  observed,  the  car- 
riages, G,  differ  in  shape  from  those  of  the 
later  machine,  and  the  Avarp  guides,  F,  act  in 
place  of  the  slide  bars. 

The  Standard  Lace  Loom.  Every 
practical  man  knows  that  there  arc  other  looms 
in  use  besides  the  Levers  patent.  For  plain 
mesh  and  curtains  these  fine  machines  are  not 
necessary,  and  we  have  consequently  many 
cheaper  looms '  of  simpler  construction.  We 
think,  however,  that  a  thorough  study  of  the 
Levers  loom,  as  improved  by  many  inventors 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  and  with  the 
latest  jacquard  appliance,  is  the  shortest  way 
of  acquiring  a  working  knowledge  of  lace 
machinery  and  manufacture. 

Bobbi  -i  and  Carriage.  Taking  the  weft 
first,  we  shall  see  it  safely  put  into  the  loom,  and 
then  look  to  the  warp.  *  The  carriage  \  225]  is  a 

4978 


224. 


piece  of  fine  steel,  shaped  like  a  truncated 
triangle,  with  the  base  extended  and  made 
circular.  From  the  extensions  at  the  base  two 
horns,  C,  come  up,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to 
catch  into  the  holders  of  the  landing-bars  within 
the  combs.  The  centre  of  the  steel  plate,  A,  is 
cut  out  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  with  the  under 
half  flanged.  At  the  side  of  this  circular  hole  a 
nibbed  spring,  B,  is  riveted.  Through  the  head 
of  the  plate  a  small  thread-hole,  D,  is  drilled. 
In  this  shape  the  carriage  is  ready  for  the  bobbin. 
Winding  the  Bobbins.  Some  of  these 
looms  employ  as  many  as  3,000  bobbins  at  once, 
and  use  the  thread  with  which 
they  are  filled  with  great 
rapidity.  A  quick  bobbin- 
winder  [228]  was  thus  required, 
and  came  forth  in  such  efficient 
shape  that  hardly  any  altera- 
tion has  been  made  on  it  during 
the  past  sixty  years.  At  the 
end  of  the  winder  a  warp  beam. 
A,  is  slung,  its  motion  controlled 
by  two  cone  pulleys,  d  e,  so  that 
its  speed  may  be  graduated  as 
the  warp  is  driven  off.  From 
the  beam  the  threads  are  led 
across  a  blackboard  through  a 
series  of  brass  guides,  b  c,  and 
on  to  the  bobbins,  a,  closely 
set  on  a  spindle,  B,  extending 
from  the  driven  pulley,  C,  at  the 
side  of  the  frame.  This  spindle 
is  square,  and  fits  through  a 
square  hole  in  the  centre  of  the 
bobbin.  It  is  needless  to  re- 
mark that  driving  force  is  thus 
acquired  without  further  trouble.  As  many  as 
300  bobbins  can  be  wound  on  this  machine  with 
the  greatest  accuracy,  the  stop  motion  so  common 
to  all  yarn -winding  frames  being  fixed  in  it. 

Filling  the  Carriages.  Insertion  of  the 
bobbins  into  the  steel  carriages  is  not  a  very 
simple  operation,  though  performed  by  boys. 
Fillers  must  be  very  swift  and  dexterous.  Hold- 
ing back  the  spring,  the  lad  adjusts  the  double 
disc  in  the  flange  of  the  circular  opening  in  the 
centre  of  the  plate,  draws  forward  the  spring, 
and  brings  the  thread  through  the  small  hole  in 
the  top  of  the  carriage.  This  done,  he  slings  it 
on  a  wire  for  bearing  to  the  loom. 

Combs  and  Bars.  Excepting  that  they 
are  finer  and  more  accurately  balanced,  the 
combs  [224  K]  and  landing-bars  of  the  Levers 
loom  differ  little  from  those  of  the  bobbin-net 
loom  already  studied  in  detail. 

Warp.  Having  placed  the  weft  in  position. 
\ve  must  now  look  to  the  warp  and  its  controlling 


SECTION  OF  CIRCULAR  LACE 
LOOM 


appliances.  It  may  have  been,  and  in  practice 
always  is.  put  into  the  loom  first ;  but  that 
does  not  concern  us.  Here  we  come  upon 
an  essential  difference  between  the  Levers  lace 
loom  in  present  use  and  the  bo-bbin-net  loom. 
The  warp  of  the  latter  was  wound  on  one  beam, 
while  the  warp  we  are  now  examining  is  divided 
up  into  portions  and  wound  on  many  beams. 
Tin  tubes  about  2  in.  in  diameter, 
with  gudgeons  on  each  end,  these 
warp  rollers  may  be  wide  or 
narrow,  numerous  or  few,  accord- 
ing to  the  pattern  to  be  woven, 
for  at  this  point  in  the  lace  loom 
we  encounter  the  principle  which 
every  weaver  in  all  the  textile 
trades  must  thoroughly  under- 
stand. The  manner  in  which  it 
is  woven  determines  the  length  of 
warp  taken  up.  Different  pat- 
terns take  up  different  lengths. 
Warps  which  vary  in  the  take-up 
cannot  be  drawn  from  the  same 
beam,  therefore  we  require  at  least 
as  many  warp  beams  as  the  pattern  uses  differ- 
ently. A  very  elaborate  pattern  may  require  as 
many  as  300  warps,  or  warp  rollers,  piled  up  in  the 
bottom  of  the  loom  in  tiers  of  100  each.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  narrow  lace,  in  which  there  are  100 
Avarp  threads,  and  woven  60  breadths  in  the  loom, 
has  6,000  Avarp  threads  in  all  ;  but  the  variation 
in  the  pattern  cannot  affect  more  than  100 
threads,  and,  therefore,  100  warp  beams,  contain- 
ing 60  threads  each,  Avill  be  sufficient.  When  the 
poper  number  of  Avarp  beams  have  been  placed 
in  the  loom,  the  tension  springs  and  weights  are 
adjusted  according  to  the  amount  of  slackness  or 
firmness  each  different  thread  must  possess — 
according,  that  is,  to  the  length  of  thread  to  be 
given  off  at  a  time.  Then  the  threads  are  led 
through  the  slide  bars  and  up  on  to  cloth  or 
Avork  beam. 

Slide  Bars.  Slender 
strips  of  fine  steel,  per- 
forated for  the  passage 
of  the  warp  threads,  the 
slide  bars  extend  through 
the  whole  width  of  the 
loom.  At  one  end  the 
slides  are  secured  by 
spiral  springs,  and  at 
the  other  end  the  jac- 
quard  guides  hold  them. 
These  bars  perform  in 
the  lace  loom  the  same 


C.  Dnatuig  Hooka.  D.tioU:  for  Thread* 

225.  BOBBIN  AND  CARRIAGE 
OF  LEVERS'  LOOM 


/'  X 


226.     BOBBIN-WINDING  MACHINE 


TEXTILES 

duty  of  these  bars  (224L)  is  somewhat  lessened. 
In  the  main  their  office  is  to  lift  up  the  course 
of  twisted  Aveft  threads  to  make  room  for  the 
next  course. 

The  Lace  Jacquard.  In  the  opera- 
tion of  the  jacquard  AAre  obtain  the  clearest 
vieAV  of  the  action  of  the  slide  bars,  and  under- 
standing thereof.  We  must  first  note  that  the 
lace-loom  jacquard  differs  in 
almost  every  particular  from  the 
apparatus  of  the  same  name  and 
principle  used  in  cloth  weaving. 
Here  are  no  cords,  no  hooks,  no 
lifting  gryfe,  and  no  sets  of 
pendant  Avires.  The  jacquard 
is  placed  at  the  side  of  the 
loom.  As  a  rule,  the  jacquards 
on  the  fancy  lace  looms  are 
double  ;  sometimes  a  third  is 
introduced  to  manipulate  the 
thick  threads  Avhich  so  often 
border  designs.  For  our  pur- 
pose, the  double  machine  Avill 
serve. 

Cards  and  Cylinders.  About  30  in. 
long  and  2|  in.  Avide,  the  cards  are  perforated 
with  as  many  holes  and  as  variously  as  the  design 
requires.  Strung  into  the  form  of  an  endless 
belt,  the  cards  are  hung  on  sexagonal  cylinders, 
Avhich  sit  within  the  frame  of  the  machine.  The 
cylinders  are  actuated  by  a  rocking  shaft,  Avhich 
turns  and  alternately  raises  and  lowers  them, 
enabling  them  to  bring  the  cards  into  contact 
with  the  Avredges  Avhich  act  on  the  needles,  or 
slides,  and  at  the  same  time  change  the  cards. 

Wedges  and  Needles.  On  each  jac- 
quard there  is  a  series  of  five  Avedges,  graduated 
in  size  from  one  capable  of  making  a  slide  bar 
pass  two  threads  to  one  Avith  the  power  of 
covering  eight  such  spaces.  The  ends  of  the 
Avedges  are  rounded  to  fit  into  the  perforations 
of  the  cards,  and  they 
are  held  in  place  by 
small  flat  springs.  As 
the  cylinder  moves  up 
Avith  the  card,  all  the 
Avedges  which  have  no 
corresponding  hole  in  the 
card,  act  on  the  needles,  which  in 
turn  communicate  the  motion  to 
the  slide  bars,  and  shift  the  warp 
threads  one,  two,  four,  or  as  many 
"  gates "  as  may  be  desired  and 
designed. 
Minor  Parts. 


office  as  the  healds  in  an  ordinary  cloth  loom. 
Each  bar  is  threaded  only  by  those  warp  threads 
designed  to  act  in  the  same  manner  throughout 
the  whole  pattern.  Being  ATery  slender,  as  many 
as  100  can  act  within  an  inch  of  space.  As  the 
slide  bars  can  be  moA'ed  cither  backwards  or  for- 
Avards  over  a  considerable  space,  they  impart  to 
the  warp  a  Avonderful  mobility. 

Point  Bars.  Once  again  AVC  find  appliances 
already  utilised  in  almost  the  same  manner  in 
the  bobbin-net  loom.  One  thing  is  to  be  no  led, 
however.  Because  the  slide  bars  and  the 
jacquard  make  play  on  the  warp  threads,  the 


By  means  of  cross 
bars  and  springs  the  Avorking  parts  of  the  jacquard 
are  kept  in  position  and  receive  movement.  The 
slide  bars  have  studs  upon  their  ends  Avhich  grip 
into  the  Avedges  described.  The  AA'hole  mechan- 
ism is  enclosed  in  a  very  strong  frame,  \vhich 
obviates  the  risk  of  Adbration. 

The  Lace  Loom  in  Operation.  Having 
obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  parts  of  this  machine, 
Ave  can  noAV  observe  its  working  Avith  interest 
and  understanding.  When  the  loom  starts,  the 
jacquard  brings  the  foremost  card  into  position 
and  the  cylinder  rises,  acting  on  the  needles  and 
Avedges  which  draw  the  slide  b^rs  in  the  various 

4979 


TEXTILES 


227.  GUIP 


LOOM 


degrees  of  obliquity.  At  the  same  time  the 
bobbins  and  carriages  are  crossing  from  side  to 
side,  leaving  behind  them  filmy  lines  of  twining 
and  twisting  thread,  mingling  in  mazy  order 
with  the  pulsing  threads  of  warp.  Considering 
the  manipulative  power  exercised  by  the 
"  shogging  "  comb  bars,  the  changing  carriages 
and  the  slanting  slide  bars,  one  almost  believes 
i hut  the  lingers  of  the  pillow-lace  maker  have 
hern  for  ever  superseded.  As  each  line  forms. 
the  point  bars  gently  lift  the  threads  up  toward* 
the  cloth  beam  to  leave  room  for  the  coming 
course.  When  it  is  considered  that  all  these 
movements  aro  completed  in  the  space  of  half 
a  second,  and  c.tnstantly  repeated,  the  effec- 
tive productiveness  Of  the  Im-c  loom  may  he 
imagined. 

The  variety  of  laces  produced  can  h  mlly  be 
calculated,  and  the  delicate  fabrics  w,«  show  [227  j 

4986 


havc>  been  photographed  from  the 
ordinary  productions  of  a  lace  factory. 
A  Fine  Machine.  During  the 
past  forty  years  little  or  no  advance 
has  been  made  in  the  general  structure 
of  the  Levers  loom.  The  loom  we  have 
examined  has  some  improvements  on 
the  original  machine,  but  these  relate 
mostly  to  the  jacquard  and  the  equip- 
ment for  power  driving.  The  main 
structure  remains  almost  the  same  as 
when  Levers  left  it.  Written  more 
than  forty  years  ago,  this  description, 
by  Felkin,  is,  in  its  main  particulars, 
true  to-day :  "  Levers'  machines  are 
made  as  coarse  as  five-point  gauge  and 
as  fine  as  fifteen-point.  A  ten-point 
gauge  requires  20  warp  threads  to  the 
inch  when  a  full  wrarp  is  wanted.  Tn 
this  there  will  be  20  bobbins  and 
carriages  in  the  inch  single  tier  on 
the  central  comb  bar.  Besides  these, 
in  making  fancy  goods,  there  will  IK- 
thick  threads  moved  greater  or  less 
distances  sideways,  according  to  the 
weight  on  each  thick  thread  beam.  Of 
these  there  may  be  40  or  more  to  the 
inch.  Where  there  is  no  net  in  the 
ground  there  will  be  no  warp.  The 
lace  is  produced  in  that  case  simply 
by  the  gaiting  (shogging)  movements 
from  side  to  side  of  the  thick  threads, 
and  the  twisting  movements  of  the 
bobbins  and  carriages  to  and  fro  as 
they  pass  through  and  around  the  thick 
threads.  The  machine  will  make  80  or 
100  of  these  backward  and  forward 
movements  in  a  minute,  with  their 
complement  of  relative  motions,  or 
about  I  in.  in  length,  of  closely  woven 
lace,  the  whole  breadth  of  the  machine, 
however  wide,  in  each  minute." 

Curtain  Looms.  An  important 
branch  of  the  lace  trade  is  curtain 
manufacture.  For  the  highest  class  of 
curtains,  the  loom  we  have  just  been 
studying  is  used  ;  but  for  the  cheaper 
class  of  work  an  older  model  of  the  lace 
loom  is  employed.  Upon  these  looms 
the  jacquard  apparatus  is  hung  above  the  cloth 
beam,  just  as  in  an  ordinary  weaving  loom. 
But  a  curious  difference  occurs,  which  will  be 
readily  appreciated.  Instead  of  coming  straight 
down,  each  cord  directly  to  its  warp  thread,  the 
cords  are  crossed,  the  obvious  effect  being  that 
the  perpendicular  warp  tin-ends  are  pulled  aside 
to  the  extent  desired. 
In  other  respects, 
these  looms  arc  sim- 
pler. Guide  bars  are 
.substituted  for  the 
slide  bars,  and  instead  223.  HALL  s  GASSING 
of  the  numerous  small  A ' ' ' ' A  RATUS 

warp  beams,  one  beam  supplies  the  warp  for  each 
breadth  of  curtain.  For  the  rest,  the  common 
curtain  loom  differs  very  little  from  its  superior 
fellow.  Some  of  the  curtain  looms  are  very  large, 
the  largest  weaving  10  curtains  in  one  breadth. 


Inspecting  and  Darning.  The. finishing 
proper  is  very  seldom  done  in  the  lace  factory. 
Two  separate  processes  are  involved,  the  one 
being  carried  on  in  the  bleaching  works,  and  the 
other  in  the  warehouse.  One  finishing  operation, 
however,  must  be  done  in  the  lace  factory,  and 
that  is  the  inspecting  and  darning.  The  newly 
woven  fabrics  are  carried  on  the  beams  into  the 
inspecting  room.  The  beam  is  slung  on  the  one 
side  of  a  smooth  table.  At  the  other  side  the 
inspector  stands,  and  draws  the  lace  over  the 
smooth  surface,  marking  every  blemish  as  it 
appears.  Thus  marked,  the  laces  are  passed  over 
to  the  darners.  At  one  time,  all  the  darning 
was  done  by  hand  ;  but  now  sewing  machines 
are  employed  which  imitate  accurately  the 
meshing  of  the  lace.  If  the  pattern  is  seriously 
defective,  the  hand  darner  must  be  called  in  to 
supplement  the  machine. 

Lace  Bleaching.  This  is  a  distinct  branch 
of  the  bleaching  trade.  It  is  much  shorter  than 
the  ordinary  bleaching  process.  The  object  of 
the  lace  bleacher  is  simply  to  give  a  pleasing 
white  colour.  Chemical  purity  is  not  aimed  at. 

Gassing.  Gassing  is  practised  by  nearly 
every  textile  manufacturer  ;  but  it  was  specially 
invented  for  lace  by  Samuel  Hall,  of  Nottingham. 
Even  after  hot-plate  singeing  the  lace  retained 
a  cloudy  appearance,  because  of  the  gauzy  nature 
of  the  fabric,  showing  all  round  the  threads.  A 
flame  which  would  go  through  the  fabric  was 
needed,  and  this  Hall  accomplished  by  inventing 
an  apparatus  which  drew  the  gas  up  through  the 
lace  [228] .  His  invention  was  crude,  and  it  has 


TEXTILES 

long  been  superseded  by  appliances  more  accu: 
rate  and  scientific  ;  but  the  principle  remains 
the  same.  Two  essentials  arc  common  to  all  the 
forms  of  gassing  machines — the  decarbonising  of 
the  gas  by  mixing  air  with  it,  and  the  rapid 
passing  of  the  fabric,  B,  through  the  flame,  A. 

Bleaching.  Every  bleacher  has  his  own 
favourite  method  and  materials  for  whitening 
lace  goods.  Various  formula  are  given  in  the 
Dyeing  section  of  this  course.  Our  duty  is 
simply  to  observe  closely  the  practical  opera- 
tions. Steeped  in  bleaching  liquor  for  a  period 
varying  with  the  weight  of  the  fabric,  the  lace 
is  washed  clear  of  the  liquor  in  circulating  vats. 
Gently  squeezed  from  surplus  water,  the  lace  is 
taken  from  the  washing  machine  and  laid  in  the 
dollying  tubs.  The  model  most  approved  is  a 
round  tub  in  which  smooth-faced  beetles  lift 
up  and  down  on  the  fabrics  immersed  in  a  solu- 
tion of  soap  and  blue.  The  tub  goes  round, 
the  beetles  tread  the  liquor  through  the  lace. 
A  pair  of  rollers  at  the  side  of  the  tub,  when  the 
dollying  is  complete,  give  the  lace  a  parting 
squeeze,  sending  the  liquor  back  into  the  tub 
and  the  lace  out  into  the  trolleys  which  bear  the 
filmy  mass  off  to  the  washing  troughs.  These  are 
wide  tanks  ingeniously  arranged.  A  constant 
circulation  of  water  is  kept  up,  by  the  equal  out- 
flow of  dirty  water  and  the  inflow  of  clean  water. 
The  laces  enter  at  the  side  of  the  outflow,  and 
pass  round  rollers,  which  bear  the  pi  onwards  to 
where  the  clean  water  is  pouring  in.  Thus 
cleaned,  the  lace  goes  into  the  drying-room, 
where  in  a  high  temperature,  and  by  drying 


229.    L.YCK-DRYTM;  MA< -HIM; 


-WSl 


TEXTILES 

machines,  centrifugal  or  stove,  they  arc  made  dry. 
The  newest  form  of  contrivance  is  the  horizontal 
drying  machine  [229],  in  which  the  lace  is  wound 
round  heated  cylinders. 

Starching.  Fine  point  and  pillow  laces 
are  usually  starched  by  a  hand  process.  On 
tables  covered  with  smooth  canvas,  the  starch, 
made  up  of  fine  wheat  extract,  alum,  and  smalts 
blue,  is  thinly  spread  with  brushes.  Then  the 
lace  is  carefully  laid  on,  and  brushed  down 
smooth.  With  heavily-figured  laces  this  is  par- 
ticularly effective,  the  figures  showing  out  very 
white  and  the  meshing  appearing  slightly  shaded 
with  blue.  Heavy  curtains  and  other  factory 
laces  are  put  through  the  starching  machine. 

Stentering.  After  starching,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  laces 
should  be  at  once 
set  into  the  proper 
shape.  Lace  de- 
pends for  its  beauty 
largely  on  the  man- 
ner in  which  the 
threads  are  set. 
The  weaver  and 
designer  can  pro- 
vide us  with  certain 
forms  and  com- 
binations, but 
these  must  be 
confirmed  in  the 
finishing.  In  this 
process,  the  sten- 
tering  room  is  very 
important.  Curi- 
ously enough,  stentering  machinery  such  as 
is  used  in  many  cloth  factories  was  not 
favoured  by  the  lace  finisher  for  a  long  time  ;  but 
th^  same  kind  of  machine  [230]  is  now  in  exten- 
sive use.  Lace  stentering  is  practically  a  hand 
proc  iss.  The  frames  are  wooden  rails,  fitted  with 
screw  i  so  as  to  be  gradually  extended.  Within 
the  rciils  little  hooks  are  set.  On  these  the 
stenter  workers  link  the  lace  web,  and  stretch 
it  out,  assisting  to  free  the  threads  which  may 
have  knotted  by  beating  with  long  wands  on  the 
stented  fabric.  When  a  good  piece  has  been  got 
on  the  frame,  the  screws  are  brought  to  bear, 
and  the  frame  widened  out  to  the  proper  stretch 
of  the  lace.  This  must  be  done  with  great  care, 
so  that  all  the  threads  may  lie  straight,  and 
according  to  design.  Means  are  usually  provided 
to  make  the  stentering  room  a  drying  room  as 
well.  In  some  places  great  fans  revolve  above 
the  stentering  tables,  while  steam  pipes  round 
the  sides  make  heat.  Other  finishers  put  the 
fans  and  the  steam  pipes  under  the  stentering 
frames. 

Spraving,  Calendering,  and  Press= 
ing.  These  operations  have  already  l>een 
studied  at  some  length  in  the  cloth-finishing 
section,  and  need  hardly  be  gone  over  again. 
The  instruments  are  the  same,  though  in  prac- 
tical handling  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
delicate  character  of  the  fabric. 

Warehouse  Finishing.  When  the  lace 
has  been  well  dres-sed.  it  is  not  ready  for  the 


230.    STENTERINO   MACHINE     (Mather  &  Platt,  Ltd.) 


market.  Edgings,  trimmings,  frills,  and  all  that 
numerous  range  of  laces  so  daintily  fit  for  decking 
the  attire  of  ladies,  are  woven  by  the  web,  and 
have  been  dressed  in  that  condition.  The  warp 
threads  connecting  one  strip  of  edging  with  the 
other  have  to  be  "  drawn/'  and  the  strips  sepa- 
rated. This  work  is  often  given  out  to  home 
workers. 

Dressing.     Some  of  the  finer  classes  of  lace 
are  dressed  in  the  warehouse.    The  process  is  not 
unlike  the  starching  already  noted.  In  an  industry 
producing  so  wide  a  variety  of  fabrics  no  common 
routine  can  be  prescribed.  Many  Nottingham  lace 
manufacturers  combine  dressing  with  stentering. 
The  girls  hook  the  edges  of  the  lace  on  to  the 
frame,  lay  the  starchy  substance  along  the  edges, 
a n d    spread    it 
across    the    whole 
b  r  e  a  d  t  h   w  i  t  h 
brushes. 

Mending.  The 
loom  is  not  yet  a 
perfect  machine, 
and  its  produce 
partakes  of  the  im- 
perfection incident 
to  most  things 
earthly.  Threads 
break,  loops  slip. 
and  stitches  miss. 
The  menders  who 
remedy  these  de- 
fects are  practically 
skilled  lawmakers ; 
they  fill  in  with 
the  fabric  the  loom 


the   hand    what    parts   of 
has  left  out. 

Clipping,  Scolloping,  Grafting,  Braid= 
ing.  Most  of  the  finishing  processes  of  lace 
manufacture  are  skilled  operations  which  can 
be  learned  only  by  practice.  By  means  of 
sewing  machines,  the  curtains  are  edged  and 
braided,  the  borders  grafted,  and  the  embroi- 
deries put  on  the  plain  nets,  or  the  initials  and 
other  ornaments  inserted  into  the  lace  handker- 
chiefs. Here,  the  sewing  machine  manufacturers 
have  scored  an  undoubted  triumph.  By  means 
of  special  needles  and  guides  on  the  sewTing 
machine,  the  lace  embroiderer  is  enabled  to 
produce  figures  and  traceries  with  great  rapidity 
and  accuracy. 

G  <?neraf  Warehouse  Work.  The  organ- 
isation of  a  lace  warehouse  is  a  matter  of  no 
little  difficulty.  It  is  worth  noting  that  most 
of  the  large  warehousemen  are  old  firms,  which 
have  grown  up  with  the  industry.  Thus,  depart- 
ment has  been  added  on  to  department  as  the 
business  has  developed.  In  the  multiplicity  of 
small  departments  it  is  easy  to  lose  money 
without  perceptible  fault  on  the  part  of  anyone. 
For  it  must  be  noted  that  these  warehouses 
employ  machinery  of  various  kinds  besides 
sewing  machines  capable  of  even  making  lace. 
Taping,  scolloping,  tucking,  pressing,  and  wind- 
ing machines  make  up  miles  of  laces  of  various 
kinds  and  breadths.  Making-up  laces  is  a 
special  branch,  requiring  taste  and  skill. 


AUCTIONEERING 

Croup  7 

AUCTIONEERING 
AND  VALUING 

Essential  Qualifications  of  an  Auctioneer.     Salaries.     Drawing  up 
Inventories    and    Catalogues.       Sales    by    Auction.       Accounts 

1 

Following  on  IKSUUANTK  fn.i.i 

pauf  -;s-)4 

By    JOHN    COX 


A  UCTIONEERING  is  a  profession  which  may  be 
•**  said  to  have  been  born  of  Commerce.  Where 
there  is  barter  there  will  be  an  auctioneer,  and  from 
the  inherent  desire  of  us  all  to  obtain  the  best  market 
value  for  that  which  we  wish  to  sell,  it  is  but 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  profession  of  auction- 
eering is  one  which  may  expect  the  support  of 
traders  in  all  times. 

The  vocation  is  essentially  one  for  the  man  of 
education.  The  curriculum  of  any  public  school 
forms  the  finest  groundwork  upon  which  the 
training  may  be  founded — that  is  to  say,  the 
instruction  which  is  obtainable  on  the  commercial 
.side  of  such  school.  Our  student  should  write 
well  and  fluently,  and  his  training  will  be  most 
usefully  supplemented  by  a  course  of  typewriting 
and  shorthand.  A  young  man  requires,  further, 
a  natural  aptitude  for  quickly  grasping  situations, 
an  abundance  of  tact,  and  some  ability  to  face  an 
assemblage  of  his  fellow  men.  In  this  respect, 
advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  opportunity  of 
entering  a  debating  society  or  a  local  Parliament, 
as  it  will  be  found  that  the  experience  in  public 
speaking  gained  in  this  way  is  highly  beneficial. 
One  has  but  to  be  a  fluent  and  quietly  convincing 
speaker  to  command  attention.  It  is  superfluous 
to  remark  that  energy,  perseverance  and  intention 
to  succeed  are  half  the  battle,  and  a  scrupulous 
regard  for  truthful  and  straightforward  dealings 
should  complete  one's  initial  stock-in-trade. 

Entering  an  Office.  The  all-important 
business  of  entering  an  office  will  next  command 
our  attention.  Our  beginner  should  ask  himself 
whether  he  prefers  a  town  or  country  practice, 
and,  whatever  the  choice,  he  should  endeavour  to 
enter  an  office  where  he  is  likely  to  gain  a  good 
all-round  experience.  Those  who  are  able  to 
afford  a  fee  for  articling  should  know  that  there 
are  some  self-styled  auctioneers  whose  very  ex- 
istence depends  upon  their  obtaining  articled 
pupils.  Of  practical  work  there  is  little  to  be 
found  in  such  offices,  and  it  is  wise  to  seek  a  well- 
known  firm,  in  one's  locality,  for  choice,  which 
apparently  offers  the  most  advantages.  The  best 
course  to  pursue  is  to  enter  a  firm  with  a  fair  all- 
round  connection,  and  to  work  one's  way  up. 
This  is  the  best  test  of  aptitude,  and  the  market 
is  not  overcrowded  to  the  man  who  can  honestly 
say :  "  I  know  every  stage." 

Salaries.  Regarding  remuneration,  an  arti- 
cled clerk  is  usually  paid  from  8s.  to  12s.  weekly, 
but  this  is  governed  by  the  amount  of  premium 
paid  and  general  ability  shown.  A  lad  may  enter 
an  office  at  anything  from  5s.  to  8s.  weekly,  and 
may  work  his  way  up  by  stages  to  the  position  of 
improver,  earning  perhaps  15s.  or  £1  weekly  and 
commission,  at  the  end  of,  say,  three  years.  The 
commission  to  a  young  man  of  ability  will  make 
a  very  fair  showing,  and  if  he  be  thrifty,  and 
fortunate  enough  to  be  with  a  firm  doing  a  fairly 
extensive  business,  he  may,  during  the  course  of 
the  ten  years  which  he  must  expect  to  devote  to 
his  business  before  launching  out  on  his  own 


account,  put  by  enough  to  start  him  in  business. 
So,  then,  he  becomes  a  junior  and  senior  clerk  in 
turn,  earning  from  30s.  to  £3  a  week,  according  to 
his  ability ;  and,  in  the  course  of  time,  he  may  be 
earning  anything  from  £150  to  £250  a  year  in 
salary  and  commission  as  a  managing  clerk. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  particulars  of  the 
office  routine,  but  it  should  be  said  that  our  junior 
must  master  the  use  and  indexing  of  the  various 
letter  copying  books  and  understand  the  standard 
system  of  filing,  docketing  and  indexing.  He  must 
be  wholly  systematic  in  all  things,  and  should  pay 
the  very  greatest  care  to  detail.  Order  in  aii 
auctioneer's  office  is  absolutely  essential,  and  one 
must  pay  strict  attention  to  instructions,  for  a 
mistake  in  a  small  matter  may  prove  costly. 

The  Inventory.  During  the  course  of  his 
early  career  a  beginner  will  doubtless  have  to  accom- 
pany his  senior  to  make  an  inventory.  He  must 
riot  despise  the  inventory ;  it  serves  as  a  good 
stepping-stone  to  the  making  of  the  catalogue, 
and  therefore  its  points  should  be  closely  noted. 
The  occasions  which  call  for  an  inventory  are 
many.  It  is  required  upon  the  letting  of  a  furnished 
house,  a  copy  being  made  for  the  incoming  tenant 
to  sign,  one  being  retained  by  the  auctioneer  to 
enable  him  to  check  the  contents  of  the  house  at 
the  expiration  of  the  tenancy.  One  is  also  required 
to  be  taken  of  any  furniture  comprised  in  a  valua- 
tion for  probate ;  for  attaching  to  a  fire  policy 
to  settle  disputes  arising  on  claims  ;  on  the  outgoing 
of  the  owner  of  a  business  where  he  sells  his  chattels 
at  a  valuation,  also  in  partitioning  goods  upon  the 
demise  of  a  late  owner. 

Armed,  then,  with  the  familar  inventory  book, 
we  proceed  to,  say,  a  house  of  fair  size.  A  note  must 
be  made  of  the  place  of  visit  and  the  purpose 
thereof,  the  date  and  the  name  of  the  clerk  making 
the  inventory.  This  is  written  at  the  head  of  the 
page,  and,  after  making  a  general  survey  of  the 
premises,  we  proceed  to  the  top  floor  of  our  house 
and  begin  with  the  minor  rooms,  usually  bed- 
rooms, and  work  our  way  down  the  house,  floor 
by  floor,  room  by  room.  There  is  a  method  in 
making  an  inventory,  as  will  be  seen.  We  start 
with  the  most  important  room  on  the  floor,  naming 
it  Left  Front,  Right  Front,  or  Back,  as  the  case 
may  be,  which  designations  are  intended  to  be 
self-descriptive,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  larger  house, 
by  its  number  and  situation,  if  it  be  in  the  main 
building,  right  or  left  wing ;  so  that  if  our  inven- 
tory comes  into  use  at  a  future  date,  it  will  be 
an  easy  matter  to  recognise  the  various  rooms. 

Procedure.  The  procedure  differs  in  some 
firms,  but  the  object  is  to  make  a  list  of  every  article 
the  house  contains.  We  begin,  then,  with  the  carpet, 
rugs,  the  fireplace  furniture,  followed  by  the  window 
furniture,  the  suite  and  any  other  articles  upon 
the  floor  and  those  around  the  room  against  the 
walls,  beginning,  for  this  latter  item,  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  door  as  one  goes  into  the  room. 
We  finish  up  with  the  pictures,  china,  and  wall 
ornaments  in  the  same  order.  In  the  case  of 

4983 


AUCTIONEERING    AND    VALUING 

the  bed-rooms,  it  will  be  found  expedient  to  deal 
with  the  hod  and  bedding  just  after  the  window 
furniture  has  been  noted  and  before  dealing  with 
the  suite. 

This  method  applies  to  all  rooms,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  with  a  little  practice  the  missing  of  an 
.irticlc  will  be  a  rare  occurrence.  After  a  few 
preliminary  visits  of  the  nature  mentioned,  the 
student  will  be  enabled  to  attempt  an  inventory 
on  his  own  account,  and  if  he  faithfully  adhere  to 
his  system,  the  attack  of  even  a  mansion,  with  its 
walls  covered  with  bric-a-brac,  will  not  prove  an 
impossible  task. 

Our  beginner  must  take  careful  note  of  the 
descriptions  applied  to  the  various  articles,  and 
their  period.  He  must  learn  to  distinguish  Turkey, 
Axminster,  Brussels  and  tapestry  carpets,  rugs 
and  mats.  He  must  become  an  adept  —  in  the 
course  of  time  —  in  describing  the  woods  and  chinas 
customarily  found  in  an  ordinary  house  ;  he  must 
be  able  to  differentiate  between  cloth,  damask, 
tapestry,  silk,  embroidery,  lace  and  the  like,  and 
he  must  not  be  disheartened  at  the  apparent 
magnitude  of  the  task. 

Information  in  Catalogues.  \Vo  can- 
not hope  to  convey  any  substantial  idea  of  the 
multitude  of  different  descriptions  which  an 
auctioneer  daily  calls  into  use;  but  we  can,  and 
shall,  point  the  direction  whence  the  required 
information  may  be  gradually  assimilated  by  our 
pupil  during  his  early  days.  He  should  not  be 
above  studying  the  contents  of  the  leading  furnish- 
ing and  dry  goods  firms,  and  he  may  gain  a  mine 
of  information  from  a  ^ell-arranged,  illustrated 
list  of  any  such  house,  especially  when  it  is 
borne  in  mind  that  these  catalogues  are  prepared 
by  men  of  long  experience.  In  making  catalogues, 
to  which  we  shall  presently  allude,  one  may  even 
quietly  take  a  leaf  from  the  book  of  the  head 
porter,  who  is  usually  a  man  of  wide  experience  in 
descriptions  of  furniture  and  such  things.  In 
short,  he  must  consult  every  available  fount  of 
information,  using  only  the  knowledge  he  acquires 
from  hearing  the  inventory  made  by  his  senior 
as  the  foundation  for  further  information.  Our 
rising  knight  of  the  hammer  must  remember  that 
he,  of  all  men,  must  not  only  know  the  proper 


description  to  be  applied  to  everything,   but,   in 
the  course  of  time,  will  be 
opinion  as  to  its  value. 


required  to  offer  expert 


After  the  visit  to  the  house  just  referred  to,  we 
shall  require  a  fair  copy  in  duplicate  of  the  list  of 
articles.  This  is  done  in  the  office  on  specially 
ruled  forms  of  inventory  paper,  familiar  in  every 
firm,  and  on  this  a  title-page  is  set  out  giving  the 
address,  purpose,  name  of  firm  making  the  inven- 
tory and  the  date,  followed  by  a  careful  descrip- 
tion, copied  from  the  inventory  book,  of  all  articles 
properly  allocated  to  their  respective  rooms.  In 
this  list,  both  sides  of  the  pa.  per  are  written  upon, 
and  the  whole  is  bound  up  in  a  cover  of  the  same 
size  as  the  paper,  bearing  an  index  label. 

We  have  now  dealt  with  one  of  the  most  trouble- 
some matters  to  a  new-comer  into  the  business  ; 
but,  with  care,  knowledge  will  gradually  assert 
itself,  and  if  a  point  is  made  of  never  applying  a 
description  until  one  is  assured  of  its  accuracy, 
proficiency  will  be  all  the  sooner  gained. 

Cataloguing.  Cataloguing  is  the  mode  ot 
assembling  furniture  for  the  purposes  of  sale.  In 
the  aootioneer'a  profession  the  catalogue  is  some- 
what similar  to  the  inventory,  the  same  system 
being  adopted  in  regard  to  its  compilation,  with  the 
important  diftWfive  that  the  articles  enumerated 

498-4 


;ir<  *  o!lcclc<i  together,  accurately  described,  in 
the  form  of  a  "lot"  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
auctioneer,  will  constitute  a  saleable  parcel  of 
goods  at  auction.  The  rooms  are  taken  in  the 
order  and  method  named  for  inventories,  the 
goods  described,  and  a  rough  catalogue  made 
out  on  single  sheets  of  foolscap,  a  space  being  left 
between  each  lot  as  the  articles  are  enumerated 
and  the  whole  household  contents  brought  in. 
It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  auctioneer  to  lot  his 
articles  so  that  a  desirable,  or,  what  may  be  better 
described  as  a  saleable,  article  is  included  with 
an  unsaleable  one,  so  that  one  portion  virtually 
sells  another.  This  is  a  rule  that  only  applies  to 
(he  multiplicity  of  oddments  which  are  found  in 
every  household.  The  point  is  to  avoid  putting 
an  article  up  by  itself  when,  from  the  nature  of 
the  thing,  this  is  inadvisable,  but  to  add  it  to 
another  lot  so  that  there  is  a  fair  probability  of 
the  whole  securing  a  good  bid.  It  would  be  bad 
policy  to  lot  a  carpet  with  a  chest  of  drawers, 
because  these  two  things  are  fairly  certain  of 
selling  separately,  and  if  of  fair  quality  would 
make  the  required  guinea  lot;  but,  in  the  same 
room,  it  would  be  found  necessary  to  lot  a  fire- 
screen, a  towel-airer,  a  hand  glass  and  a  couple  of 
slip  mats,  so  that  one  could  sell  together  that 
which  it  would  be  absurd  and  perhaps  useless  to 
lot  separately.  The  auctioneer  must  invariably 
aim  at  making  up  a  lot  of  sufficient  size,  applying 
his  discretion  to  the  character  of  the  goods  being 
sold,  and  remembering  always  that  he  has  to  sell 
everything. 

Numbering  the  "  Lots."  Having  written 
out  the  catalogue  and  made  up  the  various  lots,  we 
proceed  then  to  number  the  latter,  not  forgetting 
to  leave  one  or  two  blank  lots  at  the  end  of  each 
room  to  provide  for  the  inclusion  of  any  article 
which  may,  at  the  time  of  the  sale,  have  been 
inadvertently  missed.  With  a  title-page,  setting 
out  the  principal  and  interesting  pieces  of  furniture 
offered  for  sale,  the  draft  catalogue  is  sent  to  the 
printers,  conditions  of  sale  being  added,  which 
may  be  of  a  stock  nature  or  specially  adapted  to 
the  particular  needs  of  the  articles  being  sold. 
Eventually  the  proofs  are  gone  through  and  the 
matter  is  concluded. 

The  announcing  bill  will  be  conveniently  drawn  by 
making  a  double  demy  replica  of  the  front  page 
of  the  catalogue.  It  will  be  found  that  a  very  good 
auction  bill  can  be  drawn  after  a  general  survey  of 
the  property  to  be  offered.  The  bill  should  be  got 
out  first,  and  duly  exhibited,  to  give  as  long  a  notice 
of  the  sale  as  possible. 

There  are  some  important  points  to  be  remem- 
bered in  the  making  of  the  catalogue.  For  instance, 
Turkey  carpets  are  described  in  square  feet, 
Brussels,  Axminster,  tapestry,  and  other  carpets 
in  square  yards  (the  breadth  being  27  in.).  Bed- 
room furniture  would  be  referred  to  in  this  way  : 
Bedding  and  bed  by  the  width,  a  wardrobe  by  its 
width,  with  the  size  in  inches  of  the  plate  mirror 
in  door.  The  washstand  and  the  dressing-table  or 
chest  by  its  width,  with  the  size  in  inches  of  the 
plate  mirror  surmounting  the  latter.  Taking  the 
dining-room  furniture,  the  dining-table  would  be 
referred  to  by  its  length,  with  the  number  of  the 
leaves  up  to  which  it  extends,  the  sideboard  by  its 
width,  and  a  bookcase  by  its  length.  Ornaments 
are  taken  by  height ;  pictures  as  to  whether  they 
arc  in  oils,  or  are  water-colour  drawings,  engravings, 
or  prints.  The  wines  arc  added  after  the  reception 
rooms  have  been  dealt  with,  and  are  followed  by 
the  silver,  which  is  sold  at  per  ounce:  and  the 


catalogue  is  concluded  by  the  domestic  offices,  the 
gardens  and  the  contents  of  greenhouses  or  con- 
servatories. Articles  found  to  be  faulty  are  duly 
referred  to  by  placing  a  small  "  f "  in  brackets 
after  the  description  of  the  article  thus :  (/). 

Our  pupil  would  be  well  advised  to  give  some 
time  to  the  study  of  catalogues  of  sales  by  the 
good  West-End  firms  of  auctioneers,  and  it  will 
be  found  that  a  little  application  to  these  will 
give  a  valuable  amount  of  information  which  is  not 
easily  gained  elsewhere. 

Ticketing  the  "  Lots." 
We  have  now  to  arrange  the 
ticketing  of  the  lots.  This  is  done 
by  the  head  porter,  with  assist- 
ance, if  necessary,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  sale.  He  starts 
operations  on  the  day  prior  to 
the  view  days.  He  will  arrange 
the  furniture  in  the  order  of  the 
catalogue,  and  on  the  view  day — 
the  day  prior  to  the  sale — he, 


AUCTIONEERING    AND    VALUING 

Deposits.  The  deposit  is  governed  by  the  con- 
ditions of  sale,  and  is  usually  10  per  cent.  The  entry 
by  the  clerk  in  his  catalogue  of  the  amount  at 
which  a  lot  is  sold,  together  with  the  entry  of  the 
deposit,  is  considered  as  sufficient  proof  of  the 
transaction  (fraud,  of  course,  not  being  alleged).  As- 
a  sale  proceeds,  the  clerk  calls  into  use  his  sale 
ledger,  which  is  a  highly  useful  account  book.  They 
are  familiar  in  every  office,  ruled  as  under,  interleaved 
with  blotting  paper,  and  indexed  at  each  page. 


with  his  assistants,  keeps  a  sharp 
look-out  that  no  damage  is  done  by  visitors  to 
the  articles.  On  the  sale  day  he  superintends  the 
bringing  up  to  the  auctioneer  of  all  ths  lots  in 
their  proper  order,  taking  care  that  he  has  a  relay 
of  three  or  four  lots  on  the  move,  so  that  no  time 
is  wasted.  Nothing  is  more  annoying  than  a  "  wait " 
between  the  bringing  up  of  one  lot  and  the  next. 

Prior  to  the  sale  day,  the  desk  catalogues  are 
prepared  by  the  clerk.  One  will  lie  required  for 
the  auctioneer  and  one  for  his  clerk,  and  they 
consist  merely  of  the  ordinary  catalogues  inter- 
leaved with  specially  ruled  paper  : 


MARTIN,  G.  J. 

MORECAMBE,  H.  R. 

Lot. 

Price. 

Deposit. 

Lot,. 

Price. 

Deposit. 

66 

18  10    0 

170 

82 

3  15    0 

V   <; 

113 

6  15    0 

13    6 

91 

2  10    0 

5     0 

119 

350 

10    0 

1?8 

15    0 

2    0 

129 

4  10    0 

9    0 

268 

1  15    0 

5    0 

189 

1    5    0 

3    0 

Balance  .   . 

20    2    « 

Balance  .    . 

7  15    C 

£ 

29    5    0 

29    5    0 

f 

8  lf>    0 

8  15    0 

LOT  No. 

AMOUNT 
SOLD  FOB. 

PURCHASER'S  NAME. 

J)I;I>OSIT. 

66 

13  10 

Martin,  G.  J.     . 

1    7    0 

82 

3  15 

Moreoambe,  II.  R. 

7    6 

91 

2  10 

Morecambe,  H.  R. 

5    0 

113 

6  15 

Martin.  G.  J. 

13    6 

119 

3    5 

Martin,  G.J  

10     0 

128 

IS 

Morecambe,  H.  R. 

2     0 

19 

4  10 

Martin,  G.  J  

9    0 

189 

1     5 

Martin,  G.  J  

;;    i) 

268 

1  15 

Morecambe,  H.  R. 

-.   o 

As  will  be  seen,  the  first  column  is  for  the  lot 
number,  which  is  written  in  opposite  to  the  corre- 
sponding lot  number  in  the  printed  portion.  In 
the  second  column  are  written  the  amounts  the  lots 
are  sold  for ;  in  the  third  column  the  purchaser's 
name,  and,  if  necessary,  his  address,  while  the  last 
cash  column  is  appropriated  to  the  entering  of  the 
deposits  paid. 

The  auctioneer  must  exhibit  under  his  rostrum 
a  tablet  setting  out  his  full  name  and  address,  and 
there  are  penalties  attaching  to  an  omission  in 
this  respect.  He  must  also  have  at  hand  his 
auction  licence,  which  costs  £10  annually,  renewable 
on  July  6th  in  every  year  ;  and  he  then  proceeds  to 
open  the  sale  by  simply  asking  a  bid  for  Lot  1. 
The  lots  are,  as  a  rule,  disposed  of  at  the  rate  of 
one  a  minute  in  the  case  of  household  furniture,  and 
the  clerk  needs  all  his  wits  about  him  during  the 
conduct  of  a  furniture  sale  at  even  this  rate,  although 
we  have  known  many  auctioneers  who  sell  at  a 
greater  rate. 

At  the  fall  of  the  hammer  the  goods  are  at  the 
risk  of  the  buyer,  and  he  is  at  once  asked  for  his 
mrd  or  a  deposit,  and  the  clerk  must  see  to  it  that 
ho  gets  one  or  tho  other  immediately. 


Immediately  a  lot  is  sold,  the  deposit,  purchaser's 
name,  and  the  amount  sold  for  are  duly  entered 
in  the.  respective  columns  of  the  catalogue,  the 
deposits  being  accountable  for  by  the  clerk.  As  a 
check  upon  the  clerk,  the  auctioneer  notes  in  his 
catalogue  the  price  and  the  purchaser's  name.  An 
account  is  then  immediately  opened  in  the  ledger 
under  the  index  of  the  purchaser's  name,  using  the 
proper  columns  as  indicated  above.  The  ledger 
will  then  set  out  the  lot  bought,  the  price  sold 
for,  and  the  amount  of  the  deposit.  There  is  usually 
sufficient  time  between  the  sale  of  one  lot  and  the 
next  to  get  in  the  deposit,  enter  the  particulars  of 
the  transaction  in  the  catalogue,  and  open  or  enter 
into  the  proper  account  in  the  ledger,  so  that  if 
the  books  are  properly  worked,  it  is  possible  at  any 
moment  in  the  sale  to  say  exactly  how  any 
purchaser  stands. 

As  a  rule,  the  clearing  of  a  sale  of  any  size  is 
effected  the  day  following  the  sale,  the  auctioneer- 
announcing  that  the  lots  will  be  delivered  the  next 
day,  say,  between  the  hours  of  ten  and  four.  It  is 
generally  found  expedient  to  make  up  the  sale 
ledger  overnight. 

The  Ledger  Accounts.  We  must  here 
refer  to  the  specimen  interleaving  page  of  the 
catalogue  and  the  ledger  accounts  in  the  names 
of  Martin  and  Morecambe.  We  see  that  the 
catalogue  shows  that  these  two  purchasers  have 
bought  certain  lots,  and  that  these  certain  lots, 
together  with  the  deposits  paid  on  each  one,  are 
duly  carried  into  the  ledger  under  the  respective 
names.  At  the  end  of  the  sale  day  we  shall  find  it 
necessary  to  check  the  catalogue  with  the  entries 
into  the  ledger,  and  if  there  be  any  mistake,  to  rectify 
it,  going  to  the  auctioneer's  catalogue,  if  necessary, 
to  obtain  the  correction.  We  then  go  through  the 
ledger  and  cast  up  the  price  column  of  all  accounts, 
and  on  a  reserved  page  at  the  end  of  the  book  carry 
out  the  names  of  all  purchasers  with  the  amounts  of 
their  purchases. 

We  next  cast  the  catalogue,  and,  all  being 
correct,  we  shall  have  the  same  amount  in  the 
total  of  the  catalogue  as  we  have  in  the  total  of 
the  accounts  in  the  ledger.  At  the  same  time  that 
we  deal  with  the  actual  prices  paid,  we  cast  the 
amount  of  the  deposits  in  the  catalogue,  which,  of 
course,  should  agree  with  the  total  amount  of  the 
deposits  carried  out  to  the  reserved  page  at  the  end 
of  the  ledger,  side  by  side  with  their  respective  prices. 

4085 


AUCTIONEERING     AND     VALUING 

In  the  credit  of  which  they  stand.  We  are  thus  able 
to  see  what  amount  of  money  there  should  be  in 
hand  as  received  as  deposit*  during  the  sale  ;  and 
l>v  deducting  this  amount  from  the  gross  amount  of 
t  lie  sale,  we  .see  at  once  what  remains  to  be  collected 
Mil  (In-  following  day. 

Having  cast  the  price  column,  it  follows  that  we 
Uave  to  strike  the  balance  in  each  account  in  order 
to  be  able  at  once  to  see  what  amount  is  due  when 
the  purchaser  calls  the  next  day  to  pay  his  balance, 
[n  the  case  of  Mart  hi,  we  see  that  the  purchases 
amount  to  £29  5s.,  and  that  the  deposits  thereon 
amount  to  £3  2s.  6d.,  so  that  there  is  a  balance 
due  of  £26  2s.  6d.  We  write  this  balance  down  in 
the  deposit  column,  and  the  account  is  closed. 

The  Delivery  Note.  There  is  a  small 
matter  in  connection  with  the  accounts  in  the 
ledger  which  should  be  noted.  As  the  day  goes  on 
there  is  plenty  of  time  for  the  clerk  to  make  up 
his  accounts  as  he  goes,  therefore  overnight  the 
ledger  accounts  are  left  open — that  is,  minus  the 
small  double  line  which  appears  under  the  cast  of 
the  deposit  and  balance  column.  As  the  purchaser 
comes  in  to  pay  the  balance  during  the  following 
day,  he  hands  over  the  balance  shown  to  be  due 
in  the  ledger,  and  receives  his  delivery  note,  which 
is  merely  a  slip  of  paper  with  the  words, 
"  Please  deliver  Lots  66,  113,  119,  129,  and  189" 
written  in  a  vertical  column  for  convenience  of 
checking  off,  and  signed  by  the  clerk  hi  charge  of 
the  clearing.  This  paper  is  handed  to  the  porter, 
who  is  responsible  for  the  correct  delivery  of  the 
lots.  Immediately  the  delivery  note  is  handed  over 
the  clerk  draws  two  lines  under  the  account  in  the 
ledger  which  has  just  been  dealt  with,  and  carries 
the  entry  of  the  balance  to  the  reserved  page  at 
the  end  of  the  book,  opposite  the  name  of  the  pur- 
chaser, as  previously  entered.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  at  the  end  of  the  day  the  gross  amount  of 
money  received  on  the  clearing  day  should  equal 
the  gross  amount  of  the  sale,  less  the  deposits 
received,  and  similarly  the  amount  of  the  deposits 
in  hand  and  the  amount  of  the  balances  collected 
on  the  clearing  day  will  equal  the  gross  amount  of 
the  sale.  The  double  lines  which  are  drawn  at  the 
end  of  each  ledger  account  will  give  an  easy  indica- 
tion as  the  day  goes  on  of  what  accounts  are  closed. 

How  to  Deal  with  Unsold  Lots. 
[t  is  now  a  simple  matter  to  settle  the  business 
altogether.  First,  a  marked  catalogue  is  pre- 
pared. This  is  merely  an  ordinary  catalogue  with 
the  margins  ruled  in  cash  columns.  Opposite  to  the 
lot  is  written  the  price  realised  for  each.  The  total 
gross  amount  of  sale  will  be  set  out  in  account 
in  the  usual  way,  and  deductions  are  made  therefrom 
for  all  expenses  such  as  printing,  j>osting,  advertising, 
and  commission,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  charged  at  .1  per 
cent,  in  the  case  of  a  large  sale,  and  a  cheque  for  the 
balance  is  forwarded  to  the  client.  It  may  hapjxm 
there  are  two  or  three  lots  remaining  uncleared,  and 
it  will  be  found  expedient  to  get  rid  of  any  such  to 
one  or  other  of  the  numerous  dealers  which  attend 
-ales.  These  people  are  always  on  the  look-out  for 
.'  bargain  in  this  way.  and  if  it  is  desired  to  settle 
i he  matter  without  loss  on  the  transaction,  a  little 
Miics-c  will  have  to  be  employed.  However,  if  there 
-  a  loss,  this  is  written  otT  the  gross  amount  of  the 
sale,  so  that  it  is  clear  to  the  client. 

There  arc  occasions  when  it  becomes  necessary 
to  '  arry  out  a  perambulating  auction  sale,  iii  the 
case  of,  for  instance  : 

(a)    Live  and  dead  stock 

(6)  Heavy  stocks,  plant,  machinery,  and  the  like 

(c)  Old    properly    for   demolition 


(d)  Building  materials,  and  so  on.  Here  it  becomes 
necessary  to  defer  the  use  of  the  ledger  until  the 
return  to  the  office,  but  the  catalogue  will  be  used  as 
usual,  being  in  these  cases  attached  to  a  stiff  board 
for  convenience  in  writing. 

Sales  of  Real  Estate.  We  must  at  this  stage 
turn  to  the  more  important  and,  in  a  sense,  more 
remunerative  branch  of  the  profession — sales  of  real 
estate.  In  the  first  place,  the  trouble  attaching  to 
sales  in  this  department  is  not  so  great  although  the 
care  to  be  exercised  is  none  the  less  considerable. 

To  begin  with,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  be  quite 
clear  as  to  one's  instructions.  It  is  the  custom  to 
» I  note  inclusive  terms  for  the  carrying  through  of  an 
auction  sale  so  far  as  regards  the  out-of-pocket  ex- 
|)cnses,  to  which  expenditure  the  auctioneer  is  limited 
according  to  the  properties  to  be  submitted.  For 
instance,  he  may  make  a  charge  of  anything  from 
ten  guineas  upwards  to  cover  disbursements  which, 
in  pursuance  to  any  agreement  he  may  arrive  at, 
would  be  payable  by  his  principal  in  any  event,  in 
addition  to  his  commission  on  the  sale.  He  shoxild 
be  provided  with  the  fullest  particulars  of  the  property 
and  have  a  clear  understanding  on  all  points,  includ- 
ing the  reserve  price,  which  is  sometimes  withheld 
until  just  prior  to  the  sale. 

The  first  matter  is  to  determine  the  time  and  place  of 
sale,  and  to  arrange  accordingly.  In  London,  and, 
indeed,  in  most  parts,  it  is  sufficient  to  arrange  the 
date,  say,  six  weeks  ahead,  and  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  locality  to  fix  the  hour  of  sale. 
[f  the  property  is  to  go  to  the  hammer  at  the  London 
Mart,  a  room  has  to  be  booked  during  the  busy 
season  sometimes  two  months  hi  advance,  and  here 
a  fee  of  5s.  is  payable  on  booking.  There  are  many 
sized  rooms  to  be  had,  and,  if  he  is  at  all  nervous, 
it  is  advisable  to  secm-e  one  where  the  auctioneer 
on  standing  in  his  rostrum  has  his  back  to  the  light. 
The  next  matter  is  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  property  and 
make  a  thorough  survey,  taking  particular  care  to 
observe  the  best  characteristics  of  the  house,  land, 
or  other  property  which  it  is  his  object  to  present 
to  his  patrons  in  as  favourable  a  light  as  is  consistent 
with  an  accurate  description. 

The  Announcing  Bill.  It  is  the  auctioneer's 
business  to  draw  up  the  announcing  bill.  This  is  an 
important  matter,  and  one  which  is  sometimes  thought 
little  or  nothing  of  by  many  auctioneers.  It  should 
comprise  as  brief  an  epitome  of  the  property  for  sale 
as  possible.  It  is  the  greatest  mistake  to  crowd  it 
with  a  mass  of  unnecessary  matter,  and  it  should  be 
the  aim  of  our  embryo  auctioneer  to  draw  a  short 
and  pithily-worded  announcing  poster,  and  to  see 
that  it  is  well  set  out  with  what  we  may  term  the 
"  selling  points  "  of  the  property  properly  accentuated. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  bill  is  to  catch  the 
eye  of  passers-by,  and  it  is  sufficient  that  the  locality, 
a  short  description  and  address  of  the  house,  together 
with  the  time  and  place  of  sale,  with  the  auctioneer's 
name  and  address,  be  brought  out  well.  Endeavour  to 
•'  lighten  "  the  bill  by  employing  two  or  three  styles 
of  type,  and  with  a  little  patience  it  will  be  surprising 
how  attractive  our  black  and  white  poster  will 
appear.  Proofs  should  always  be  submitted  to  the 
vendor's  solicitor  for  approval  before  handing  the 
bills  to  the  poster. 

It  will  now  be  neces>ary  to  open  an  "  Auction 
Expenses  Account  "  against  the  client,  in  this  style: 

Sale  by  auction  of 

At  the  London  Mart 

on KM)  .at o'clock 

Vendor's  Name Solicitor's  Name 

Address. Address 

Instruction-  o-iven 1!H)  .  Confirmed 190 


Commission  at  the  rate  of    

Expenses  limited  to  £ 

Below  this,  of  course,  follows  the  statement: 


5 

soi 


To  hire  of  room  at  the  Mart  . .  j 

To  cost  of  doublc-tlemv  announeiii""    ' 

bills ;     ..     .;  j 

To  cost  of  double-sheet   particulars    j 
To  billposriiii;-  on  own  stations 
,,  ,,  ,,    licensed    stations 

,,  ,,  .,    licensed    railway 

stations         

To    hillposting    <ui    property,    pole 
])oards,  etc 

Advertising  in  : 

"Times"'  .January  1,3,   5,  9 

"Daily  Telegraph -:   ,,      2,4,   8,10 
"Daily  Mail"  „      3,5,   9,11 

"Daily News"  ,,      4,6,    8,10 

"  Morning-  Post "      ,,      5,  9, 11, 13 
"  Estates  Gazette  "  ,, 
"Local  Mercury"     ,,     etc.,  etc. 

To  Postages  and  petty  expenses     . . 


With  an  account  such  as  this  it  is  possible  to 
calculate  to  a  nicety  what  proportion  of  the  out-of- 
pocket  expenses  are  to  be  allocated  to  the  different 
items  of  expenditure.  As  a  rule,  a  double-demy 
poster  will  cost  about  12s.  per  hundred,  two-page 
particulars  cost  from  18s.  to  20s.  per  hundred, 
according  to  the  amount  of  matter  and  revising 
required.  Photograph  blocks  cost  about  lOd.  ]>er 
square  inch  to  reproduce  on,  say,  300  particulars,  and 
line  block  reproductions  cost  about  the  same  amount. 
The  hire  of  the  room  costs  from  £2  2s.  to  £5  5s., 
according  to  the  size  and  time  of  sale,  and  the  rent 
of  licensed  hoardings  may  be  Id.  per  double-demy 
sheet  per  week.  The  usual  charge  by  the  railways  is 
3s.  per  month  per  station  for  each  bill,  including  the 
fixing  and  removal  of  the  board,  which  is  supplied 
by  the  company's  advertising  agent.  We  must 
remember  the  posting  of  the  bills  on  the  premises, 
and  must  bear  in  mind  that  in  issuing  bills  to  the 
billposter  of  somewhat  elastic  conscience,  it  may  be 
as  well  to  assume  that  the  whole  of  the  bills  may 
not  be  distributed.  Having  set  aside  a  reasonable 
sum  for  postage  and  other  petty  expenses,  we  have 
a  balance  which  we  can  devote  to  what  we  must 
regard  as  our  most  fruitful  channel — Press  advertising. 

Advertising.  We  now  draw  out  the  adver- 
tisements, which,  like  the  announcing  bill,  should  be 
as  pithy  and  concise  as  possible.  The  great  dailies 
charge  8d.  to  Is.  per  line  of  about  eight  words, 
and  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  reckon  on  these  lines. 
If  an  advertisement  appears  for  a  month  every 
other  day,  the  cost  would  amount  to,  roughly, 
£7  or  so.  A  diary  of  the  advertisements  should 
be  written  up  to  check  due  insertion.  Whatever, 
then,  the  limit  for  out-of-pocket  expenses  may 

i,  we  are  able  so  to  lay  oxir  plans  that  we  are  not 
some  pounds  out  of  hand  over  the  transaction.  Of 
course,  there  are  some  cases  where  a  little  speculative 
expenditure  may  be  well  advised,  but  this  is  purely  a 
matter  of  circumstance. 

Particulars  of  Sale.  We  next  pass  on  to 
(he  "particulars."  As  a  rule,  these  consist  in  a  title- 
page  with  as  many  followers  as  are  requisite,  finishing 
up  with  the  conditions  of  sale  and  the  memorandum 
of  agreement.  The  title-page  may  set  out  the  general 
points  .of  the  estate,  and  if  the  rule  applied  to  furniture 
sales  be  followed,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  introduce  a 
reproduction  in  miniature  of  the  announcing  bill. 
Having  attended  and  thoroughly  surveyed  the  pro- 
perty and  taken  or  checked  the  particulars  in  a  note- 
book kept  for  the  purpose,  we  inquire  of  the  solicitor 


AUCTIONEERING    AND    VALUING 

acting  for  the  vendor  how  he  desires  the  property 
lotted,  and  arrange  accordingly.  Each  lot  should  be 
described  accurately,  be  it  land,  house  property,  free- 
hold ground  rent,  or  reversion,  and  giving  particulars 
of  tenure,  ground,  or  other  rent,  accommodation, 
notes  as  to  tenancies,  etc.  After  lotting,  a  draft  is 
prepared  and  sent  to  the  solicitor  for  approval,  with 
the  request  that  he  will  return  same  with  the  draft 
conditions  of  sale.  The  whole  is  printed,  and  properly 
endorsed  with  a  note  of  the  property  offered,  the  time 
and  place  of  sale,  the  name  of  the  auctioneers,  and 
that  of  the  solicitor  at  the  foot.  When  the  "  proofs  " 
arrive,  they  have  to  be  corrected  and  forwarded 
to  the  solicitor  for  final  approval  to  ensure  accuracy. 

A  note  must  be  kept  of  all  applications  in  a  book 
— which  is  useful  for  after  reference — so  that,  a  day 
or  so  before  the  time  of  sale,  inquirers  may  be  written 
to  with  a  reminder  that  the  sale  takes  place  on  such- 
and-such  a  date,  finishing  with  a  request  for  the 
addressee's  favoured  attendance  and  bidding. 

As  the  sale  day  draws  round,  the  desk  particulars  are 
prepared  for  the  use  of  the  auctioneer  and  his  clerk. 
These  are  merely  ordinary  particulars  interleaved 
with  ruled  foolscap,  partitioned  off  and  numbered 
according  to  the  lots  opposite  to  which  they  appear, 
and  enclosed  in  a  cartridge  paper  cover,  neatly 
bound  up  in  green  silk. 

The  Day  of  the  Sale.  The  sale  day 
having  arrived,  we  send  down  by  our  junior 
a  supply  of  bills  and  sufficient  particulars  to 
exhibit  in  the  sale-room.  He  should  arrive  in 
good  time,  followed  as  the  hour  of  sale  draws 
near  by  the  auctioneer  and  his  clerks,  with  their 
desk  particulars,  auction  licence,  sixpenny  contract 
stamps,  name  and  address  tablet,  hammer,  and  a 
supply  of  bills  and  particulars.  This  latter  pre- 
caution should  never,  on  any  occasion,  be  omitted. 
We  ascertain  that  the  solicitor  is  present  with  the 
title  deeds,  and  perhaps  discuss  briefly  with  our 
client  the  possibilities  of  reducing  the  reserve,  if 
it  should  happen  that  it  has  been  fixed  rather 
higher  than  anticipated. 

The  sale  then  opens.  To  an  auctioneer  making 
his  maiden  appearance  the  ordeal  is  sometimes  a 
trying  one,  but  any  attempt  at  eloquent  passages 
on  such  an  occasion  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
The  reading  through  of  the  particulars  may  serve 
to  break  the  ice,  and  it  is  always  remarked  that 
the  conditions  of  sale  are  taken  as  read,  but  that 
the  vendor's  solicitor  will  answer  any  question 
arising  thereon.  To  eulogise  a  property  is  super- 
fluous— one  is  dealing  with  business  men,  and  this 
should  always  be  borne  in  mind. 

Biddings  are  asked,  and  the  auctioneer  must 
begin  to  use  his  eyes  well.  He  should  endeavour 
to  get  into  touch  with  two  or  more  bidders 
who  seem  to  desire  the  property,  and,  by  setting 
one  bid  against  another,  should  try  to  create  a 
market  between  them.  When  there  is  a  reserve, 
the  vendor  will  be  entitled  to  bid  up  to  that  reserve, 
provided  he  discloses  his  intention  upon  the  condi- 
tions of  sale;  it  is  against  the  law  to  bid  up  a 
property  on  behalf  of  the  vendor,  where  the  sale 
is  announced  as  without  reserve.  WThen  the  bid- 
ding has  passed  the  price  fixed,  the  auctioneer  may 
stimulate  competition  by  announcing  the  pro- 
perty as  in  the  open  market,  and  at  the  fall  of  the 
hammer,  after  asking  for  further  advances  in  the 
usual  manner,  he  should  request  the  purchaser  to 
come  forward  and  sign  the  form  of  agreement. 

The  contract  is  an  all-important  document,  and 
must,  in  every  case,  disclose  the  name  of  the  vendors, 
or  it  will  be  void,  under  the  Statute  of  Frauds.  It  is 

4987 


AUCTIONEERING     AND     VALUING 

executed  in  two  parts,  one  by  the  auctioneer,  and  the 
other  by  the  purchaser,  the  auctioneer  being  consti- 
tuted the  stakeholder.  The  purchaser  signs  over  a 
.sixpenny  stamp,  or  the  signature  may  be  made  on  the 
mere  paper,  and  the  "document  afterwards  im- 
pressed with  a  sixpenny  stamp.  We  would  here 
remark  that  in  many  conditions  of  sale  there  ap- 
pears a  clause  to  the' e fleet  that  if  any  documents 
comprised  in  the  title,  and  executed  prior  to  the 
passing  of  the  Customs  and  Inland  Revenue  Act 
of  1888,  be  found  to  be  unstamped  or  insufficiently 
stamped,  no  objection  (that  is,  by  the  purchaser) 
shall  be  taken.  If  this  clause  appears,  the  Inland 
Revenue  authorities  will  refuse  to  stamp  any  such 
contract,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  always  as  well 
to  use  an  adhesive  stamp,  duly  cancelled  by  the 
purchaser's  signature.  It  is  the  custom  of  the 
auctioneer  to  sign  his  part  over  a  penny  stamp. 
Many  purchasers  refuse  to  accept  the  contract  where 
a  sixpenny  stamp  has  not  been  used  on  the  part 
signed  by  the  auctioneer,  who,  bearing  in  mind  his 
fiduciary  position,  would  do  well  to  make  no 
objection. 

The  auctioneer,  on  his  return  to  the  office,  makes 
out  an  exact  copy  of  the  contracts  in  his  possession, 
it  not  being  necessary  at  the  moment  for  him  to  part 
with  the  originals,  and  he  then  forwards  them  to  the 
vendor's  solicitor. 

The  Auctioneer  as  Stakeholder. 
The  custom  in  London  is  for  the  auctioneer  to 
receive  and  hold  the  deposit  as  stakeholder,  and  he 
is  accountable  for  it  to  his  vendor.  On  receipt  by 
him  of  a  letter  signed  by  the  purchaser  to  the  effect 
that  the  purchase  has  been  completed,  the  auctioneer 
is  at  liberty  to  hand  over  the  deposit.  This  is  done 
in  the  usual  way,  deductions  being  made  from  it 
for  out-of-pocket  expenses  and  commission  as  agreed, 
a  cheque  for  the  balance  being  forwarded.  It 
occasionally  happens  that  an  auctioneer  is  made 
the  party  to  an  action  at  law  by  either  vendor  or 
purchaser  to  recover  the  deposit.  Inasmuch  as  an 
auctioneer  must  not  part  with  the  money  until 
he  lias  the  authority  of  the  purchaser  that  the  pur- 
chase has  been  completed,  his  position  under 
circumstances  such  as  these  is  somewhat  disagree- 
able; and  he  would  be  well  advised  in  get  ling 
rid  of  his  liability  by  paying  the  deposit  into 
court.  His  action  in  this  case  will  not  debar 
him  from  recovering  his  commission  and  expenses 
as  agreed. 

There  are  one  or  two  points  which  are  likely  to 
arise  during  the  course  of  a  sale  by  auction  which  may 
here  be  noted.  During  the  opening  of  a  sale  it  may 
happen  that  any  one  of  the  audience  may  make 
use  of  some  deprecatory  remarks  in  the  hope 
of  stifling  competition.  The  best  way  for  the 
auctioneer  to  act  is  to  inform  his  questioner  that 
he  is  selling  as  per  particulars,  and  if  the  person 
making  the  interruption  has  any  doubt  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  property  his  obvious  course 
is  to  refrain  from  bidding  altogether. 

With  regard  to  disputed  bids,  it  has  been  held 
that  the  auctioneer  is  entitled  to  decision,  although 
Hie  best  course  is  to  offer  the  lot  again  at  the  last 
undisputed  bidding. 

Sales  by  Order  of  Chancery.  We  now 
have  to  consider  sales  by  order  of  the  Court  of 
Chancery.  The  instructions  in  these  cases  come 
through  the  solicitor  acting  in  the  matter,  and  the 
auctioneer,  as  a  rule.  i>  nominated  to  the  judge  \>\- 
the  solicitor  for  the  successful  party  to  the  action. 
When  an  auctioneer  is  nominated  he  must  provide 
twf)  testimonials  from  men  of  standing  as  to  his 


ability  and  integrity,  and  must  also  procure  a 
security  bond  in  the  amount  of  the  money  which 
is  likely  to  pass  through  his  hands.  He  proceeds 
with  the  sale  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  bills  announc- 
ing the  sale  being  headed,  "  In  the  High  Court  of 

. Division.     By  Order   of   Mr.    Justice 

."       Underneath  the  auctioneer's  name,  which 

in  this  case  must  be  printed  in  full  (although 
he  may  add  afterwards  "  of  the  firm  of  Messrs.  80- 
and-So"),  appear  the  words  "the  person  appointed 
by  the  judge  in  the  action."  On  the  sale  clay  the 
procedure  is  as  before,  with  the  difference  that 
the  auctioneer  is  provided  with  the  particulars  of 
his  reserve  price  in  a  sealed  envelope,  which  he  re- 
ceives from  the  Court,  and  which  are  thus  designated 
his  "sealed  instructions."  After  ascertaining  that 
he  has  received  the  highest  obtainable  bid,  the 
auctioneer  requests  the  last  bidder  to  come  forward, 
and,  without  using  his  hammer,  he  opens  his  sealed 
instructions,  announces  the  property  as  sold  or  not. 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  should  then,  if  sold,  close 
the  deal  by  hammering  it  at  the  last  bid.  A  special 
form  of  contract,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  form, 
properly  executed  in  two  parts,  is  provided,  which 
the  purchaser  must  sign;  and  the  deposit  is  handed 
to  the  solicitor,  he  having  the  original  signed  con- 
tract, the  auctioneer  retaining  a  copy.  Sales  by 
order  of  the  Court  are  not  so  remunerative  from 
the  point  of  view  of  commission  as  may  be  supposed, 
for  the  remuneration  is  sometimes  cut  down  by 
half  and  three-quarters  of  the  proper  scale,  it 
being  possibly  the  opinion  that  the  kudos  gained 
ought  to  be  considered  as  sufficient  solatium. 

Rendering  Accounts.  In  rendering  ac- 
counts, it  need  scarcely  be  added,  the  auctioneer 
must  not  be  a  party  to  the  making  of  secret  com- 
missions obtained  through  giving  orders  to  a  particu- 
lar firm  of  printers  or  advertising  agents.  The 
law  on  this  point  is  stringent,  and  an  auctioneer 
will  be  liable  to  make  good  to  his  principal  any 
sums  obtained  in  this  way.  Nor  must  he  receive 
commissions  from  the  purchaser  without  the 
vendor's  knowledge  and  approval.  If  he  should 
do  so,  however,  he  is  liable,  not  only  to  pay 
over  any  such  sum  obtained  in  this  way,  but  also 
to  repay  his  proper  commission  obtained  on  the 
sale,  and  may  even  suffer  prosecution  by  the 
Corrupt  Practices  Act,  1907. 

We  append  below  a  scale  of  remuneration. 
FOE  THE  SALE  BY  AUCTION  OF  FREE- 
HOLD  AND   COPYHOLD  PROPERTIES   OR 
or  LEASEHOLDS  HELD  AT  GROUND  RENTS 
On  the  first  £100     ..     5  per  cent  (in  no  cases  less 

than  £5). 

From  £100  to  £5,000  5  per  cent,  on  the  first  £100, 
and  2£  per  cent,  on  the 
remainder. 

Above  £5,000  . .  . .  2i  per  cent,  on  the  first 
if), 000,  H  per  cent,  from 
£5,000  to  £10,000,  and  1  per 
cent,  upon  the  remainder. 
And  in  each  case  where  fix- 
tures, timber,  tenant-right. 
stock,  or  other  effects  are 
included  in  the  sale,  the 
amount  agreed  to  be  paid,  if 
without  valuation,  will  be 
added  to  the  sum  obtained 
for  the  property,  and  com- 
mission charged  upon  the 
gross  amount, 
generally  recognised  throughout 


This    scale    is 
the  profession. 


Continued 


408K 


FISHERIES 


The  Vast   Extent  of  British   Fisheries. 
Methods   of  Capture.      Nets  and   Lines 


Steamers  and  Smacks, 
Motor   Fishing   Craft 


Group  16 

FOOD  SUPPLY 
14 


Continued  f  r 
pare  4848 


By    Dr.    J.    TRAVIS    JENKINS 


U"KW  people — even  those  who  are  engaged  in  one 
or  other  of  its  numerous  branches — have  any 
adequate  idea  of  the  enormous  proportions  of  the 
British  fishing  industry.  The  not  infrequent  reports 
of  casualties  to  fishing  vessels  which  are  met  with 
in  the  columns  of  the  daily  Press  furnish  the  reader 
with  some  idea  of  the  dangers  incidental  to  a 
calling  at  all  times  difficult  and 
hazardous,  success  in  which  is  only 
granted  to  the  active  and  bold,  and 
mistakes  in  which  result  too  often 
in  a  speedy  death. 

Vast  Extent  of  British 
Fisheries.  At  the  present 
moment  there  are  over  27,000 
vessels  engaged  in  fishing  from  the 
various  ports  in.  the  British  Isles. 
These  vessels  are  manned  by  not 
li-<  limn  100,000  fishermen*  and 
in  the  course  of  twelve  months  they  land  nearly 
1 ,000,000  tons  of  fish,  worth  to  the  fishermen  about 
£10,000,000.  By  the  time  this  fish  has  reached 
the  consumer  its  value  will  be 
considerably  enhanced,  the  exact 
amount  paid  by  the  consumer  being 
probably  not  less  than  £100,000  per 
day.  The  value  of  the  ten  most 
important  fishes  in  the  year  1905  is 
appended: 

Herrii  it:  .  .  .  .   £2,629,348 

Haddock          1,867.073 

Cod 1,187.403 

Plaice       ..  ..      ..     1,095,416 

Soles  . .         485.718 

Mackerel .  .  437,270 

Hake  ..         350,147 

Turbot     .  342,525 

Halibut 280,574 

Skates  and  Rays    . .      . .        217,152 

For  the  purpose  of  fishery  statis- 
tics a  distinction  is   drawn  between 
wet  fish   and    shell  fish,  the   former 
being  fishes  proper,   the  latter  including  oysters, 
mussels,  cockles,  crabs,  shrimps,  and  lobsters. 

Trawling.  Of  the  various  methods  of  capture 
in  vogue  at  the 
present  day,  un- 
doubtedly t  h  e 
most  important 
is  trawling. 
Trawling  is 
carried  on  from 
both  steam  and 
sailing  vessels, 
the  latter  being 
divided  into  two 
classes — the  first 
class  consisting 
of  vessels  of  up- 
wards of  1 5  tons 
[21,  the  second 
class  of  vessels 
below  that  tonnage.  The  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  rise  of  the  trawling  industry  is  the  rapid 
•iTowth  both  in  numbers  and  in  size  of  the  steam 


TRAWLING    FOR    SHRIMPS 
FROM  A   CART 


2.    FIRST-CLASS    DEEP-SEA 
SAILING    TRAWLER 

(The  beam  trawl  is  on  deck) 


trawler,  and  the  consequent  supplanting  of  the 
smack.  In  1905  there  were  1,173  steam  trawlers 
and  904  sailing  trawlers  of  the  first  class  exclu- 
sively engaged  in  trawling  from  ports  in  England 
and  Wales. 

Steamer  versus  Smack.  The  slow  method 
of  the  cutter  is  rapidly  giving  way  to  the 
scientific  methods  of  the  steam 
trawler  [3],  But  since  the  tendency 
of  modern  legislation  is  to  exclude 
the  steam  trawler  more  and  more 
from  the  inshore  waters,  there 
always  will  be  room  for  the  inshore 
fisherman,  who,  however,  in  order  to 
be  able  to  compete  in  the  market 
with  his  wealthier  and  more  power- 
ful rival,  will  have  to  adopt  newer 
methods.  Already  on  the  Continent 
fishing  boats  which  formerly  relied 
on  the  wind  for  their  propulsion  are  being  exten- 
sively fitted  up  with  motors,  and  the  attention  of 
the  English  smacksman  is  earnestly  directed  to  the 
description  of  motor  fishing  boats 
which  we  give  below. 

Trawl  Nets.  Modern  trawl 
nets  are  of  two  main  types,  the 
beam  trawl  and  the  otter  trawl,  the 
former  being  almost  exclusively 
used  in  sailing  vessels,  the  latter  in 
steamers.  Both  nets  are  con- 
structed and  fished  with  the  same 
object  —  they  sweep  along  the 
ground,  and  consequently  are  only 
adapted  for  catching  those  fish 
which  live  on  or  near  the  bottom. 
Such  fish  as  soles,  dabs,  plaice, 
haddock,  and  cod  are  captured  by 
this  method  of  fishing,  other 
methods  being  employed  for  herring, 
mackerel,  and  similar  species  which 
live  near  the  surface.  The  net  attached  to  the  beam — 
which  consists  of  wood,  and  averages  from  20  to 
50. ft.  in  length,  according  to  the  size  of  the  vessel 

using     it  —  is 
shaped    some- 
what   like 
flattened 


3.     FLEETWOOD     STEAM  TRAWLER 


a 

cone 

[5].  The  beam 
is  affixed  at  each 
end  to  a  trian- 
gular iron  frame 
— the  tratvl  head 
—  these  frames 
being  dragged 
along  the  bot- 
tom with  the 
beam  attached 
to  the  apex  of 
the  triangle  so 
that  when  in 
action  the  beam  is  raised  a  few  feet  above  the  ground 
and  forms  the  upper  boundary  of  the  mouth 
of  the  trawl  [4].  The  lower  margin  of  the  trawl 

4089 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

mouth  consists  of  a  heavy  rope,  the  foot-rope, 
considerably  longer  than  the  beam,  so  that  it  curves 
backwards  behind  the  beam,  and,  unlike  it,  is  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  The  terminal  portion  of 
i  lie  net  is  known  as  the  cod-end,  and  is  fastened  by 
a  rope  which  can  be  detached  when  the  trawl  is 
hoisted  on  deck,  the  catch  being  thus  easily  liberated. 
At  intervals  in  the  net  there  are  net-like  contrivances 
known  as  pockets,  which,  in  effect  .  minimise  the  effort  s 
of  fish  to  escape  through  the  mouth  of  the  net.  The. 
i  ra  wl  is  towed  along  by  two  ropes,  the  bridles,  which 
an-  attached  to  the  trawl-heads,  and  united  at  the 
to  form  a  single  towing  rope  —  the  tr<m-l- 


u-arp. 

Improvement  of  the  Trawl.  About  the 
year  1893  a  modification  of  the  trawl  was  intro- 
duced, and  this  may  briefly  be  described  as  a 
supersession  of  the  beam  by  means  of  a  rope  called 
the  head-line,  the  main  advantages  being  a  greater 
length  of  opening,  head-lines  of  over  a  hundred 
feet  in  length  being  common.  At  either  end  of  tin- 
foot-rope  is  attached  a  heavy  wooden  door-like 


Drift    Netting.     While    trawling    and  fining 

arc  the  methods  employed  for  the  capture  of  bottom 
living  fish,  for  those  fish  which  live  in  intermediate 
depths  to  the  surface  other  methods  have  to.be  used. 
Such  a  method  is  the  drift-net,  extensively  practised 
in  the  capture  of  herring,  mackerel,  and  pilchards.  A 
drift-net  is  usually  composed  of  pieces  of  net  measur- 
ing 10  yards  in  depth  and  30  fathoms  in  length.  From 
a  large  drifter  the  train  or  fleet  of  nets  may  be  a  couple 
of  miles  or  more  in  length.  The  whole  net  hangs 
vertically  in  the  water,  forming  a  wall  of  network 
against  which  the  fish  impinge.  The  upper  sur- 
face of  the  net  is  attached  to  a  rope  supported  by 
eork  floats,  the  whole  apparatus  being  so  arranged 
that  it  can  be  fished  at  any  required  depth,  and  when 
fishing  it  drifts  with  the  tide.  Nets  of  differ  ent- 
sized  mesh  are  used  according  to  the  fish  which  it  is 
desired  to  capture,  the  usual  size  for  mackerel 
being  U  in.  from  knot  to  knot,  for  herring  1  in.,  and 
for  pilchards  f  in.  When  a  fish  strikes  against  the 
net  its  head  passes  through,  but  owing  to  the  in- 
creasing size  of  its  body  the  fish  is  fixed  in  the  mesh. 


*.  TK.YWL  HEADS,  BEAM,  MOUTH 
OF    NET,   ETC. 

Showing  how  tin-  bridle*  arc  at  taehcd 


board,  the  otter  •board,  and  to 
these  boards  the  trawl-rope-*  are 
attached  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  former  are  dragged  along  the 
bottom  on  one  of  their  long  edges, 
the  surface  of  the  board  being 
inclined  at  an  angle  to  the  direction  in  which  the 
net  is  being  dragged,  so  that  the  mouth  of  the  net  is 
kept  open.  There  are  two  warps  used  with  the  otter - 
trawl,  instead  of  one  only  as  in  the  beam-trawl. 
When  the  trawl  is  shot  and  on  the  bottom,  the 
steamer  tows  it  along  slowly,  a  fair  average  speed 
being  about  three  miles  an  hour.  The  pressure  of 
water  is  exercised  in  such  a  manner  that  the  boards 
are  forced  upwards  and  apart,  the  mouth  of  the 
net  being  thus  kept  hi  a  distended  position.  The 
head-line,  which  is  a  few  feet  from  the  bottom, 
passes  over  the  fish  before  they  are  disturbed  by 
the  foot-rope,  which  curves  backwards  as  described 
above.  The  fish  when  disturbed  swim  upwards  and 
strike  the  netting  of  the  upper  part  of  the  net, 
which  is  now  well  above  them,  and  the  pressure  of 
the  water  forces  them  into  the  net  towards  the  cod- 
end.  The  lower  part  of  the  net,  which  runs  along 
the  bottom,  is  subject  to  considerable  wear  and  tear. 
and  is  strengthened  by  apron-like  pieces  of  netting. 
which  save  the  net  proper  [6]. 

The  Seine.      Intermediate    between    the//v//r/ 

and  the  drift-net  described  below  is  the  wine,  which 
resembles  the  trawl  in  its  being  dragged  through 
the  water,  arid  the  drift-net  in  that  it  is  a  vertical 
wall  of  netting.  It  is  almost  exclusively  employed 
in  inshore  tithing,  and  for  such  tish  as  herring. 
mackerel,  pilchards,  bass,  and  mullet.  The  seine 
consists  of  a  vertical  wall  of  netting,  to  the  upper 
part  of  which  corks  or  /lont-i  are  attached,  to  the 
lower  part  weights  or  sinkers.  It  is  used  from  two 
b«>a  ts  or  from  the  shore  with  one  boat.  In  either  case 
the  net  is  piled  up  in  the  stern  of  the  boat  which 
moves.  In  this  way  an  area  is  surrounded  by  the 
net.  which  i>  pulled  in  gradually  towards  the  shore. 

4990 


5.  DIAGRAM   OF  BEAM  TRAWL 

a.  Where  the  net  is  sewn  together  to 
form  pockets  ft.  Where  the  square 
joins  the  baitings  e.  Foot -rope 
(I.  Grommets  e.  Forward  bridle 
/.  Dandy  bridle  g.  After  bridle 
h.  Beam  j.  Head-line  k.  Square  of 
net  1.  Wing's  m.  Baiting  on  top, 
belly  underneath  n.  Pocket  o.  Flap- 
per p.  Cod  end  (/.Poke-line  r.  Cod-line 


i:iv\.\i   TRAWL  WITH  COD- 
END    UNLOOSED 


Kven  in  this  method  of  fishing 
we  find  steamers  extensively 
employed.  In  U.M)4  there  were 
75  steam  drifters  engaged  in 
Scotland  alone,  in  addition  to 
thousands  of  sailing  boat*. 

Drift  nets  were  originally  made 
of  hemp  in  Ireland,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man  of  flax,  but 
at  the  present  day  they  are  chiefly  made  of  cotton, 
the  greater  lightness  of  which  has  enabled  fishermen 
to  extend  the  length  of  their  nets.  The  intro- 
duction of  an  auxiliary  engine  for  hauling  nets  has 
also  enabled  fishermen  to  extend  the  length. 

The  Trammel  Net.  Except  for  the  fact 
that  it  is  fixed,  the  trammel  might  well  be  regarded 
as  an  offshoot  of  the  drift  net.  It  consists  of  three 
vertical  nets  fastened  together  at  the  top,  bottom, 
and  ends.  The  middle  net  hangs  loose,  and  is  of 
small  mesh.  The  outer  nets,  one  on  either  surface, 
have  wide  meshes  from  three  to  six  inches  or  more 
from  knot  to  knot,  and  are  of  coarser  tliread  than 
the  inner  net.  The  fish  swims  along  until  it 
strikes  the  outer  net,  then  it  darts  forward  suddenly, 
pushes  against  the  central  net,  and  carries  a  portion 
of  it  through  the  large  meshed  net  on  the  other  side. 
The  fish  is  then  safely  trapped  in  a  sort  of  pocket, 
or,  technically,  is  trammelled. 

The  Stake  Net.  The  stake  net  is  a  vertical 
wall  of  netting  supported  by  stakes,  and  is  a  fixed 
apparatus  employed  in  estuaries.  It  is  a  very 
ancient  method  of  fishing,  and  a  very  destructive 
one,  consequently  its  use  is  restricted  as  far  as 
possible.  As  a  general  rule  these  nets  may  not 
now  be  set  right  across  a  stream  or  channel,  and 
there  are  other  regulations,  which  vary  in  different 
localities,  as  to  the  size  of  mesh,  and  the  total 
length  of  the  net.  The  varieties  of  stake  net 
are  legion,  but  it  is  in  the  United  States  that  they 
have  reached  their  maximum  development.  In  this 
country  the  nets  are  usually  a  simple  wall  with 
or  without  a  trap-Tike  arrangement  at  the  fishing 
end.  They  are  set  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 


HHHH 


7.    LONGITUDINAL    SECTION    OF    DEEP-SEA    CUTTER    "  ELLEN  " 

Forecastle    6.  Space  for  salted  flsh    c.  Ballast    a.  Well     e.  Grating    /.  Motor  of  4-h.p.    g.  Motor  of  16-h.p. 
room    j.  Captain's  cabin    k   Hatchway    I.  Roof  of  motor-room 


Motor- 


r;t  rite  lido,  and  may  be  calculated,  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  to  yield  the  maximum  of  result 
with  the  minimum  of  effort. 

Line  Fishing.  A  large  quantity  of  deep  sea 
fish  is  still  caught  by  lining,  and  this  is  more  par- 
ticularly 'the  case  in  Scotland,  where,  in  1905,  no 
less  than  164  steamers  and  4,593  sailing  vessels  were 
engaged  in  this  branch  of  fishing,  their  catch  during 
the  year  amounting  to  735,654  cwt.,  and  its  value 
being  £348,610.  A  line  as  used  on  a  steam  vessel 
is  usually  several  miles  in  length,  and  at  intervals  of 
about  6  ft.  is  provided  with  pieces  of  line,  the 
tnoods,  to  which  baited  hooks  are  attached.  The 
position  of  the  line  is  marked  by  buoys.  The  hooks 
arc  usually  baited  with  mussels,  whelks  or  herring, 
and  the  lines  are  shot  in  the  evening,  and  fished  in 
tlu-  morning.  The  line  can  be  used  on  rocky 
ground  where  trawling  is  obviously  impossible. 

Fishing  for  Crustacea.  In  addition  to 
th?  various  methods  of  fishing  for  wet  fish,  which 
hiivi-  been  described,  there  is  an  extensive  fishery 
for  various  Crustacea  such  as  shrimps,  prawns, 
lobsters  and  crabs,  the 
value  of  which  to  the 
fish  or  men  for  England  and 
Wales  alone  is  certainly 
not  loss  than  £200,000  a 
year.  Shrimps  are  fished 
for  by  traui  nds,  and  also 
by  hand  nets.  The  former 
are  modifications  of  the 
beam  trawl  adapted  for 
i-atching  shrimps,  the  mesh 
being  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  from  knot  to  knot, 
and  the  beam  not  more 
than  25  ft.  in  length.  The 
•*hank  net  is  very  similar, 
the  mouth  of  the  net 
being,  however,  kept  open 
by  means  of  an  oblong 
frame  of  iron  or  wood.  This 
net  is  used  precisely  like  a 
trawl,  being  dragged  along 
the  bottom,  and  while  so 
dragged  the  frame  is 
kept  in  a  vertical  position, 
the  longer  axis  being 
horizontal.  Such  nets  are  frequently  used  from 
carts  which  are  driven  along  in  a  few  inches  of  water 
at  low  tide  [1].  In  similar  localities,  a  hand  net,  known 
as  a  push' or  power  net,  is  used.  This  varies  in 
different  parts  of  the  coast ;  generally  speaking, 
it  consists  of  a  triangular  net  attached  to  a  frame- 
work, the  whole  apparatus  being  fixed  at  the  end 


8.    DANISH    DEEP-SEA    CUTTER  "  ELLEN 
a.  Entrance  to  captain's  cabin     b.  Auxiliary  screw 


of   motor-room 


d.  Motor  boat  on 
forecastle 


of  a  long  pole.  This  net  is  pushed  in  front  of  the 
shrimper  in  shallow  water,  at  low  tide,  and  is  hence 
locally  known  as  a  shove  net.  On  him  back,  the 
shrimper  carries  a  large  basket  for  the  reception 
of  his  shrimps.  Crabs  and  lobsters  are  mainly 
fished  for  by  baited  pots,  in  reality  basket-like 
arrangements,  or  traps,  which  afford  facilities  for 
the  ingress  but  bar  the  egress  of  the  crustacean. 
These  pots  and  baskets  are  lowered  to  the  bottom, 
often  in  fairly  deep  water  on  rocky  ground,  their 
position  being  indicated  by  buoys.  At  the  end  of 
several  hours  the  fishermen  revisit  the  grounds, 
examine  the  pots,  remove  their  lobsters  or  crabs, 
and  finally  re-bait  their  pots  with  stinking  fish. 

Fishing  in  the  Future.  A  remarkable 
change  has  taken  place  in  the  fishing  industry  dur- 
ing the  last  twenty  years.  Previous  to  the  advent 
of  the  steam  fishing  boat  the  smaller  fishing  villages 
were  relatively  far  more  important  than  they 
are  at  the  present  time,  and  the  inshore  fisherman 
who  followed  different  classes  of  fishing  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year— trawling,  drift-netting,  lining, 
and  shrimping —  is  fast 
being  replaced  by  the 
steam  fisherman,  who  is  a 
specialist  pure  and  simple. 
The  bulk  of  sea-fish  is 
landed  at  half  a  dozen  large 
ports,  such  as  Grimsby, 
Hull,  Aberdeen,  Milford, 
Fleetwood,  and  Liverpool, 
where  access  to  the  quays 
and  wharves  is  available 
at  all  stages  of  the  tide. 
The  fish  landed  is  usually 
sold  at  once  by  auction, 
and  then  forwarded  to  the 
markets  at  the  large 
inland  towns.  The  sailing 
smack  owned  partly  or 
entirely  by  the  man  who 
sailed  her  is  slowly  but 
surely  decreasing  in  num- 
bers, and  is  being  sup- 
planted by  the  steamer, 
}  owned  almost  invariably 
by  persons  whose  interest 
in  the  fisheries  is  mainly 
dependent  upon  their  dividends.  The  fishermen  are 
paid  servants,  or  in  some  instances  are  paid  by  a 
share  of  the  gross  profits,  the  skipper  and  mate 
usually  being  paid  by  shares,  the  rest  of  a  crew  by 
a  weekly  wage.  Already  there  are  whispers  of  ''  rings  " 
of  buyers  and  dealers  in  fish,  and  who  can  say 
what  the  future  of  the  inshore  fisherman  is  to  be  ? 

4991 


Entrance  to 


FOOD     SUPPLY 

Conditions  of  Success  in  the  Future. 

The   self-reliant    and    independent    fisherman   will, 
therefore,  take  heed  of  the  future:   only  by  embrac- 
ing as  far  as  may  be  practicable  newer  methods  of 
fishing    will    he    be    able    to   compete    successfully 
with  his  formidable  rivals.     The  adoption  of  means 
tor  keeping  his  catch  in  good  condition,   and  for 
securing   its    rapid   transit   to  the 
market,  the  introduction  of  labour- 
saving  devices  for  manipulating  his 
gear^  and,  above  all,  the  question 
of  auxiliary  propulsive  methods  to 
assist  the  uncertain  winds,  are   all 
subjects    which    will    imperatively 
demand  his  immediate  and  earnest 
attention. 

The  regulations  for  the  protection 
of  the  inshore  fishing  grounds  are 
for  the  most  part  based  on  sound 
reasoning,  and  may  be  said  to  have 
been  productive  of  good  effect, 
though  their  introduction  has  not 
always  been  welcomed  by  the 
individuals  whom  they  were  de- 
signed to  benefit. 

Motor  Fishing  Craft.  The 
possibility  of  the  application  of 
motor  power  to  the  sea-fishing 
industry  has  for  some  time  been 
recognised  on  the  Continent,  notably 
in  Denmark  and  Germany,  and 
auxiliary  petrol  motors  have  been 
a  pplied  to  various  classes  of  fishing 
smacks,  and  especially  to  deep-sea 
cutters  of  similar  build,  to  the  first- 
class  English  sailiag  trawler,  to 
herring,  and  to  open  line-fishing 
boats.  This  application  must  at  present 
regarded  as  in  its  experimental  stages. 

In  the  Danish  deep-sea  liners  [8]  we  have  an 
auxiliary  screw  permanently  fitted  up,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  screw 
which  is  lowered  over 
the  stern  and  hauled  in 
at  pleasure.  The  cutter 
Ellen  with  the  letter  and 
number  K2,  Copenhagen 
2,  is  oak  built,  and  con- 
tains a  well  in  which  the 
fish  are  kept  alive.  She 
has  a  crew  of  six  men,  and 
fishes  principally  in  the 
Kattegat,  Skagerack,  and 
the  North  Sea,  and  also 
off  the  Icelandic  coast. 
She  fishes  winter  and 
summer  alike.  On  deck 
she  carries  a  motor  boat 
1!)  ft.  long,  with  a  motor  Ar 

of    U-horse    power        In  10'    DI-U)RA-VI   OF   DANISH    DEEP-SKX    CUTTEB 
longitudinal    section    [71  SUSPENDED   PROPELLKK 

Toothed    wheel      b.    Shaft      c.    Pulley       <l.   .Kncllc- 
ii-nn  bars    /. 


A  cutter  such  as  this  would  be  ,~>4  tons  LITO.-,?:. 
and  about  (50  ft.  long.  The  cost  of  building  at 
Frederikshavn  would  be  £1,020,  inclusive  of  internal 
equipment. 

Smaller  Type  of  Danish  Motor  Cut= 
ter.  A  second  description  of  motor  which  is  used 
abroad  in  the  sea  fishing  industry  is  illustrated 
in  9  and  10,  which  picture  a 
Danish  cutter  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  preceding  one.  Here  we 
have  an  example  of  a  deep-sea 
cutter  fitted  with  a  loose  suspended 
screw.  Fig.  9  shows  the  stern  of 
the  cutter  with  the  screw  in  position. 
Fig.  10  is  a  section  showing  the  way 
this  screw  is  attached  to  the  motor. 
An  axle  or  shaft  running  along  the 
upper  deck  connects  the  motor  with 
a  toothed  wheel  which  projects  over 
the  stern  of  the  cutter.  Over  this 
toothed  wheel  runs  an  endless  chain, 
by  means  of  which  the  rotation  of 
the  screw  is  set  up.  The  screw- 
axle  is  attached  to  the  hull  by 
means  of  two  movable  iron  rods, 
and  the  arrangement  is  such  that 
the  whole  can  be  removed  or 
replaced  at  pleasure.  In  stormy 
weather  the  screw  and  frame  would 
be  removed  because  it  is  easily 
washed  away.  In  calm  weather  the 
screw  is  placed  in  position, and  in  a 
cutter  of  from  20  to  40  tons  a 
motor  of  0-horse  power  would 


DANISH      DEEP- SKA    CUTTER 


be 


WITH    MOTOR    AND     LOOSELY    give  a  speed  of  from  two  to  three 
SUSPENDED  PROPELLER          knots,    which     is    quite     sufficient 
for  trawling  purposes.    Anyone  who 
lias  been  becalmed  for  two  or  three  days   at  sea 
in   a    deep-sea    smack   will  realise    the    enormous 
advantage    of   being  able   to    travel    even   at    this 
snail's    pace.       Figs.    7    to    10    have     been    repro- 
duced   from    photographs 
of   models  in  the   Altona 
Museum     and     published 
in       the      "  Mitteilungen 
des  Deutschen  Seefischerei 
Yereins." 

Open  Danish 
Motor  Boats.  In 
addition,  open  petrol - 
motor  fishing  boats  are 
used  in  the  Baltic. 
These  open  boats  possess 
a  mast  with  two  sails. 


arc     seen     the     internal  n 

arrangements  of  the  cut-  ' 

ter.     This  craft  po- 

two    petrol    motors,    one 

l(»-horse    power   machine   which   drives  the  screw, 

and  the  other  of  4-horse   power,  which   i-   u-c<|  toi 

hauling  in  the  anchor  and  fishing  line. 


being     a      two-cylinder 


The  mast  can  be  lowered 
at  pleasure.  These  boats 
a  re  about  2«U  ft,  long  and 
have  a  crew  of  four  men. 
The  motor  is  of  2 '5  h.-p. 
The  price  of  such  a  boat. 
with  motor,  sails,  anchor, 
and,  in  fact,  with  com- 
plete equipment,  would  be 
about  £118. 

All  the  boats  described  fish  principally  or  en- 
tirely with  long  lines  to  which  a  large  number  of 
hooks  are  attached,  and  the  motor  proves  of  great 
service  in  hauling  in  these  lines. 


Heniovu 


Continued 


CYCLOPAEDIA  OF  SHOPKEEPING 

SCIENTIFIC  INSTRUMENT  DEALERS.     The  Sale  of  Chemical,  Electrical, 
Radiographic,  Optical,  Meteorological,  and  Physical  Apparatus 

SEEDSMEN.     Training.     Starting  Business.     Grasses,   Flower  Seeds  and 
Bulbs.     Packet  Trade  and  Side  Lines.     Profits 

SEWING  MACHINE  DEALERS.     A  Profitable  Side  Line.     A  Small  Stock. 
Prices  and  Profits.     Selling  and  Repairing 


Group  26 

SHOPKEEPING 
35 

Continued  fix«m 
page  48fO 


SCIENTIFIC  INSTRUMENT  DEALERS 

The  dealer  in  scientific  instruments  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  exist  as  a  distinct  trader  covering  all 
the  branches  which  will  be  dealt  with  in  this 
article.  The  departments  are  usually  worked  witli 
other  businesses.  The  chemical  apparatus  section, 
for  example,  is  often  found  as  part  of  a  chemist's 
business,  and  the  sale  of  the  articles  here  classed 
as  optical  goods  is  frequently  embodied  with  the 
sale  of  spectacles.  It  has,  therefore,  been  thought 
best  to  tell  under  separate  sections  the  chief  facts 
connected  with  each  class  of  scientific  apparatus 
so  as  to  assist  those  who  would  desire  to  branch 
out  in  new  directions.  At  the  same  time  there  is 
nothing  except  the  lack  of  suitable  openings  to 
prevent  anyone  devoting  a  business  to  the  whole 
of  the  branches  dealt  with  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. The  profits  on  these  goods  are  rough!}' 
25  to  33 1  per  cent.,  which  is  little  enough  when  the 
liability  to  breakage  is  considered. 

Chemical  Apparatus.  With  the  popular- 
isation of  science  and  the  multiplication  of  science 
schools  the  demand  for  chemical  apparatus  has 
increased  of  late  years.  Nothing  fires  the  ambition 
of  a  schoolboy  more  than  to  see  chemical  ex- 
periments performed,  and  for  this  reason  a  trades- 
man with  scientific  leanings,  whose  premises  are 
in  proximity  to  a  public  school,  should  certainly 
not  neglect  to  cater  for  the  schoolboy  bent  on 
making  oxygen  or  performing  at  home  other 
simple  experiments  seen  in  the  lecture-room.  At 
some  colleges  the  student  is  required  to  provide 
a  certain  amount  of  apparatus  and  reagents,  the 
larger  apparatus  and  cheaper  reagents  being  found 
by  the  educational  establishment ;  and  again  it 
is  a  laudable  thing  that  at  certain  schools  the 
prizes  in  chemistry  classes  take  the  form  of  chemical 
cabinets.  Statham's  chemical  cabinets  are  sold 
at  prices  ranging  from  2s.  6d.  to  one  guinea ;  but 
special  sets  of  apparatus  and  chemicals  adapted 
for .  particular  textbooks  are  readily  assembled. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  most  frequently 
sold  pieces  of  apparatus  :  small  mortars  a  ad  pestles, 
in  glass,  Berlin  porcelain,  Wedgwood  or  agate, 
varying  in  price  from  4d.  for  a  porcelain  mortar 
of  2 1  in.  diameter  to  70s.  for  a  moderate  sized 
agate  mortar.  A  few  glass  mortars  is  sufficient 
for  a  small  trader  to  stock.  Bunsen  burners  sell 
at  Is.  each,  larger  and  better  ones  for  Is.  9d. 
Spirit  lamps,  1-oz.  size,  sell  at  8d.  ;  4-oz  size  at 
Is.  Wire  gauze  is  best  sold  in  6  in.  squares  at 
3d.  each  (iron);  Is.  each  (nickel) ;  and  6d.  each 
(copper).  A  newer  variety  is  that  with  an  asbestos 
centre,  selling  at  8d.  and  9d.  Crucible  tongs  sell  at 
Is.  each;  cork  borers  at  9d.  per  set  of  three;  retort 
stands  at  Is.  to  5s.,  according  to  number  and  size 
of  rings;  metal  tripods  sell  at  Is.  to  Is.  (id.  each; 
test-tube  stands  at  from  Gd.  (for  six)  to  2s.  (for 
24  tubes) ;  test-tube  brushes  sell  at  l|d.  each ; 
with  sponge  ends,  2(1.  each  :  and  the  india-rubber 

1  R  27 


variety  at  3d.  each.  Pipe-stem,  triangles  srll  -,\\ 
3d.  each  or  2s.  6d.  a  dozen.  Flasks  sell  at  3d.  each 
for  2-oz.  size ;  4d.  for  4-oz.  size ;  5d.  for  6-oz. 
size ;  and  9d.  for  20-oz.  size.  Beakers  are  best 
sold  in  sets,  the  wide  form  with  lips  being  pre- 
ferred. A  set  of  1-oz  to  5-oz.  sells  at  Is.  3d.  ; 
5  oz.  to  20-oz.  at  2s.  the  set.  Funnels  sell  at  2d. 
each  (2-in.  size) ;  3d.  (3-in.) ;  and  4d.  (4-in.) ; 
and  for  these  filter  papers,  cut  in  circles,  are  re- 
quired, selling  at  6d.,  9d.  and  Is.  3d.  per  100. 
Wash  bottles  sell  at  Is.  (10-oz.),  and  Is.  3d.  (20-oz.). 
Woulffs  bottles  with  two  necks  sell  at  9d.  (5-oz.), 
and  Is.  6d.  (15-oz.).  Blowpipes  in  japanned  tin 
sell  at  6d. ;  in  brass,  at  8d.  The  most  convenient 
size  for  test  tubes  is  5in.  by  £  in.,  these  selling  at  two 
for  l£d.  or  8d.  a  doz.,  or  5s.  6d.  a  gross.  Nests 
of  six  different  size  tubes  are  also  handy  ;  they  sell 
at  9d.  for  6,  or  Is.  6d.  for  a  nest  of  12.  Books  of 
test  papers  sell  at  2d.  each  all  kinds;  or  4d.  in 
rolls.  A  stock  of  corks  and  india-rubber  stoppers 
is  also  needed  and  reagent  bottles  varying  in  size 
from  1  oz.  to  40-oz.  It  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  dealer 
in  chemical  apparatus  to  fit  up  benches  in  schools, 
these  being  supplied  at  a  cost  of  about  42s.  per 
pupil,  the  benches  at  this  price  being  in  fours. 
A  fume  cupboard,  needed  in  every  well-appointed 
laboratory,  can  be  fitted  up  in  good  style  for  £4. 
Balances  for  weighing  small  quantities  can  bo 
supplied  at  £3  10s.  each,  a  better  instrument 
costing  £10.  Weights — in  the  metric  system — 
are  supplied  at  a  cost  of  from  2s.  6d.  to  30s.  A 
large  variety  of  graduated  glass  apparatus  is  needed 
for  accurate  analytical  work,  some  of  which  will 
need  to  be  stocked  if  the  business  increases. 

Electrical  Apparatus.  The  sale  of 
electrical  apparatus  is  an  inviting  side-line  which 
may  be  begun  with  a  small  outlay  and  grow  to 
unlimited  proportions.  A  good  show  can  be 
made  for  an  outlay  of  £5,  and  the  goods  pur- 
chased should  be  put  in  the  window  so  as  to  attract 
attention.  Start  with  the  most  simple  of  saleable 
electrical  apparatus — the  bell.  These  are  quick- 
selling  lines,  if  sold  on  cards,  complete  sets  of  parts 
for  fitting  up  a  bell  and  battery  selling  at  from  Is.  6d. 
A  complete  bell  and  battery  sells  at  5s.,  this  in- 
cluding push  and  wire.  The  portable  bells  used 
by  invalids  sell  at  from  10s.  6d.  to  15s.  each.  The 
sources  of  electricity,  that  is  the  batteries,  arc 
various.  The  Leclanche  cell,  used  in  the  above 
electric  bell  sets,  can  be  sold  at  Is.  6d.  each.  The 
other  well-known  batteries  are  .Daniell's  (complete, 
pint  size,  4s.  6d.);  Grove's  (pint  size,  4s..  platinum 
extra,  about  7s.  6d.) ;  Bunsen's  carbon  (pint, 
3s.  6d.) ;  Smee's  (pint,  5s.,  requires  a  piece  of  plat- 
inised silver),  and  bichromate  (pint  size,  3s.  6d.). 
After  the  Leclanche  the  most  popular  is  the 
bichromate  battery.  Dry  cells  are  much  in  demand, 
the  E.  C.  C.  and  Obach  cells  selling  at  from  2s. 
to  (>s.  each.  The  Obach  cells  are  distinguished 
by  letters  :  B.  D,  M,  Q.  O,  and  S.,  according  to  the 

4093 


SHOPKEEPING 

use  to  which  they  are  adapted.  The  smallest  are 
D  and  S,  and  are  useful  for  electro-medical 
purposes.  Accumulators  cost  from  10s.  for  the 
pocket  variety  to  £7  fora  six-cell  seven-plate  battery 
with  a  capacity  of  45  ampere  hours.  Spare  parts 
of  batteries  are  also  needed  and  insulated  copper 
wire  for  connections.  The  latter,  cotton  covered, 
costs  from  Is.  8d.  (S.  W.  G.  16)  to  3s.  Gd.  per  Ib. 
(S.  W.  G.  28).  Small  electric  light  sets  sell  well 
at  2s.  6d.  when  carded  in  like  manner  to  the  electric 
bell  sets.  Small  electric  motors  in  parts  sell  at  2s.  6d. 
(costing  Is.  6d.),  while  motors  ready  for  use  can 
be  bought  to  sell  profitably  at  2s.  to  15s.  These 
little  motors  are  useful  for  various  purposes,  and 
are  sold  at  prices  up  to  £4  for  serious  work.  In 
this  department  magnets  are  stocked  ;  these  cost 
from  Is.  lOd.  a  dozen  (2  in.  long)  to  90s.  a  dozen 
(14  in.  long).  These  are  the  ordinary  horse-shoe 
magnets,  but  straight  bar  magnets  are  also  in 
request,  small  ones  for  toys  costing  as  little  as 
9s.  9d.  per  gross.  A  12-in.  magnet  costs  Is.  9d. 
each  ;  a  6-in.  6d.  each.  Magneto-electric  machines 
used  for  medical  purposes  and  for  amusement 
can  be  sold  at  from  7s.  6d.  (in  pine  box)  to  two 
guineas.  The  latter  is  a  superior  apparatus  in 
mahogany  box.  Telephones  can  be  bought  to 
sell  at  as  low  as  35s.  complete.  They  are  easily 
fitted  up  and  useful  for  connecting  dining-room 
and  kitchen  or  warehouse  and  shop. 

Radiographic  Apparatus.  Closely  allied 
to  the  department  just  described  is  the  sale  of 
apparatus  for  radiography  or  for  generating  X-rays. 
Small  induction  coils  are  used  for  obtaining  shocks, 
one  to  give  |-in.  spark  selling  at  30s.  Many 
boys  prefer  to  make  their  own  coils,  and  some  suc- 
ceed, but  it  needs  the  patience  and  perseverance  of 
an  enthusiast  to  equal  the  product  of  the  factory. 
The  minimum  equipment  needed  by  the  radio- 
grapher is  a  Ruhmkorff  induction  coil  giving  at 
least  a  4-in  spark^  A  coil  this  size  costs  £10,  and 
owing  to  improvements  of  late  years,  the  size  of  the 
coil  has  now  been  reduced  to  nearly  half  of  what 
it  used  to  be.  A  source  of  electricity  is  needed  ; 
this  can  be  either  the  electric  supply  of  the  town  or 
accumulators.  A  four-cell  accumulator  (8-volt) 
costs  about  £3  10s.,  and  can  be  recharged  for  Is. 
A  Tesla  transformer  can  be  used  in  place  of  the 
coil;  the  cost  is  the  same.  The  Crookes  tubes 
cost  from  12s.  6d.  in  their  simplest  form  to  40s. 
for  some  newer  forms,  which  are  fitted  with  water- 
cooled  anodes.  The  fluorescent  screens  used  in 
X-ray  work  are  covered  with  barium  platino- 
cyanide — an  expensive  chemical — and  cost  at  the 
rate  of  £2  2s.  for  a  double-coated  screen,  7-|  by  10. 
A  few  accessories  are  needed,  such  as  tube  holder 
and  connecting  wires.  The  taking  of  radiographs 
is  a  branch  of  photography  in  that  the  plates  are 
developed  and  printed  in  the  same  way,  but  a 
camera  and  lens  are  not  employed. 

Optical  Apparatus.  Under  this  head  is 
classed  goods  in  which  lenses  are  used,  except 
photographic  lenses,  which  are  treated  of  in  the 
article  on  photography  [see  page  4419.]  Micro- 
scopes in  the  simplest  form — straight  body  in 
mahogany  box— can  be  bought,  to  sell  at  3s.  6d. ; 
\vilh  three-power,  divisible  objective,  5s.  and  6.-;. 
The  next  style  is  the  pillar  microscope,  which 
magnifies  about  thirty  times,  selling  at  8s.  6d., 
with  more  powerful  instruments,  which  sell  up 
to  20s.  The  better  class  of  microscope  for  the 
student  sells  at  two  guineas,  such  an  instrument 
having  rack  and  fine  adjustment,  and  i-in.  objec- 
tive dividing  to  A  in.  and  1  in.,  the  whole  being 
in  a  cabinet.  Better  instruments  sell  at  £5;  but 

4994 


a  micron/ope  for  bacteriological  work  costs  £15, 
and  may  cost  £50  for  one  of  the  magnificent  pro- 
ductions of  Zeiss,  of  Jena,  There  are  a  number  of 
accessories  required  for  the  worker  with  the  micro- 
scope, such  as  dissecting  scissors  (sell  at  Is.  each), 
scalpels  (Is.  each),  glass  slips  (cost  2s.  6d.  gross), 
zoophite  troughs  (Is.  and  Is.  6d.  each),  microscopic 
slide  cabinets  (from  Is.  each,  holding  12  slides,  to 
4*.  each,  holding  a  gross  of  slides).  Microscope  slides 
sell  at  from  3d.  to  Is.  each,  the  former  being  for 
small  instruments.  There  are  special  lenses  made 
for  botanical  students,  known  as  Coddington  and 
Stanhope  lenses.  These  sell  at  3s.  to  4s.  each, 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  mounted. 
The  folding  triple  lenses  much  favoured  by  natural 
history  students  sell  at  2s.  6d.,  and  cost  14s.  and 
15s.  a  dozen,  according  to  whether  the  mount  is  horn 
or  vulcanite.  Linen  provers  used  for  counting  the 
threads  in  cotton  and  linen  cloth — small  folding 
lenses — cost  from  5s.  a  dozen  to  35s.  a  dozen. 
Watchmakers'  eyeglasses  cost  4s.  to  7s.  6d.  Tripod 
microscopes,  known  also  as  gardeners'  microscopes, 
sell  at  Is.,  and  cost  9s.  a  dozen.  Toy  microscopes 
can  be  bought,  carded,  to  sell  as  low  as  6d.  each. 
Reading  glasses,  favoured  by  elderly  people,  sell  at 
9d.  to  10s.  A  good  way  to  buy  these  m  ignifbrs  is  in 
a  set  of  13,  which  costs  35s.,  a  stand  for  contain- 
ing these  being  supplied  at  4s. 

At  the  seaside  telescopes  are  saleable,  but  cheap 
carded  lines  can  be  sold  anywhere  at  prices  ranging 
from  Is.  6d.  The  better  class  telescope,  achromatic, 
three-draw,  leather  covered,  sells  at  5s.  (10  lines)  to 
15s.  (19  lines).  A  tourist  telescope  with  four  draw 
tubes,  which  sells  at  20s.  to  30s.,  is  a  popular  line. 
Such  an  instrument  has  a  sling  case  for  carrying 
it.  Marine  telescopes  sell  at  15s.  to  60s.,  and 
astronomical  telescopes  cost  from  35s.  to  £10, 
selling  at  2  guineas  to  12  guineas.  Binocular  tele- 
scopes, which  are  in  form  like  long  opera  glasses, 
cost  from  £3  to  £6,  a  medium  size,  in  case,  being 
obtainable  to  sell  at  £4.  From  binocular  telescopes 
to  opera  glasses  is  but  a  short  cut.  Opera  glasses 
can  be  had  to  sell  at  4s.  6d.,  but  these  are  non- 
achromatic,  and  unpleasant  for  continued  use. 
Achromatic  opera  glasses  (leather-covered,  nickel 
mounts,  six  lenses)  cost  about  5s.,  and  sell  well  at 
7s.  6d.  Better  instruments  cost  up  to  70s.  each, 
but  a  good  saleable  line  should  be  stocked  which 
sells  at  15s.,  which  is  the  popular  price.  There  are 
much  more  expensive  forms  of  opera  glasses,  the 
extra  cost  being  made  up  of  the  pearl  and  gilt  ex- 
teriors. Field  and  marine  glasses  cost  from  9s.  to 
60s.,  a  line  selling  at  a  guinea  and  a  half  being  in 
demand.  The  new  prism  binoculars  of  Zeiss  or 
Goerz  sell  at  from  £5  10s.  to  £9.  This  seems  a  long 
price,  but  they  arc  well  worth  it  when  the  optical 
qualities  are  considered.  Stereoscopes  are  not  at 
present  so  popular  as  formerly,  but  they  have  a 
steady  sale.  The  cheapest  sell  at  2s.  each,  a  good 
line  being  one  selling  at  5s.  The  views  for  use 
with  these  sell  at  3d.  to  Is.  3d.  each.  The  pedestal 
stereoscopes  fitted  with  revolving  stereoscope  and 
holding  50  slides  sell  at  30s.  to  £3.  Bacterio- 
logical apparatus  properly  comes  in  this  section : 
besides  a  good  microscope,  various  accessories  are 
needed  for  preparing  and  staining  the  various 
bacteria. 

Meteorological  Apparatus.  Thermo- 
meters sell  for  as  low  as  6d.,  but  at  this  price  are 
not  very  trustworthy.  One  shilling  is  a  recog- 
nised price  for  a  thermometer,  and  to  sell  at  this 
price  a  good  boxwood  scale,  mercury  column  instru- 
ment costing  8s.  a  dozen  is  recommended.  Bath 
thermometers  have  square,  wooden  frames  and  <ri 


handle,  so  that  the  water  of  the  bath  can  lx>  stirred . 
The  graduations  are  also  specially  indicative  of  the 
temperatures  of  the  different  baths.  Metal  frame, 
thermometers  are  best  adapted  for  outdoor  use  arid 
in  the  greenhouse.  In  the  latter  position,  maximum 
and  minimum  thermometers  are  of  greatest  use, 
a  good  instrument  selling  at  5s.  Mercury  ther- 
mometers with  enclosed  scale  are  also  sold  for 
chemical  use,  while  clinical  thermometers  for  taking 
the  temperature  of  the  body  are  in  great  demand". 
These  sell  at  2s.  Gd.,  5s.,  and  7s.  6d.,  the  last-named 
being  lens-fronted  and  speciilly  sensitive. 

Barometers  are  in  two  varieties — aneroid  and 
Fitzroy.  The  cheapest  kind  of  aneroid,  4£-in.  dial, 
sells  at  12s.  Gd.,  better  kinds  in  wood  outer  case 
selling  at  15s.  to  20s.  Aneroids  are  also  sold 
mounted  with  a  thermometer  at  a  price  to  allow 
them  to  be  sold  at  30s.  to  60s.,  but  much  more 
money  is  required  to  buy  some  of  the  elaborate 
Chippendale  patterns,  it  being  in  these  cases  a 
matter  of  cabinet-making  of  the  best  kind. 
Fancy  forms  of  aneroids  are  made  for  presentation 
as  sporting  trophies — usually  combined  with  a 
clock.  Fitzroy  and  pediment  barometers,  in  which  a 
column  of  mercury  is  employed,  sell  at  from  15s. 
Self-recording  barometers,  or"  barographs,  in  which 
variations  of  atmospheric  pressure  are  automatically 
recorded,  cost  from  £4.  Rain  gauges  sell  at  from 
7s.  Gd.  to  15s.,  the  former  being  fitted  with  a  5-in. 
japanned  tin  rain  gauge.  Other  instruments  falling 
in  this  section  are  anemometers  (for  registering 
wind  pressure),  sunshine  recorders,  weather  glasses, 
and  hygrometers. 

Physical  Apparatus.  There  are  a  number 
of  apparatus  which  do  not  properly  fall  into  any  of 
the  foregoing  sections,  but  which  are  purchased 
from  the  dealer  in  scientific  apparatus.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  water  stills,  milk  testers,  hydro- 
meters, alcoholometers,  saccharimeters,  polari- 
meters,  urinometers,  and  argentometers ;  tinto- 
meters, nitrometers,  photometers,  pedometers, 
micrometers,  and  viscosimeters ;  cement  testers, 
flash-point  apparatus,  air  pumps,  theodolites, 
sextants,  and  compasses.  These  are  mentioned  to 
show  the  almost  unlimited  scope  of  the  trader  in 
these  goods.  Drawing  instruments,  measuring  in- 
struments, mechanical  counters,  slide  rules,  gauges 
and  graduated  instruments  are  other  classes  of 
instruments  which  open  up  a  vista  of  promise  to 
one  extending  the  scope  of  his  business. 

SEEDSMEN 

In  the  spring  the  householder's  fancy  often 
turns  to  thoughts  of  seeds'.  This  applies  more 
particularly  if  the  householder  is  a  resident  of 
Suburbia,  with  a  garden  and  grass-plot  of  his  own, 
however  small.  And  who  does  not  pride  himself 
on  his  flowers,  or  who  tends  with  more  pathetic 
care  the  cabbage,  carrot,  or  potato  of  his  own 
rearing  than  the  man  in  the  town,  who  more  often 
than  not  has  been  reared  in  the  country  ?  The 
impetus  which  the  "  return  to  Nature "  has 
given  to  growing  not  only  the  flowers  of  the  field 
but  the  produce  of  the  earth,  in  recent  years,  has 
been  marked,  and  Garden  Cities  are  now  a  vogue. 
Without  taking  into  account,  therefore,  the  needs 
of  the  gardener,  the  agriculturist,  and  others 
who  make  their  livings  by  the  growth  of  seeds,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  demand  for  the  staples  of 
the  seedsman  are  more  or  less  universal.  There 
are  openings  all  over  the  country  for  good,  practical 
seedsmen  who  know  their  business  thoroughly;  and 
the  seed  and  allied  trades  appeal  to  the  healthful - 
minded  young  person,  not  only  from  a  hygienic 


8HOPKEEPING 

but  also  from  a  pecuniary  point  of  view.  There 
is  money  in  it  and  a  crying  need  for  well-trained 
men.  The  ironmonger  and  the  chemist  often 
have  seeds  as  a  side-line,  but  the  selling  of  seeds 
is  the  true  business  of  neither,  and  the  man  with 
the  sure  inside  knowledge  always  has  the  pull. 

The  Importance  of  Apprenticeship. 
It  is  extremely  important,  therefore,  that  the 
youth  who  intends  to  be  a  seedsman  should  be  well 
trained.  The  decline  of  the  apprenticeship  system 
has  of  late  years  adversely  affected  this  as  well 
as  other  trades.  Nowadays,  many  of  the  men 
who  go  into  the  business  are  but  imperfectly 
acquainted  with  the  rudiments  of  the  work.  They 
have  served  no  regular  apprenticeship ;  in  fact, 
the  hurry  and  scurry  of  modern  competition  renders 
it  increasingly  difficult  for  employers  with  the 
necessary  facilities  to  spend  time  in  the  training 
of  apprentices.  But  the  importance,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  future  success,  of  serving  a  proper 
apprenticeship  cannnot  be  unduly  emphasised. 
The  lad  who  in  some  way  has  been  connected 
with  the  country,  or  whose  parents  are  engaged 
in  agricultural  or  horticultural  pursuits,  often 
makes  the  best  seedsman.  But  a  country  up- 
bringing is  by  no  means  indispensable,  for  "many 
of  the  successful  seedsmen  of  to-day  are  towii- 
bred.  The  essential  thing  is  to  serve  a  regular 
apprenticeship  of  four  or  five  years  with  a  good, 
practical  seedsman  who  has  an  all-round  general 
business.  Indentured  apprenticeships  are  a  thing 
of  the  past,  and  more  is  the  pity  ;  but  there  are  still 
many  places  where  the  business  can  be  learned 
thoroughly  and  where  the  boy  will  be  paid  a  wage 
of  4s.,  5s.,  6s.,  7s.,  and  8s.  per  week,  during  the 
period  of  his  tutelage. 

The  Training  and  After.  Having 
selected  a  good  medium-sized  business  as  a  train- 
ing-ground, the  youth  will  find  that — should  the 
employer  also  be  a  nurseryman — he  will  spend 
most  of  the  first  two  years  in  the  nursery,  learning 
the  mysteries  of  potting,  transplanting,  grafting, 
and  so  on.  He  will  thus  become  familiar  with  the 
names  and  characters  of  plants,  and  any  leisure 
he  may  have  can  be  advantageously  devoted  to 
the  study  of  trade  catalogues,  by  means  of  which 
he  will  become  acquainted  with  the  names  and 
kinds  of  seeds,  flowers,  bulbs,  etc.  At  the  end  of 
two  years  he  will  probably  be  taken  into  the  shop, 
where,  in  the  biisy  season,  he  will  assist  in  packing 
and  delivering  the  goods  sold,  and  will  gain  a 
knowledge  of  the  importance  of  chemical  manures 
and  the  innumerable  horticultural  sundries  sold 
as  side-lines.  In  the  course  of  the  next  three 
years  (we  are  assuming  a  five-years'  apprentice- 
ship) he  will  gradually  rise  to  the  position  of  counter- 
man, assisting  generally  in  the  finer  departments  of 
the  business.  He  will  also  learn  business  methods, 
and  in  a  medium-sized  business,  such  as  forms  the 
ideal  apprentice-ground,  it  is  customary  to  give  the 
apprentice  a  period  at  the  books.  His  apprentice- 
ship over,  the  youth  who  has  applied  himself  to  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
getting  a  situation  as  assistant  in  another  business 
at  once,  at  a  wage  of  from  20s.  to  25s.  per  week. 
The  supply  of  good  assistants  is  never  greater  than 
the  demand  in  the  seed  trade,  for  there  are  so  many 
of  the  untrained,  or  only  partially  trained  kind 
about.  This  is  largely  owing,  as  before  indicated, 
to  the  gradual  disuse  of  the  apprenticeship  system, 
so  that  the  thoroughly  trained  man  need  never  be 
in  want  of  a  situation,  and  may  earn  anything 
from  20s.  to  £2  a  week,  according  to  his  capability 
and  energy. 

4095 


8HOPKEEPING 

Launching  Out.  An  experienced  seetNnmn 
lias  laid  down  the  dictum  that  it  is  unwise  to  start 
in  the  seed  business  on  one's  own  account  until 
one  has  had  an  experience  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
years.  Probably  the  ambitious  young  man  will 
chafe  at  the  idea  of  waiting  ten  years  after  appren- 
ticeship before  trying  his  luck,  especially  if  he  be 
possessed  of  £100  or  £200.  A  partnership  in  a 
fairly  large  business,  where  the  partners  can 
su[>enntend  different  departments,  may  be  con- 
sidered, especially  where  there  are  possibilities  of 
considerable  development.  But  we  shall  assume 
that  the  young,  and  now  experienced,  seedsman 
resolves  to  start  out  "  on  his  own."  Of  course,  he 
may  find  that  some  particular  part  of  the  business 
suits  him  best,  and  in  that  line— agricultural 
mainly,  horticultural  mostly,  or  the  bulb  trade 
entirely — he  may  specialise.  But  the  usual  plan 
is  to  begin  a  business  of  a  general  character  and 
gauge  the  necessities  of  the  locality  before  specialism 
is  attempted.  With  a  capital  of,  say  £150,  a 
small  shop  would  be  selected  in  a  good  business 
neighbourhood.  If  in  a  country  town  the  high 
street,  or  market  place  should  be  the  scene  of 
o| orations,  for  there  the  farmers  and  other  country 
people  usually  foregather.  If  in  a  suburb  the  shop 
may  be  a  very  tiny  one  with,  perhaps,  a  piece  of 
nursery  ground  attached.  The  fittings  in  a  medium- 
sized  shop  would  not  cost  more  than  £20  to  £30. 
The  most  exjiensive  item  is  the  drawers  for  seeds, 
of  which  fifty  would  probably  be  required ;  but 
these  may  often  be  bought  second-hand  in  sale- 
rooms or  elsewhere,  the  rejected  fittings  of  some 
grocer  or  chemist.  A  few  shelves  round  the  walls, 
a  counter,  two  sets  of  scales  (one  small  for  the 
tiny  seeds,  the  other  for  the  heavier  seeds),  a 
weighing  machine  for  potatoes,  manures,  etc.,  one 
or  two  scoops,  and  a  number  of  wooden  bins  would 
complete  the  fittings  necessary. 

Stocking,  it  is  quite  unnecessary,  nowadays, 
for  the  beginner  to  lay  in  a  large  stock  of  any 
class  of  goods.  He  would  merely  order  a  small 
supply  of  each  commodity  for  a  show,  trying  to 
find  out  as  well  as  he  could  the  class  of  goods 
most  in  demond  in  the  neighbourhood.  There  are 
many  large  seed-growers  and  merchants,  like 
Sutton  &  Sons,  of  Reading,  ready  to  supply  him,  and 
almost  anything  he  may  require  can  be  procured 
within  twenty-four  hours.  But  one  principle  should 
direct  his  purchases  all  through  his  career.  He 
should  be  careful  to  select  for  his  stocks  only 
the  finest  seeds,  bulbs,  or  what  not,  that  he  can 
buy.  His  experience  will  have  taught  him  how  to 
judge  the  goods  and  the  reputable  houses  to  buy 
from.  Cheapness  for  cheapness'  sake  should  be 
avoided  at  all  hazards.  Bearing  this  in  mind  he 
would  expend  from  £20  to  £30  in  laying  in,  in 
{-bushel  and  ^-bushel  quantities,  quick-selling 
seeds  like  beans  (broad  bean,  kidney  bean  and 
runner  bean),  peas,  etc.,  selecting  the  varieties 
that  are  popular  in  the  district.  Then  there  are 
vegetable  seeds  like  beet,  broccoli,  brussels  sprouts, 
c.-'bbage,  carrots,  leeks,  onions,  lettuces,  parsnip, 
mustard  and  cress,  parsley,  radish,  spinach,  eauli- 
ftowr,  and  celery,  to  be  ordered  in  from  ;j-lb.  to 
Mb.  quantities.  Other  vegetable  seeds  like 
endive,  chervil,  cucumber,  melon,  vegetable  marrow, 
tomato,  etc.,  would  be  wanted  in  J-oz.  or  1-oz. 
quantities,  according  to  their  relative  value  and 
popularity.  Sweet  and  pot  herb  seeds  like  anise, 
balm,  basil,  borage,  caraway,  fennel,  horehound, 
hyssop,  lavender,  marigold,  marjoram,  rosemary, 
rue  sage,  savory,  thyme,  and  wormwood,  would 
likewise  be  stocked  in  ounces  or  smaller  quantities. 

4990 


In  beans,  pea?,  cabbage,  onions,  turnips,  etc.,  the 
varieties  are  so  numerous  and  the  idiosyncrasies 
of  neighbourhoods  in  the  way  of  likes  and 
dislikes  so  dissimilar,  that  it  would  be  impossible, 
even  if  it  were  wise,  to  advise  what  kind  to  buy. 
The  beginner  would  probably  have  one  or  two 
kinds  of  seed  potatoes — Early  Champions,  British 
Queens,  Up-  to  -Dates,  or  some  others,  to  which  he 
would  pin  his  faith.  One  or  two  varieties  of 
these  would  be  held  in  stock. 

Flower  Seeds.  This  is  an  important  de- 
partment to  the  seedsman  catering  for  Suburbia 
or  for  towns  of  any  size.  It  behoves  him,  therefore, 
to  secure  in  A-lb.  to  1-lb.  lots  the  most  popular 
hardy  annuals,  like  convolvulus,  candytuft,  lupin, 
mignonette,  nasturtium,  stock,  hollyhock,  carna- 
tion, sweet  pea,  Virginian  stock,  wallflower  (two 
or  three  varieties),  sweet-william  and  sunflower. 
In  smaller  quantities  order  alyssum,  Bartonia 
a  urea,  Calandrinia  speciosa,  Chrysanthemum  tri- 
color, Collinsia  bicolor  and  C.  alba,  ersymium,  phlox, 
Eschscholtzia  Californica,  scabious,  Eutoca  viscida, 
Cilia  tricolor,  godetia,  larkspur,  Linum  grandi- 
florum,  love-lies-bleeding,  Malope  grandiflora, 
Mathola  bicornis,  Nigella  Damascena,  Nicotiana, 
Nemophila  insignis,  prince's  feather,  Saponaria, 
Venus'  looking-glass,  Viscaria  osculata,  and  Whit- 
lavia  grandiflora.  In  this  department  the  varieties 
of  sweet  pea  are  important,  that  flower  being  at 
the  moment  extremely  fashionable,  and  when  one 
thinks  that  in  some  wholesale  catalogues  there  are 
from  50  to  80  different  varieties  named,  the  magni- 
tude of  the  business  will  be  understood.  It  may 
pay  the  young  seedsman  to  specialise  in  sweet  peas, 
chrysanthemums,  or  others,  should  he  be  located 
in  a  "  flowery "  neighbourhood ;  otherwise  his 
speciality  may  be  in  seed  potatoes  or  a  particu- 
larly fruitful  brand  of  onions. 

Sundries.  After  these  several  necessary 
horticultural  sundries  must  be  considered.  There  are 
small  stocks  of  chemical  manures  for  lawns,  plants, 
and  flower-beds  to  be  thought  of,  not  to  speak  of 
weed-killers  and  insecticides.  In  connection  with 
the  sale  of  the  two  articles  last  named  the  seedsman 
should  be  careful  to  see  that  the  weed-killers  or 
insecticides  he  sells  do  not  contain  a  scheduled 
poison,  such  as  arsenic,  strychnine,  or  nicotine, 
otherwise  he  is  liable  to  prosecution  under  the 
Pharmacy  Acts.  Besides  being  an  agent  for  the 
chemical  manures  used  on  a  large  scale  by  the 
farmer,  he  would  probably  find  it  advantageous  to 
be  an  agent  for  nursery  stock.  Then  the  sale  of 
garden  tools  and  garden  requisites,  such  as  fruit- 
nets,  lawn  sand,  budding-knives,  axes,  hoes,  rakes, 
scythes,  spades,  scissors,  trowels,  syringes,  watering- 
cans,  flower-pots,  seed-pans,  lawn-mowers,  and  so 
forth,  is  looked  upon  as  an  adjunct  to  the  seedsman's 
business,  and  £15  at  least  would  have  to  be  expended 
in  such  things.  In  an  agricultural  community  the 
sale  of  agricultural  implements  is  often  developed 
into  an  important  side  line,  for  the  ironmonger  in 
such  districts  usually  sells  seeds.  The  alevt  seeds- 
man will  not  fail  to  take  advantage  of  the  money- 
spending  that  goes  on  so  freely  at  Christmas  and 
New  Year.  Recently  smart  men  have  made  quite 
a  profitable  feature  "of  Christmas  and  New  Year 
gifts  in  the  shape  of  fancy  white  ware  filled  artisti- 
cally with  flowering  bulbs,  such  as  tulips,  hyacinths. 
and  lilies  of  the  valley,  and  ferns  (retailing  at  from 
Is.  to  10s.  6d.  each),  baskets  filled  with  growing 
plants  and  flowering  bulbs  (2s.  6d.  to  15s.  each), 
bowls  filled  with  ferns  and  bulbs  (Is.,  Is.  Ikl.,  and 
2s.  6d.  each),  palms,  ferns,  aspidistras,  araucarias, 
solanums,  heaths  and  marguerites  (from  3d.  to 


10s.  6d.  each).  There  is  also  considerable  trade 
to  be  done  at  this  season  of  the  year  in  Christmas 
trees,  holly  with  berry,  mistletoe,  and  evergreens 
for  house  and  church  decorations.  All  these  show 
at  least  a  25  per  cent,  profit  on  the  return,  and  give 
a  filip  to  trade. 

Agricultural  Seeds.  If  the  business  done 
is  mainly  agricultural,  some  of  the  foregoing  may 
be  curtailed,  and  larger  stocks  laid  in  of  farm 
seeds.  There  are  many  varieties  of  clovers  (red, 
white,  cowgrass,  yellow,  etc.),  rye  grasses,  natural 
grasses,  swede  turnips,  yellow  turnips,  white  turnips, 
mangel  wurzels,  tares,  rape,  linseed,  and  seed 
potatoes,  which  farmer  customers  will  demand. 
Then  lawn-grass  seeds  are  p. such  in  demand  (in 
towns  partkmlarly). 

The  Bulb  Trade.  The  sale  of  bulbs  and 
bulbous  roots  is  quite  a  special  trade,  and  many 
successful  businesses  are  built  up  in  large  towns 
or  busy  neighbourhoods  on  bulbs  alone.  The  more 
common  bulbs  may  be  stocked  in  £-dozen  or 
I  -dozen  quantities  by  the  general  seedsman,  but  it 
is  only  by  making  a  feature  of  this  branch  that  a 
large  trade  can  be  done.  However,  if  the  seedsman 
has  a  preference  for  bulbs,  it  is  a  branch  worth 
cultivating,  provided  he  can  get  at  the  proper 
growers  and  obtain  original  and  healthy  plants,  and 
a  selection  sufficiently  varied.  The  bulbs  and 
bulbous  flower  roots  usually  in  demand  are 
hyacinths,  tulips,  crocuses,  jonquils,  daffodils,  nar- 
cissuses, irises,  and  liliums  for  conservatories  or  for 
window  decoration.  For  growing  in  the  open  ground 
there  are,  besides  those  mentioned,  gladioluses, 
anemones,  ranunculuses,  aconites,  snowdrops,  and 
begonias.  The  cost  of  these  is  not  great,  but  the 
varieties  are  so  numerous  that  it  will  be  found 
very  difficult,  at  first  at  least,  to  keep  anything 
like  an  adequate  stock  with  the  small  capital 
indicated. 

Packing  and  Packet  Trade.  Of  recent 
years  the  trade  in  packet  seeds  has  increased 
largely.  This  has  not  been  altogether  a  good  thing 
for  the  seedsman,  for  many  small  shopkeepers  have 
made  it  a  practice  to  sell  flower-seeds,  particularly 
in  penny  packets.  Such  outside  sellers  not  only 
diminish  the  sales  of  the  seedsman,  but  often  the 
packet  seeds  of  these  irresponsible  sellers  are  held 
in  stock  season  after  season,  and  by  the  time  they 
are  sold  they  are  useless.  But  at  least  one  man  in 
England  has  built  up  a  large  business  in  pocketed 
seeds  (flowers  and  vegetables),  the  main  part  of  the 
business  being  done  by  post.  A  regular  seedsman, 
however,  would  not  buy  packet  seeds.  He  would 
buy  reputable  seeds  in  bulk,  send  to  a  horticultural 
printer  like  Messrs.  Blake  &  Mackenzie,  of  Liver- 
pool, for  pockets  or  coloured  envelopes  of  different 
sizes,  and  weigh  and  pack  his  own  seeds.  The 
printers  named  have  specialised  in  horticultural 
printing  for  over  half  a  century.  They  introduced 
the  flower  and  vegetable  seed  packets  now  familiar 
to  everyone.  Before  then  the  seedsmen  used  to 
pack  up  their  seeds  in  folded  papers,  and  use  cuttings 
of  parchment  for  "  directions."  Nowadays  litho- 
graphs in  natural  colours  of  the  flowers  and  seeds 
are  given  on  the  packets,  and  the  directions  for 
use  are  printed  on  the  back,  along  with  the  name 
of  the  plant  and  its  characteristics.  Seed  pockets 
(plain),  in  sizes  of  from  |~oz.  to  6-oz.  capacity,  cost 
from  3s.  to  7s.  6d.  per  1,000.  The  coloured  enve- 
lopes are  a  little  more  expensive.  They  may  be  had 
in  all  sizes,  for  all  kinds  of  seeds,  and  they  are  very 
attractive.  Seeds  for  quick  sale  are  usually  packed 
in  Id.,  2d.,  3d.,  6d.,  Is.,  Is.  6d.,  and  2s.  6d.  sizes, 
and  they  return  a  very  good  profit.  Seed  bags  hold- 


SHOPKEEPING 

ing  from  i  Ib.  to  7  Ib.  are  also  needed.  These  are 
of  good  strong  paper,  and  cost  perhaps  about  ,'55s. 
per  cwt.  The  pockets,  bags,  luggage  labels,  and 
miscellaneous  stationery  have,  of  course,  the  name 
and  address  of  the  vendor  printed  on  them.  This  is 
an  advertisement  every  time  a  sale  is  made,  but. 
in  addition,  it  is  advisable  to  issue  a  small  cata- 
logue when  opening  shop.  There  are  some  fine 
samples  of  stock  catalogues,  bearing  name  and 
address  on  the  cover,  to  be  obtained  from  horti- 
cultural printers  at  a  cost  of  about  £5  per  1,000,  or 
even  less.  There  are  many  varieties  of  resplendent 
catalogues  devoted  entirely  to  the  bulb  trade. 

Business  Bringing  and  Profits.  The 
judicious  distribution  of  a  neat  and  effective  cata- 
logue is  one  of  the  first  things  to  be  done  in  securing 
a  connection.  But,  besides  that,  the  man  who 
means  to  make  his  way  must  go  and  look  for 
orders.  In  the  off  season,  during  the  summer, 
he  should  be  cultivating  the  acquaintance  of 
gardeners,  farmers,  amateurs,  growers  of  fruits, 
flowers  or  vegetables,  stewards  of  landed  pro- 
perty, and  other  likely  customers.  In  an  agricul- 
tural district  he  will  find  that  attendance  at  the 
markets  is  imperative,  and  a  good  deal  of  hard 
work  and  persistent  canvassing  has  to  be  done 
before  anything  like  a  good  business  is  established. 
With  regard  to  remuneration  for  his  work,  the  profit 
all  round  should  average  not  less  than  30  to 
40  per  cent,  on  the  turnover.  The  biggest  profits 
are  on  the  sales  of  the  smaller  seeds,  and  if  only  a 
large  and  quick  turnover  in  made-up  packets 
can  be  secured,  the  gross  profits  will  rise  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  50  to  60  per  cent.  But,  of 
course,  much  smaller  profits  must  be  looked  for 
during  the  first  two  or  three  years.  If  the  young 
seedsman  is  making  a  living,  he  should  be  content 
provided  he  sees  a  prospect  of  making  headway. 
With  the  small  capital  mentioned  he  could  not  afford 
to  give  long  credit.  In  country  towns  it  is  almost 
necessary  to  give  some  credit,  however ;  but  the 
man  with  a  restricted  capital  should  look  keenly 
after  his  accounts.  It  is  a  practice  with  owners  of 
large  estates  to  allow  their  head-gardeners  or 
stewards  a  certain  amount  at  the  bank  to  operate 
with,  and,  especially  as  he  becomes  better  known, 
the  seedsman  has  often  to  wait  twelve  months  for 
his  bill.  This  must  be  allowed  for  in  a  higher  price 
for  the  goods  when  invoiced.  The  typical  seeds- 
man's profits  are  generally  reckoned  at  10  per  cent, 
on  cash  transactions,  20  per  cent,  on  quarterly 
accounts,  25  per  cent,  half-yearly,  and  45  per  cent, 
yearly.  The  net  profit  should  range  at  not  less 
than  10  to  20  per  cent,  on  the  turnover. 

SEWING    MACHINE    DEALERS 

The  selling  of  sewing  machines  may  well  be 
undertaken  as  a  side  line  by  many  shopkeepers — 
drapers,  ironmongers,  cycle  agents,  sporting  goods 
dealers,  and  many  other  retailers.  The  stock  is 
not  expensive,  and  its  variety  not  unduly  large. 
Sewing  machines  do  not  easily  soil  with  ordinary 
care;  fashion  does  not  change  the  nature  of  the 
public  taste  as  in  many  other  branches ;  and,  finally, 
the  profits  are  very  good.  For  these  reasons  a  small 
stock  of  sewing  machines  may  well  be  bought  by 
the  retailer  whose  main  business  consorts  well  with 
the  sewing  machine  trade. 

Stock.  The  trade  in  sewing  machines  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes — the  family  trade  and  the 
manufacturing  trade.  When  it  is  desired  to  embark 
in  it  to  only  a  small  extent,  and  with  the  smallest 
disbursement  of  capital,  the  dealer  is  well  advised 
to  confine  himself  to  the  family  trade.  Should  he 

4997 


3HOPKEEPING 

have-  capital  to  spare  he  may  purchase  one  or  t\\o 
machines  for  tailors'  use,  but  for  manufacturing 
purposes  on  a  larger  scale  lie  should  retrain  from 
holding  stoek,  contenting  himself  with  selling 
from  the  catalogue.  Factory  installations  of  sew- 
in  LT  machines  are  keenly  competed  for,  but  the 
order  is  usually  a  good  one,  and  the  task  of  keep- 
ing the  machines  in  repair  can  usually  be  secured 
by  the  man  who  supplies  them  it'  he  be  in  the 
district 

The  draper,  or  other  shopkeeper,  who  wishes 
to  stock  sewing  machines  on  a  very  modest  scale 
may  enter  the  trade  with  the  expenditure  of  not 
much  more  than  a  ten-pound  note.  He  can  pur- 
chase, say: 

1  High  arm  family  machine     . .      . .     £2  10  0 

2  Ditto,  with  extended  leaf  table     . .     £5  10  C 

2  Ornamental  covers 0  18  0 

2  Hand  machines,  with  covers . .      . .     £460 

£13     4  0 

With  this  stock  he  can  make  an  impressive 
window  display,  and  do  quite  as  much  trade  as 
he  could  with  double  the  number  of  machines. 

In  some  districts  a  hand  machine  mounted 
on  a  stand  with  treadle  attachment,  and  detachable 
therefrom,  is  sold  in  some  quantity.  It  is  con- 
venient and  gives  the  user  the  advantage  of  the 
hand  machine  as  well  as  those  of  the  treadle  machine. 
The  cost  price  of  such  a  machine  is  15s.  to  20s.  more 
than  of  a  hand  machine. 

Local  preference  plays  some  part  in  the  kind  of 
machines  sold  in  a  district.  In  this  country,  for 
instance,  treadle  machines  are  sold  in  overwhelm- 
ing numbers ;  but  in  British  Colonies,  South  Africa 
for  instance,  hand  machines  are  sold  five  or  ten 
times  more  than  the  larger  models. 

The  bulk  of  the  sewing  machines  sold  by  private 
traders  in  this  country  are  of  German  manufacture 
and  are  purchased  through  the  wholesale  agents 
resident  in  this  country.  But  British  machines 
can  be  obtained  for  about  the  same  pi-ices,  although 
the  finish  of  the  German  machines  is  better  than 
that  of  English  machines  at  the  same  price. 
American  machines  are  also  sold,  but  chiefly  direct 
to  the  public  by  the  representatives  in  this  country, 
so  that  practically  choice  of  the  market  lies  between 
English  and  German  manufactures. 

Profits.  Retail  lists  of  sewing  machines  are 
usually  drawn  up  so  that  the  retail  prices  shown 
represent  double  cost  prices.  The  list  is  usually 
adhered  to  in  selling  on  the  instalment  system, 
and  for  cash  transactions  a  discount  of  from 
10  to  25  per  cent,  is  given.  The  profit  seems 
good,  and  it  is.  But  there  is  an  enormous  difference 
IM-I  \\cen  gross  and  net  profits.  The  expenses  of  can- 
vassing and  collecting,  of  upkeep,  and  of  loss  by  bad 
<let)ts  has  to  be  met  out  of  the  apparent  100  per 
cent,  profit  on  cost  prices,  and  cash  business,  although 
at  a  considerable  discount,  is  much  more  welcome 
to  the  dealer.  It  is  not  often  that  there  is  induce- 
ment to  cut  prices  much  in  the  sewing  machine 
business.  The  chief  competition  comes  from  large 
manufacturing  companies  with  expensive  systems 
of  distribution,  and  the  prices  of  these  companies 
are  based  on  a  higher  scale  than  those  we  have  given. 

Some  cautions  regarding  the  hire-purchase  system 
of  business  arc  given  on  page  704. 


Old  Machines  as  Part  Payment.    It  is 

frequently  necessary  to  take  an  old  sewing  machine 
as  part  "payment  for  a  new  one.  The  customer 
usually  has'  exaggerated  ideas  regarding  the  value 
of  his  old  machine,  which,  in  the  auction-room  or 
as  old  iron,  is  not  worth  more  than  half-a-crown. 
The  dealer  must  make  an  allowance  for  the  old 
machine,  taking  no  consideration  of  what  he  may 
expect  to  realise  for  it.  One  large  company  follows 
the  practice  of  allowing  20s.  from  the  price  of  a  new 
machine  for  any  old  machine  taken  as  part  payment. 
This  allowance,  of  course,  comes  out  of  profit, 
which  must  be  on  a  scale  high  enough  to  stand  it. 

Repairing.  The  repairing  of  sewing  machines 
is  properly  undertaken  by  those  who  sell  them. 
A  fair  trade  may  be  done  in  selling  them  only, 
but  here  as  elsewhere  the  public  like  to  purchase 
where  they  can  have  repairs  executed.  The  dealer 
who  has  to  send  to  be  done  elsewhere  the  repair 
work  that  inevitably  comes  to  him  labours  under 
a  disadvantage.  Repair  work  is  remunerative. 
The  average  owner  of  a  sewing  machine  is  ignorant 
of  matters  mechanical,  and  the  mere  adjustment  of 
a  screw  or  tension,  or  a  drop  of  oil  given  in  the  right 
place  may  usually  be  charged  for  at  a  good  price. 
In  framing  the  scale  of  repair  prices,  a  minimum 
charge  of,  say,  one  shilling,  shoxild  be  adopted. 
Claims  for  payment  of  repairs  should  be  made  not 
so  much  upon  the  actual  time  taken  in  their  execu- 
tion— although  no  charge  should  be  less  than  a  fail- 
return  for  the  time  spent  at  the  work — but  upon  the 
value  of  the  service  rendered.  No  charge  can  be 
made  for  adjustments  and  reasonable  repairs  to  a 
machine  which  has  been  sold  for  cash  less  than  twelve 
months  before  or  to  a  machine  sold  on  the  hire- 
purchase  system  and  not  yet  fully  paid  up. 

No  instructions  can  be  given  regarding  sewing 
machine  repairs.  The  same  qualities  which  go  to 
the  making  of  a  successful  watch  repairer  or  cycle 
repairer  make  a  good  sewing  machine  repairer — 
namely,  the  ability  to  reason  back  from  effect 
to  cause  in  mechanical  matters,  a  well  developed 
mechanical  aptitude,  and  handiness  with  the  screw- 
driver. A  careful  study  of  the  mechanism  of 
a  sewing  machine,  the  task  of  dismounting  and 
re-erecting  it,  and  an  examination  of  the  functions 
of  each  individual  part  will  do  more  to  make  a 
man  a  sewing  machine  mechanic  than  tomes  of 
printed  instructions. 

The  chief  point  which  the  shopkeeper  handling 
sewing  machines  has  to  decide  is  whether  he  will 
make  the  trade  a  cash  one  or  if  he  will  invite  orders 
from  buyers,  who  will  purchase  only  on  the  so-called 
"  hire-purchase  "  system.  Both  methods  of  doing 
business  have  their  advocates,  and  both  have  their 
points  of  recommendation.  Unless  the  shop- 
keeper is  prepared  to  establish  a  thorough  system 
of  canvassing  and  of  instalment  collection  along 
with  the  necessary  system  of  bookkeeping,  or  if  he 
have  not  cash  available  to  finance  an  instalment 
business,  he  will  be  wise  to  restrict  himself  to  cash 
trading.  The  instalment  method  should  not  be 
attempted  unless  the  capital  at  command  be  at 
least  £500.  To  attempt  it  on  less  than  this  sum 
is  to  remain  for  a  good  time  under  the  necessity  of 
restricting  the  extent  of  the  business  to  small 
dimensions  or  to  risk  collapse  by  an  overload  of 
assets  in  the  form  of  book  debts  which  cannot  be 
realised  wh'-n  desired  and  when  needed. 


Continued 


4998 


RECIPROCATING  AND  ROTARY  TOOLS 

Principles  of  Reciprocating;  and   Revolving  ^JTools.      Planing;, 
Shaping;,  Slotting;,  Dril.ing-,  Slot-drilling-,  and  Boring;  Machines 


Group  12 

MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERING 

35 


By   FRED   HORNER 


A  MACHINE  TOOL  may  be  defined  as  the  com- 
bination of  a  tool  and  a  machine  arranged  so 
that  the  tool  is  operated  and  controlled  with  precision, 
instead  of  depending  on  the  human  element,  as  is 
the  case  with  a  hand  tool.  In  most  metal- working 
operations  the  advantage  is  all  on  the  side  of  the 
machine  tool ;  it  is  able  to  do  nearly  everything 
that  the  hand  tool  can,  and  a  good  deal  besides. 
The  valuable  property  of  guidance  possessed  by 
machine  tools  is  also  combined  with  that  of  power, 
which  means  that  the  capacity  or  output  of  hand- 
worked tools  is  immensely  exceeded  by  machine 
tools,  so  much  so  in  many  cases  that  certain  work 
could  not  be  produced  by  hand  methods  at  all,  or 
only  in  an  imperfect  manner  and  at  great  cost. 
In  a  modern  machine  shop  we  find  a  large  variety  of 
machines  engaged  in  working  castings  and  forgings, 
while  the  only  handwork  done  (in  the  fitting  shop) 
is  chipping,  filing  and  scraping — a  little  chipping 
and  filing  where  it  has  not  been  worth  while  sending 
a  piece  to  the  machines,  and  scraping  as  a  fine 
finishing  process  on  high-class  work.  All  the  rest  is 
effected  with  machines  that  plane,  shape,  slot,  .drill, 
bore,  face,  mill,  screw,  and  grind. 

A  distinctive  difference  between  machine  tools 
and  some  other  mechanisms  lies  in  their  relative 
accuracy  of  construction.  A  machine  tool  has  to 
produce  accurate  surfaces  by  virtue  of  its  inherent 
build,  and  its  parts  must  therefore  have  true 
rectilinear  movements,  and  spindles  and  slides 
must  move  without  shake  or  slackness.  Something 
beyond  mere  fitting  of  portions  together  is  involved  ; 
they  have  to  be  made  or  adjusted  to  pass  certain 

sts,  and  provisions  for  taking  up  slacknesses  due 
wear  are  necessary  in  order  to  provide  for  the 
iture. 

Principles.  Machine  tools  are  divisible  into 
>  great  groups,  the  reciprocating  and  the  rotary. 
the  first-named  the  movements  of  the  tools 
(or  the  work)  are  linear;  in  the  second,  revolving 
'  jls  are  employed.  Planing,  shaping,  and  slotting 


machines  represent  one  type;  drilling,  boring 
milling,  screwing,  and  grinding  machines  the  other. 
The  first  class  cut  intermittently — having  a  non- 
cutting  return  stroke — the  second  operate  continu- 
ously. This  makes  an  essential  difference  to  the 
feeds,  or  movements  by  which  the  area  to  be  tooled 
is  gradually  covered.  In  the  reciprocating  machines 
with  non-cutting  backward  stroke  a  definite  lateral 
movement  or  feed  is  imparted  to  the  tool  or  the  work 
after  each  stroke  or  cut ;  in  the  rotary  machines 
feeding  may  be  continuous.  The  speeds  are  the 
rates  of  cutting,  and  the  feeds  are  intimately  related 
thereto,  since  their  amount  must  depend  on  the 


39.    END   VIEW   OF    PLANER 


41.    OPEN-SIDE    PLANfcR 

capacity  of  the  tool  or  the  work  to  withstand  tho 
strain  of  a  given  cut  cat  a  certain  speed.  There  may 
be  either  a  high  speed  and  a  light  cut,  or  a  low  speed 
and  a  heavy  cut. 

Provision  must  be  incorporated  for  obtaining 
different  rates  of  speed  and  feed,  to  suit  the  various 
materials  and  classes  of  operations  dealt  with. 
Arrangements  for  holding  down  the  pieces  of  work 
and  for  gripping  the  tools  are  also  essential.  Devices 
for  rendering  the  machines  more  or  less  self-acting 
or  automatic  in  action  are  necessary  for  economical 
reasons  as  well  as  to  produce  good  work.  If  a 
machine  does  not  need  the  services  of  an  attendant 
to  effect  certain  motions  or  reversals,  then  he  may 
be  usefully  engaged  else- 
where, perhaps  on 
another  machine,  in  set- 
ting or  removing  work 

Means  must  be  afforded 
of  setting  or  adjusting 
portions  precisely,  in 
order  to  tool  the  work  to 
close  sizes.  Other  sub- 
sidiary •  matters  are : 
efficient  lubricating  de- 
vices for  spindle  bearings 
and  slides,  and  lubrica- 
tion of  another  character 
for  flooding  the  work  and 
tools  during  cutting ; 
protection  to  vital  parts 
of  the  machines  from  the 
chips  and  dust  produced 
during  working,  which 
would  otherwise  cause 
damage  to  the  surfaces 


SIDE    VIEW    OF    PLANER 


4909 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 


RICHARDS    SIDE-PLANER 

and  bearings.  Some  movement  or  travel  is  necessary 
in  all  cases  to  tool  surfaces,  which  movement  may  be 
imparted  either  to  the  work  or  to  the  tools.  It  is  some- 
times  a  matter  of  indifference  which  course  is 
pursued,  while  in  certain  cases  a  decided  advantage  is 
gained  by  one  method  over  the  other.  For  example, 
some  especially  massive  castings  are  machined 
while  stationary,  the  tools  themselves  travelling, 
while  an  immense  quantity  of  smaller  pieces  are 
commonly  tooled  by  moving  them  past  the  cutting 
to;:!-;.  It  is  scarcely  a  question  of  relative  accuracy 
or  truth  of  surfaces,  but  one  of  convenience  pri- 
marily. 

We  do  not  need  to  take  up  the  description  of  the 
various  details 
of  machine  tool 
construction 
here,  as  in  the 
article  on  the 
lathe,  because 
typical  com- 
plete drawings 
are  shown,  con- 
taining the  elements,  which  may  be 
studied  conveniently  thus.  There 
are  certain  well-known  details,  and 
particular  mechanisms,  which  are 
found  to  recur  constantly  in  different 
types  of  machines,  modified  according 
to  their  applications.  Mention  may 
be  made  of  beds  carrying  other  beds, 
or  slides  or  tables,  which  are  tee-slotted  to  receive 
clamping  bolts;  tool  slides  with  saddles  and  tool- 
holders,  circular  spindles,  carrying  tools,  or  driving 
bars;  pulleys  and  gears  for  producing  rotary 
motions;  levers  for  transmitting  rock- 
ing action  ;  screws,  racks,  and  levers 
for  causing  to-and-fro  motions ;  striking 
gears  or  trips  for  throwing  mechanisms 
out  of  action  or  producing  reversals  of 
direction  of  motion  ;  balance  weights 
for  counteracting  the  irregular  move- 
ments of  heavy  sliding  portions; 
clutches  and  belt-shifting  devices  for 
stopping  or  change  of  motion  or  speed; 
quick-return  mechanisms,  by 
which  the  wasteful  backward 
stroke  of  tables  and  rains  is 
accelerated,  and  its  duration 
shortened. 

Planing  Machines. 
After  the  lathe,  the  -planing 
iiiticfiim  i\the  primary  machine 
tool  in  a  shop,  doing  for  plane 
surfaces  what  the  lathe  does  for 
eireul;ir  ones.  By  its  means 
linear  portion-  are' machined  al 
right  or  other  angles  to  each 
other.  Creat  lengths  are  tooled, 
either  in  one  casting  or  on  a 
number  M-t  in  line.  The  method 

5000 


by  which  these  operations  are  accom- 
plished is  to  provide  a  long  table, 
sliding  beneath  the  tools,  and  so 
carrying  the  work  past  them,  while 
feeding  is  done  at  each  interval 
between  strokes.  This  feeding  may 
be  either  across  or  up  and  down,  or 
J__  angularly,  according  to  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  faces  on  the  piece  being 
treated.  These  conditions  are  met 
by  the  design  in  45,  in  which  the 
deep  bed,  resting  on  the  floor,  provides 
a  runway  for  the  slotted  table,  mov- 
ing with  vees  on  the  bed.  Two  uprights,  or  housings, 
are  fastened  to  each  side  of  the  bed,  and  support 
a  cross-rail  upon  their  vertical  faces.  This  rail  can 
be  moved  up  or  down  by  the  handle  seen,  operating 
mitre  wheels,  and  vertical  screws  within  the  hous- 
ings, wbrking  in  nuts  attached  to  the  rail.  A 
saddle  slides  across  the  rail,  driven  by  means  of  a 
screw,  and  a  slide  and  tool-box  is  bolted  with  a  circu- 
lar facing,  on  the  saddle  to  enable  the  tool  to  be  set 
angularly.-  '  A  small  range  of  vertical  motion  is 
given  to  the  tool-slide  by  handle  and  screw,  or  self- 
actingly.  The  cutting  is  done  while  the  table  is 
travelling  towards  the  tool-box,  the  latter  being 
pivoted  to  let  the  tool  drag  lightly  when  oil  the 

back        stroke. 

n  The      table     is 

driven  by  the 
pulleys  seen  at 
the  side,  there 
being  three,  one 
fast  central  one, 
and  two  loose 
side  ones.  The 
latter  carry 
open  and 
in  turn  on  to 
in  one  or  the 


DRIVING    MECHANISM  OF 
SIDE- PLANER 

crossed    belts,    which  are    shifted 
the   central  pulley,   to    drive    it 


other  direction.  The  power  is  thence  transmitted 
to  the  inside  of  the  bed  by  spur  gears,  ter- 
minating in  a  large  spur,  called  a  lull-wheel,  which 
meshes  with  a  rack  attached  to  the  underside  of  the 
table,  and  so  drives  the  latter.  The  automatic 
reversal  of  the  table  is  effected  by  the  dogs  or  stops 
seen  bolted  to  its  edge  by  a  tee  slot  and  bolts.  Each 
dog  is  clamped  in  such 

a  location  that  it  strikes 

a  lever  pivoted  upon  the 

side    of    the    bed,    and 

transmits  the  motion  to 

other  levers  terminating 

in     belt-shifting     forks 

over  the  pulleys.     The 

table  travels   therefore, 

and  the  tool  cuts,  until  a 

dog  actuates  the  striking 

mechanism,      the     fast 


pulley  being 
D   suddenly 
L   vacated     by 
one  belt  and 
occupied    by 
the       other, 
which  drives 


3 


TOOL-BOX    OF     SIDE-PLANER 


m  an  opposite  direction.  At  the  moment  of  reversal 
n  feed  is  given  to  the  tool-slide  by  a  vertical  rack- 
bar  placed  behind  the  cross-rail  and  reciprocated 
np  and  down  by  a  small  crank  disc  driven  from 
the  table  gears.  As  the  rack- bar  moves  a  little, 
it  partly  rotates  a  toothed  wheel,  which  by  a  ratchet 
device  gives  a  partial  rotation  to  the  feed-screw 
lying  inside  the  cross-rail,  or  to  a  splined  shaft 
above  it,  by  which  the  down  feed  of  the  slide  is 
obtained. 

The  arrangement  of  a  cross-rail  on  its  housings, 
with  saddle  and  tool-box 4s  shown  in  39  and  40,  the 
parts  being  clearly  seen,  so  that  reference  letters  are 
unnecessary.     A  sectional  view  of  a  tool-box  for  a 
side-planer    is   shown    later    in    this    article,    and 
its    construction     is    so    much   like    that   for    an 
ordinary  planer  that  we 
need  not  give  space  to 
illustrate  the  latter  also. 

Driving  Mechan= 
ism.  The  drawings,  39 
and  40,  of  a  machine  by 
Cunliffe  &  Groom,  Ltd., 
Manchester,  include  the 
driving  mechanism.  It 
does  not  embody  the 
three  pulleys  described 
in  connection  with  45, 
but  has  two  sets  of 
fast  -  and  -  loose  pulleys, 
each  set  having  its  own  driving  belt,  and  a  difference 
being  made  in  the  diameters  to  produce  a  rapid  rate 
of  return.  This  method  has  some  advantages  over 
the  other  by  using  three  pulleys  side  by  side. 
ohiefly  in  the  direction  of  easier  and  quieter 
reversal.  In  39  and  40  the  two  fast  pulleys,  A  and 
B,  drive  the  shaft,  C,  which  passes  through  the 
bed,  driving  on  the  other  side  by  the  pinion,  D, 
to  the  large  spur  wheel,  E.  The  last  is  mounted 
on  a  shaft  going  through  to  the  centre  of  the 
bed,  where  a  pinion  meshes  with  the  large  bull- 
wheel,  F,  engaging  in  the  rack  teeth  under  the 
table,  G.  The  dog,  H,  bolted  to  the  table  edge, 
strikes  a  lever,  J,  connected  by  a  rod,  K,  to  a 
sliding  plate,  L.  L  has  cam  grooves  formed  in 
it,  which  coerce  pins  as  it 
slides,  and  shift  the  belt  forks, 
M  N,  in  turn.  The  disc,  O,  on 
the  shaft  which  carries  E  oper- 
ates the  rack-bar,  P,  by  an 
amount  variable  by  a  screw 
within  the  disc.  The  ratio 
between  cutting  and  return 
stroke  in  this  machine  is  3]  to 
1 .  Twenty  feet  per  minute  was 
formerly  considered 
satisfactory  for 
planer  tables,  but 
this  is  much  ex- 
ceeded now  in  the 
best  machines,  rates 


45.     STANDARD    PLANING   MACHINE 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

suddenly,    the    rack   gives    way    slightly    and    the 
table     is    started    smoothly.     In     another    firm's 
machine  a  coiled  spring  is  combined  with  a  claw 
clutch  in  such  a  way  that  the  clutch  begins  to  drive 
gradually,  instead  of  with  a  positive  jerk.    In  both 
of  these  mechanisms  the  energy  stored  up  in  the 
springs  during  the  stroke  is  made  to  help  the  table 
to  start  on  its  reverse  movement,  so  relieving  the 
belts  somewhat.     Other  methods  of 
driving  are  employed,  besides  the 
I  •HKEI      &,    ordinary   spur  gears  and  rack.     In 
the    Sellers    drive,    which 
has  been  applied  for  many 
years,  a  driving  shaft  is  set 
at  an  angle  in  the  bed,  and 
a  quick-pitched  spiral  gear 
engages  with  a  rack  under 
the  table,  producing  a  very 
smooth  motion,  which  ad- 
mits  of    high    return 
speeds.    The  heaviest 
planers  are  driven  in 
many  cases  by  large 
squ  are-threaded 
screws  revolving  with- 
in the  bed,  and  mov- 
ing the  table  by  nuts 
attached  to  the  under 
side.     The    nuts    are 
made  in  two  portions, 
so  that  they  may  be  closed  up  in  order  to  absorb 
slackness,  or  play  between  the  threads  due  to  wear. 
If  there  were  noticeable  backlash,  it  would  interfere 
with  precise  reversal,  which  is  accomplished  by  belt 
pulleys  or  reversing  bevel  gears  on  the  end  of 
the  screw. 

Tables.     The  vee'd  form  of  sliding  ways  is 
very  popular,  because  it  obviates  the  necessity 
of  using  adjusting  strips  to  keep  the  table 
from  wandering  sideways.   When  flat  slides 
are  used,  vertical  shoulders  must  be  provi- 
ded, and  long  wedge  strips,  to  preserve  the 
fit  of  the  table  sideways.    The  weight  of  a 
planer   table   is  sufficient   to 
keep    it    down    and    stead}' 
against    the    cut,    except    in 
some  light  machines,  in  which 
gib  strips  are  fitted  to  prevent 
lifting.  The  oiling  of  a  table  is 
an  important  matter,  because 
of  the  great  weight,  amount- 
ing to    many    tons    in    large 
machines.  As  the  oil  would  be 
quickly  squeezed 
out  of  the  ways, 
it    is    kept    con- 
stantly    applied, 
by  means  of  rol- 
lers    resting     in 
pockets     or     re- 
cesses in  the  bed. 
these         pockets 
containing-       oil, 
which    floats   the 


up  to  as  much  as 
00  ft.  being  obtain- 
able when  desired.  ^*^X^ 

Return  strokes  run  46.  VERTICAL  AND  HORIZONTAL  PLANER  (Hulse&  Co.,  Ltd.  .Manchester)    J 
ae  high  as  225  ft.  per 

minute  in  the  most  efficient  machines.  In  order  to 
obtain  an  easy  reversal  and  start  at  such  high  speeds, 
several  kinds  of  cushioning  devices  have  been 
evolved,  comprising  springs  which  give  sufficiently 
to  absorb  the  shock  of  reversal.  In  one  design  the 
table  rack  is  not  bolted  solidly,  but  has  a  certain 
amount  of  endlong  freedom,  coiled  springs  being 
placed  at  the  ends,  so  that  when  the  drive  comes  on 


them 

smearing  the  table  slide-ways  with  lubricant.  In 
addition  to  the  longitudinal  tee  slots  on  the  top 
of  the  table,  a  large  number  of  holes  are  reamed  in 
it.  to  carry  stop  plugs,  by  which  the  thrust  of  work 
is  received. 

The  larger  planers  have  two  tool -boxes  on  the 
cross-rail,  and  also  one  on  each  housing  face,  for 
planing  the  sides  of  work.  Modifications  are  made  in 

5001 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

the  forms  of  planers  to  accommodate  special  work. 
In  frog  and  ,»</->7r/>  machines  for  railway  work,  the 
housings  are  low,  because  the  work  is  shallow.  In 
the  roller- fii'thxj  machines  a  number  of  tool  slides 
are  fitted,  and  centres  are  mounted  on  the  table  to 
receive  several  rollers,  which  are  fluted  simul- 
taneously. Nuts  are  also  planed  in  a  similar  way 
upon  mandrels. 

Open=side  Planers.  Open-side,  or  -s/m/A  - 
standard  planing  machines  are  designed  to  take 
pieces  of  work  which  are  too  wide  to  pass  between 
the  housings  of  an  ordinary  planer.  A  machine  of 
this  class  is  shown  in  41,  having  a  rail  or  arm  sup- 
ported by  a  circular  column,  which  itself  carries  a 
tool -box  for  side  work.  The  rail  has  two  boxes, 
actuated  automatically  in  the  manner  already 
described.  The  table,  from  which  pieces  may  over- 


tool  is  gripped,  and  given  a  half  revolution  at  each 
reversal,  so  bringing  the  cutting  edge  into  action 
lii  si  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other.  The  rotation 
is  effected  by  cords  passing  over  pulleys  on  the 
cross-rail  and  around  the  tool  socket.  The  peculiar 
jumping  round  action  of  the  device  led  it  to  be 
termed  a  "  Jim  Crow."  In  other  fittings,  the 
object  sought  is  not  to  rotate,  but  to  tilt  the  tool  in 
its  box  in  two  directions,  the  end  of  the'  tool  being 
made  with  double  edges,  which  cut  alternately. 

Special  Planers.  Pit  planing  machines  are 
radically  different  from  ordinary  machines  ;  instead 
of  possessing  a  travelling  table,  a  large  pit  lies 
below  the  cross-rail,  and  the  latter,  with  its  housings, 
,  travels  on  guide  ways  flanking  the  pit.  Extremely 
massive  objects  may  be  held  stationary  and  tooled. 
Armour  plates  are  examples  of  the  work  so  done. 


47    AND    48.    CRANK   SHAPER 

hang  without  obstruction,  runs  on  flat  ways.  Its 
cutting  and  return  strokes  are  effected  through 
the  large  and  small  pulleys  at  the  side,  driven  by 
open  and  crossed  belts.  A  small  pulley  on  the 
countershaft  (shown  dotted)  drives  to  one  on  the 
column,  connecting  to  spur  and  bevel  gears,  which 
drive  a  vertical  screw  for  raising  and  lowering  the 
arm. 

Double-cutting  Machines.  In  the  ma 
chines  described  previously,  cutting  takes  place 
only  while  the  table  is  travelling  in  one  'direction. 
To  avoid  the  waste  of  time  thus  involved,  double- 
cutting  tool-boxes  have  been  devised,  to  make  tin- 
tool  (of  special  form)  cut  in  two  directions  alter- 
nately. These  devices  are  used  only  to  a  limited 
extent  by  comparison  with  the  number  of  ordinary 
planers  employed.  The  original  design — the  Whit- 
worth — consists  of  a  round  socket  within  which  the 


49.    SLOTTING    MACHINE 

Vertical  and  horizontal  planers  also  serve  for 
massive  work  which  is  not  convenient  to  put  on  a 
moving  table.  Large  marine  engine  castings  are 
planed  in  this  way.  The  machine  [46]  comprises 
a  base  plate  to  hold  the  work,  which  is  operated  on 
by  tools  held  in  a  saddle  that  travels  up  and  down 
a  long  vertical  slide.  The  latter  travels  bodily  for 
horizontal  planing  upon  two  slideways  on  the  face 
of  the  vertical  framing.  Large,  square-threaded 
screws  are  employed  to  drive  the  slides,  and  the 
feeding  is  performed  in  a  similar  manner,  changes 
being  obtained  by  gears. 

Side=planers.  We  have  seen  that  the  open- 
side  planer  possesses  advantages  for  tooling  bulky 
work.  There  is  another  machine,  the  side-planer, 
that  is  even  more  useful,  though  its  construction  is 
different,  the  tool  travelling  instead  of  the  table.  The 
fad  that  the  table  is  fixed,  and  consequently  the 


work  does  not  move,  simplifies  the  attachment  of  the 
latter,  and  no  matter  how  much  its  overhang,  it 
can  be  supported  with  blocking  and  wedges.  The 
Richards  side-planer  (by  Geo. 
Richards  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Broadheath), 
shown  in  42,  an  example  having 
a  stroke  of  6  ft.,  comprises  a 
framing,  on  the  front  of  which 
facings  receive  flat  plates,  held 
anywhere  on  the  length  with  tee- 
headed  bolts  in  slots.  To  each 
plate  is  fitted  a  box  table,  with  tee 
grooves  on  three  of  its  sides.  The 
tables  are  raised  and  lowered  by 
the  screws  operated  through  bevel 
gears  from  squared  spindles  ro- 
tated with  crank  handles  outside. 
The  four  bolts  seen  at  the  front  of 
each  table  tighten  the  latter  after 
adjustment.  The  tables  may  be 
used  separately  for  different  pieces 
of  work,  or  to  support  a  single 
large  piece  between  them.  There 
is  a  brickwork  pit  in  front  of  the 
machine,  into  which  deep  pieces 
may  hang.  The  saddle,  with  its 
arm  carrying  a  tool-box,  travels 
along  the  top  of  the  bed,  being 
driven  to  and  fro  by  a  square- 
threaded  screw  inside  it,  revolved 
alternately  by  the  large  and  small 
fast-and-loose  pulleys  at  the  end. 


The  belts  on  these  pulleys  are  moved  by  the  action 
of  the  saddle  striking  stops  on  the  rod  seen  lying 
above  the  bed.  The 
details  of  this  me- 
chanism are  shown 
in  43 — a  plan  view 
of  the  saddle  and 
driving  mechanism 
and  end  view  of 
the  striking  gears. 
The  fast  pulleys 
are  marked  A  and 

B,  and    the    belt 
forks    are     shown 
both  over  the  loose 
pulleys,    in    which 
position  the  mach- 
ine would  be  idle. 

When    running, 
the  arm,  E,  travels 
along  until  one  of 
the  horns,  F,  on  the  arm 
strikes  a  stop,  G,  on  the 
rod,  H,  which  pushes  the 
latter  endwise,  causing  it 
to    slide    the    plate,    J, 
which  coerces  the  forks, 

C,  D,   moving  one  from 
its  fast  to  its  loose  pulley, 
the  other  from  its  loose 

to  its  fast  pulley,  so  reversing  ; 
the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  ; 
screw,  which  works  in  a  divided 
nut  screwed  to  the  saddle.  At 
the  moment  of  reversal  an  auto- 
matic cross  feed,  or  a  down  feed 
is  given  to  the  tool  box,  not 
shown  in  this  view,  on  the  arm,  E. 
The  horns,  F,  have  spiral  edges,  so  that  in  striking 
G  they  give  the  rod,  H,  a  twist,  which  is  trans- 
mitted through  encircling  mitre  gears  to  shaft,  K, 
1  '.i  -ing  through  the  arm  to  the  front,  where  quadrant 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

gears  and  a  ratchet  device  transmit  the  motion  to 
either  the  feed  screw,  or  the  feed  rod,  which  lie  within 
the  face  of  the  arm.  The  tooj-box  [44]  slides  across 
the  arm  by  the  vee  and  square 
gib  fitting.  If  may  be  fed 
across,  or  downwards  by  the 
square  ends  of  the  operating 
screws  seen,  A  and  B.  The 
automatic  cross  feed  is 
effected  when  the  screw,  A,  is 
moved  by  the  ratchet  devices 
shown  in  43  ;  the  down  feed 
operates  when  the  splined  rod, 
C,  revolves,  and  communi- 
cates its  motion  through  the 
mitre  gears  seen  to  the  screw, 
B.  The  mitres  passing  through 
the  saddle,  D,  are  screwed  and 
pinned  together,  as  seen  in 
the  detail  shown  on  the  draw- 
ing. The  intermediate  plate, 

E,  may    be    revolved    and 
bolted  in  any  angular  position 
on  the  saddle,  D.     The  slide, 

F,  is  the  one  that  is  fed  down 
by  the   screw,  B  ;    it  carries 
the  tool-holder,  hinged  to  allow 
the 'tool  freedom  on  the  back 
stroke,     the     device     being 
termed  a  clapper  box.  A  single 
pillar  holder  is  provided  for 
the  tool.  The  whole  construc- 

tool-box    is    identical   with  that  for 


50.   54-IN.  GEARED  SLOTTING  MACHINE 

(Niles-Bement-Fond  Co.) 


51.   FRAME-PLATE  SLOTTER 


tion  of  this  tool- box  is 
an  ordinary  planer,  with  the  exception  that  four 
studs,  with  plates,  are  usually  fitted  instead  of  the 
single-screw  post. 

Shaping  Machines.   Shaping  machines  bear 
a  certain  resemblance  to  the  side-planer  just  de- 
scribed, but  instead  of  the  tool  travelling  longitu- 
dinally it  has  a  cross  or  transverse  stroke,  produced 
by  means  of  a  slide  or  ram.     The  value 
of  the  shaping  machine  lies  in  tooling 
comparatively    short    lengths,    which 
cannot  be  so  conveniently  or  economi- 
cally done  on  the  planer.     The  length 
of  stroke,  moreover,  is    precise,  since 
it  does  not  depend  upon  shifting  belts. 
In  47  and  48  a  typical  shapor  (Tangyes, 
Limited,    Birming- 
ham)    of      12     in. 
stroke  is  shown  in 
front  and  end  eleva- 
tions.    There   is    a 
table,    A,  elevated 
with    screw,    mitre 
gears,   and    handle 
shaft,   clamped 
against  a  plate,  B, 
adjustable       along 
the  front    face    of 
the   framing.     The 
driving  of  the  ram, 
C,   is    through  the 
cone      pulley,      I), 
thence  from  pinion, 
E,     to     wheel,    F, 
which     revolves    a 
short  shaft  carrying 
a  crank  disc,  which 
has     a     pin     and 


block  fitting  in  the  slot  in  a  large  link,  H.  The 
latter  is  pivoted  to  the  bottom  of  the  saddle  casting 
at  J,  and  at  the  other  end  has  a  connecting  rod 
coupled  to  the  ram  by  a  bearing  clamped  at  any 


52.   SLOTTER— FRONT   VIEW 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

position  in  a  slot  by  a  nut,  K.  A>.  t  ho  (  toi  e,  the  disc, 
( !,  rotates,  its  pin  and  block  go  around  and  force  the 
link,  H,  to  rock  on  its  pivot  at  J,  and  to  reciprocate 
t  lie  tool  ram  from  the  other  free  end.  The  forward 
stroke  of  the  ram  occurs  when  the  sliding  block  is  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  slot  in  the  link,  and  the  back- 
ward when  in  the  lower  part,  the 
movement  in  the  first  case  being 
slower  than  in  the  second,  thus 
giving  a  quick-return  stroke  to  the 
rain.  This  device  was  one  of 
Whitworth's  inventions, 
also  applied  to  planers. 
\  The  stroke  is  adjustable 

by   bringing   the   pin   in 
G    closer    to    or    farther 
from  the  centre.    The  slot 
in  the  top  of  the  ram,  C. 
is  to  allow  the  nut,  K,  to 
be  slid  and  tightened  at 
any  convenient  location 
to    make  the  ram  start 
from  a  certain  point  on 
a     piece    of    work. 
After  each  stroke  of 
the  ram  it  has   to 
be     moved     bodily 
sideways  to  impart 
feed,    and    this     is 
derived      from      a 
slotted  disc,   L,  on 
the  same  shaft  as  G. 
L  rocks  a  connecting 

rod,  coupled  to  a  ratchet  lever,  N,  intermittently, 
operating  a  wheel  (shown  dotted)  and  thence  a  nut 
encircling  the  feed  screw,  O.  The  hand  wheel,  P, 
may  also  be  used  to  feed  by.  The  tool-box  on 
the  ram,  C,  has  a  hand  down  feed,  and  also 
swivelling  motion  by  worm  and  worm  quadrant, 
enabling  the  tool  to  be  set  to  an  angle,  or  gradually 
worked  round  to  shape  out  a  concavity.  An  im- 
portant fitting  is  the  circular 
motion,  shown  detached  at  Q. 
It  is  inserted  in  a  hole  in 
the  frame  at  R,  and  consists 
of  a  bearing  and  mandrel 
holding  an  arbor  on  which 
two  cones  are  placed,  one 
being  adjustable  by  nut.  to 
close  up.  Bosses  and  other 
pieces  with  holes  in  are  held 
and  centred  by  these  cones, 
and  as  the  tool  above  shapes 
the  periphery,  the  work  is  in- 
termittently rotated  until  a 
part  or  whole  circle  is  tooled. 
There  is  a  worm  wheel 
mounted  on  the  mandrel,  and 
turned  by  a  worm  [47]  which 
is  worked  by  a  ratchet  device 
similar  to  that  at  N,  but 
operated  from  a  crank-disc, 
S,  and  connecting  rod.  T. 

Machines  of  this  class  are 
constructed  also  with  two 
tables,  and  also  with  two 
heads,  to  be  used  each  on  a 
separate  piece  of  work,  or 
both  on  one  job.  Other  varia- 
tions in  shapers  include 
swivelling  tables,  by  which 
work  may  be  angled,  and 
the  addition  of  self-acting 
down  feed  to  the  tool-box. 
H004 


Some  machines  also  are  rack  driven,  like  planers, 
the  reverse  being  effected  by  open  and  crossed 
belts  on  pulleys,  or  by  friction  clutches.  In  such 
machines  the  rate  of  travel  is  constant  during  the 
stroke,  whereas  with  the  Whitworth  crank  drive  just 
described  it  must  necessarily  vary  continually,  on 
account  of  the  changing  radii.  The  smaller  shaping 
machines  do  not  derive  their  feed  from  the  side 
motion  of  the  saddle, 
but  the  latter  is  fixed 
and  the  work-table 
slides  upon  a 
saddle,  self-act- 
ing feed  being 
given  by  a 
screw,  with 
crank-disc  and 
ratchet,  as  in 


54.    FRAME    DRILLING   MACHINE 


as 

planers.     All 
shaping     mach- 
ines cut  on  the 
outward  stroke, 
with  one  excep- 
tion, the  draw-cut  type 
which  cuts  on  the  in- 
ward    stroke.    '    The 
advantage  claimed  is 
that      the      pressure  53.  PLAN  OF  BLOTTER  TABLES 
tends    to    draw    the 

slides  up  together  instead  of  pushing  them  apart, 
as  on  the  outward  stroke,  and  that  the  ram 
does  not  tend  to  tilt  up  as  when  pushing  out. 
These  points  may  be  considered  as  reasonable  in 
the  case  of  poorly  built  or  worn  machines,  where 
the  tendencies  mentioned  would  be  noticeable,  but 
not  in  machines  kept  in  good  condition,  so  that  the 
draw-cut  device  is  not  followed  to  any  extent. 

Slotting  Machines.  Slotting  machines  are 
not  suited  for  such  a  general  range  of  work  as  planers 
and  shapers,  because  they  lack  the  capacity  for 
length  of  the  first,  and  the  handiness  of  the  second. 
But  for  a  good  deal  of  short-stroke  work  they  are 
valuable,  especially  on  pieces  that  stick  out  a  long- 
distance, and  could  not  be  put  on  a  planer  or 
shaper  conveniently.  Very  heavy  cuts  may  be 
taken,  because  of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
construction.  Figs.  49,  52  and  53  show  an  8- in. 
stroke  slotter  by  John  Stirk  & 
Sons,  Half  ax,  in  elevation, 
with  a  plan  of  the  head, 
front  view,  and  plan  of 
table.  Driving  begins  at  the 
cone  pulley,  A,  a  store  of 
energy  being  conserved  by  the 
flywheel,  B,  to  assist  the 
stroke  of  the  ram  when  the 
tool  suddenly  encounters  the 
work.  A  pinion,  0,  drives  the 
spur-wheel,  D,  keyed  on  a 
shaft  passing  through  the 
frame  to  a  crank  disc,  E, 
which  is  provided  with  an  ad- 
justable pin  and  block  driv- 
ing a  pivoted  link  in  the  same 
manner  as  described  in  con- 
nection with  the  shaper 
[47  and  48].  The  connect- 
ing rod,  F,  is  pivoted  to 
a  pin  held  in  the  ram,  G, 
the  pin  being  adjustable 
by  hand  wheel  and  tight- 
ened by  nut,  plate,  and 
serrations  on  the  ram  face, 
to  bring  the  ram  to  the 


most  convenient  location  for  a  given  piece  of  work. 
The  balance  weight,  H,  prevents  jerky  motion  of 
the  ram.  The  tool  is  gripped  by  the  straps  at  the 
bottom  end,  and  the  tool  is  prevented  from  slipping 
ir>  by  the  stop-block  bolted  on  the  face.  The 
table  slides  comprise  a  saddle,  J,  an  upper  slide,  K, 
and  a  circular  table,  L,  providing  for  movement 
to  and  from  the  column,  transversely  thereto,  and 
a  circular  motion.  The  feeds  are  derived  from  a 
disc,  M,  which  has  a  cam  groove  in  its  face,  coercing 
a  pin  in  a  lever,  and  rocking  the  connecting  rod,  N, 
which  has  a  ratchet  fitting  to  feed  the  wheel,  0, 
intermittently.  O  is  on  a  splined  shaft  lying  below 
the  slides,  and  connection  is  made  to  the  operating 
screws  within  these  by  mitre  wheels  and  spur 
wheels,  the  actions  being  thrown  in  or  out  bv 
sliding  pinions.  The  rotary  motion  of  the  table  is 
effected  by  a  worm  and  wheel  [see  49  and  53j. 
All  the  motions  may  be  operated  by  hand  also. 
When  not  required  to  revolve,  the  table  is  clamped 
with  four  plates  round  the  bevelled  edge  [53]. 
The  hole  in  the  centre  receives  a  mandrel  for  hold- 
ing circular  work  by.  When  taper  kevwavs  hive 
to  be  slotted,  tables  are  made 
with  a  hinge  arrangement,  by 
which  a  slight  amount  of  tilt 
can  be  imparted  to  throw  the 
work  over,  and  so  slot  out  of 
parallel. 

The  ordinary  slotter  has  no 
provision  made  for  relieving  the 
pressure  on  the  tool  during  the 
return  stroke,  but  some  are 
supplied  with  a  hinged  box, 
similar  in  principle  to  the 
clapper  box  of  a  planer  ;  others 
have  it  embodied  in  the  tool 
bars. 

Variations  from  the  ordinary 
practice  include  the  getting  of 
quick-return  by  elliptical  gears, 
formed  in  half  portions,  which 
alternately  come  into  action, 
and  give  slow  and  rapid  strokes 
for  cut  and  return ;  the  addi- 
tion of  tool  clamps  on  the  bottom 
of  the  ram,  to  hold  special 
tools ;  driving  the  ram  by 
screw,  or  by  rack  in  the  large 
machines.  Fig.  50  is  a  fine  ex- 
ample of  a  heavy  machine,  the 
stroke  being  54  in.  It  is  rack 
driven,  and  reverses  its  motion 
like  a  planer,  with  shifting  belts  on  fast  and  loose 
pulleys.  The  counter-balancing  is  done  with  weights 
at  the  back,  connected  by  steel  wire  ropes  passing 
over  pulleys  to  the  ram. 

Frame=plate  S loiters.  Locomotive  frame- 
plate  slotting  machines  bear  little  resemblance  to  the 
ordinary  slotters,  except  in  possessing  vertical  rams. 
Several  of  these  are  mounted  on  cross-rails  and 
heads  [51,  which  is  a  four-head  machine],  and  they 
are  fed  along  or  across  to  slot  out  the  shape  of  the 
frame- plates,  a  pile  of  which  is  bolted  down  to  the 
table  to  be  operated  on.  The  heads  are  travelled 
along  the  bed  by  screws  at  the  sides,  and  the  driving 
of  the  heads  is  effected  from  a  splined  shaft  seen 
running  up  the  length  of  the  machine  on  the  left- 
hand  side,  driving  bevel  gears  which  communicate 
motion  to  cross  shafts  above  the  rails.  Drilling- 
attachments  are  also  fitted  to  the  heads  for  drilling 
the  holes  in  the  plates  at  the  same  setting.  The 
entire  machine  is  driven  from  an  electric  motor  at 
the  far  end. 


55.    PILLAR   DRILL 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

Drilling  Machines.  Drilling  machines  and 
boring  machines  are  a  large  group  embracing  many 
types,  for  small  or  large  work,  of  horizontal  or 
vertical  designs,  with  provisions  for  drilling  or 
boring  one  or  several  holes  simultaneously.  A 
drilling  machine  is  strictly  one  for  originating  holes, 
a  boring  machine  one  for  enlarging  them,  though 
the  distinction  is  not  always  rigidly  observed.  In 
a  drilling  machine  the  essential  points  are  means 
for  rotating  the  drills,  feeding  them  to  their  work 
or  vice  versa,  clamping  the  work,  and  adjusting  it 
or  the  drill  to  exact  positions.  Small  pieces  of  work 
may  easily  be  shifted  about  to  come  underneath 
spindles,  but  massive  ones  are  troublesome,  and 
preference  is  given  to  moving  the  drill  instead. 

A  machine  embodying  many  features  which  are 
common  to  several  other  types  of  drills  is  that  in 
54  and  56  (John  Stirk  &  Sons,  Halifax),  what  is 
termed  a  frame  drilling  machine.  The  spindle  is  of 
3  in.  diameter,  with  a  vertical  feed  of  16  in.  It  runs 
in  sleeves  within  the  head.  The  drive  is  from  the 
fast  and  loose  pulleys  on  the  base  of  the  frame, 
the  belt,  being  thrown  over  by  forks  actuated  through 
the  pivoted  levers  seen,  ending 
in  a  small  knob  at  the  front  of 
the  column,  close  to  the  oper- 
ator. The  four-step  cone  pul- 
ley at  the  base  drives  up  to  its 
companion  within  the  opening- 
above.  The  back  gears  there 
give  an  increased  power  when 
necessary.  A  horizontal  shaft 
runs  thence  through  the  frame, 
driving  a  mitre  gear,  engaging 
with  one  mounted  on  a  sleeve  en- 
circling the  spindle.  This  is  a 
device  to  prevent  the  injurious 
side-pull  caused  when  a  wheel  is 
mounted  direct  on  a  spindle.  The 
feeding  down  of  the  spindle  is 
done  either  by  hand,  turning  the 
hand  wheel  on  the  vertical  shaft 
seen  close  to  the  spindle,  ending 
in  a  worm  which  revolves  its 
worm  wheel,  and  thence  a  pinion 
gearing  in  a  rack  cut  on  an  ex- 
tension of  the  spindle.  The 
teeth  are  shown  enlarged.  The 
vertical  hand-wheel  shaft  is 
mounted  in  an  eccentric  quill 
in  order  that  the  worm  may  be 
thrown  out  of  gear  by  a  part 
rotation,  using  the  handle 
screwed  into  the  quill  as  a  lever.  Self-acting  feed 
is  imparted  by  the  small  three-step  cone  pulleys 
driving  from  the  back-gear  spindle  down  to  one 
which  has  a  worm  actuating  a  wheel  on  the  vertical 
shaft,  a  friction  cone  clutch  inside  making  provision 


drilling  or  countersinking,  the  spindle  may  be  fed 
clown  rapidly  by  hand,  using  the  horizontal  lever 
seen  below  the  driving  mitres.  This  lever  .is  con- 
nected up  to  the  top  of  the  spindle  by  a  loose  collar 
thereon  and  side  connecting  rods.  A  circular 
weight  is  used  to  counterbalance  the  load  and  draw 
the  spindle  upwards  on  releasing  the  handle.  The 
weight  is  partly  hidden  behind  the  frame. 

The  circular  work-table  of  the  machine  is  carried 
in  an  arm  that  swivels  around  its  circular  column, 
and  is  moved  up  or  down  it  by  a  pinion  meshing 
with  a  rack  that  is  held  inside  the  arm  and  turns 
around  the  column  freely,  but  cannot  move  endwise. 
The  pinion  is  revolved  by  a  wheel  turned  with  a 
worm  operated  by  a  handle.  Work  that  is  too 

5005 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 


56.    PLAN    OF   FRAME   DRILLING   MACHINE 

bulky  to  go  on  this  table  is  accommodated  upon  the 
base  plate,  tee-slotted  for  bolts. 

Pillar  Drill.  A  type  of  machine  that  has 
received  its  greatest  development  in  America  is 
shown  in  55.  It  is  a  pilfar  or  column  drill,  with 
fliding  head,  the  latter  having  reference  to  the  lower 
bearing  of  the  spindle,  which  is  slid  upon  a  vertical 
face,  the  object  being  to  bring  the  bearing  down  as 
low  as  possible  for  steadying  the  spindle  close  to 
the  work.  The  driving  arrange- 
ments are  very  similar  to  the  last 
example.  The  back  gears  are  slightly 
different,  and  the  bevel-gear  drive 
to  the  spindle  is  above  the  top 
bearing.  Feeds  are  obtained  from  a 
three-step  cone  on  the  extension  of 
the  spindle  bevel  in  the  top  bearing, 
a  belt  driving  to  cones  on  a  vertical 
shaft  adjacent.  This  actuates  bevel 
and  worm  gears,  which  rack  down 
a  sleeve  encircling  the  spindle  in  the 
lower  bearing.  The  same  effect  is 
produced  by  turning  the  hand  wheel 
near  the  bearing,  or  pulling  the  short 
upright  lever  behind  the  spindle. 
Both  spindle  and  lower  bearing  are 
balanced  with  weights  inside  the 
column  suspended  -by  chains. 
Numerous  modifications  are 
made  in  designs  which  include 
these  features. 

Sensitive  Drill.  Another 
kind  of  pillar  drill,  shown  in  57, 
is  of  the  sensitive  type,  used  for 
drilling  small  holes  at  high  speed. 


stop-collar  clamped  on  the  spindle  near  the  top. 
to  touch  the  pulley  at  a  certain  point  of  the 
travel.  The  flat  table  is  clamped  0:1  the  column  by 
a  split  lug  tightened  by  a  hand  screw,  and  the 
weight  of  the  table  is  counterbalanced  by  a  weight 
inside  the  column.  Machines  of  this  type  are  also 
made  with  an  abbreviated  column,  to  rest  on  the 
bench. 

Radial  Drills.  Radial  drilling  machines 
are  designed  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  shifting  the 
work  about  for  every  hole  that  has  to  be  drilled, 
the  drill  being  moved  instead  by  means  of  a  radial 
pivoted  arm  [58]  carrying  a  saddle,  which  can  be 
slid  along  to  and  from  the  column,  so  that  the  entire 
area  of  the  table  is  covered.  Some  radials  have 
the  arm  placed  directly  upon  an  independent 
circular  pillar,  around  which  it  turns,  but  in  the 
machine  illustrated  the  column  is  supported  by 
another  pillar  that  serves  to  hold  part  of  the  driving 
gears.  Two  alternative  methods  of  driving  are 
illustrated ;  in  the  complete  drawing  fast  and 
loose  pulleys  and  stepped  pulleys  transmit  the 
power  to  a  horizontal  shaft  above  the  arm.  In  the 
part  view  to  the  left,  fast  and  loose  pulleys 
connect  to  a  change-gear  box,  by 
which  nine  changes  of  speed  are 
obtainable  instantly  through  friction 
clutches  and  gears.  By  the  use  of 
double  gearing  in  the  saddle  the 
changes  are  doubled,  making  18  in 
all.  From  the  speed-box  a  Renold 
chain  transmits  the  power  to  the  top 
shaft.  This  shaft  connects  with  the 
saddle  gears  in  any  position,  and 
drives  the  spindle,  a  friction  clutch 
being  interposed  for  easy  starting, 
stopping,  and  reversing  for  tapping. 
Foxir  different  feeds  are  given  by 
nest  gears  in  the  saddle,  and  the 
spindle  may  also  be  moved  by 
the  hand  wheel  adjacent  to  it  or 
by  the  large  cross-handle.  The 
other  cross-handle  on  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  saddle  is  for 
racking  it  along.  The  table  is 
raised  and  lowered  by  pinion 
and  rack,  actuated  by  the  cross- 
handle  seen. 


No  toothed  gears 

are  required,  the  capacity  being  only  up  to  |  in. 
holes.    There  are  fast  and  loose  pulleys  at  the  base, 
the  belt  is  thrown  over  by  the  foot-treadle  seen  at 
the  base,  and  the  operator's  hands  are  thus  left  free 
for  manipulating  work  and  feed.     The  fast  pulley 
on   the   base   is   cast   with   the   three-step   pulley, 
which  is  belted  up  to  another  near  the  top  of  the 
column.     Thence    a    belt    is    carried    around    two 
idlers,  which  change  the  direction  to  right  angles. 
and  lead  the  belt  around  the  spindle  pulley, 
running  on  a  sleeve  encircling  the  spindle. 
The  latter  is  fed  throiigh  the  lower  bearing 
by  a  rack  and  pinion,  the  rack  being  cut  on 
a  sleeve  which  does  not  rotate.     The  lever 
for  feeding  is  screwed  into  a  circular  box 
containing  a  flat  coiled  spring,  the  tension 
of  which  always  tends  to  raise  the  spindle. 
The    operator  can   therefore  feel  the 
pressure   he   is  putting  on   the    drill, 
because  there  is  no  intermediate  screw 
or  any  heavy  weight  to  interfere  with 
the    delicacj-    of    manipulation.      The 
depth  of  drilling  is  determined   by  the 

5000 


57.    SENSITIVE  DRILL 
(Webster  &  Bennett,   Ltd.) 

Some  radials  have  a  swivelling 

motion  to  the  spindle,  for  drilling  holes  at  angles  ; 
in  others,  the  box  tables  swivel  to  tilt  the  work. 
Vertical  movement  of  the  radial  arm  is  included 
in  cases  where  very  deep  work  is  to  be  drilled. 

A  good  many  other  machines  differ  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  framing  adopted.  Some  possess  uprights 
and  c  r  o  s  s-r  ails, 
carrying  two  or 
more  spindles,  and 
the  work  is  held  on 


58.    RADIAL  DRILL  (James  Arclulale  of  Co.,  Ltd.,  Binninyhuni) 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 


;i  long  table  below.  Multiple-spindle  machines 
axe  constructed  in  numerous  types,  with  the 
spindles  duplicated  side  by  side,  or  set  to  form 
various  geometrical  patterns.  A  design  which 
can  be  employed  in  this  way  is  shown  in  59.  The 
spindles  are  driven  at  one  location,  and  they 
are  branched  out  to  any  position  required,  and 
clamped  so  that  certain  definite  arrangements 
of  holes,  as  circles,  squares,  hexagons,  etc.,  may  be 
drilled  simultaneously.  The  spindles  are  fitted 
with  double  universal  joints,  which  permit  of  the 
angular  positions. 

The  methods  of  holding  drills  in  their  spindles 
comprise  parallel  shanks,  pinched  with  .set-screws ; 
tapered  shanks  and  sockets,  and  drill  chucks.  The 
latter  are  used  chiefly  in  the  smaller  machines. 

The  advantage  of  the  taper  shank  over  the 
parallel  one  is  that  no  slackness  can  occur  with  the 
former,  while  the  latter,  if  it  wears  loose  must  re- 
main so,  and  with  the  result  that  the  drill  runs  out 
of  truth.  Drill  shanks  of  taper  form  have  a  short 
flattened  portion  entering  into  a  slot  at  the  bottom 
of  the  hole  in  the  drill  spindle,  so  that  a  positive 
drive  is  given  to  the  drill  without  depending  on 
the  friction  of  the  taper  alone.  The  drill  is  ejected 
from  its  spindle  by  driving  a  tapered  cotter  or  key 
through  the  slot,  which  has  the  effect  of  pushing  out 
the  tail  of  the  drill.  To  accommodate  a  good  range 
of  sizes,  sockets  or  sleeves 
are  necessary,  otherwise 
it  would  be  found  that  a 
small  drill  would  need  a 
very  big  shank  to  make  it 
fit  the  spindle.  But  by 
putting  a  hollow  socket 
inside  the  spindle,  and  in- 
serting the  drill  in  this, 
the  shank  of  the  drill  may 
be  made  of  a  diameter 
about  equal  to  its  bod}7. 
Morse  tapers  are  employed 
as  standards  for  taper 
shanks,  so  that  inter- 


down  to  the 
smallest 
sizes,  of  par- 
allel form, 
and  any 
special  drills 
can  be  readily 
held  without 
troubling  to 
turn  the 
shanks  taper- 
ed. Most  drill 
chucks  have 
either  two  or 
three  jaws, 
sliding  in  a 
circular  shell 
or  body,  and 
closed  in  by 
the  action 
of  screw 
threads  oper- 
ated by  a 
knurled 
sleeve  or  by 


SLOT- DRILLING    MACHINE 
(Geo.  Richards  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Broadheath) 

a   square   key.      The   chucks   are.   of 


JH^. 


LOCOMOTIVE  CYLINDER  BORING  MACHIN  E 

(Newton  Machine  Tool  Works,  Philadelphia) 


changeability  of  all  drills  and  holes  is  secured. 

Chucks  are  only  used  on  the  small  machines; 
they  form  a  convenient  method  of  holding  shanks 


59.    16-3PINDLE    MULTIPLE    DRTLT, 


course,  self-centring. 

Angular  =  hole      Drilling       Machines. 

These  are  special  types  of  drilling  machines  which 
perform  operations  differ- 
ent from  the''  production 
of  ordinary  round  holes. 
Square  or  angular-hole 
drilling  machines  cut  out 
holes  of  polygonal  shape 
with  revolving  tools,  which 
have  to  be  coerced  to  run 
into  the  angles.  Square, 
hexagon,  and  octagon 
holes  are  commonly  done 
thus,  for  spanners,  handles, 
etc.  One  method  is  to 
pivot  the  drilling  spindle 
about  its  centre  in  a  ball 
socket,  and  to  cause  the  top  end  to  move  inside 
a  pattern  plate  of  the  shape  desired.  The  angular 
motion  is,  of  course,  reproduced  at  the  bottom 
of  the  spindle,  and  on  putting  in  a  suitable  tool 
of  knife-like  section  it  cuts  out  the  shape  by 
running  from  corner  to  corner.  Other  devices 
are  somewhat  similar  in  principle,  the  use  of  a 
pattern  or  form-plate  being  necessary, 

Slot  =  drilling  Machines.  Slot-drilling 
machines  are  used  for  cutting  key  and  cottar- ways 
with  a  revolving  drill-like  tool  having  a  fiat  end. 
Tra verse  has  to  be  imparted  to  the  shaft  or  spindle 
being  tooled  or  to  the  drill.  In  the  example  [60] 
the  spindle  is  carried  in  bearings  in  a  sliding  saddle, 
moved  to  and  fro  across  the  head  by  a  screw 
driven  from  belts  and  gears.  An  automatic  trip 
device,  operated  through  the  rod  seen  immediately 
below  the  driving  belt,  throws  over  reversing 
clutches  when  .the  saddle  strikes  a  dog  on  the  rod,  the 
length  of  travel  depending  therefore  on  the  position 
of  the  dogs  on  each  side.  The  spindle  is  rotated 
by  a  belt  which  passes  over  pulleys  at  each  end 
of  the  head,  and  is  given  a  half-twist  to  lap  round  the 
spindle  pulley,  the  longitudinal  position  of  the  latter 
riot  affecting  the  belt  drive.  A  self-acting  vertical 
feed  of  2  in.  is  given  to  the  spindle  in  order 
that  keyways  may  be  gradually  finished  to  the  re- 
quired depth,  the  feed  taking  place  gradually  a 
little  after  each  traverse.  The  table  on  the  front 
of  the  column  may  be  moved  up  or  down,  and 
across,  to  bring  woVk  into  position.  If  shafts  are 

5007 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 


The   distinc- 


62.    SNOUT  BORING   MACHINE 

being  handled,  they  are  set  in  vee  blocks,  and  held 
with  clamps.  The  capacity  of  the  machine  is  for 
slots  1  in.  wide  by  20  in.  long. 

In  those  machines  which  have  a  traversing  table, 
instead  of  moving  the  spindle  the  motion  is  pro- 
duced by  gears  driving  a  slotted  crank-disc,  re- 
ciprocating a  connecting  rod  pivoted  to 
the  table,  so  that  the  latter  is  drawn  to 
and  fro  at  a  suitable  rate,  while  the  drill 
merely  rotates. 

Boring  Machines. 
tion  between  drilling 
machines  and  boring 
machines  is  obvious  on 
glancing  at  the  respective 
operations  which  they 
perform.  Drilling  is  done 
with  tools  supported  and 
driven  from  one  end 
only;  boring,  with  bars 
supported  at  two  or 
more  locations.  Drilling 
originates  holes,  boring 
enlarges  them.  This 
classification  is  broadly 
correct,  but  it  is  hard  to 
draw  the  line  sometimes  in  stating  what  is  boring, 
and  what  is  not.  As  drilling  machines  are  con- 
structed in  both  vertical  and  horizontal  forms,  so 
boring  machines  are  found  in  both  types,  but  the 
horizontal  predominates.  This  is  because  the 
length  of  holes  to  be  bored  is  often  considerable, 
and  it  would  be  difficult  to  operate  the  machines 
and  watch  the  progress  of  boring  if  the  spindle 
and  work  were  upright,  to  say  nothing  of  the  awk- 
wardness of  the  design. 

There  are  two  main  classes  of  boring  machines, 
those  in  which  the  boring  tools  are  travelled, 
and  those  in  which  the  motion  is  given  to  the  work, 
the  former  constituting  the  majority.  It  is  more 
convenient  usually  to  slide  a  comparatively  light 
bar  through  bearings  than  to  traverse  a  casting 
or  forging  upon  a  table,  especially  from  the  point 
of  view  of  setting  and  adjusting  for  the  cut.  When 
the  boring  tools  are  fed  along,  they  may  be  either 
fixed  in  a  bar  which  travels  bodily  or  in  a  head  that 
slides  upon  the  stationary  bar.  The  latter  method 
is  adopted  for  the  heavier  machines  and  for  boring 
in  the  lath'-,  the  bar  running  in  bearings  or  between 
point  centres.  The  difference  in  thes<;  designs 

r>oo« 


is  one  of  relative  end  motion  :  it' 
a  bar  slides,  it  must  be  held  in 
bearings,  and  must  have  suffi- 
cient length  to  carry  the  tools 
through  the  bore,  plus  a  con- 
siderable overhang  to  remain 
in  the  bearings.  But  if  a  head 
is  slid  along  the  bar  the  latter 
need  only  be  slightly  longer 
than  the  work.  Bars  which 
slide  are  shown  on  page  4203 
[36],  and  the  sliding-head  type  resembles  E  and  F 
in  that  figure,  but  with  the  addition  of  a  screw  sunk 
in  the  bar,  and  driving  a  nut  screwed  to  the  head. 
The  screw  runs  in  bearings  at  the  bar  ends,  and  is 
revolved  by  a  star  icheel,  which  strikes  a  pin  placed 
on  the  machine  each  time  it  comes  round,  and  so 
gives  the  screw  a  partial  rotation.  A  regular  instead 
of  intermittent  feed  may  be  imparted  by  the  use  of 
differential  gears.  These  comprise  a  train  of  spin- 
wheels  driving  from  the  bar  through  intermediates 
and  back  again  to  the  screw.  One  wheel  has  one 
or  two  teeth  less  than  the  other  wheels,  so  that  the 
screw  is  slowly  revolved  by  the  result  *of  the 
different  ratios.  These  self-acting  bars  are  employed 
in  both  horizontal  and  vertical  machines,  the  latter 
for  heavy  cylinder  boring,  which  is  clone  best  when 
the  cylinders  stand  on  end. 

Machines  of  the  sliding-bar  type  are  modelled 
upon  the  lathe,  which  they  somewhat  resemble,  with 
the  difference  that  the 
slide-rest  is  of  rising  and 
falling  type,  to  bring  the 
work  into  correct  posi- 
tion. The  area  of  this 
rest  is  large,  and  it  is 
tee-slotted  for  bolts.  The 
headstock  has  belt-cones 
and  back  gears,  and 
drives  the  bar  at  varying 
rates  by  keys  fitting  in 
splines  running  down  the 
bar,  so  that  the  latter 
may  slide  while  still 
revolving.  The  feeding 
is  effected  from  an  exten- 
sion arm  at  the  rear  of 
the  head  ;  it  has  a  bear- 
ing encircling  the  bar 
and  moving  it  backward 
or  forward,  this  bearing  being  racked  along  the 
top  of  the  arm  either  by  hand  or  self-actingly. 
The  bearing  is  clamped  to  the  bar  or  released  from 
it  by  set-screws.  The  feeding  of  the  bearing  is 
from  the  headstock,  through  gears  driving  into  a 
gear-box  on  the  front  of 
the  frame,  by  which  several 
different  rates  are  obtained 
through  sliding  gears 
thrown  in  and  out  by  the 
handle  s, 
and  another 
handle 
throws  in 
the  reverse 
motion.  A 
hand  wheel 
o  n  t  h  e 


HORIZONTAL  BORING   MACHINE 


rU-"U— tf— U— l-  ITTJ 


64.     HORIZONTAL   BORING   MACHINE 


sliding  bearing  racks  the  latter  along  rapidly,  for 
adjustments.  The  table  of  the  machine  slides 
upon  the  vertical  face  of  the  frame,  and  is  also 
supported  by  an  arched  frame  or  yoke  at  the  other 
end,  and  held  to  it  by  bolts.  The  table  is  raised 
and  lowered  by  two  large  square-threaded  screws 
resting  in  sockets  underneath  it,  and  passing  through 
nuts  which  are  formed  as  worm  wheels,  and  rotated 
by  a  shaft  lying  along  the  machine  base,  so  that  the 
screws  turn  simultaneously. 

The  shaft  is  rotated  by  hand,  with  a  ratchet 
handle  on  the  end,  or  by  a  belt  pulley.  A  sliding 
table  moves  on  the  main  table  by  screw  and  crank 
handle,  and  a  cross  slide  is  mounted  above,  to  set 
the  work  transversely,  or  to  set  for  boring  a  couple 
of  holes  one  after  another  in  the  same  object. 
A  further  table  of  circular  shape  is  also  used  for  cer- 
tain work  which  may  require  holes  bored  in  it  at 
various  angles. 

A  facinf/  head  is  employed  for  work  that  has  end 
flanges  or  surfaces  to  be  tooled  at  right  angles  to 
the  bores.     This  consists  of  a  slide  rest  fixed  to  the 
bar,  and  holding  a  turning  tool.     The  slide  is  moved 
radially  by  its  screw,  which  has  a  star  wheel  on  its 
end,    struck   at   each    revolution    by   a    fixed   pin, 
thus  feeding  the  slide  little 
by  little,  until  the  flange 
has  been  finished  across. 

Fig.  61  represents  a  cylin- 
der boring  machine  which 
possesses  some  resemblance 
to  the  foregoing,  but  has 
no  arrangement  for  rais- 
ing or  lowering  the  table. 
The  bar  is  rotated  through 
cone  pulley  and  gears, 
the  largest  of  which  is 
mounted  on  a  sleeve  en- 
circling the  bar.  Two 
facing  arms  are  seen,  with 
star  wheels. 

Snout  Boring 
Machine.  A  special 
type  of  machine,  which, 
although  the  bar  is  sup- 
ported at  two  locations,  is 
enabled  to  bore  a  blank- 
ended  hole,  is  the  snout 
boring  machine  [62]  (James 
Hollinwood). 

It  is  useful  for  cylinders  of  various  kinds  which 
have  no  open  end  for  a  bar  of  sufficient  size  to  pass 
through.  The  object  is  obtained  here  by  carrying 
the  bar  or  spindle  out  a  good  distance  in  a  snout 
or  tubular  bearing,  bolted  on  to  the  head,  so  that 
the  cutting  end  is  well  supported,  a  taper  neck  allow- 
ing of  take-up  for  wear.  There  are  six  boring  tools 
in  the  head  screwed  on  the  end  of  the  spindle, 
each  clamped  by  two  set- screws  passing  through  a 
cover  plate  which  is  itself  fastened  on  the  head  by 
countersunk  screws.  The  drive  is  from  a  four- 
stepped  cone  pulley  at  the  rear  actuating  a 
worm  gearing  with  a  large  worm  wheel  on  the 
spindle.  The  tail  end  of  the  latter  has  a  three- 
stepped  cone  belted  to  another  on  a  short  shaft 
in  front  of  the  bed.  This  shaft  drives  a  worm  and 
wheel  connected  with  a  friction  disc  device,  similar 
in  action  to  that  in  13,  page  4913.  From  this 
mechanism  a  shaft  goes  at  right  angles  into  the 
interior  of  the  bed,  and  drives  mitre  wheels  actuating 
a  longitudinal  feed-screw.  The  feed  only  comes 
into  operation  when  the  wing-nuts  on  the  friction 
disc  are  tightened  up.  There  is  also  a  rapid 
power  adjustment  of  the  saddle  through  the 

1  s  Continued 


65.    HORIZONTAL  BORING,  DRILLING,  AND 
MILLING    MACHINE 

(Niles-Bcnieiit-Pond  Co.) 


Spencer    & 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

medium  of  mitre  gears  at  the  headstock  end  of 
the  bed,  driven  by  a  belt-pulley  seen  at  the  fat- 
corner.  A  clutch  between  the  mitres  throws  either 
into  gear  with  the  end  mitre  on  the  screw,-  and 
rotates  the  latter  rapidly  in  either  direction.  The 
clutches  are  slid  along  by  a  short  lever  moved  from  a 
shaft  passing  through  the  bed  to  a  handle,  which 
is  seen  situated  about  midway  along,  where  it  is  con- 
veniently placed  for  the  operator.  .  The  saddle  is 
tee-slotted,  and  in  the  elevation  and  end  view  is  shown 
with  a  couple  of  collars,  provided  with  set-screws, 
by  means  of  which  some  .kinds  of  objects,  such 
as  liners  and  tubes,  are  gripped  and  centred  for 
boring. 

Multi=spindle  Machines.  Boring  ma- 
chines allied  to  these  designs  are  constructed  with 
two  and  more  spindles,  to  finish  work  with  several 
bores  at  one  traverse,  or  several  separate  objects, 
such  as  bearings,  axle-boxes,  etc.,  on  the  one 
table.  Other  designs  are  made  with  two  bars 
lying  at  right  angles  to  each  other  ;  these  are  suited 
for  such  work  as  engine  beds,  with  circular  guides 
cast  in,  the  guides  and  the  crank-shaft  bearings 
being  bored  without  disturbing  the  setting.  Ma- 
chines for  Corliss  cylinders  have  a  central  bar  for 

,     the  bore,  and  four  others 

for    the    valve    bores,    all 
working  simultaneously. 

A  great  deal  of  the  work 
of  the  machine-shop  is 
concerned  with  castings 
and  forgings  of  awkward 
shapes,  and  often  rather 
bulky,  which  have  to 
be  bored,  faced,  drilled 
and  milled.  A  type  of 
boring  machine  developed 
largely  in  recent  years 
has  the  spindle  adjustable 
..up  and  down,  an  alterna- 
tive to  shifting  the  table. 
This  gives  the  machine 
an  increased  range  of 
capacity,  and  enables  it 
to  tackle  the  most 
awkward  shapes.  The 
work  is  not  necessarily 
confined  to  boring,  but 

the  spindle  is  adapted  to  hold  drills,  facing  tools, 
and  milling  cutters,  and  tapping  is  also  done  some- 
times. The  work  remains  bolted  to  the  table  or  base 
plate.  Figs.  63  and  64  give  an  example  which  is 
fairly  representative  of  the  class.  It  has  a  column, 
travelled  along  a  narrow  bed,  in  front  of  which  lies  a 
broad  plate,  well  supplied  with  tee-slots,  by  which  the 
work  is  bolted  down.  The  bar  of  the  machine  is 
driven  through  gears  connected  up  from  horizontal 
and  vertical  shafts,  actuated  primarily  from  a  five- 
stepped  cone  at  one  end  of  the  narrow  bed. 
Self-acting  feeds  are  given  through  a  set  of  nest 
gears,  seen  in  64,  with  reverse  mitres,  as  well 
as  hand  movements.  The  column  travels  along 
its  bed.  and  the  spindle  saddle  feeds  up  and  down 
the  face  of  the  column,  being  balanced  with  a  rope 
and  weight,  the  latter  going  within  the  column. 
When  the  bar  projects  to  a  considerable  distance, 
the  out-board  steady  seen  on  the  large  work-plate 
is  brought  into  use.  It  is  bolted  down,  and  the 
horizontal  slotted  arm  adjusted  to  coincide  with 
the  boring  bar,  which  runs  in  the  bushed  end.  Fig.  65 
gives  a  view  of  a  machine  which  presents  the  same 
Features  as  the  last  type  shown.  There  is  a  platform 
at  the  side  of  the  spindle,  on  which  the  attendant 
stands,  and  if  necessary  travel?  with  the  column. 

5009 


Group  24 

POWER 
1 

lUlwillj,-    l'll\-lr 
II'..  in 


THE  CHIEF  SOURCES  OF  POWER 

Natural  Sources  of  Power  and  their  Values.     Reserves  to  Draw  Upon  in 
the  Future.     Animal  Power.      Water  Power  and  its  Value.     Wind  Power 


By   F.    L.    RAWSON 


THK  word  power  is  used  in  a  variety  of  senses— 
1  political,  mathematical,  chemical,  etc.— but 
ii  is  employed  here  only  in  the  physical  relation, 
and  then  only  in  the  general  sense  popularly 
attributed  to  "it  in  connection  with  engineering 
matters.  Strictly  speaking,  the  engineer  defines 
power  as  the.  rate  of  doing  work — that  is,  it  is 
measured  by  the  number  of  units  of  energy 
generated,  transmitted,  or  absorbed,  as  the  case 
may  be,  per  unit  of  time.  Popular  usage,  how- 
ever, has  associated  with  the  word  the  mechanical 
agency  or  means  whereby  work  can  be  clone  or 
processes  carried  on  which  otherwise  would 
require  the  expenditure  of  human  labour. 

The  First  Uses  of  Power.  The  use  of 
power  for  relieving  man  of  physical  exertion  dates 
from  time  immemorial.  Who  can  tell,  for  in- 
stance, when  sails  were  first  employed  for  the 
propulsion  of  boats  ?  Or  when  were  oxen  first 
used  in  ploughing,  or  horses  and  camels  in  loco- 
motion ?  These  are  examples  of  the  earliest 
applications  of  wind  and  animal  power  respec- 
tively to  the  service  of  man.  Again,  the  use  of 
windmills  and  water-wheels  took  its  rise  in  the 
dawn  of  civilisation,  and  represented  an  immense 
stride  forward,  involving  for  the  first  time  the 
use  of  mechanical  gearing  for  the  transmission  of 
power.  Both  these  agencies  were  probably  first 
applied  to  the  preparation  of  the  food  of  man — 
the  grinding  of  corn,  which  for  countless  ages  had 
l>cen  accomplished  by  manual  labour  on  a  very 
small  scale.  In  fact,  all  the  types  mentioned 
above  relate  to  the  more  elementary  needs  of 
mankind,  and  are  in  use  to  this  day.  Next  come 
water-lifting  and  irrigation,  first  performed  with 
the  aid  of  animal  power  in  the  crudest  fashion, 
but  later  involving  the  invention  of  the  pump, 
a  most  important  advance.  The  famous  screw 
of  Archimedes  was  invented  for  raising  water, 
and  doubtless  formed  the  germ  from  which  have 
s lining  all  screws. 

Development  of  Power  Utilisation. 
The  advance  of  civilisation  led  to  an  in- 
rn-asing  demand  for  metals,  and  the  necessity 
for  removing  water  from  the  mines  whence  they 
\\CK-  obtained  compelled  the  adoption  of 
mechanical  pumping  machinery,  first  driven  by 
animal  power,  then  by  water  power,  which  was 
< lev* 'loped  to  a  remarkably  high  degree  of  per- 
fertion  for  those  days  ;  and  it  was  in  this  con- 
nection that  the  greatest  advance  in  the  develop- 
ment and  utilisation  of  power  in  the  history  of 
the  world  took  place,  for  it  was  in  the  Cornish 
mine  I  it-Ids  that  the  application  of  steam  to 
mechanical  power  production  took  its  origin. 
Fiist  devised  byNewcomen.  the  steam  engine  was 
improved  by  .James  Watt  to  an  astounding  pitch 
of  excellence  and  economy,  considering  that  the 

5010 


lield  was  almost  virgin  when  he  came  upon  the 
scene.  Rapid  progress  Avas  made,  and  the  steam 
engine  was  quickly  applied  to  locomotion  by  land 
and  sea,  to  the  driving  of  factories,  the  production 
of  iron  and  steel,  and  other  industrial  purpose?. 

Efficiency  in  Methods  and  Machinery. 
With  the  continued  development  of  power  utili- 
sation came  a  demand  for  greater  efficiency  in 
both  methods  and  machinery.  Improved  means 
of  generating  and  using  power  were  devised, 
such  as  the  modern  turbine  in  place  of  the  old 
water-wheel,  the  threshing  machine  instead  of 
the  flail,  and  so  on.  Entirely  new  types  of  prime 
movers  were  also  brought  forward,  such  as  the 
gas  engine,  which,  thanks  to  the  experience 
gained  in  the  design  and  manufacture  of  the 
steam  engine,  wras  enabled  to  make  as  much 
progress  in  ten  years  as  the  latter  had  made  in 
fifty.  The  discovery  made  by  B.  H.  Thwaite, 
that  the  waste  gases  from  blast  furnaces  could  be 
utilised  directly  in  gas  engines  to  far  better  ad- 
vantage than  by  burning  under  boilers  gave  the 
construction  of  large  gas  engines  an  enormous 
impulse,  and  now  these  are  made  up  to  5,000- 
horse  power,  though  but  a  few  years  ago  a  200- 
liorse  power  gas  engine  was  reckoned  large. 

The  older  agent,  steam,  however,  has  not  yet 
been  vanquished  by  the  gas  engine,  for  the 
development  of  the  steam  turbine,  with  which 
the  name  of  the  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons  will  for 
ever  be  associated,  has  brought  about  an 
engineering  revolution.  Although  the  turbine 
was  not  used  for  marine  propulsion  until 
1897,  it  has  already  superseded  the  recipro- 
cating engine  to  such  an  extent  that  the  largest 
steamships  in  existence  are  being  equipped 
solely  with  Parsons's  turbines  for  their  propulsion. 
It  now  remains  for  some  genius  only  to  solve 
the  problem  of  the  gas  turbine  in  order  that  the 
acme  of  efficiency  may  be  attained. 

Newer  Forms  of  Power.  In  quite  a 
different  direction,  the  remarkable  progress 
which  has  been  accomplished  in  the  con- 
struction of  small  high-speed  engines  has 
rendered  them  available  for  propelling  vehicles 
on  the  common  roads,  airships  in  the  air.  and 
launches  on  the  water.  These  motors  are  oper- 
ated as  internal  combustion  engines,  fed  with 
petrol,  alcohol,  paraffin,  etc.  The  use  of  alcohol 
is  noteworthy,  as  it  can  be  manufactured  from 
potatoes  and  other  organic  substances,  thus 
opening  up  a  new  and  inexhaustible  source  of 
power  from  natural  products. 

Considerations  of  space  forbid  us  to  enlarge 
upon  the  many  uses  and  sources  of  power  in 
addition  to  those  cited  above.  We  can  but 
mention  the  electric  battery,  so  necessary  in 
telegraphic  and  telephonic  communication  ?  the 


high  explosives,  such  as  guncotton  and  cordite 
— the  gun  is  nothing  other  than  an  internal  - 
combustion  engine  of  enormous  power  ;  the  use 
of  electricity  in  power  transmission  ;  the  vast 
store  of  energy  in  every  molecule  of  matter,  which 
we  know  to  exist  but  cannot  as  yet  utilise. 

Sources  of  Power  and  National 
Strength.  An  important  step  towards  this  end 
is  now  in  progress  in  the  shape  of  the  numerous 
projects  which  have  been  brought  forward  for  the 
distribution  of  power  on  a  large  scale  from  huge 
electric  generating  stations  to  the  surrounding- 
districts.  By  this  means  power  can  be  generated 
on  the  most  economical  lines,  and  the  noxious  pro- 
ducts derived  from  the  combustion  of  coal  will  be 
dissipated  in  the  air  in  places  far  from  the  abodes 
of  men.  In  other  countries,  which  are  blessed  with 
abundance  of  natural  water  power,  but  not  with 
coal,  similar  undertakings  have  for  years  been  in 
operation,  with  results  of  the  greatest  benefit  to 
the  nations  concerned.  In  time  we  mav  be 
able  to  transmit  power  to  great  distances  by 
means  of  high-tension  currents,  such  as  the 
Hertzian  waves,  the  principal  difficulty  at  present 
being  the  motor. 

It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  power  generated 
from  falling  water  is  necessarily  cheaper  than 
power  derived  from  coal ;  very  often  it  happens 
that  the  engineering  works  required  to  make  the 
Avater  power  available  are  so  costly  that  the 
power  thus  obtained  is  more  expensive  than  that 
generated  with  steam  or  gas  engines.  Much 
depends  upon  the  local  conditions  ;  where  coal 
is  plentiful  and  water  power  scarce,  as  in  this 
country,  or  vice  versa,  as  in  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  there  is  practically  no  choice.  In  the 
South  of  Russia  petroleum  is  the  most  convenient 
and  the  cheapest  source  of  power  ;  in  the  United 
States  natural  gas  is  met  with  in  addition  to  all 
the  foregoing  sources.  For  the  propulsion  of 
steamships  only  coal  and  oil  are  utilised,  and  for 
driving  airships  petrol  motors  have  proved  by 
far  the  best,  on  account  of  the  light  weight  of  the 
fuel  and  machinery.  For  operating  railways, 
coal,  oil,  petrol,  and  electricity  supplied  from 
a  fixed  power  station  are  available.  Thus  every 
form  of  power  generation  has  its  special  advan- 
tages, and  it  is  impossible  to  say  in  general 
that  any  one  form  is  better  than  another — 
each  must  be  considered  with  reference  to  numer- 
ous external  considerations. 

The  Resources  of  the  Empire.  Within 
the  British  Empire  almost  every  known  source 
of  power  is  to  be  found.  Canada  possesses 
both  coal  and  water  power,  and  from  the  world- 
famed  Falls  of  Niagara,  as  well  as  the  Shawenegan 
Falls,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  horse-power 
are  being  or  are  about  to  be  developed.  South 
Africa  is  similarly  endowed  ;  apart  frorn  the 
extensive  coal  deposits  in  Natal,  the  magnificent 
Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambesi  are  estimated  to 
yield  on  the  average  1,000,000-horse  -power. 
Australia  has  coal ;  New  Zealand  coal  and  water 
power.  India  possesses  both,  and  oil  as  well. 
Moreover,  it  has  been  estimated  that  if  the  coal 
supply  of  the  world  gave  out,  it  would  be  easy 
to  replace  it  with  wood  fuel,  which  could  be 
grown  more  rapidly  than  it  was  consumed. 


POWER 

The  motion  of  the  tides  represents  an  enor- 
mous source  of  power,  but  it  is  difficult  to  render 
it  available  for  use  ;  nevertheless,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  in  the  future  this  inexhaustible 
store  will  be  drawn  upon  The  direct  heat  of 
the  sun  is  also  available  for  use  in  tropical  coun- 
tries, though  the  means  of  Titilising  it  at  present 
available  are  too  costly  to  compete  in  many  places 
with  other  sources  of  power.  The  greatest 
source  of  energy,  the  ether,  'up  to  the  present 
has  been  little  understood.  Great  advances 
have  been  made,  however,  during  the  last  few- 
years  by  those  investigating  the  subject,  and  it 
is  quite  possible  that  in  the  future  it  may  be  used 
as  the  source  of  the  power  requisite  on  this  globe. 
It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  as  power  is  indis- 
pensable to  civilisation,  so  it  is  available  in  one 
form  or  another  in  practically  all  countries,  and 
will  be  till  the  end  of  time. 

Animal  Power.  Although  human  labour 
does  not  strictly  come  within  our  definition 
of  power,  it  may  be  interesting  for  the  purpose 
of  comparison  to  state  that  a  man  of  average 
strength  can  exert  a  force  of  30  Ib.  at  a  velocity 
of  1|  miles  an  hour  for  10  hours  a  day ;  or  he 
can  carry  a  weight  of  1  cwt.  11  miles  in  a  day. 
But  human  labour  is  costly,  and  though  there  are 
7nany  kinds  of  work  which  can  be  performed  only 
by  manual  labour,  it  is  one  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  modern  commercial  economics  that 
this  shall  be  as  far  as  possible  avoided,  by  the 
substitution  of  animal  or  mechanical  work. 

By  far  the  most  useful  animal  is  the  horse, 
which,  indeed,  in  this  country  is  practically 
the  only  animal  that  is  called  upon  to  work, 
the  ass  being  comparatively  scarce,  and  the  mule 
still  more  rarely  met  with.  Horses  have  at 
times  been  called  upon  to  perform  a  great  variety 
of  functions,  but  most  of  these  have  now  been 
filled  by  machinery,  and  almost  the  only  duties 
remaining  to  them  are  those  of  transport, 
either  by  carrying  or  by  hauling  a  load,  and 
certain  agricultural  operations  which  also  involve 
haulage,  such  as  ploughing  and  mowing.  An 
ordinary  horse  can  do  the  work  of  five  men  ; 
it  can  carry  a  man  30  miles  in  a  day  ;  it  can 
draw  a  loaded  cart  weighing  a  ton  on  a  common 
road  at  three  miles  an  hour  for  eight  hours  a  day ; 
in  general,  it  can  do  22,000  foot-pounds  of  work 
per  minute  for  eight  hours  a  day.  An  ox,  walk- 
ing at  the  rate  of  1^  miles  an  hour,  can  do  work 
equivalent  to  18,000  foot-pounds  per  minute, 
such  as  hauling  a  load  of  H  tons  (inclusive  of  the 
carriage)  on  a  road;  an  elephant  can  carry  a  ton 
on  its  back  all  day,  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  an  hour. 

Water  Power.  The  earliest  form  of  water- 
motor  is  the  water-wheel,  usually  operated  by 
the  weight  of  the  water  ;  but  this  has  become 
practically  obsolete,  the  turbine  having  taken  its 
place.  The  latter  is  a  machine  in  which  advantage 
is  taken  of  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  water  as 
well  as  of  its  potential  energy  by  using  fixed 
blades  or  vanes  to  direct  the  flowing  water  upon 
moving  blades,  in  such  a  way  that  the  water 
leaves  the  turbine  with  the  minimum  velocity 
and  practically  at,  or  even  below,  the  dead-water 
level.  In  cases  where  the  water  is  derived  in 
small  quantity  from  a  great  height,  or,  as  it  is 

5011 


POWER 

called,  under  a  ureat  head  of  water,  the  whole  of 
the  work  is  done  by  virtue  of  the  momentum 
of  the  water,  which  is  allowed  to  issue  from 
no/xles  at  an  enormous  velocity  in  jets  which 


Another  immense  Avaterfall  which  is  at  this 
time  attracting  much  attention  is  the  Victoria 
Falls  on  the  Zambesi  River — a  much  higher  fall, 
but  less  in  quantity  of  water  than  that  of 


strike  CUPS  of  peculiar  shape  fixed  to  the  rim  of      Niagara.     Even  in  the  driest  season  the  Victoria 

-•"•—-  '  - 


wheel. In  either  case,  the  efficiency  attain- 
able reaches  SO  per  cent.,  and  the  power  is  given 
off  on  the  shaft,  either  by  belt  or  other  gearing, 
or  direct  to  the  driven  machine. 

The  Two  Factors  in  Water  Power. 
Water  power  depends  upon  two  factors— the 
quantity  of  water  flowing  per  second,  and  the 
height  of  fall,  or  tk  head."  The  "  horse-power  " 
used  in  engineering  is  equal  to  33,000  foot- 
pounds per  minute,  or  550  foot  pounds  per 
second,  and  therefore  the  horse-power  available 
from  a  given  fall  is  calculated  by  the  formula : 

HP  -  G  x  h  x  0-0182, 
where  HP  is  the  available  horse-power, 
G  is  the  flow  in  gallons  per  second, 
//  is  the  head  in  feet,  and 
0-0182-  10  H- 550. 

The  head,  h,  may  have  any  value  from  1  to 
2,<«X>  ft.  or  more,  but  obviously,  to  obtain  any 
great  power  from  a  very  low  fall  necessitates 
the  flow  of  an  enormous  quantity  of  water  per 
second,  and  the  turbine  must  be  of  correspond- 
ingly large  size  and  cost.  Hence,  a  fall  of  small 
volume  but  great  head  is  far  preferable  to  a  low 
fall  of  great  volume,  on  account  of  the  small 
capital  cost,  not  only  of  the  turbines,  but  also  of 
the  hydraulic  works  which  may  be  necessary 
to  store  up  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  and  to 
convey  it  from  the  dam  to  the  turbine  house. 
It  will  readily  be  understood  that  as  the  cost  of 
attendance  on  a  water-power  plant  is  small, 
and  other  running  costs,  such  as  that  of  lubri- 
cation, small  stores,  etc.,  are  of  little  importance, 
by  far  the  largest  items  in  the  cost  of  power 
obtained  from  this  source  are  those  of  interest 
and  depreciation  on  the  capital  expended.  The 
relative  magnitude  of  the  latter  can  be  reduced 
by  utilising  the  plant  as  continuously  as  possible, 
for  in  most  cases  the  flow  of  water  is  continuous 
day  and  night,  whether  it  is  used  or  not ;  hence 
\\atei  power  is  utilised  most  advantageously 
in  connection  with  industries  which  can,  or  must, 
be  carried  on  without  intermission,  such  as 
grinding  corn,  electro-chemistry,  etc.  It'  is 
largely  used  for  driving  electrical  machinery  for 
lighting,  traction  and  power,  and  in  some  cases 
the  power  generated  is  transmitted  over  very 
great  distances — exceeding  230  miles,  as  in  Cali- 
fornia—and in  enormous  quantities. 

The  Immensity  of  Water  Power.  The 
most  striking  instance  of  this  application  of  water 
power  is  to  be  found  at  Niagara  in  North  America, 
\\here  ii  i<  estimated  that  1,000,000  tons  of  water 
fall  in  every  hour  from  a  height  of  160  ft.  Here, 
the  largest  electrical  generators  in  the  world 
are  installed,  each  having  an  output  of  no 
le^.>  than  l2,5(Mj-horse  power.  Several  large 
eoncerns  are  nt  work,  and  the  aggregate  horse- 
power of  the  plant  at  work  and  projected 
amounts  to  over  l.om,o<)O.  Vet  the  appearance 
«>f  the  famous  Falls  is  not  likely  to  be  less 
majestic  and  a\\e-ins|>irinu  than  at  present; 


Fa]is  win  be  able  to  supply  half  a  million  orse 
power,  and  it  is  proposed  to  transmit  a  portion 
of  this  by  electrical  means  more  than  500  miles 
to  the  goldfields  of  the  Witwatersrand. 

The  cost  of  energy  derived  from  water  power 
depends  mainly  on  the  extent  of  the  works 
necessary  to  dam  the  river  and  convey  the 
water  in  pipes  or  in  open  sluices  to  the  site 
of  the  power  station  or  factory,  the  magnitude 
and  cost  of  these  works  being  determined  by 
the  local  configuration  of  the  land  and  similar 
conditions.  In  some  cases  the  cost  is  so  great 
that  it  is  cheaper  to  use  steam  or  gas  power: 
in  others,  as  at  Niagara,  the  cost  is  remarkably 
low  —  only  0'24.d.  per  horse-power-hour. 

Wind  Power.  The  great  drawback  to  the 
use  of  wind  power  is  the  extreme  variability 
of  the  source.  The  velocity  of  the  wind  ranges 
from  zero  in  a  dead  calm  to  100  miles  an  hour  in 
a  hurricane,  while  windmills  can  generally  be 
used  only  over  the  range  between  7  and  30  miles 
an  hour.  It  is  true  that  the  power  is  cheap,  for 
the  necessary  plant  is  inexpensive  and  the  wind 
costs  nothing;  whereas  for  the  use  of  water 
power  a  considerable  rental  is  often  charged. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  fickleness  of  the  sourer. 
wind  power  is  generally  utilised  only  in  very 
small  quantities,  and  for  purposes  which  are 
not  detrimentally  affected  by  the  occurrence  of 
interruptions  due  to  calms  or  storms.  Thus 
windmills  are  often  employed  for  pumping 
water  into  reservoirs  for  the  supply  of  villages 
or  farms,  for  driving  agricultural  machinery. 
for  grinding  corn,  and  for  draining  marshy  land. 
Large  numbers  are  so  used  in.  the  Channel 
Islands.  It  is  possible  by  using  a  dynamo  and  a 
battery  of  accumulators  to  obtain  electric  lisht 
and  power  on  a  small  scale  from  the  wind,  but 
automatic  apparatus  is  necessary  to  regulate 
the  charging  of  the  battery,  and  this  materially 
adds  to  the  cost  of  the  plant. 

The  theory  of  wind  power  is  in  a  very  un- 
satisfactory condition,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
reconcile  the  conflicting  statements  which 
are  published  by  different  authorities  on  the 
subject.  H.  R.  Kempe  states  that  a  windmill 
with  four  sails,  each  24  ft.  long  and  6  ft.  wide. 
with  wind  at  a  velocity  of  20  ft.  per  second,  is 
estimated  to  give  about  4-horse  power.  The 
modern  aermotors  are  constructed  with  a  large 
number  of  small  blades  forming  a  wheel,  which 
is  mounted  in  such  a  way  that  when  the  force 
of  the  wind  increases  the  face  of  the  wheel  is 
automatically  turned  away  from  the  direction 
of  the  wind,  so  as  to  lessen  the  driving  power  and 
to  maintain  a  fairly  constant  speed.  The  power 
is  transmitted  by  a  shaft  with  bevel  gearing  to 
the  ground  from  the  wheel,  which  is  usually 
carried  on  the  top  of  a  light  steel  framework 
20  to  GO  ft.  high.  A  wheel  16ft.  in  diameier. 
with  18  blades  having  a  total  sail  area  of  l.'U  •"> 
sq.  ft.,  Avith  a  12-mile  wind,  gave  about  0'  6  h.p. 


t  'nut i nil i (I 


.'.01:2 


OPEN-HEARTH  STEEL 

Martin,   Siemens  and    Siemens-Martin  Processes.       Various  Processes 
of    Open-hearth    Steel    Manufacture.     ,   Steel    Castings.        Steel    Rails 


Croup  14 

METALS 
9 


By  A.    H.    HIORNS 


""THE  manufacture  of  steel  in  the  open -hearth 
regenerative  furnace  is  becoming  more  and 
more  popular,  and  very  great  strides  have  been 
made  in  recent  years  through  the  introduction 
of  the  tilting  furnaces,  as  well  as  by  the  increasing 
size  of  the  stationary  furnaces.  .The  invention 
of  the  open-hearth  furnace  and  its  accessories 
is  due  to  Sir  William  Siemens,  and  the  success- 
ful manufacture  of  good  steel  in  it  was  first 
accomplished  by  Messrs.  P.  and  E.  Martin,  who 
used  steel  scrap  and  pig  iron,  dissolving  the  scrap 
in  the  molten  pig  iron,  thus  diluting  the  im- 
purities as  well  as  partially  removing  them  by 
oxidation.  This  was  termed  the  Martin  process. 
Siemens  afterwards  succeeded  in  desiliconising 
and  decarburising  pig  iron,  with  or  without  scrap, 
by  means  of  oxide  of  iron  ore.  At  the  present 
time  both  oxide  of  iron  and  scrap  are  used  with 
the  pig  iron,  forming  the  Siemens-Martin  process. 
The  original  method  was  to  work  only  with  an 
acid  lining,  but  now  both  acid  and  basic  linings 
are  used,  as  in  the  Bessemer  process. 

The  Martin  Process.  The  Martin  process 
is  conducted  as  follows.  The  first  thing  is 
to  solidify  the  bottom,  which  has  been  care- 
fully prepared  with  good  silica  sand,  by  melting 
a  small  charge  of  pig  iron  and  adding  siliceous 
material  to  form  a  fluid  slag.  When  this  is 
lelted  it  is  well  rabbled  about  to  wash  the  banks 
>f  the  furnace  and  then  tapped  out  as  scrap.  The 
three  or  four  heats  are  less  than  the  full 
?harges  afterwards  worked,  and  consist  of  pig 

)n  and  a  little  scrap,  the  latter  being  gradually 
icreased  till  the  furnace  is  in  good  working  order, 
materials  may  be  charged  cold,  or  the  scrap 

w  be  first  heated  to  redness  in  an  auxiliary 
irnace.  Grey  haematite  pig  iron  of  good  quality, 

sferably  low  in  silicon  and  containing  man- 
e_nese,  is  desirable,  but  a  proportion  of  good 
Avhite  or  mottled  iron  may  be  added.  The  pig 
iron— from  15  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent,  of  the 
charge— is  first  added  and  upon  this  is  placed 
steel  scrap. 

When  the  charge  is  melted  it  may  be  kept 
in  fusion,  because  the  intensity  of  the  oxidising 
action  may  be  easily  maintained.  In  order  to 
hasten  the  operation  the  pig  iron  may  be  charged 
into  the  furnace  in  the  liquid  state,  and  speedily 
raised  to  a  white  heat.  The  malleable  iron, 
previously  made  red-hot,  is  then  added  in  lumps. 
With  a  neutral  flame,  No.  1  grey  pig  iron  will 
dissolve  nine  times  its  weight  of  Bessemer  scrap, 
'while  No.  3  will  not  dissolve  more  than  four 
times  its  weight,  and,  when  the  flame  is  oxidising, 
considerably  less.  The  oxide  of  iron,  Fe:,O4. 
formed  by  oxidation,  reacts  on  the  carbon  of  the 
pig  iron,  producing  carbonic  oxide,  which,  on 
escaping,  agitates  the  bath  of  metal,  and  thus 
tends  to  make  it  uniform  in  composition.  When 


the  whole  is  melted  a  test  is  taken,  and  when  the 
metal  shows  a  proper  fracture  and  toughness, 
as  well  as  the  right  degree  of  decarburisation, 
it  is  run  into  a  ladle  and  cast  into  ingot  moulds, 
as  in  the  Bessemer  process.  This  method  of 
working  is  possible  only  with  the  best  pig  iron,  so 
that  the  usual  plan  is  to  decarburise  completely, 
and  then  to  add  spiegeleisen  or  ferro-manganese. 
The  latter  containing  more  manganese  than  the 
former,  a  smaller  quantity  is  required  for 
deoxidation,  and  as,  therefore,  less  carbon  is 
added,  a  milder  steel  is  produced. 

A  few  minutes  suffice  to  melt  the  manganese 
alloy,  during  which  the  metal  is  rabbled,  or 
stirred,  to  mix  it  thoroughly,  after  which  the 
metal  is  ready  for  teeming  into  the  mould.  The 
tapping  is  effected  by  driving  a  pointed  iron  bar 
through  the  tap-hole  into  the  bath  of  metal, 
and  on  withdrawing  the  bar  the  metal  flows  out 
and  is  followed  by  the  slag.  When  the  slag 
begins  to  flow  the  spout  is  taken  away,  and  it 
is  allowed  to  flow  into  a  space  prepared  for  it 
in  the  front  of  the  furnace,  that  remaining  on 
the  hearth  being  removed  by  tools  introduced 
through  the  working  doors,  which  are  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  furnace. 

The  Siemens=Martin  Process.  The 
Siemens-Martin  process  is  similar  to  the  above 
in  operation.  Pig  iron  is  first  charged  in,  and 
the  requisite  amount  of  steel  scrap  added. 
The  proportion  of  scrap  varies  in  different 
localities,  depending  on  the  quality  of  the  pig 
iron  and  of  the  scrap  procurable.  With  good 
haematite  pig  iron,  about  70  per  cent,  of  scrap 
is  used,  but  in  other  cases  it  may  be  as  much 
as  80  per  cent.  Heavy  scrap  is  preferred  to 
light  scrap,  being  more  readily  handled  and  less 
liable  to  oxidation  during  the  melting.  If  much 
oxide  be  formed  on  the  bed  of  the  furnace,  it 
corrodes  the  lining.  For  convenience  in  charging, 
the  pig  iron  is  generally  broken  up  into  half  pigs, 
and  these  are  charged  by  hand  through  the 
furnace  door  with  the  peel,  so  as  to  distribute 
the  charge  evenly  over  the  entire  bed.  In  large 
furnaces  the  charging  is  done  through  two  or 
three  doors  by  men  working  Avith  a  peel  at  each. 
When  the  charge  is  thoroughly  melted,  Spanish 
or  African  haematite  is  added  in  lumps  at  intervals 
for  the  decarburisation  of  the  metal.  In  this 
wav,  during  the  working  of  a  10-ton  charge, 
30"cwt.  to  35  cwt,  of  ore  will  be  added,  each 
addition  being  followed  by  a  state  of  violent 
ebullition  of  the  metal  on  the  hearth.  Samples 
of  the  metal  are  taken  for  testing  the  malleability 
and  toughness,  and  when  the  requisite  purity  is 
attained,  the  metal  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a 
short  time  to  clear  itself  of  slag,  and  small 
quantities  of  limestone  are  added  during  the 
process  if  the  covering  of  the  slag  be  insufficient. 

5013 


METALS 

Spiegel  or  ferro-manganese.  or  a  mixture  of  both. 
is  added  to  remove  oxygen  and  give  the  requisite 
amount  of  carbon.  The  duration  of  this  process 
is  longer  than  the  scrap  process,  and  the  hearth 
is  more  strongly  attacked  by  the  ore. 

When  the  charging  is  complete,  the  heating 
goes  on  for  twenty  minutes,  when  the  valves  are 
reversed,  and  so  on  till  the  charge  is  melted. 
On  the  addition  of  ore,  the  boil  begins,  caused 
by  the  evolution  of  carbonic  oxide,  due  to  the 
action  of  the  oxide  of  iron  on  the  carbon  of  the 
pig  iron,  and  this  continues  till  the  iron  is  nearly 
decarburised.  For  dead  soft  steel,  the  carbon 
is  reduced  to  0*12  per  cent.,  when  the  furnace  is 
ready  for  tapping.  Before  tapping,  it  is  usual 
to  pig  back,  as  it  is  termed,  by  adding  a  few  half 
pigs  to  the  bath  of  metal,  so  as  to  keep  it  well 
on  the  boil  before  the  addition  of  the  ferro- 
manganese.  The  operation  requires  about  eight 
hours,  and  four  hours  for  charging  by  hand  and 
repairs. 

After  the  charge  has  been  tapped  from  the 
furnace,  the  tapping  hole  is  made  up  with  fire- 
clay and  anthracite,  and  the  bottom  carefully 
examined  for  holes  or  cutting  on  the  banks. 
These  are  repaired  by  spreading  over  them 
silica  sand  and  glazing  it  in.  It  is  then  ready 
for  the  next  charge. 

Acid  Open=hearth  Process.  The  acid 
open-hearth  process  does  not  remove  phos- 
phorus and  sulphur  from  the  iron,  so  that  both 
increase  relatively  in  the  finished  steel  ;  hence 
the  materials  used  must  be  low  in  phosphorus 
and  sulphur.  The  silica  should  also  be  as  low 
as  possible,  only  sufficient,  with  the  silica  derived 
from  the  ore  and  furnace  bottom,  to  form  enough 
slag  to  cover  the  metal.  The  open -hearth 
process,  like  the  Bessemer  process,  proceeds  by 
first  decarburising  the  bath  of  metal,  and  then  by 
recarburising  it  by  the  addition  of  spiegeleisen, 
ferro-manganese,  or  other  highly  manganiferous 
alloy  of  iron,  etc.  The  addition  obviously 
introduces  at  the  same  time  a  small  proportion 
of  other  impurities,  such  as  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
silicon,  etc..  into  the  steel  ;  but  the  result  is 
now  minimised  by  the  almost  universal  use  of 
ferro-manganese  as  the  recarburising  agent, 
whereby  a  small  weight  of  recarburieing  alloy  is 
required  for  the  introduction  of  sufficient 
manganese  into  the  steel  to  prevent  the  red- 
shortness  otherwise  manifested  by  the  metal, 
and  to  improve  its  malleability,  without  at  the 
same  time  introducing  too  much  carbon  and 
such  impurities  as  attend  the  larger  amounts 
of  spiegeleisen  required.  The  use  of  ferro- 
manganese  is  specially  necessary  in  the  produc- 
t  ion  of  soft  or  mild  steel.  One  advantage  of  the 

•  •pen  hearth  is  that  the  steel  can  be  quite  dead 
melted,  the  process  not  being  limited  as  to  time, 
since  the  nature  of  the  flame  and  the  temperature 
of   the  furnace  are  so  fully  under  control  that 
t  he  bath  of  fluid  metal,  after  having  been  reduced 
to  the  lowest  degree  of  carburisation  required, 
may   stand   unaltered  for  any  reasonable  time. 

•  luring  which  samples  may  l>e  taken  for  testing, 
and  additions  of  pig  iron,  wrought,  scrap,  spongy 
metal  or  iron  ore.  made  s<»  as  to  adjust  it  to  the 
desired   temper    and    quality,   while 

5014 


or  ferro-manganese  can  be  added  in  the  solid 
condition  in  the  required  proportion  immediately 
before  casting,  with  the  formation  of  a  steel  of 
which  almost  the  exact  composition  is  known 
beforehand. 

In  the  open-hearth  methods  of  producing  steel 
the  decarburisation  and  the  separation  of  silicon 
and  manganese  from  the  pig  iron  of  the  charge 
do  not  appear  to  progress  with  the  regularity 
which  occurs  in  the  Bessemer  converter.  During 
the  first  period  of  melting  down  of  the  charge  in 
the  Siemens  furnace,  the  carbon,  silicon,  and 
manganese  are  more  or  less  oxidised,  so  that  at 
the  end  of  this  stage — the  proportions  vary 
with  the  temperature  of  the  furnace — part  of 
these  elements  have  been  removed.  After  the 
charge  is  melted  down,  however,  the  metal 
remains  tranquil  in  the  bath,  undergoing  little, 
if  any,  decarburisation,  until  the  whole  of  the 
manganese  has  been  oxidised,  and  the  silicon 
in  the  metal  has  been  reduced  to  about  0'02 
per  cent.  This  condition  is  obtained  in  from 
three  to  four  hours,  after  which  the  bath  of 
metal  begins  to  boil  from  the  escape  of  carbonic 
oxide  resulting  from  the  oxidation  of  carbon, 
and  this  state  continues  till  the  carbon  is  reduced 
to  about  O'l  per  cent.,  or  less,  at  which  point  the 
bath  again  becomes  tranquil,  and  the  slag,  which 
was,  thirty  minutes  previously,  of  a  brownish 
colour,  l>egins  to  blacken,  owing  to  the  slight 
oxidation  of  iron. 

The  oxidation  of  the  metal  after  melting 
depends  on  the  composition  of  the  slag  and  the 
temperature  of  the  furnace.  The  variation  in 
silica  and  oxide  of  iron  directly  after  melting 
and  just  before  tapping  is  comparatively  small. 
but  the  amount  of  oxide  of  iron  increases  after 
the  addition  of  the  ore.  This,  however,  is  soon 
equalised  by  the  taking  up  of  fresh  silica 
from  the  lining  of  the  hearth.  If  the  slag  lie  thin, 
due  to  a  low  silica  content,  the  oxidation  of 
silicon  and  manganese  in  the  pig  iron  is  com- 
paratively rapid;  but  if  the  slag  be  thick,  or 
highly  siliceous,  the  silicon  and  manganese 
are  not  removed,  and  may  actually  be  reduced 
from  the  slag  and  pass  back  into  the  metal. 
With  a  very  siliceous  pig  iron,  a  rich  gas.  and 
rapid  draught,  the  temperature  gets  too  high, 
the  carbon  is  oxidised  in  preference  to  the 
silicon,  and  the  decarbiit-ised  iron  is  too  high 
in  silicon.  Hence,  while  it  is  essential  to  have 
sufficient  heat  to  maintain  a  fluid  bath  of  metal 
or  slag,  the  temperature  must  be  regulated  so 
as  not  to  exceed  a  certain  limit. 

Recarburisation  of  Iron.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  process,  the  successful  reear- 
burisation  of  iron  with  free  carbon  was  found  to 
be  impossible,  owing  to  the  imperfect  knowledge 
of  the  effect  of  temperature  on  the  oxidation 
of  carbon.  Both  liquid  and  gaseous  carburising 
materials  were  tried,  but  with  little  success, 
and  the  workers  had  to  fall  back  on  spiegeleisen 
and  ferro-manganese  as  carburisers.  But  tin-st- 
are far  from  pure  substances,  and  introduce 
impurities  into  the  iron.  \Yhen  the  microscope 
began  to  be  practically  used  in  the  examination 
of  metals,  it  was  found  that  manganese  did  not 
alloy  so  readily  with  iron  as  had  been  assumed. 


and,  if  not  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  iron,  it  had 
a  tendency  to  segregate.  This  explained  many 
mysteries  in  the  curious  fractures  of  steel,  and 
the  addition  of  manganese  was  reduced  to  the 
quantity  required  for  deoxidation.  The  basic- 
Bessemer  process  especially  led  to  a  product 
comparatively  rich  in  oxygen  on  account  of 
the  after -blow ;  therefore  a  larger  amount  of 
manganese  was  required  to  remove  it.  and  this 
manganese  prevented  the  production  of  high 
carbon  steel  unless  such  manganese  was  left  in 
the  steel.  Efforts  were  therefore  made  to 
recarburise  the  iron  without  the  addition  of 
manganese  alloy.  If  the  deoxidation  were 
effected  in  part  by 
spiegeleisen,  and  com- 
pleted by  the  addition 
of  aluminium,  only 
mild  steel  could  be 
produced.  Darby  then 
introduced  the  use  of 
free  carbon  for  this 
purpose.  In  adding 
the  carbon  there  is 
no  marked  change  in 
the  other  elements, 
and  as  the  carbon  is 
added  to  the  charge 


METALS 

by  the  iron  was  so  rapid  that  the  lengthened 
time  required  by  the  above  method  of  nitra- 
tion was  unnecessary.  The  next  plan  was  to 
run  into  the  filter  vessel  a  stream  of  carbon 
particles  at  the  same  time  as  the  metal  was 
teemed  into  it.  It  was  found  that  sufficient 
earburisation  occurred  during  the  teeming  of  the 
first  third  of  the  charge.  The  employment  of  the 
carburising  vessel  was  afterwards  found  to  lie 
unnecessary,  and  now  in  similar  processes  it  is 
customary  to  throw  into  the  ladle  at  intervals  a 
definite  quantity  of  finely  divided  carbon.  By 
this  means  considerable  economy  is  effected, 
due  to  the  saving  of  spiegeleisen  or  ferro- 
manganese.  In  some 
American  works  dry 
crushed  coke,  in  paper 
bags,  each  holding 
about  50  lb.,  is  thrown 
into  the  ladle  with  the 
decarburised  metal, 
the  first  bag  being 
thrown  in  as  soon  as 
the  metal  covers  the 
bottom  of  the  ladle. 
The  accuracy  of  the 
metal  will  be  under- 
stood when  it  is  stated 


_  gr^-&i$'^^^^^ 

39.     SECTION   OF    SIEMENS   OPEN-HEARTH   FURX.U  K 


phorus  from  the  slag. 
Medium  carbon 

steels  are  now  readily  made  in  an  open-hearth 
furnace  for  many  purposes,  such  as  the  manu- 
facture of  axles,  guns,  springs,  tyres,  armour 
plates,  wires,  steel  castings  of  various  kinds,  and 
tools.  The  carbon  may  vary  from  0'3  per  cent, 
to  1  '2  per  cent.  There  are  three  distinct  methods 
of  making  such  steels  in  an  open  hearth : 

1.  To  work  the  charge  of  pig  iron  until  it  has 
reached  the  desired  amount  of  recarburisation, 
and  then  tap  out. 

2.  To  work  the  charge  until  it  is  completely 
decarburised,    and    add    spiegeleisen    or    ferro- 
manganese  for  recarburising. 

3.  To  work  the  charge  as  in  the  former  case, 
and    recarburise    outside    the    furnace    by    the 
Darby  or  some  similar  process. 

For  steel  with  about  0'3  to  Ot>  per  cent,  of 
carbon  the  first  method  is  often  adopted,  but  for 
best  qualities  the  second  method  is  preferred. 
The  ferro-manganese  may  be  added,  either  in  the 
furnace,  immediately  before 
tapping,  or  to  the  metal  as 
it  runs  into  the  ladle.  For 
steels  with  0'7  per  cent,  of 
carbon  and  upwards,  satis- 
factory results  cannot  be 
obtained  by  simply  working 


down  to  the  desired  carbon^  PLAN  OF  SIEMENS  OPEN-HEARTH  FURNACE 


content,  and  then  tapping. 

The  third  method,  then,  gives  the  best  results. 

[See  Harbord's  "Steel,"  page  171.] 

Mr.  John  Darby  has  advised  a  method  of 
recarburisation  by  pouring  iron  through  a  tube 
perforated  at  the  bottom  and  containing  carbon, 
from  which  the  carburised  iron  runs  into  the 
ladle.  It  was  found  that  the  absorption  of  carbon 


varied  only  0'02  per 
cent.    About  half  the 
carbon  added  is  taken  up  by  the  iron. 

The  Siemens  Open=hearth  Furnace. 

The  Siemens  open-hearth  furnace  [39  and  40] 
had  originally  only  one  working  door,  which  was 
in  the  middle  of  one  of  its  longer  sides,  but  in 
the  larger  modern  furnaces  there  are  three  doors. 
On  the  opposite  side,  and  at  the  lowest  portion 
of  the  hearth,  is  a  tapping  hole,  and  a  channel 
through  which  metal  is  conducted  for  casting. 
The  horizontal  section  is  a  rectangle  with  the 
corners  removed.  The  hearth  is  composed  of 
refractory  sand,  supported  on  an  iron  bottom, 
kept  cool  by  a  current  of  air,  and  it  is  repaired 
after  each  operation.  The  old  type  of  furnace 
has  the  hearth  built  over  the  regenerators,  using 
the  regenerator  arches  to  support  the  furnace. 
This  method  is  now  practically  obsolete.  The 
regenerators  are  kept  well  to  each  end,  and  the 
body  of  the  furnace  is  carried  on  steel  girders, 
quite  independent  of  the  regenerator  arches, 
so  that  the  air  can  circu- 
late underneath,  and  in 
case  of  the  metal  breaking 
through  the  bottom  there 
is  no  danger  of  its  getting 
into  the  regenerators.  The 
walls  of  the 
silica 
of  the 


roof     and 


furnace  is  encased  in  steel  plates,  well  riveted 
together  and  strengthened  by  supports  and  tic- 
rods.  The  gas  enters  the  furnace  through  two 
openings,  termed  the  ports,  and  the  air  through 
tlu-ee  similar  ports,  all  arranged  side  by  side.  The 
blocks  containing  these  ports  must  be  capable  of 
resisting  a  high  temperature  and  the  consequent 

5015 


METALS 

expansions  and  counter  actions,  hence  they 
are  made  with  air-cooled  hollow  castings.  The 
position  of  the  ports  is  designed  to  give  a  per- 
fect mixture  of  gas  and  air  on  entering  the  hearth, 
so  as  to  ensure  a  complete  and  rapid  combus- 
i  ion.  The  position  of  the  ports  depends  to  some 
.  \t'  nt  on  the  contour  of  the  roof.  In  some  high- 
re.. fed  furnaces,  dome-shaped  alternating  arches, 
or  gallery  ports,  are  used  for  gas  and  air.  It 
has  been  found  with  sulphurous  fuels  that  the 
metal  is  less  liable  to  take  up  sulphur  during 
the  melting  when  gallery  ports  are  used.  It 
\\as  customary  in  former  years  to  build  the  roof 
with  a  strong  slope  from  each  side  to  the  centre,  so 
as  to  deflect  the  flame  on  to  the  bath  of  metal,  but 
it  was  found  to  be  rapidly  burnt  away,  and  in 
all  modern  furnaces  the  best  results  are  obtained 
with  a  fairly  high  roof,  the  inclination  of  the  gas 
and  air  ports  being  sufficient  to  plunge  the  flame 
on  to  the  metal. 

The  regenerators  are  chambers  filled  with  a 
checker  work  of  refractory  brick,  arranged  so 
that  brick  and  air  spaces  occur  alternately. 
The  air  chambers  are  generally  made  longer 
than  the  gas  chambers,  but  the  chief  thing  is  to 
have  sufficient  capacity.  The  chambers  should 
be  15  ft.  to  20  ft.  deep,  and  the  capacity  of  gas 
to  air  regenerators  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  1  '4. 
In  all  regenerative  gas  furnaces  much  fine  dust  is 
carried  over  mechanically  with  the  gases,  and 
tends  to  choke  up  the  spaces  in  the  checker 
brickwork.  In  large  furnaces  especially,  it  is 
advisable  to  have  a  supplementary  chamber 
between  the  ports  and  regenerators  to  serve  as 
a  dust- catcher. 

Basic  Open  =  hearth  Process,  The 
object  of  this  process,  like  that  of  the  basic 
Bessemer  process,  is  the  removal  of  phosphorus 
from  the  iron  by  means  of  a  basic  or  neutral 
lining,  and  the  addition  of  lime  during  the 
working.  Several  special  furnaces  have  been 
devised  for  this  purpose,  but  the  ordinary 
furnace  as  used  for  the  acid  process  gives  equal 
if  not  better  results. 

A  special  type  of  furnace  on  the  Batho  principle 
was  devised  by  Dick  and  Riley  for  use  with  the 
basic  process.  It  has  a  circular  or  oval  body, 
Avith  a  steel  casing.  It  is  placed  on  a  platform 
supported  by  girders,  and  left  entirely  clear  under- 
neath, so  that  the  bottom  is  kept  cool  and  the 
lining  better  preserved.  The  four  regenerators 
form  four  circular  towers,  and,  instead  of  being 
situated  below  the  bed  of  the  furnace,  are  placed 
in  pairs  at  opposite  sides  of  the  furnace.  Each 
regenerator  forms  a  separate  structure,  which  is 
out  of  harm's  way  in  case  of  the  metal  breaking 
out.  and  as  it  has  only  its  own  weight  to  carry, 
it  cannot  get  out  of  shape.  It  is  very  desirable 
i<»  regulate  the  amount  of  gases  passing  through 
i lie  regenerators,  in  order  to  control  the  relative 
a  mounts  of  heat  stored  up  in  these  chambers. 
The  tendency  is  for  the  gas  chambers  to  receive 
the  largest  amount  of  waste  heat,  whereas  the 
air  chamber  should  be  the  more  highly  heated 
of  the  two.  The  regulation  is  affected  by  the 
adoption  of  a  new  kind  of  disc  valve. 

The  regenerators  are  (>  ft.  (>  in.  internal 
diameter,  lined  with  M-in.  firebrick,  and  have 

6016 


outside  casings  of  /j.th  in.  steel  plates.  The 
Batho  method  of  arranging  the  flues  has  been 
adopted,  the  distinctive  points  of  which  are 
that  the  gas  and  air  ways  are  brought  up  outside 
the  furnace  instead  of  inside,  as  in  the  ordinary 
Siemens  furnace.  In  the  latter  form  the  ex- 
pansion and  contraction  disturbs  the  brickwork, 
causing  cracking,  which  leads  to  the  mixing  of 
the  gas  and  air  before  entering  the  furnace 
ports.  In  the  Batho  type  the  external  arrange- 
ment of  the  flues  simplifies  the  furnace  itself. 
reducing  it  to  a  simple  box,  which  may  be  readily 
lined  by  ramming  in  material,  or  by  brickwork. 
The  ports  are  of  the  Hackney  type,  the  air-port 
being  placed  vertically,  or  nearly  so,  above  the 
gas-port,  so  that  the  two  streams  directly  unite, 
and  are  not  deflected  as  in  the  Siemens  type. 

The  roof  is  dome-shaped,  as  in  the  Siemens 
radiative  furnace,  but  it  is  not  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  radiating  the  heat  of  the  flame,  as  the 
flame  is  thrown  directly  upon  the  material  to  be 
heated.  The  roof  can  be  made  movable,  so  as 
to  introduce  large  pieces  of  scrap. 

The  roof  is  carried  independently  of  the  sides, 
and  is  built  with  silica  bricks.  The  sides  up  to 
the  top  of  the  door  and  the  gas-ports  are  of  basic 
material.  The  acid  section,  however,  does  not 
rest  upon  the  basic  lining,  a  space  being  left 
between  them,  although  acid  and  basic  materials 
may  touch  provided  one  does  not  impose  weight 
on  the  other.  The  basic  lining  is  burnt  dolomite 
mixed  with  tar,  as  in  the  basic  Bessemer 
process. 

Bertrand=Thiel  Process.  This  con- 
sists of  the  use  of  two  open-hearth  furnaces 
used  in  conjunction,  one  termed  the  primary, 
and  the  other  the  secondary  furnace.  The  upper, 
or  primary  furnace  may  be  situated  at  a  higher 
level  than  the  secondary  furnace,  and  is  used  for 
melting  and  partly  refining  common  pig  iron.  The 
larger,  or  secondary  furnace  is  placed  at  a  lower 
level,  in  which  the  partly  refined  iron,  together 
with  all  the  scrap  available  and  some  ore  are 
melted,  and  the  iron  completely  refined.  When 
working  with  a  large  proportion  of  scrap  the 
furnace  hearths  need  not  be  kept  so  deep — that 
is,  they  may  have  less  cubic  capacity  for  a  given 
weight  of  charge  than  when  Avorking  Avith 
pig  iron  alone,  as  in  the  latter  case  greater 
additions  of  lime  and  ore  are  necessary.  More- 
over, Avhen  pig  iron  alone  is  used,  the  charge 
boils  up  excessively,  and  may  cause  the  slag  to 
flow  out  of  the  working  doors,  so  that  some  scrap 
is  advisable  to  quiet  down  the  metal.  Silicon 
and  manganese  are  practically  eliminated  in  the 
first  furnace,  together  Avith  some  phosphorus  and 
carbon.  About  tAvo- thirds  of  the  carbon  and  one- 
third  of  the  phosphorus  are  left,  to  be  removed 
in  the  finishing  furnace.  It  Avill  be  seen  from  the 
above  remarks  that  if  it  be  attempted  to  urge 
the  rapidity  of  decarburisation  in  an  ordinary 
single  open-hearth  furnace,  the  slag  will  rise  so 
rapidly  as  to  run  out  of  the  doors  of  the  furnace. 
The  greater  rapidity  of  working  in  the  duplex 
method  is  due  to  the  fact  of  the  impurities  being 
slagged  off  in  two  stages,  hence  there  is  less 
slag  present  and  more  room  for  the  metal.  In  t he 
lower  hearth  the  metal,  which  has  been  largely 


freed  from  sand  and  -slag  forming  elements,  only 
causes  a  limited  amount  of  slag  to  be  produced. 

In  an  ordinary  open-hearth  furnace  the  oxida- 
tion of  the  charge  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  upper 
.  part,  where  it  is  in  contact  with  the  overlying 
slag  and  the  lumps  of  ore,  bat  in  the  Bertrand- 
I  hid  process  the  hot  metal  from  the  upper  fur- 
nace is  run  on  to  white-hot  scrap  which  has 
become  strongly  oxidised,  so  that  the  oxidising 
influence  is  both  at  the  top  and  the  bottom,  and 
the  metal  is  therefore  more  quickly  purified. 
Moreover,  at  the  high  temperature  of  the  Siemens 
furnace  there  is  a  violent  reaction  between  the 
metalloids  and  the  oxide  of  iron,  and  great 
internal  heat  is  produced  by  their  oxidation, 
which  greatly  assists  in  maintaining  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  furnace.  A  basic  lining  appears  to 
be  necessary,  and  this  lining  in  the  preliminary 
furnace  to  a  large  extent  contributes  to  the 
success  of  the  process. 

Talbot  Process.  This  is  a  continuous 
open-hearth  process  conducted  in  a  tilting  fur- 
nace with  a  basic  lining.  The  furnace  is  specially 
designed  so  that  any  quantity  of  slag  and  metal 
can  be  poured  oft'  at  any  period  during  the 
working  of  the  charge.  Tlie  method  of  working 
as  explained  by  the  inventor  is  as  follows.  The 
pig  iron  used  has  the  composition — carbon, 
:}'7<)  ;  silicon,  TO;  sulphur,  (V06  :  phosphorus, 
<>•!)()  :  and  manganese,  0'40  per  cent.  This  is 
melted  in  a  cupola.  Suppose  the  furnace  to  be 
charged  on  a  Sunday  night  with  50  per  cent, 
molten  cupola,  metal  and  50  per  cent,  scrap. 
This  is  worked  in  the  usual  way  for  steel.  When 
the  charge  is  finished,  about  one-third— "20  tons— 
is  poured  off  into  the  ladle  and  cast  into  ingots. 
No  slag  is  run  oft'  with  this  portion  of  the  steel. 
Oxide  of  iron  in  the  finely-divided  state  is  then 
thrown  on  to  the  slag,  and  as  soon  as  it  is 
melted  about  20  tons  of  cupola  metal  are  run 
in  to  replace  the  steel  tapped  off.  An  immediate 
very  active  reaction  takes  place,  during  the 
continuance  of  which  the  gas  is  cut  off  from  the 


42.    WELLMAN   FURNACE — CROSS    SECTION 

furnace.  Carbonic  oxide  is  copiously  evolved, 
and  after  the  boil  has  been  on  for  15  minutes 
the  slag  is  poured  off,  and  the  bath  of  metal 
worked  into  finished  steel  by  the  help  of  fresh 
additions  of  iron  ore  and  lime.  Another  20  tons 
are  again  tapped  oft',  and  another  similar  quantity 
of  cupola  metal  added  as  before.  These  opera- 
tions are  continued  for  a  week,  and  the  furnace 
completely  emptied  on  Saturday. 


METALS 

The  Wellman  furnace  used  in  the  Talbot  pro- 
cess  [41  and  42]  is  a  long,  horizontal  chamber 
resting  on  the  pair  of  racks,  and  rolling  on  them 
by  means  of  the  segments  of  an  enormous 
pnuon.  The  rolling  motion  is  given  to  it  by  large 
nearly  vertical,  hydraulic  cylinders,  and  when 
tapping,  the  furnace  is  tilted  forwards  [42]  so 
s  to  depress  the  tapping  spout,  through  which 
the  metal  is  poured.  The  rolling  surfaces  are 


41.  WELLMAN  FURNACE—LONGITUDINAL   SECTION' 

provided  with  rack  work,  which  keeps  the  fur- 
nace parallel  without  supporting  any  of  its 
weight,  In  order  to  tilt  the  furnace,  water  is 
admitted  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder.  The  gas  and 
air  ports  are  of  novel  construction.  The  two 
passages  leading  from  the  regenerators  and  the 
ports  terminate  in  two  water-troughs  on  the 
level  of  the  charging  floor.  The  brickwork  of  the 
ports  is  enclosed  in  a  metal  cage,  but  instead  of 
being  fixed  it  moves  on  flanged  wheels  running 
on  rails,  which  enable  it  to  be  moved  a  few 
inches  to  and  from  the  furnace  end.  When 
melting  is  in  progress  the  ports  are  moved  up 
to  the  surface,  so  that  the  face  plates  are  in  con- 
tact. When  ready  to  pour,  the  ports  are  moved 
away.  A  special  kind  of  ladle  is  also  used, 
attached  to  the  front  of  the  tapping  hob,  and 
forming  part  of  the  structure.  This  ladle  has 
two  pouring  holes  and  stoppers.  When  the 
furnace  is  tilted  for  pouring,  the  metal  and  slag 
flow  into  the  ladle  and  stand  at  the  same  level 
as  the  metal  in  the  furnace. 

Trains  of  casting  bogies,  each  containing  two 
moulds,  are  then  brought  under  the  teeming 
holes  of  the  ladle,  and  two  moulds  can  be  filled 
simultaneously.  The  regenerative  chambers  are 
arranged  in  pairs  at  each  end  of  the  furnace, 
and  extend  under  the  charging  platform.  The 
furnace  top,  side,  and  outer  layer  of  the  bottom 
are  lined  Avith  silica  and  magnesite  bricks.  The 
bottom  is  made  with  magnesite.  The  air-re- 
versing valves  are  of  the  usual  butterfly  pattern, 
and  the  gas  valves  consist  of  two  mushroom 
valves.  Both  valves  and  seats  are  water-cooled. 
There  are  three  charging  doors,  operated  In- 
pneumatic  cylinders  through  wire  ropes,  the  leads 
being  so  arranged  that  the  doors  are  kept  closed 
while  the  furnace  is  being  tilted. 

Metal  Mixer.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  use  the  liquid  cast  iron  direct  from  tin- 
blast  furnace  for  charging  the  Bessemer  converter 
and  the  open  hearth,  but  owing  to  irregularity 
in  composition  this  has  not  been  successful.  If. 
however,  the  tappings,  from  several  blast  fur- 
naces are  mixed  together  in  a  special  receiver, 
the  irregularities  are  neutralised,  a  certain 

5017 


METALS 

amount  of  purification  takes  place,  and  a  large 
inass  of  a  fairly  uniform  composition  is  obtained. 
The  mixer  may  be  of  various  shapes,  but  it  is 
usually  made  'of  Avrought  iron  or  steel  plates, 
lined  with  fin-brick.  It  is  mounted  on  trunnions 
and  tilted  by  powerful  mechanical  gearing.  In 
some  works  the  mixer  is  of  a  semi-cylindrical 
form  with  hemispherical  ends  and  an  arched 
roof.  It  rests  on  rocker  bands,  and  is  tilted 
by  a  ram  at  one  end.  In  other  works  the  tilting 
open-hearth  furnace  is  used  simply  as  a  mixer. 

Charging  Machines.  One  of  the  defects 
of  an  ordinary  open-hearth  furnace  is  the  great 
amount  of  time  and  labour  absorbed  in  charging 
the  furnace  by  hand,  and  this  has  led  to  the 
introduction  of  machines  for  this  purpose. 
The  first  machines  were  worked  by  hydraulic 
power,  but  these  have  been  replaced  by  elec- 
trically-driven machines,  of  which  that  of 
Wellman  is  the  most  largely  used.  The  materials 
are  put  into  iron  boxes  [42],  each  holding  1  ton, 
which  are  picked  up  by  the  machine,  pushed 
into  the  furnace,  emptied,  and  withdrawn, 
the  whole  operation  taking  one  minute,  so  that 
50  tons  can  be  charged  into  the  furnace  in  about 
one  hour. 

Casting  of  Steel.  In  order  to  get  sound, 
forgeable  ingots  of  steel,  great  care  is  necessary 
to  avoid  blowholes,  segregation,  and  piping.  For 
this  purpose  a  dead  melt  is  necessary — that  is, 
to  finish  with  a  good,  thick,  clean,  non-oxidising 
slag,  which  must  be  at  the  same  time  fairly  fluid, 
to  prevent  it  entangling  some  of  the  metal. 

Fluor-spar  added  to  the  metal  in  the  ladle 
gives  good  results.  The  gases  in  steel  are  princi- 
pally hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  oxide, 
and  these  are  likely  to  increase  with  the  rising 
temperature.  The  presence  of  silicon-  and 
manganese  tends  to  keep  these  gases  in  solution, 
and  thus  to  prevent  unsoundness.  Aluminium 
is  generally  added  to  the  metal  in  the  ladle  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  amount  of  silicon,  manganese, 
or  aluminium  should  be  limited  to  the  quantity 
required  for  absorbing  the  gases,  otherwise 
the  excess  alloys  with  the  steel  and  injures  its 
qualities  as  well  as  tending  to  promote  segre- 
gation. A  steel  casting  is  very  liable  to  have 
internal  stresses,  caused  by  unequal  contraction 
on  cooling.  The  amount  of  shrinkage  varies 
from  1'.")  per  cent,  to  2  per  cent.,  according  to  the 
composition  and  temperature  of  the  metal.  The 
softer  and  hotter  the  metal  the  greater  the 
shrinkage. 

Anmv.ling  of  steel  castings  is  very  important, 
in  order  to  remove  the  stresses  set  up  in  solidify- 
ing, and  thus  to  toughen  the  metal.  The  proper 
annealing  of  large  castings  takes  nearly  a  week. 
Different  articles  require  different  amounts  of 
carbon.  Steel  for  pinions  and  hammer  dies 
requires  <)•»>  per  cent,  of  carbon;  miscellaneous 
gearing,  from  O4  per  cent,  to  0'6  per  cent. ;  general 
machinery  castings,  less  than  0'4  per  cent. ;  and 
castings  subject  to  great  shock  should  not  con- 
tain more  than  0-2  per  cent.  Hulls  and  gun- 
carriages  contain  from  0'2  to  0'3  per  cent,  of 
carbon.  Steel  eastings  to  stand  the  same  stress  us 
iron  need  only  to  be  two-thirds  as  heavy  if  they 
are  large.  Steel  is  now  taking  the  place  of  iron 

5018 


in  gearing,  hydraulic  cylinders,  engine  cross 
heads,  pistons,  rolls,  spindles,  coupling  boxes, 
hammer  heads,  dies  and  castings  for  ships. 

Treatment  of  Steel  Ingots.  Steel  is 
not  piled  like  iron  for  reheating,  but  cast  into  • 
ingots  of  the  proper  size  for  the  production  of  the 
required  bar,  plate,  rail,  etc.  The  hot  ingots  arc 
usually  conveyed  from  the  moulds  to  a  reheating 
furnace,  and  were  formerly  extended  by  the 
steam  hammer  before  rolling ;  but  this  is  now 
considered  objectionable,  and  they  are  therefore 
passed  directly  through  the  cogging  or  roughing 
rolls,  then  reheated  and  rolled  in  the  finishing 
rolls  to  the  required  seetion.  For  small  rails,  the 
blooms  after  cogging  may  be  finished  right  off 
without  reheating,  being  rolled  in  long  lengths 
and  then  cut  into  rails  of  the  required  length 
by  a  circular  saw.  This  reduces  the  amount 
of  waste  from  the  crop  ends,  as  a  fewer  number 
of  rough  ends  require  to  be  cut  oft  than  when 
the  rails  are  made  in  short  lengths. 

Soaking  Pits.  Instead  of  using  a  re- 
heating furnace  the  sensible  heat  of  the  ingots 
may  be  utilised  by  placing  them  in  hot  pits 
built  of  masonry.  The  ingot  of  steel  is  removed 
from  the  mould  as  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently 
solidified,  then  placed  in  the  hot  pit  and  closely 
covered.  By  this  means  the  heat  given  out  by 
the  metal  is  absorbed  and  stored  up  in  the 
brickwork.  In  about  an  hour  the  ingot  will 
be  at  a  uniform  temperature  throughout,  and 
sufficiently  hot  for  rolling.  During  the  soaking 
process  a  quantity  of  gases  is  liberated  from  the 
metal,  consisting  of  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbonic 
oxide,  etc.,  thus  excluding  the  air  and  pre- 
venting oxidation.  If  the  brickwork  becomes 
overheated,  it  may  be  cooled  by  dropping  in 
some  coal,  when  the  surplus  heat  is  absorbed  in 
decomposing  the  coal  and  in  volatilising  the 
products.  Considerable  economy  is  claimed 
for  this  mode  of  working,  as  the  loss  of  metal 
by  oxidation  during  reheating,  together  with  the 
expenditure  of  fuel,  is  largely  avoided. 

If,  however,  the  output  be  insufficient  to  keep 
the  pits  occupied,  and  considerable  intervals 
of  time  elapse  between  the  heats,  the  pits  lose 
too  much  heat,  and  the  ingots  get  cold.  In  such 
a  case  the  pits  are  generally  heated  by  gas. 

Steel  Rails.  The  essential  properties  in 
a  rail  are  hardness  and  toughness,  which  do 
not  generally  go  together.  If  the  metal  is 
not  hard  enough  the  wear  will  be  too  rapid, 
clue  to  the  constant  abrasion  to  which  it  is 
subjected,  and  if  too  hard  it  is  liable  to  be 
brittle  and  fractured  by  the  sudden  shocks 
which  occur  by  trains  running  at  high  speeds 
over  it.  However,  rails  are  now  made  harder 
(that  is,  higher  in  carbon)  than  formerly.  -\ 
medium  hardness  is  therefore  best,  as  it  gives 
a  good  life  to  the  rail  without  the  great  liability 
to  crack  which  harder  steels  possess.  In  order 
to  compensate  for  the  increased  brittleness  of 
the  harder  rails  now  in  use,  the  weight  has  been 
increased  from  56  Ib.  or  80  Ib.  to  84  Ib.  or 
100  Ib.  per  yard.  The  smaller  figures  are  for 
rails  for  small  lines,  and  the  higher  figures  for 
rails  for  main  lines. 


Defects  of  Rails.  One  of  Hie  chief  causes 
of  brittleness  in  rails  is  the  presence  of  too  much 
phosphorus  in  the  steel.  Phosphorus  generally 
raises  the  elastic  limit,  and  thus  the  elastic  ratio, 
which  is  an  index  of  brittleness.  An  illustration 
of  the  vagaries  of  phosphorus  in  steel  rails  may 
be  given  in  the  case  of  weld-iron  rails,  which  may 
have  as  much  as  0'45  per  cent,  of  phosphorus 
and  yet  stand  a  severe  impact  test  without 
breaking,  while  steel  rails  with  0-3  to  0'4  per 
cent,  of  carbon  and  0*15  per  cent,  of  phosphorus 
are  liable  to  break  with  a  drop  test  of  one  ton 
falling  through  6  in.,  so  that  anything  above 
(VI  per  cent,  of  phosphorus  is  dangerous.  In 
fact,  the  behaviour  of  phosphorus  is  so  capricious 
that  it  is  better  absent  altogether.  Silicon  is 
another  element  which  tends  to  promote  brittle- 
ness,  and  this  should,  therefore,  be  low.  The 
higher  wheel-loads  now  used  on  our  large  railways 
require  that  the  rails  should  possess  greater 
hardness,  or  the  ends  are  liabH^to  be  crushed. 
The  carbon  is  now  increased  to  0'5  per  cent., 
the  manganese  to  1  per  cent.,  the  silicon  to 
O'l  per  cent.,  and  the  phosphorus  below  01 
per  cent.  If  the  carbon  be  increased  to  0'6 
per  cent.,  as  in  the  ease  of  some  American  rails, 
the  phosphorus  and  silicon  must  be  present  only 
in  minute  quantities,  or  the  safety  of  the  rails 
will  be  dangerously  impaired.  Mr.  Sandberg, 
rail  inspector  of  the  Swedish  State  railways, 
found  that  80-lb.  rails  with  0'6  per  cent,  of 
carbon  flew  into  pieces  with-  less  than  half  the 
specified  tup  test,  while  those  with  (V45  per  cent, 
stood  the  test  of  a  drop  of  one  ton  falling  from  a 
height  of  20  ft.  Sir  Lowthian  Bell  considers  that 
the  fracture  of  rails  is  chiefly  due  to  mechanical 
causes  rather  than  to  chemical  composition. 

Nickel  Steel  Rails.  Nickel  steel  is  now 
being  used  for  rails  in  America  with  excellent 
results.  The  following  table,  by  P.  H.  Dudley, 
gives  the  chemical  composition  of  the  rails 
furnished  by  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  which 
were  made  by  the  open-hearth  and  Bessemer 
processes  as  indicated : 


Name. 

O;MH  ii.-i.rtli.     BeMemer. 

J5css.-i.n-i.      HI-SCMI.T. 

Nickel 
Carbon 

3-32 
()'33 

:!'22 
IV  50 

3-30 
0-52 

3-40 
0-40 

Silicon 

0*05 

0-13 

0 

O'll 

Manganese  .  . 
Phosphorus 
Sulphur 

0'80 
(1-14 
(f()2 

1-00 
0'09 
0'03 

0 
0 
0 

0'79 
O'Ofl 

0-1)4 

The  wear  of  these  rails  was  very  satisfactory. 
A  report  stated  that  since  they  were  laid  they 
had  outworn  two  or  three  ordinary  rails,  and 
were  then  only  beginning  to  show  signs  of  wear. 
Some  of  the  rails  were,  however,  too  hard,  and 
in  some  breakages  had  occurred. 

There  are  several  distinct  forms  of  wear  and 
deformation  of  rails  which  must  be  due  to  the 
physical  and  mechanical  properties : 

1.  Surface  wear  of  the  heads,  due  to  the 
rolling  loads.  Surface  wear  from  adhesion  of 
the  engines  which  draw  the  trains.  Surface 
\\cnr  due  to  the  application  of  breaks  to  retard 
or  stop  the  trains.  Surface  wear  due  to  sanding 
of  the  rails. 

Conti 


METALS 

2.  Oxidation  of  the  surface  of  the  rails. 

3.  Wear  of  the  base  of  the  rails  on  the  cross- 
ties  and  under  the  spikes. 

4.  Wear  and  oxidation   of  the  metal  of   tl it- 
heads  and  bases  of  the  rails  at  the  fishing  angles 
with  the  splice  bars. 

5.  Wear  and  deformation  at  the  joints. 

6.  Wear    of    the    surface    due    to    gradients, 
abrasion  due  to  curvature,  and  distortion  dm- 
to  hollow  wheel  treads. 

7.  Large  shearing  stresses  in  the  web  of  the 
rails,  due  to  the  rails  riding  the  bolts. 

So  far  as  rails  are  concerned,  the  advantage 
of  open-hearth  steel  over  Bessemer  steel  has 
not  yet  been  definitely  proved,  but  whatever 
steel  is  used  care  must  be  exercised  in  making 
it,  in  pouring  the  ingots,  in  their  handling  and 
heating,  and  in  the  rolling  and  straightening  of 
the  rails.  The  new  method  of  rolling  has  a 
tendency  to  prevent  that  care  and  supervision 
being  exercised  which  was  formerly  bestowed 
when  rails  were  made  shorter  and  lighter. 

Testing  Rails.  A  rail,  being  practically 
subjected  to  a  succession  of  blows  in  practice, 
is  generally  tested  by  a  drop  test.  This  con- 
sists of  the  weight  of  one  ton  falling  through 
the  distance  of  15  ft.  for  a  light  rail,  and  20  ft. 
for  a  heavy  rail.  For  light  railways  in  this 
country  a  rail  weighing  56  Ib.  per  yard  is 
specified  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  a  maximum 
load  of  10 "  tons  on  the  axle,  and  a  maximum 
speed  of  25  miles  per  hour.  In  order  to  test 
a  rail  for  sufficient  hardness,  a  short  piece  is 
laid  on  bearings  about  3  ft.  apart  and  the  centre 
loaded  with  a  weight  of  10  tons  to  20  tons, 
according  to  the  weight  of  the  section,  under 
which  the  rail  must  show  no  appreciable  per- 
manent set.  and  there  should  be  no  undue 
deflection  under  a  load  of  double  this  amount, 

An  American  RaiUmill.  A  modern 
American  rail-mill  is  arranged  three  rolls 
high,  and  consists  of  three  or  four  separate 
mills,  each  driven  by  its  own  engine.  This 
three-high  system  admits  of  two  pieces  being 
rolled  in  a  stand  of  rolls  simultaneously,  and 
in  such  mills  the  grooves  open  upwards  and 
downwards  alternately,  so  that  the  rail  d<x-s 
not  need  to  be  turned  upside  down  between  each 
pass,  as  in  the  reversing  rolls.  The  hot  ingots  of 
steel  as  they  come  from  the  heating  furnace  or 
soaking  pit  are  first  passed  through  the  blooming 
or  roughing  rolls.  Here  the  steel  receives  a 
rough  shape,  and  is  then  conveyed  to  the  shears 
and  cut  into  two  pieces,  one  being  used  for  a 
small  rail,  and  the  other  for  two  larger  ones.  The 
large  pieces  are  reheated,  and  pass  to  the  finishing 
rolls,  where  the  bars  are  made  into  finished  rails. 
Before  the  final  rolling  the  rail  is  taken  to  a  cooling 
table,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  until  it  has 
cooled  down  to  a  certain  temperature  (about 
870°  C.).  This  gives  a  fine  grain 

The  smaller  pieces  to  be  converted  into  small 
rails  are  reheated  in  a  furnace,  and  when  sufficiently 
hot  are  passed  in  succession  through  three  sets 
of  rolls,  each  three  high.  The  finished  rails  are 
cut  into  lengths  30  ft.  long. 
nued 

5019 


Group  1 1 

CIVIL 
ENGINEERING 

35 

C..iiiinr.ffl  from  f*g»  -1--J4 


REFUSE    DESTRUCTION 

Collection  and  Disposal  of  House  Refuse.     Construction  and  Working 
of    Refuse   Destructors.      Cost   of    Installation.      Value    of    Residue 


By  A.  TAYLOR  ALLEN 


THE  composition  of  house  refuse  varies  greatly 
with  the  town,  the  quarter,  and  the  season, 
on  account  of  the  kind  of  combustible  employed 
in  the  district.  It  consists  of  legitimate  house- 
hold waste  of  every  kind  which  can  be  thrown 
into  a  dry  receptacle,  such  as  ashes,  cinders, 
house  sweepings,  vegetable  refuse,  broken 
crockery  and  glass,  bottles,  waste  paper,  rags, 
worn  mats,  pieces  of  carpet,  and  cans.  In 
addition  to  these,  a  vast  number  of  other  things 
find  their  way  into  the  family  dust-bin, 
through  carelessness  and  extravagance.  It  is 
estimated  that  a  thousand  persons  produce 
annually  350  tons. 

Sanitary  Science.  The  preservation  of 
health  has  always  engaged  serious  attention, 
and  while  all  branches  of  hygiene  have  shared 
in  the  gigantic  progress  of  modern  times,  pro- 
bably the  greatest  advances  have  been  effected 
in  sanitary  science.  The  cleanliness  of  modern 
cities,  compared  with  the  filthy  habitations  of  a 
time  not  so  very  long  remote,  has  had  a  tre- 
mendous effect  on  the  mortality  attending 
epidemic  diseases,  and  if  further  proof  were 
needed  of  the  nearly  complete  security  obtained 
in  this  manner,  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  history 
of  the  Jews.  The  Mosaic  laws  contained 
elaborate  directions  for  health-preservation  by 
scrupulous  attention  to  cleanliness,  and  it  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that  the  Jews,  throughout  the 
whole  of  their  existence,  have  enjoyed  a  won- 
derful immunity  from  diseases  of  the  epidemic 
ivpr,  the  only  exceptions  being  at  times  when 
they  have  relaxed  their  vigilance  in  preventing 
near  dwelling-places  that  continuous  deposition 
of  organic  matter  which  is  so  prodxictive  of 
disease. 

The  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
brought  forth  numerous  changes  in  the  methods 
of  freeing  towns  from  obnoxious  matters.  One 
favourite  procedure  that  has  had  to  give  way. 
to  latter-day  ideas  was  that  of  filling  up  disused 
day  or  gravel  pits  with  the  collected  refuse. 
On  ihe  top  of  the  decaying  matter  a  layer  of 
.soil  used  to  be  put,  and,  in  a  few  years,  streets 
of  houses  sprung  up  on  the  sites  of  the  old  pits. 

The  law  relating  to  the  collection  of  house 
refuse  and  the  consideration  of  a  system  of 
collection  affects  every  municipal  authority. 
Under  Sec.  42  Public  'Health  Act,  1875,  every 
local  authority  may  undertake  or  contract  foV 
the  removal  of  house  refuse;  and  under  Sec.  44 
of  the  same  Act,  and  under  Sec.  26  Public 
Ifealth  (Amendment)  Act,  1890,  they  may 
impose  on  occupiers  of  houses  such  duties  as 
will  facilitate  the  work  of  collection. 

Refuse  Disposal.  .Manmiim  by  refuse 
does  not  produce  immediate  results;  the  destruc- 

5020 


tion  of  the  organic  products  by  ferment  at  ion 
takes  place  slowly,  and  the  assimilation  of  the 
manure  is  long  in  completion.  The  mixture  of 
debris  and  all  kinds  of  unscreened  refuse  brings 
on  to  arable  land  and  meadows  obnoxious 
articles,  annoying  to  the  farmers  and  dangerous 
to  the  animals  that  work  or  graze  on  the  land. 
The  employment,  more  and  more  recommended 
by  agricultural  schools,  of  chemical  manures, 
whose  absorption  is  rapid  and  easy,  has  led 
the  farmers — and  the  care  for  public  health 
which  is  now  beginning  to  preoccupy  even  rural 
districts  has  compelled  them — to  remove  further 
and  further  from  their  houses  the  heaps  of 
refuse  which  formerly  did  not  trouble  them, 
and  which  had  too  long  been  accumulating  on 
the  farms  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  public 
health. 

Until  recent  years  it  was  the  practice  in  a 
London  suburb  to  mix  the  sewage  sludge  with 
the  house  refuse,  after  taking  out  the  rougher 
materials,  such  as  pots,  bottles,  etc.  For  some 
years  this  mixture  was  readily  taken  by  the 
farmers  in  the  neighbourhood,  who  paid  a 
small  sum  per  load  for  the  material.  Gradually, 
however,  as  farmers  and  arable  land  became 
scarce,  and  bricks  and  mortar  took  the  place  of 
corn,  the  difficulty  of  dealing  with  this  material 
grew  very  rapidly. 

Economic  Difficulties.  The  little  ground 
that  was  left  in  the  neighbourhood  upon  which 
farm  produce  was  formerly  grown  was  taken 
up  by  market  gardeners,  who  had  no  great  love 
for  this  material,  for,  although  the  land  may  be 
somewhat  heavy,  cabbages  and  plants  of  that 
character  are  not  benefited  by  cinders  and  ashes  ; 
consequently  the  authorities  were  compelled 
somewhat  to  alter  their  mode  of  mixing  the 
material.  Eventually  the  demand  became  so 
small  that  they  had  to  look  the  difficulties  of 
the  case  fairly  in  the  face  and  endeavour  to 
find  a  remedy.  To  dispose  satisfactorily  of  the 
heterogeneous  masses  of  matter  recourse  must 
be  made  to  the  greatest  agent,  fire,  which  is 
recognised  as  the  right  means  of  disposing  of 
rubbish,  which,  unless  promptly  dealt  with, 
is  a  grave  danger  to  health.  Defective  appli- 
ances for  burning  garbage  are,  however,  them- 
selves a  nuisance.  A  refuse  destructor  properly 
designed  and  constructed  is  the  only  known 
means  of  disposal  which  satisfies  both  sanitary 
and  economical  requirements. 

The  Refuse  Destructor.  The  destructor 
should  be  of  the  best  pattern,  and  should  be 
designed  and  constructed  by  experienced  hands. 
The  material  to  be  burnt  is  varied  in  character  ; 
sometimes  dry  and  dusty,  sometimes  wet  and 
foul,  containing  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 


matter.  The  destructor  must  be  capable  of 
burning  thoroughly  whatever  comes,  producing 
nothing  from  the  chimney  but  perfectly  harmless 
gases,  and  nothing  from  the  clinkering  floor  but 
perfectly  burnt  and  vitreous  clinkers  and  ashes. 
For  these  objects  we  require  (I)  very  high 
temperatures  produced  by  forced  draught  ; 

(2)  flue    arrangements    which    ensure    that    al! 
gases  are  exposed  to  the  highest  temperatures  ; 

(3)  means  of  arresting  all  dust  in  the  flues  so 
that  it  shall  not  escape  up  the  chimney. 

It  is  also  necessary  that  the  furnaces  be 
constructed  in  the  most  durable  manner,  and 
with  the  best  of  labour  and  materials,  so  as  to 
stand  hard  wear  and  tear.  Further,  the  cost 
of  labour  in  working  must  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  the  conditions  of  labour  must 
be  such  as  can  be  borne  by  self-respecting 
workmen. 

Cremation  of  Refuse.  There  is  nothing 
new  in  the  treatment  of  refuse  by  cremation ;  it 
is  a  subject  the  sanitary  importance  of  which  has 
been  recognised  almost  from  time  immemorial. 
Ancient  history  records  that  the  purification  of 
insanitary  difficulties  by  fire  was  the  mode 
practised  by  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 
It  is  interesting  also  to  notice  that  among  the 
antiquities  of  ancient  Rome  is  a  pillar  bearing 
the  inscription  :  "  Take  your  refuse  further,  or 
you'll  be  fined."  In  Jewish  history,  too,  we 
read  that  the  valley  of  Gehenna  or  Tophet, 
where  some  of  the  Jews  once  sacrificed  their 
children  to  Molech,  and  which  was  subsequently 
regarded  as  a  place  of  abomination,  Avas  made 
a  receptacle  for  all  the  refuse  of  the  city  of 
Jerusalem,  and  that  perpetual  fires  \vere  kept 
burning  in  order  to  prevent  pestilential  nuisances. 

^s  regards  our  modern  English  modes  of 
disposal  by  fire,  the  practice  and  appliances 
employed  to-day  are  the  result  of  much  ex- 
periment, and  various  furnaces  and  machines 
have  from  time  to  time  been  designed  and 
patented. 

Utilisation  of  Residue  from  Crema* 
tion.  Although  in  practice  the  first  considera- 
tion must  always  be  the  effectual  clearance  of 
house  refuse  so  as  to  prevent  it  becoming  a 
dangerous  nuisance,  the  question  of  its  utilisation 
must  frequently  occur.  In  a  well-conducted 
refuse  destructor,  the  residuum  consists  of  ashes 
and  hard  clinkers. 

The  utilisation  of  the  residuum  is  important 
as  bearing  upon  the  cost  of  the  so-called  "  des- 
truction "  of  the  house  refuse,  which  formerly  has 
been  treated  as  a  waste  product. 

Refuse  destructor  clinker  has  been  found  to 
consist  of  74  per  cent,  slag  and  other  matter 
insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid.  The  portion 
soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  consists  of  silicate 
of  alumina,  lime,  and  magnesia  and  iron,  with 
a  little  sulphate  and  a  considerable  proportion 
of  finely  divided  and  diffused  metallic  iron. 

In  a  well-conducted  refuse  destructor,  the 
residue  consists  of  a  fire  ash  and  a  hard  clinker, 
which  is  fused  more  or  less  together,  according 
to  the  heat  to  which  it  has  been  subjected. 

The  clinker  is  used  for  making  concrete,  by 
being  broken  into  suitable  si/.es  and  mixed  with 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

Portland  cement  in  the  usual  manner,  the  founda- 
tions, walls,  steps,  and  even  buildings  being 
constructed  of  this  material.  Another  use  to 
which  the  clinkers  are  almost  universally  put  is 
that  of  mixing  the  clinker  with  lime,  placing  the 
mixture  within  a  pug  mill  with  water,  and  thus 
manufacturing  lime  mortar. 

Owing  to  the  porous  nature  of  the  material, 
the  mortar  thus  made  is  extremely  tenacious 
and  hard  when  set.  Mixed  with  Portland 
cement,  the  clinkers  form  good  artificial  stone. 
either  in  the  form  of  flagging  steps,  window  sills, 
door  heads,  pillar  blocks,  and  a  great  variety  of 
purposes.  The  sides  and  bottom  of  one  of  the 
swimming  baths  at  Bristol  are  covered  with  a 
layer  compounded  of  the  residue  from  a  refuse 
destructor. 

There  is  a  good  opening  for  the  making  of 
concrete  paving  slabs  from  the  fine  clinkers,  and 
they  can  be  manufactured  successfully  by  hand. 
Economical  ratepayers  may  thus  be  able  to 
derive  gratification  from  the  fact  that  ashes 
from  their  back  yards  may  be  laid  down  as  slabs 
at  their  front  doors. 

Origin  of  Refuse  Destructors.  The 
problem  of  cremating  refuse  in  specially-con- 
structed furnaces  was  not  seriously  attacked 
much  earlier  than  1870,  but  as  the  tipping  grounds 
near  large  towns  became  filled  up  it  was  obvious 
that  some  new  and  more  sanitary  method  of 
disposal  would  have  to  be  found.  It  had  been 
the  custom  to  make  small  bonfires  on  the  tipping 
grounds,  in  which  the  more  promising  combust- 
ible materials  were  burnt  ;  and,  as  the  difficulty 
of  disposal  became  more  pressing,  the  burning 
of  refuse  in  a  closed  furnace  naturally  suggested 
itself.  The  first  attempt,  made  at  Paddington 
in  1870,  to  burn  house  refuse  in  closed  furnaces 
proved  a  failure,  was  discontinued,  and  tin- 
plant  was  soon  pulled  down,  as  it  failed  for 
want  of  draught,  a  defect  which  was  attributed 
to  the  furnaces  being  below  ground  level.  The 
object  of  a  destructor  is  to  convert  city  refuse 
into  fixed  and  harmless  products  by  means  of 
combustion,  and  to  change  organic  matter  into 
innocuous  forms  of  vapour,  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  nitrogen,  all  of  which  are  commonly  found 
in  atmospheric  air. 

The  pioneer  of  the  municipal  refuse  destructor 
had  to  combat  and  overcome  ignorance  and 
prejudice  at  a  time  when  the  standard  of  sanita- 
tion was  a  low  one.  He  was  offering  an  imper- 
fect appliance,  fated  to  be  prolific  of  nuisance, 
a  furnace  primitive  in  design,  and  certain  to 
ca  u  -e  offence.  He  could  offer  no  asset,  even  in  the 
modest  form  of  a  vitreous  and  marketable  clinker. 
and  he  produced  no  power  available  for  work. 

Ordinary  type  furnaces,  built  mostly  by 
dust  contractors,  were  used  in  London  and  in  the 
North  some  forty  years  ago,  but  they  were 
unscientifically  constructed,  and  not  adapted  t<> 
the  proper  combustion  of  refuse.  It  was  con- 
sequently found  necessary  to  use  coal  or  other 
fuel  with  the  collected  refuse  to  ensure  its 
cremation. 

A  Pioneer  in  Sanitary  Science.  To 
the  late  Mr.  Alfred  Fryer  must  be  given  the 
credit  of  solving  the  important  question  of  ho\\- 

5021 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING 

tn  deal  in  a  sanitary  and  satisfactory  way  with 
town's  refuse.  He  recognised  at  oner  that  to 
render  such  refuse  innocuous,  it  must  be  burned, 
and  burned  at  such  a  temperature  that  the  resi- 
duum should  consist  only  of  the  incombustible 
portion  of  the  refuse,  and  that  this  residuum 
should  be  completely  sterile  ;  further,  that  the 
destruction  by  fire  should  be  conducted  so  that 
the  gaseous  products  were  free  from  smell  and 
from  admixture  with  solid  particles — this 
destruction  by  fire  to  be  carried  out  without  the 
addition  of  any  fuel  of  higher  calorific  value. 
Mr.  Fryer  invented  and  designed  the  first 
furnaces  put  up  in  this  country  for  destroying 
refuse.  He  termed  one  furnace  a  "  cell,"  and 
he  coined  the  word  "  destructor  "  to  represent  a 
plant  consisting  of  one  or  any  number  of  cells. 
Types  of  Refuse  Destructors.  There 
are  various  types  of  refuse  destructors.  With 
a  few  exceptions,  they  all  have  this  common 
feature.  The  furnaces  or  cells  are  strongly  built 
of  brick,  with  iron  fittings,  and  the  general 
building,  surrounding  and  covering  the  destruc- 
tor, is  of  brick,  with  roof  supported  on  iron 
columns.  The  destructor  is  approached  by  an 
inclined  roadway  to  the  top  or  tipping  platform, 
from  16  ft.  to  18  ft.  above  the  clinkering  floor  or 
ground  level.  In  the  centre  of  this  platform  is  a 
series  of  feeding  holes,  or  hoppers,  into  which  the 
refuse  is  drawn  and  let  down  into  the  furnaces 
or  cells  below.  The  stokers  standing  on  the 
clinkering  floor,  at  the  ground  level,  rake  the 
refuse  forward  on  to  the  grate  or  fire-bars,  and 
once  combustion  is  begun  no  fuel  is  required, 
there  being  sufficient  combustible  material  in 
the  refuse  to  keep  the  furnaces  going.  There 
is  no  storing  of  refuse,  no  more  being  taken  to 
the  destructor  than  it  can  burn  as  delivered. 
After  burning,  the  refuse  is  reduced  to  about  a 
third  or  fourth  of  its  original  weight,  the  residue 
being  made  up  of  fine  ash,  strong  hard  clinker, 
old  tin,  etc.  But  having  passed  through  the 
fire,  it  is  now  powerless  to  do  any  harm,  and  it 
is  not  without  its  uses. 

The  destructor  has  now  become  very  general 
throughout  the  country,  and  numerous  furnaces 
of  recent  type  are  now  either  in  course,  or  at  the 
point,  of  erection,  a  destructor  in  large  towns 
being  regarded  almost  as  an  indispensable  item 
in  the  list  of  municipal  contrivances. 

Construction  of  Modern  Destructors. 
The  first  destructor  was  erected  by  Manlove, 
Alliott  <V  Co.,  of  Nottingham,  about  the  year 
1876  or  1877,  at  Water  Street.  Manchester,  and 
<  on-isted  of  two  simple  cells,  which  proved  to 
be  capable  of  meeting  practically  all  the  require- 
ment s  laid  down.  It  is  even  related  that  in 
this  tirst  destructor,  sludge  swept  from  the 
macadamised  roads  of  Islington  was  burned 
with  no  other  admixture  than  an  equal  part  of 
the  \\et  contents  of  the  ashpits  of  Manchester, 
and  no  other  inconvenience  was  felt  at  the 
destructor  than  a  diminution  of  the  amount  of 
work  the  cells  could  perform. 

Mr.    Fryer's  original   cells  form  the   basis  of 

nearly  all  the  different  types  of  destructors  since 

erected,  and  the  essence  of  his  first  patent  was— 

••charging  or  supplying  the  refuse  at  the  back. 

5022 


and  drawing  out  the  clinker,  the  residuum, at  the 
front/'  In  the  cells  or  furnaces  themselves,  two 
processes  are  continually  going  on — namely, 

(1)  combustion  of  the  refuse  on  the  fire  grate,  and 

(2)  the  drying   of   fresh    refuse     preparatory   to 
its    replacing    the    refuse    in    a    state   of    active 
combustion. 

Operation  of  the  Destructor.  The 
refuse  having  been  collected,  it  is  delivered 
on  to  a  tipping  platform,  usually  arranged  at  a 
higher  level  than  the  top  of  the  cells.  This  tipping 
platform  is  reached  by  an  inclined  road.  Two 
methods  of  feeding  the  furnaces  may  be  adopted 
— hand  feed,  in  which  case  the  refuse  is  raked 
forward  through  the  charging  holes  on  the  top 
of  the  furnaces,  or  a  very  valuable  adjunct  to  a 
destructor,  namely,  Messrs.  Boulnois  &  Brodie's 
patent  refuse  storing  and  charging  apparatus. 
In  either  case  the  refuse  gravitates  downwards 
through  the  furnaces,  emerging  at  a  lower  level 
as  clinker  and  fine  ash,  and  amounting  to  about 
25  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight. 

The  storing  and  charging  apparatus  consists 
of  trucks  running  on  rails  on  a  second  platform 
below  the  tipping  platform.  These  trucks  are 
divided  into  sections,  the  contents  of  each 
section  forming  a  suitable  charge  for  the  furnaces. 
None  of  the  refuse  is  handled  by  the  attendants, 
and  the  operations  are  conducted  with  cleanli- 
ness and  convenience.  The  trucks  are  moved  by 
means  of  chains  operated  by  winches  on  the 
platform  above,  being  moved  either  over  the 
charging  door  on  the  top  of  the  furnaces,  when 
the  refuse  is  automatically  discharged  from  the 
truck  section  immediately  over  the  opening  in 
suitable  portion  to  constitute  a  charge,  or  with- 
drawn away  from  any  chance  of  becoming  heated 
till  another  charge  is  required.  None  of  the  refuse 
comes  into  contact  with  the  heated  surface  of  the 
destructor  till  it  is  actually  delivered  into  the 
furnace,  and  the  opening  and  closing  of  the . 
charging  doors  is  very  quickly  effected. 

The  "  green "  refuse  fed  into  the  furnace 
falls  upon  a  sloping  drying  hearth  at  the  rear, 
where  the  moisture  contained  in  it  is  soon 
evaporated.  It  is  then  raked  forward  on  to  the 
firebars,  there  to  undergo  active  combustion, 
the  temperature  in  the  furnace  usually  being 
over  2,000°  F.  The  gases  and  fumes  given  off  by 
the  green  refuse  are  made  to  pass  over  the 
hottest  part  of  the  fire,  and  are  thus  cremated. 

The  application  of  forced  draught — or  forced 
combustion — results  in  the  increased  efficiency 
of  the  destructor  furnaces  as  refuse  burners.  It 
has  been  found  most  economical  to  apply  the 
fan  system  of  forced  blast,  by  means  of  which 
some  10  to  12  tons  of  refuse  may  be  burned  per 
cell  per  day. 

The  "  Wood  and  Brodie  "  Destructor. 
The  "  Wood  and  Brodie "  combination  of 
destructor  cells  and  power  plants  consists  of  the 
sandwiching  of  a  water-tube  boiler  between  each 
pair  of  furnaces  or  cells,  so  that  the  hot  gases 
pass  directly  into  contact  with  the  heating  surface 
of  the  boiler.  As  two  cells  are  always  delivering 
the  products  of  combustion  to  one  boiler,  one 
cell  can  lie  at  its  hottest  and  brightest  condition 
by  the  time  the  other  is  ready  for  firing,  the 


temperature  around  the  boiler  tubes,  as  well  as 
the  steam  production  and  pressure,  being  main- 
tained practically  uniform. 

The  Aforegoing  combination  is  arranged  as  a 
"  unit,"  each  unit  consisting  of  two  cells  and  one 
boiler.  The  destructor  cells  as  well  as  the  boiler 
each  have  an  alternative  connection  to  the  flue. 
One  or  both  furnaces  of  the  unit  can  therefore  be 
used  as  simple  refuse-burning  furnaces  when  the 
boiler  is  shut  down  for  any  reason,  and  the  boiler 
can  be  used  as  a  coal-fired  steam  generator 
should  this  be  desired.  The  boiler  is  suspended 
quite  independent  of  the  brickwork.  It  is  thus 
•  free  to  expand  and  contract  without  affecting 
the  brickwork  in  any  way.  The  side  walls  of  the 
cells  form  the  walls  of  the  boiler  chamber, 
and  no  special  seating  is  required. 

The  designers  and  erectors  of  the  im- 
proved Fryer's  destructors,  embodying  the 
Boulnois  &  Brodie  and  the  Wood  & 
Brodie  patents  are  Manlove,  Alliott  &  Co., 
Ltd.  As  this  firm  had  the  advantage  of 
erecting  the  first  destructor  furnace  at 
Manchester,  and  probably  one-half  of 
the  entire  number  of  destructors  installed 
in  this  country  since  then,  the  installa- 
tions put  up  by  them  may  be  taken  as  repre- 
senting the 
most  advanced 
practice. 

Horsfall 
Furnaces. 
The  following 
i  m  p  r  o  v  e  - 
ments  have 
been  patented 
by  the  Horsfall 
Company  all 
over  the  world, 
and  they  are 
the  chief 
features  of  dis- 
tinction be- 


1.    SECTION   OF    CART-FED   FURNACE 


tween  the  Horsfall  and  other  furnaces. 

The  first  type  of  furnace  illustrated — namely, 
the  "  cart-fed  "  [1],  erected  at  Bromley  and  other 
places,  i*  a  great  improvement  from  the  point  of 
view  of  economy  in  charging.  The  furnace  is 
provided  with  a  water-sealed  lid  of  large  size, 
which  can  be  opened  by  means  of  a  chained 
wheel  actuated  by  hand.  The  feed-hole  is  large 
enough  to  take  the  whole  of  the  contents  of  a 
four-wheeled  van.  This  arrangement  saves  all 
the  labour  of  charging  the  furnaces  by  hand,  and 
it  is  also  much  more  ready,  as  it  frequently 
enables  two  tons  of  refuse  to  be  shot  into  the  fur- 
nace, and  the  lid  closed  again,  within  about 
half  a  minute. 

The  method  of  working  is  to  have  enough  spare 
carts  to  store  the  refuse  for  the  night,  such  carts 
being  brought  as  required,  and  their  contents 
shot  into  the  furnace  during  the  time  when  the 
collection  is  not  going  on.  This  system  of  direct 
charging  has  a  sanitary  advantage  in  the  fact 
that  it  prevents  any  picking  over  of  refuse,  for  the 
saving  of  tins,  rags,  and  so  forth. 

The  second  type  illustrated  [2]  is  that  at  West 
Hartlepool,  in  which  the  furnaces  are  placed 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

back-to-back,  and  the  refuse  is  shot  from  the 
carts  on  to  the  deck  forming  the  top  of  the 
furnaces  ;  the  deck,  however,  is  kept  cool  by 
means  of  air  ducts  or  conduits  formed  in  the  top 
of  the  furnaces.  The  refuse  is  then  fed  into  the 
furnace  by  being  pushed  down  through  the 
charging  opening.  There  is  no  lid  to  this  type  of 
furnace,  but  the  refuse  is  simply  trodden  down 
into  the  feed -hole  after  the  furnace  is  charged, 
and,  owing  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  feed 
opening,  it  closes  the  hole  smoke-tight. 

The  third  type  [3]  is  the  "  back-fed  "  furnace 
as  in  use  at  Luton,  Windsor,  and  many  other 
places.  This  type  of  furnace  is  similar  to  the  last 
except  that  the  feeding  is  done  through  a  vertical 

floor  in  the  back  of  the  furnace. 

''''      ~"\        the  refuse  being  first  of  all  tipped 
'»      on  to  a   feeding  bin  at  the  back 
of  the  cells.     From    there     the 
refuse  is  thrown  into  the  furnace 
by  means    of   the  shovel.    This 
system  has  one  advantage  over 
the  last  described,   in 
»••    «W«.  the  fact  that  the  in- 
clined road  need  not 
be  so   long  or  high  as 
for   the    "  top- 
fed"  furnace.  t 
Similarity 
of  Working. 
In     all      three 
types     the     working 
parts  of  the  furnaces 
are  very  similar  ;  the 
fires      are     trimmed 
through    small     rake 
doors    fixed    in    the 
centre    of    the    large 
clinkering  doors,  and 
arranged  so  that  the 
greater    part    of    the 
work  can  lie  done  !>y 
the      men      without 
heat.      The   clinkering 
for    the    purpose    of 
at  intervals  of  about 
in    all    cases    are 
so   that    there   are 


being  exposed  to  the 
doors  are  opened  only 
clinkering.  which  is  done 
two  hours.  The  furnaces 
worked  in  strict  rotation, 
never  two  freshly-charged  fires  at  the  same  time. 
The  furnaces  are  provided  with  forced  draught, 
Avhich  may  be  obtained  either  by  means  of  steam- 
jet  blowers  or  fans.  In  either  case  the  air  is  led 
first  through  cast-iron  side  boxes,  which  form  the 
sides  of  the  furnace  for  about  8  in.  above  the  grate 
bars,  and  in  passing  through  the  upper  part  of 
these  boxes  the  air  is  thoroughly  warmed,  being 
raised  to  about  400°  F.  before  it  enters  the  ashpit. 
Thus  a  hot  blast  is  provided,  the  heat  being 
abstracted  from  the  clinker  in  the  furnace.  The 
boxes  have  the  further  great  advantage  that  they 
prevent  the  clinker  from  sticking  to  the  sides  of 
the  furnace  and  undermining  the  furnace  hearth. 

In  all  Horsfall  plants  the  cells  are  completely 
separate,  so  that  any  one  cell  can  be  repaired 
Avithout  stopping  the  others.  They  are  all  pro- 
vided with  ample  drying  hearths  over  the  main 
flue,  so  that  the  stuff  is  Avell  dried  before  being 
dragged  forward  on  to  the  fire. 

502:5 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

The  outlet  for  the  products  of  combustion  is 
in  every  case  placed  in  the  front  high  up  over 
the  hottest  part  of  the  fire.  This  arrangement 
causes  all  the  fumes  given  off  by  the  refuse  in 
drying  to  be  thoroughly  cremated  and  scorched 
over  the  fire  itself  before  they  can  possibly 
escape  from  the  furnace.  The  products  of  com- 
bustion from  all  the  furnaces  mix  in  a  combus- 
tion chamber  or  main  flue  situated  below  the 
drying  hearth,  and  this  flue  is  constantly  main- 
tained at  a  bright  red  heat,  or  about  2,000°  F. 
By  this  means  the  possibility  of  smoke  from  the 
chimney  shaft  is  prevented.  It  may  be  noted, 
however,  that  more  frequently  nuisance  from 
the  chimney  shaft  has  been  caused  by  fine 
dust  carried  in  the  gases  than  by  smoke.  To 
guard  against  this  the  Horsf  all  Company  provide 
a  centrifugal  dust-catcher  or  vortex  chamber  into 
which  the  gases  are  led  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  revolve  rapidly  within  the  chamber  before 
passing  outwards  to  the  chimney,  thus  throwing 
off  the  suspended  dust  by  centrifugal  force, 
the  dust  passing  into  a  pocket  arranged  at  the 
outside  of  the  dust- catcher.  This  pocket  is 
arranged  so  that  it  can  be  emptied  without 
interrupting  the  process.  By  this  means  the 
whole  of  the  suspended  dust  is  extracted,  and 
{he  chimney  is  frequently  so  clear  that  it  is  not 
possible  to  tell  whether  the  plant  is  working 
or  not. 

Cost  of  Installation.  The  cost  of 
destructor  installations  varies  within  very 
wide  limits  according  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
plant  and  the  adjuncts  included.  The  sums 
mentioned  below,  however,  may  serve  as  a 
rough  indication  of  the  average  cost  of  plants 
which  have  been  erected  within  recent  years  : 

Population. 

5,000   With  small  boiler,  etc. 

10,000 

25,000   Modern  steam  raising  plant 

50,000  „  „ 

100,000  „ 


structure  in  brick  or  stone,  in  harmony  with 
surrounding  buildings  and  having  some  pre- 
tensions to  architectural  beauty. 

The  engineering  advisers  of  public  bodies  are 
concerned  as  to  the  cost  per  ton-  of  destroying 
refuse  in  destructors.  The  following  is  a 
summary  of  35  districts  : 

5  (i.e.,  14-3  per  cent.)  exceed  Is.  per  ton. 

30  (i.e..  85'7  per  cent.)  are  under  Is.  per  ton. 

As  an  example  of  the  expenditure  and  profit 
arising  from  a  refuse  destructor  installation, 
take  a  town  of,  say,  30,000  population,  and 
assuming  the  quantity  of  refuse  to  be  250  tons 
per  annum  per  thousand  of  population,  and  tlie 
destructor  to  work  300  days  per  annum,  then  : 


Population 


Cost   of  destructor 
complete,  say 


nMTons3°Xf5" 
300  days 

=  25  tons' of  refuse  per  day. 
£     s.   d. 
cells,   boiler,   etc, 

2,950     0     0 


Cost  of  buildings,  chimney,  etc.,  say 


1,550 


Labour,  cost  per  ton  of  refuse 

destroyed,  say 
Interest,    sinking     fund     and 

maintenance,  say 

Total  cost  per  ton  destroyed 


s.  d. 
1     0 


Steam  power  raised  (which  may  be 
supplied  to,  say,  electric  light  or 
other  power  works)  upon  a  low  basis 
of  1  Ib.  of  steam  per  Ib.  of  refuse  a  ml 
20  Ib.  of  steam  per  I.H.P.  840,000 
at  -2nd 

Residue  of  clinker,  for  which  there  is 
a  ready  market,  say,  25  per  cent. 
1,875  tons  at  2s. 


=     750     0     0 
(per  annum. ) 


1,015     0     0 


187    10     0 
£1,202   10     0 


SECTION    OF  BAC'K-TO-BACK  TOP-FED    FURNACE 


These  tigure>  do  not  include  any  buildings  or 
chimney,  but  represent  the  cost  of  plants 
contained  inside  the  buildings.  The  cost  of 
buildings,  of  course,  varies  very  much,  depend- 
ing upon  the  style,  ranging  from  the  cost  of  a 
corrugated  iron  building  to  that  of  an  ornamental 

5024 


Thus,    an    annual    profit    of   £450    could   be 
derived  from  a  small,  well-designed  destructor 
installation. 

Utilisation  of 
Power  Generated. 
The  heat  of  the  gases  from 
destructors  is  of  consider- 
able value,  but  is,  unfortu- 
nately, often  lost  through  lack 
of  a  convenient  application 
near  to  the  site  of  the  de- 
structor. It  is  a  curious  fact 
that  although  electric-lighting 
stations  demand  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  power  only 
three  or  four  hours  per  diem, 
the  combination  of  destructors 
with  electricity  stations  is  the 
commonest  method  of  utilising 
the  heat.  There  are,  however, 
other  kinds  of  municipal  work 
that  can  absorb  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  the  power  avail- 
able. Stone-breaking,  crushing  and  screening 
the  clinker  from  the  destructors  or  grinding 
it  into  mortar,  driving  repairing  shops,  sawing, 
sewage  "and  water- pumping,  heating  baths, 
wash-houses,  and  even  schools,  have  been 
carried  out  in  different  places  by  means  of  the 


: 


con 

i 


steam  from  destructors.  In  many  towns  and 
cities  the  steam  generated  from  the  burning 
of  refuse  produces  a  very  substantial  income. 

Many  examples  of  excellent  steam  raising 
results  obtained  by  plants  arranged  on  the 
Wood  &  Brodie  principle  might  be  cited.  At 
Liverpool,  which  was  one  of  the  first  cities  to 
see  the  possibilities  of  the  destructor  in  the 
matter  of  supplying  electric  current,  the 'Lave- 
rock Bank  destructor  is  credited  with  producing 
from  60  to  80  units  of  electricity  for  every  ton 
of  refuse  sent  to  the  depot,  and  that  without  the 
use  of  coal.  At  Cobb's  quarry  destructor, 
steam  to  the  value  of  £1,700  was  generated 
during  1902,  this  steam  generating  close  upon 
a  million  and  a  quarter  B.  T.  units  of  electricity 
and  representing  a  value  in  electricity  of  about 
Is.  8d.  to  2s.  for  every  ton  of  refuse  sent  to  this 
destructor  during  that  year.  Something  like 
7,000,000  units  of  electricity— a  very  large 
proper- 
tion  of  the 
w  hole  of 
the  electric 
c  u  r  r  e  n  t 
genera- 
ted  by  the 
L  i.v  e  r  - 
pool  Cor- 
porat  ion 
for  tram- 
way pur- 
poses —  is 
gen  er  a- 
ted  by  means  of 
Liverpool. 

At  Nottingham  it  has  been  found  that  the 
actual  production  of  electricity  has  amounted 
to  over  70  B.  T.  units  per  ton  of  refuse  over 
the  working  day,  and  this  under  everyday 
conditions. 

As  it  is  misleading  to  express  the  value  of 

fuse  in  terms  of  B.  T.  bnits  of  electricity 
without  taking  into  consideration  the  steaming 
powers  of  the  boilers,  the  economical  working 
of  the  engines,  etc.,  it  wrill  perhaps  be  well  to 
record  an  observation  made  in  April  last  (1900) 
at  the  Partick  destructor,  where,  on  the  basis  of 
30  Ib.  of  steam  per  B.  T.  unit,  over  127  B.  T.  units 
per  ton  of  refuse  burned  were  generated.  To 
state  this  in  another  way :  each  ton  of  refuse 
coming  into  the  works  had  an  average  value 
•ver  the  day  of  127  B.  T.  units  of  electricity, 

Timing  the  engines  to  work  with  a  consump- 
ion  of  30  Ib.  of  steam  per  unit. 

At  the  Cambridge  combined  plant— which 
the  first  of  the  Wood  &  Brodie  system  to 
be  erected,  and  consequently  may  be  looked 
upon  as  showing  a  good  record  of  continuous 
working  over  a  number  of  years — the  steam  is 
used  to  pump  the  whole  of  the  sewage  of  the 

much 


SECTION   OF    BACK- FED   FURNACE 

the    refuse     destructors    at 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING 

sewage  farm  2J  miles  aAvay  from  the  pumping 
station,  house  refuse  being  the  only  fuel.  The 
saving  effected  in  the  coal  bill  at  Cambridge 
by  the  combination  amounts  to  over  £1,000 
per  annum. 

Recovering  Solder.  Swaine  & 
Harrison's  patent  furnace  has  been  designed 
to  recover  the  tin  and  solder  from  the  old  cans 
that  have  been  used  for  preserved  meat,  fish, 
fruit,  etc.  The  furnace  performs  two  operations, 
one  melting  off  a.nd  collecting  the  solder,  and 
the  other  burning  the  tin  off  the  iron  so  as  to 
leave  scrap  of  marketable  character.  The 
method  of  working  is  very  simple,  and  can  easily 
be  understood  by  a  labourer  of  ordinary  intelli- 
gence. The  soldered  tins  are  collected  and 
tipped  into  the  oven.  In  the  course  of  three 
or  four  minutes  the  solder  will  be  seen  running 
out  in  a  stream  through  the  shoot  which  leads 
it  into  the  receiver.  The  attendant  moves  a 

handle, 

a"     "  *"— ""    w  h  i  c  h 
causes  the 

tins  to  fall  on  the  lower 
set  of  bars,  where  they 
are  raised  to  a  red  heat 
and  the  tin  is  com- 
pletely burnt  off. 

The  process  occupies 

about  an  hour.  The  fuel  is  placed  on  a  set 
of  fire  bars  near  the  bottom  cf  the  oven, 
or  the  heat  may  be  obtained  from  the 
destructor  flue. 

Wages  may  be  considered  practically  the 
only  cost  of  working  the  furnaces,  as  the  heat  may 
be  obtained  from  the  combustion  of  rubbish. 

The  following  figures  give  results  from  actual 
working  : 

Eight  batches  per  day  (solder  tins)  : 
Yielding  50  Ib.  solder  per  day  . . 
Yielding  12  cwt.  iron 

Expenses  (wages) 
Clear  profit  per  day 

Ordinary  tins  from  stock  heap  : 
Yielding  12  Ib.  solder  per  day    . . 
Yielding  14  cwt.  iron 

Expenses  (wages) 
Clear  profit  per  day 


1      8   11 
6     3 

1     2     8~ 


lOi 

4i 
3" 


10      H 


town,    amounting,    at    times,    to    as    muc      as 
7,000,000   gallons   per  clay,    delivering   it  to   a 

REFUSE  DESTRUCTION  concluded ;  followed  by  HYDRAULICS 


The  selling  price  of  solder,  of  course,  varies 
with  the  market.  It  has  been  disposed  of  at 
prices  varying  from  6d.  to  8d.  per  Ib.,  and  is 
usually  about  two-thirds  the  market  value  of 
tin.  The  solder  has  undergone  severe  tests 
and  has  been  proved  to  be  of  good  quality.  The 
scrap  iron  being  perfectly  freed  from  tin,  always 
commands  a  market,  but  the  figures  given  above 
are  fixed  on  the  sale  of  solder  only.  The  scrap 
iron  sells  at  from  10s.  to  20s.  per  ton,  and  is,  of 
course,  of  excellent  quality.  This  patent  can  be 
embodied  in  the  Horsfall  destructor  scheme. 


IT 


5025 


Group  !9 

PRINTING 
1 


Following  .TOI  BNALISM 
from  page  4820 


PRINTING 


Branches  of  the  Industry.     Compositors.     Readers.     Stereotypers.     Machine 
Men.      Type  and   How  it  is   Named  and  Measured.      The   Point   System 


By  W.    S.    MURPHY 


'"THOUGH  the  history  of  printing  is  replete 
with  incidents  of  importance,  and  of  a 
fascinating  interest,  it  is  with  the  vast  printing 
industry  *of  to-day  that  we  propose  to  deal  in 
t  hese,  articles.  We  shall  describe  the  most  up-to- 
date  methods  of  working,  and  shall  illustrate 
some  of  the  most  recently  invented  machinery. 

The  Three  Divisions  of  the  Printing 
Trade.  Like  all  great  industries,  printing  has 
been  broken  into  separate  branches  on  the 
division-of-labour  principle.  The  three  main 
divisions  are  (1)  Book  Printing,  (2)  Commercial 
or  Job  Printing,  (3)  Newspaper  Printing. 

Mastery  of  a  trade  implies  a  knowledge  of 
all  its  branches.  Hence  has  arisen  the  need  for 
technological  instruction.  Workshop  practice 
imparts  wage-earning  dexterity  in  one  branch 
and  nothing  more  ;  a  knowledge  of  the  general 
principles  and  character  of  the  industry  must  be 
otherwise  acquired. 

Book  printing  is  the  oldest  and  most  impor- 
tant branch  of  the  industry.  Nearly  6,000  new 
books  are  issued  in  the  United  Kingdom  every 
year.  In  addition,  most  of  the  leading  publish- 
ing firms  produce  large  reprint  editions  of 
popular  books  and  the  works  of  standard  authors 
every  season,  the  numbers  of  which  can  only  be 
approximately  estimated.  Expert  opinion  puts 
the  annual  issue  of  "  sixpenny  reprints  "  alone  at 
eight  million  copies.  Library  reprints  of  the  great 
authors  have  been  produced  in  editions  running 
up  to  tens  of  thousands.  These  figures  represent 
a  vast  amount  of  work  for  the  book-printer,  and 
the  market  is  capable  of  indefinite  extension. 

Commercial  or  job  printing  is  the  chief  em- 
ployment of  small  offices  and  of  most  country 
printers.  A  merchant  wishes  to  intimate  some 
new  acquisition  of  stock  to  his  customer*,  ami, 
instead  of  writing,  he  draws  up  a  circular  and  has 
it  printed.  Nearly  all  public  intimations  and 
business  communications,  which  must  be  issued 
in  numbers  of  copies,  are  the  work  of  the  com- 
mercial printer.  He  is  the  letter-writer,  public 
crier,  advertising  and  general  business  medium 
of  the  community.  It  "is  in  this  branch  of  the 
trade  that  artistic  ability  is  specially  required. 

The  Production  of  the  Newspaper. 
Newspaper  printing  is  rapidly  becoming  Avhat  may 
be  called  the  machine-factory  branch  of  the  trade. 
Linotype,  Monotype,  and  other  type-setting 
machines  are  taking  the  place  of  the  hand-setting 
compositor,  and  the  great  rotary  web  printing 
machines  have  already  reduced  the  printing  of 
newspapers  to  a  series  of  operations  automatically 
pert  ormed  by  machinery  attended  by  a  few  work- 
men. So  far  from  having  lowered  the  status  of 
the  news  workman,  this  revolution  has  given  him 
a  \\  ider  outlook  and  afforded  him  an  oppor- 
tunity of  further  using  his  intelligence. 

6026 


Weekly     and     Monthly     Magazines. 

Magazine  printing  stands  midway  between 
the  book  and  news  branches,  covering,  with 
periodicals,  the  whole  interval.  Some  weekly 
and  most  monthly  magazines  are  practically 
books,  beautifully  illustrated  and  carefully 
produced  ;  some  periodicals  have  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  newspapers,  excepting  the  name  and  a 
slight  difference  of  form.  Printing,  too,  closety 
touches  many  other  trades,  such  as  lithography 
and  bookbinding.  The  student  would  do  well 
to  look  into  the  cognate  industries,  and  he  may 
turn  to  the  instructions  given  on  Lithography, 
Bookbinding,  Engraving,  and  Typefounding  in 
these  volumes. 

Not  only  has  the  printing  industry  divided 
itself  into  different  branches,  but  the  printing  pro 
cess  itself  has  been  broken  up  into  four  trades, 
more  or  less  separate.  In  the  old  days  the  prin  ter 
set  up  the  type,  and  then  corrected,  imposed, 
stereotyped,  and  printed  it.  Now  all  these 
operations  are  performed  by  different  sets  of 
Avorkmen,  each  specialising  in  his  own  craft. 
Compositors — including  hand  and  machine — set 
up  the  type  ;  readers  correct  the  errors  of  the 
compositors  ;  stereotypers  take  castings  off  the 
type  ;  press  men  or  machine  men  print  the  work 
on  the  paper.  As  a  wage-earner,  the  man 
must  devote  himself  to  one  or  other  of  these 
trades  ;  but  as  a  craftsman  he  should  be  well 
acquainted  with  all  four.  The  conditions  of 
service  of  operatives  in  the  printing  industry 
are  given  in  detail  on  page  2655. 

What  Type  Is.  Every  letter  of  every 
printed  word  is  a  ^eparate  type.  A  type  is  a 
piece  of  metal  a  little  under  fifteen-sixteenths 
of  an  inch  in  height,  the  breadth  and  depth 
being  determined  mainly  by  the  size  and  width 
of  the  letter.  Because  the  impression,  or  print- 
ing, is  taken  on  the  top  of  the  type,  all  type 
must  be  of  the  same  height — that  is,  the  same 
length  of  body.  The  metallic  composition  of 
type  varies  a  good  deal,  each  typefounder  hav- 
ing his  own  recipe  ;  but,  in  general,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  main  constituent  is  lead,  with 
different  proportions  of  antimony  and  tin  to 
harden  the  metal.  Here  are  some  recipes  used 
by  leading  founders : 

25  lb.  lead  to  3  lb.  mixed  antimony  and  iron. 

55  per  cent,  lead,  22-7  antimony,  23'3  tin. 

61-3  lead,  18-0  antimony.  20-7  tin. 
An  exquisite  little  piece  of  workmanship,  this 
type,  though  so  small,  has  many  parts,  each  one 
of  which  is  fashioned  for  a  definite  purpose.  The 
letter  cast  on  the  top  is  called  the  face  ;  the 
slant  of  head  and  bottom  of  the  letter  is  called 
the  bevel  ;  the  space  of  the  body  at  top  and 
bottom  of  the  letter,  the  beard  or  shoulders  ; 
the  notches  in  the  fore  side  of  the  bodv,  the 


nicks ;  the  groove  and  feet  are  at  the  bottom. 
On  the  face  the  typefounder  bestows  his  utmost 
care,  for  that  is  the  type  :  but  the  other  parts 
are  also  important.  The  bevel  gives  wearing 
strength  to  the  letter,  and  the  shoulders  are 
spaces  for  the  upward  or  downward  strokes  of 
ascending  or  descending  letters. 

Look  at  "  d"  and  "  y,"  for  example.  The  upper 
stroke  of  "d"  fills  the  top  shoulder,  and  the  down- 
ward curve  of  "  y  "  occupies  the  bottom.  By 
this  arrangement  the  body  of  the  type  embraces 
every  letter.  In  many  books,  and  in  most  news- 
papers, the  lines  of  type  are  set  close  together, 
but  if  the  upward  and  downward  strokes  of  the 
letters  projected,  that  would  be  impossible.  The 
letter  "  f,'1  projecting  as  it  does  to  the  side, 
where  no  space  is  allowed,  cannot  be  brought 
into  proximity  to  "  i."  "  f,:1  and  "  1."  For  that 
reason  "  ff,"  '"  fi,"  "  ffi,"  "  fl,"  and  "  ffl  "  are 
cast  separately,  and  used  as  one  letter. 

The  Fount.  There  are  twenty-six  letters  in 
the  English  alphabet ;  but  the  language  employs 
regularly  162  different  letters  or  symbols,  ex- 
clusive of  fractional  figures,  and  other  signs  not 
in  common  use.  A  complete  set  of  these  letters, 
in  quantity  sufficient  for  use,  is  called  a  fount  of 
type.  A  fount  of  type  may  be  small  or  large  ; 
it  may  consist  of  a  few  only  of  each  letter,  or 
run  up  to  thousands  of  even  the  most  obscure 
nigns.  Here  is  a  representative  fount : 
CAPITALS— A  BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ 

R  S  T  U  V  W  X  Y  Z  M  CE. 
SMALL    CAPITALS — A  BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ 

R  S  T  II  V  W  X  Y  Z  JE  CE 

LOWER  CASE — a  bcdefghijklmnopqrstu 

V  W  X  V  Z  SB  03  fi  ff  fl  ffi  ffl 

FIGURES— 1234567890 
POINTS—.,;:  !?'-()[]{...— 
ACCENTS — a  e  1 6  ii  (diaeresis) 

a  e  i  6 u  (acute) 

aeiou  (grave) 

aeioi'i  (circumflex) 

aeiou  (long) 

<i.  e  i.  o  u  (short) 

9  (cedilla) 

fi  (Spanish) 

SYMBOLS— &  £  /  8  %  ar.  &  ?  tf>. 
REFERENCE  MARKS—*  f  J  §  !|  f . 

These  are  sufficient  to  carry  through  books 
of  a  literary  and  general  character,  most  news- 
paper work,  and  jobbing. 

Special  Signs  and  Spaces.  There  are, 
however,  many  other  signs,  symbols,  or  letters, 
used  in  scientific,  mathematical,  and  other 
technical  books,  which  are  not  included  in  the 
ordinary  fount.  In  most  well -equipped  offices 
special  cases  are  provided  for  fractions,  index 
figures,  and  letters  for  chemical  and  algebraical 
formulae,  and  other  special  signs. 

To  complete  our  fount  we  need  spaces. 
These  are  classified  in  relation  to  the  "  em," 
which  is  the  square  of  the  depth  of  the  type — 
Hair  space,  j  eight  to  em  ;  thin,  j  five  to  em  ; 
middling,  |  four  to  em  :  thick,  |  three  to  em  ;  en 
quadrat,  |  half  of  em  ;  jj^  em  ;  and  two,  three, 
and  four-em  quadrats  :  •• 


PRINTING 

The  Evolution  of  Type.  The  original 
intention  of  printing  was  to  imitate  writing. 
Therefore  the  first  forms  of  type  closely  re- 
sembled the  characters  of  the  books  written 
at  the  time  when  printing  was  invented. 
Caxton's  type  was  the  "  black-letter  "  used  by 
the  monks  of  Haarlem  in  copying  out  the  Scrip- 
tures. But  printing  has  developed  a  character 
of  its  own.  The  process  of  development  is 
interesting,  and  from  this  table  the  stages  of 
the  evolution  of  type  from  ancient  script  to 
modern  letters  may  be  traced. 


(gfacft  feeffet. 


—  Used  in  Caxton's  time 


—  Used  in  the  seventeenth  century 

Old  Face—  Almost  obsolete. 

Old  Style  —  In  general  use  to-day. 

Roman  —  Called  Modern,  in  general  use  to-day. 
In  book  and  newspaper  work  the  types  named 
"  Old  Style  "  and  "  Modern  "  are  used  mostly  ; 
but  the  trade  is  always  progressing,  and  new 
forms  of  letter  are  constantly  being  devised. 
There  is  practically  no  limit  to  the  variations; 
only  a  typefounder's  catalogue  can  give  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  immense  varieties  of  fancy, 
display,  and  jobbing  types. 

The  indispensable  adjunct  of  every  fount  of 
book  and  news  type  is  the  Italic  fount.  This  is 
a  sloping  form  of  letter.  Originally  designed 
for  mere  emphasis  of  a  word  or  phrase,  italic 
affords  a  handy  way  of  distinguishing  foreign 
words,  words  used  technically  in  a  sense  different 
from  their  ordinary  meaning,  sub-section  headings, 
and  other  items  in  the  text. 

Sizes  of  Founts.  A  fount  of  type  has  been 
defined  as  a  complete  set  of  letters,  sufficient 
for  use,  of  one  size,  weight,  and  form  of  face. 
Founts  vary  in  size.  There  are  two  ways 
of  measuring  the  size  —  the  one  according  to 
the  number  ^of  "  a's  "  or  "  e's  "  in  the  fount, 
and  the  other  by  weight.  Fancy  types  are 
usually  measured  by  the  first  method  ;  and 
book,  newspaper,  and  type  of  which  large 
quantities  of  the  same  size  are  used,  by  the 
second.  The  printer  generally  trusts  the  type- 
founder to  supply  the  proper  proportions  of  each 
letter  ;  but  in  jobbing  type  especially,  it  is  well 
that  the  workman  should  know  how  to  measure 
a  small  fount.  Here  is  a  rough  rule  :  Aa  is  four- 
fifths  of  Ee,  and  is  equal  to\he  leading  vowels, 
consonants,  periods,  and  commas,  and  double 
the  minor  letters.  By  keeping  this  rule  in  mind, 
the  compositor  will  be  saved  from  expecting 
to  find  three  capital  K's  in  4A20a  fount,  and 
so  on.  Large  founts  are  supplied  by  weight. 
and  carefully  proportioned  in  letter  according 
to  the  number  of  times  each  is  used  in  ordinary 
speech  or  writing. 

There  are  many  sizes  of  type.  On  the  bill- 
hoardings  great  letters,  four  or  five  feet  in 
length,  announce  to  the  passer-by  the  name  of 
a  great  singer  or  a  new  patent  medicine,  and 
in  some  books  and  publications  the  eyes  of 
readers  are  strained  by  type  so  small  as  to 
be  almost  undecipherable. 

5027 


PRINTING 

The     Old    Standard    Size    of    Type. 

Between  those  extremes  the  six.es  range  in 
regular  gradation.  What  may  be  described  as 
(In-  pivot  or  standard  size  is  named  "pica."' 
The  Pica  was  the  Church  Service  Book,  which 
was  the  staple  product  of  the  early  printing 
trade.  By  simple  transition,  the  type  used  be- 
eanie  known  as  the  pica  type,  and  being  the 
most  common  and  familiar  size,  it  became 
the  standard.  Until  the  Point  System  came 
into  use,  pica  was  the  universal  standard  of 
1  \pe- measurement.  Breadth  of  lines,  depth  of 
pages,  length  of  columns,  every  general  magni- 
tude, was  expressed  in  pica  ems.  As  we  shall 
see,  this  standard  of  measurement  failed  to 
satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  trade.  One  very 
formidable  discrepancy  occurs  in  the  type  itself, 
some  founders  giving  seventy-two  ems  to  the 
foot,  and  others  giving  seventy-one  ems  for  the 
same  length. 

The  Old  Styles  of  Types.  The  printing 
trade  was  not  many  years  old  before  printers 
l>egan  to  make  different  sizes  of  type.  No 
standard  regulated  the  original  designs  of  letters  ; 
artistic  effect  and  convenience  were  the  sole 
motives  of  those  ancient  type-makers.  Sizes  of 
type  were  not  known  by  their  relation  to  the 
standard  ;  and,  indeed,  they  had  no  common 
measure,  but  were  distinguished  by  arbitrary 
names.  We  give  a  table  of  the  different  sizes 
of  type  according  to  the  old  style,  each  name  set 
in  type  from  the  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

•"»"-*     ....          half  of  Nonpareil 

welkin ,      Minion 

<:.m „      Brevier 

Diamond ,,          BoUrgCOiS 

,,      Long  Primer 
.      „      Small  Pica 
Pica 


I'eavl        ..... 
Ruby 

Nonpareil         .... 
Emerald 

Minion „        English 

Brevier 

Bourgeois     .         .        .         .      „      Great  Primer 
Long  Primer  .      „      Paragon 

Small  Pica  Pica  English 

Great  Primer  Paragon 

There  are  such  types  as  two-line  emerald, 
two-line  brevier,  and  two-line  small  pica,  but  to 
tabulate  them  only  helps  confusion.  The  more 
<ensil>le  \\ay  is  that  adopted  in  stating  the 
measure  of  large  sizes— in  terms  of  pica— two- 
line,  three-line,  four-line,  and  so  on. 

The  above  table  is  ragged  enough,  but  when 
ue  remember  that  few  typefounders  have 
hitherto  east  the  type  of  the'same  name  of  the 
same  si/e.  the  difficulty  of  rinding  a  common 
measure  tor  type  seems  almost  insuperable.  We 
have  tested  the  long  primer  of  five  different 
typefounders,  and  they  show  a  variation  of  from 
five  and  a  half  to  three  lines  in  the  foot. 


The  "Point  System."  To-day, however, 
production  must  be  rapid,  cheap,  regular,  and 
in  the  highest  sense  mechanical.  Standardisa- 
tion of  the  tools,  instruments,  and  materials 
of  the  trade,  therefore,  is  absolutely  essential. 
American  printers  were  the  first  to  perceive 
such  a  need,  and  they  invented  and  adopted 
what  is  now  known  as  the  "  Point  System  "  of 
measuring  and  standardising  type.  Taking  the 
millimetre  as  the  unit-point,  and  approximat- 
ing pica  to  twelve  points,  they  proceeded  to 
standardise  all  sizes  of  type. 

The  standard  is  the  twelve-point  or  pica  size. 
Pica  measures  one -sixth  of  an  inch  ;  therefore 
a  point  is  one-twelfth  of  one-sixth  of  an  inch. 
This  point  is  mathematically  determined,  and 
remains  a  constant  quantity.  Having  secured  a 
firm  basis,  we  proceed.  All  type  is  standardised 
to  a  given  number  of  points.  The  change  is 
not  so  revolutionary  as  it  looks  ;  the  names 
and  sizes  are  practically  retained.  The  standard 
sizes  between  pica  and  nonpareil  differ  by  one 
point.  For  example,  pica  is  12  points  ;  small 
pica,  11 ;  long  primer,  10  ;  bourgeois,  9  ;  brevier. 
8  ;  minion,  7  ;  nonpareil,  G.  The  sizes  below  differ 
by  half  a  point :  Ruby,  5J,  and  pearl,  5  points  : 
diamond,  4|,  and  gem  4  points.  The  system 
works  out  exactly.  Gem  is  4  points,  and  half 
of  brevier,  which  is  8  points  ;  diamond  is  4.', 
points,  and  half  of  bourgeois,  9  points ;  pearl 
is  5  points,  and  half  of  long  primer,  10  points. 

How  Type  is  Measured.  Having  a 
common  measure,  the  relations  of  all  the  sizes 
of  type  are  discoverable  by  simple  arithmetic. 
One  line  of  pica  equals  three  of  gem  or  two 
of  nonpareil  ;  two  lines  of  pica  equal  three  of 
brevier  ;  three  lines  of  pica  equal  four  of  bour- 
geois. With  the  point  scale,  and,  of  course, 
type  cast  to  that  scale,  the  printer  can  solve 
readily  and  accurately  problems  of  type  measure- 
ment otherwise  complex  and  difficult. 

The  Point  System  not  only  standardises  the 
depths  of  type,  but  it  also  regulates  breadths. 
For  instance,  the  young  compositor  tries  to  find 
out  experimentally  how  many  ems  of  long  primer 
are  contained  in  a  line  twenty  ems  of  pica  broad. 
He  measures  with  a  line  of  quadrats  and  finds 
that  a  hair  space,  or  even  a  thin  in  addition 
to  the  24  ems  is  needed.  The  Point  System 
tells  him  at  once  that  he  is  wrong  ;  20  ems  of 
pica  equal  24  ems  of  long  primer,  and  they 
ought  to  come  exact.  The  advantage  of  this 
in  setting  tables,  and  all  matter  containing 
different  sizes  of  type  in  the  same  breadth,  is 
very  great. 

Leads.  All  type  is  not  set  solid,  with  the 
lines  close  together.  Spaces  are  put  between 
the  lines,  and  these  spaces  are  technically  named 
leads.  Leads  are  strips  of  an  inferior  type-metal. 
They  run  in  length  from  three  ems  upwards, 
and  are  standardised  in  thickness  according 
to  pica  measurement.  The  thinnest  leads  are 
twelve-to-pica,  and  take  that  name.  The  leads 
most  used  are  eight-to-pica,  six-to-pica,  and 
four-to-pica.  Measured  by  the  Point  System. 
the  leads  are  one-point  (twelve-to-pica),  two- 
point  (six-to-pica),  and  three-point  (four-to-pica). 


Continued 


EXTERNAL  PLUMBING 

Group  4 

BUILDING 

The  Tools  and   Materials    for   External    Plumbing1.      Joints 
in  Roof  Covering1.     Lead  Burning.     Gutters   and   Flashings 

35 

Continued  from 
pa?e  487-' 

By  Professor  R.  ELSEY   SMITH 


HTHE  work  of  the  external  plumber,  with  which  that 
*•  of  the  sine  worker  and  copper  worker  is  usually 
included,  consists  principally  in  either  laying  the 
external  coverings  of  roofs  and  other  surfaces,  or, 
where  these  surfaces  are  covered  by  slates  or  tiles, 
in  protecting  those  parts  of  the  roofs  which  are  not 
completely  protected  by  such  covering ;  such 
positions,  for  instance,  as  the  junctions  between 
one  roof  and  another,  or  at  the  junction  of  a  roof 
with  walls,  chimneys,  skylights,  or  dormers  when-, 
without  such  protection,  wet  would  probably  pene- 
trate. The  plumber  also  prepares  and  fixes  lead 
pipes,  but  this  latter  work  will  be  considered  with 
internal  plumbing.  We  shall  first  describe  plumbers' 
work  in  relation  to  slate  and  tile  roofs,  and  after- 
wards the  complete  covering  of  roofs  and  flats  with 
sheets  of  metal. 

Materials.  The  material  used  by  the 
plumber  is  lead,  cast  or  milled  [see  MATERIALS, 
page  358].  The  former  is  apt  to  be  uneven  in 
thickness,  is  liable  to  flaws,  and  should,  if  employed, 
be  used  in  weights  heavier  than  those  described 
for  milled  lead. 

The  great  advantages  of  lead  for  roof  work  are 
(1)  its  absolute  impermeability' and  extreme  dura- 
bility, if  proper  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent 
it  being  attacked  by  the  acid  contained  in  oak,  and 
from  galvanic  aetion,  and  (2)  its  extreme  malleability, 
which  allows  of  its  being  bossed  or  dressed  so  as  to 
lie  close  over  irregular  surfaces.  On  the  other  hand, 
its  high  coefficient  of  expansion,  its  weight,  and  its 
want  of  elasticity,  make  it  necessary  when  execut- 
ing lead  work  to  take  special  precautions  to  allow 
considerable  freedom  for  expansion  and  contraction 
due  to  changes  of  temperature. 

Lead  is  described  by  its  weight  in  pounds  p<>:- 
superficial  foot,  and  the  following  weights  arc 
usually  employed  for  roof  work  : 

4  Ib." for  soakers,  and  sometimes  for  cover  flashings. 

5  Ib.  for  flashings  and  aprons. 

6  Ib.    for   covering   ridges  and   hips,  and   some- 
times for  valleys,  gutters  and  small  flats. 

7  Ib.   for  valleys,  gutters,  and  flats. 

8  Ib.    to   10  Ib.    is    occasionally    used    for    flats 
exposed  to  traffic,  and  for  soil  pipes. 

Plumbers'  Tools  for  External  Work. 
Scales  for  weighing  lead  are  required,  and  should  be 
capable  of  dealing  with  weights  up  to  about  a  ton. 
A  cord  of  about  T\r  in.  in  diameter,  rubbed  with 
powdered  chalk,  is  "used  for  marking  out  lead  :  this 
is  strained  tightly  over  the  line  to  be  marked,  and 
then  snapped  by  being  raised  at  the  centre  and 
suddenly  released,  thereby  marking  a  white  line  on 
the  lead.  A  knife,  with  a  handle  about  3  ft.  long, 
is  used  for  cutting  up  lead  :  a  cord  is  passed  through 
the  blade,  as  it  requires  two  men  to  use  this 
knife  [58].  A  sharp  pocket-knife,  with  a  large 
pointed  blade,  is  also  used  by  plumbers  [59J. 

The  plumber's  hammer  [61]  has  ahead  for  driving 
nails,  and  the  nose  is  brought  to  a  thin  edge,  which  is 
used  for  running  between  edges  that  are  to  be  soldered. 
The  gauge  hook  [60]  and  shave  hook  [62]  are  used  for 
.taking  thin  shavings  from  surfaces  which  are  to  be 
soldered.  For  soldering  work,  a  portable  fire  may 


be  used.  The  -plumber's  dccil  [63],  in  general  use 
for  this  purpose,  is  made  in  various  sizes,  and 
consists  of  a  circular  container  of  sheet-iron,  per- 
forated with  holes  and  a  grate  below ;  it  stands  on 
three  legs  and  has  at  the  top  an  arched  bar  on  which 
to  hang  a  melting  pot.  There  are  also  various  forms 
of  plumbers'  stoves,  which  may  be  used  in  place  of 
such  a  fire.  The  solder  pot  [64]  is  of  cast  iron, 
mounted  on  three  short  legs,  and  with  a  loop  handle 
for  carrying.  Ladles  [65]  of  various  sizes  for  melting 
and  carrying  liquid  lead  or  solder  are  required,  and 
plumbers'  irons  [66]  of  various  sizes  are  used. 

Copper  bits  or  bolts  or  soldering  irons  are  pieces 
of  copper  specially  shaped,  iixed  to  an  iron  holder, 
which  in  turn  has  a  wooOen  handle  [67j. 

Dummies  [68]  are  lumps  of  lead  formed  on  the 
end  of  a  straight  or  curved  piece  of  iron  and  shaped, 
and  are  used  for  taking  dents  out  of  pipes. 

The  plumber's  rasp  [69]  has  one  flat  and  one 
rounded  side,  and  should  be  of  medium  cut.  It 
coarse,  it  drags  the  lead  :  if  fine,  it  clogs. 

A  straightedge  is  required  for  testing  the  trueness 
of  edges  shot  for  soldering,  and  is  a  piece  of  well- 
seasoned  wood  with  the  edge  shot  perfectly  true. 

Mandrels  [75]  are  used  for  making  pipes  on,  and 
are  cylinders  of  soft  wood  of  various  lengths, 
slightly  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  pipe  to  be 
made,  slightly  tapered  to  allow  of  withdrawal ;  for 
trumpet-mouth  wastes  they  are  made  three  times 
as  large  at  the  top  as  at  the  bottom. 

Turnpins  [70]  are  conical  pieces  of  'wood,  and 
should  be  of  boxwood,  and  quite  truly  turned:  they 
are  used  for  enlarging  the  ends  of  pipes  for  forming 
junctions. 

Bobbins  [76]  are  turned  balls  of  boxwood,  which 
are  placed  in  pipes  that  are  to  be  bent. 

The  bolt  or  pin  [74]  is  a  curved  piece  of  wood  used 
in  forming  openings  for  branch  joints,  and  sometimes 
for  bending. 

A  mallet,  of  boxwood,  is  used  for  bossing  lead. 

.Dressers  [71]  are  made  in  various  forms,  and  are 
used  for  dressing  down  lead ;  they  have  a  handle 
by  which  they  are  grasped.  The  step  setter  [72]  is 
.similar,  but  in  the  underside  has  a  groove,  which 
fits  over  the  lead  in  setting  or  bending  the  top  of 
the  steps  in  step  flashings. 

In  addition  to  the  above  implements  there  arc 
certain  materials  required..  With  a  tallow  candle, 
lead  surfaces  that  have  been  shaved  are  ''touched," 
to  keep  them  from  tarnishing. 

Resin  in  block  is  used  as  a  flux  in  soldering, 
and  is  carefully  and  evenly  powdered :  this  is 
placed  in  a  resin  box  [73],  which  has  a  conical  head, 
terminating  with  a  single  aperture,  of  not  more  than 
1  in.  diameter. 

Soil,  or  smudge,  is  composed  of  lampblack  and 
chalk  finely  and  evenly  ground,  and  mixed  with 
water  or  beer,  as  stiff  as  mortar,  to  which  some 
melted  glue  is  added  and  thoroughly  incorporated 
till  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  cream."  It  is  kept  in 
a  copper  pot,  and  is  used  for  painting  on  parts  of 
lead  to  which  solder  is  not  required  to  adhere. 

Chalk  is  used  for  rubbing  on  lead  to  remove  all 
traces  of  grease  before  soldering. 

5029 


BUILDING 

Sold'  i-  is  ;i  mixture  of  lead  and  tin,  with,  in  some 

liismuth,    mercury,    or    cadmium    mixed    in 

varying  proportions  for  different   classes  of  work, 

and  used  to  join  two  surfaces  of  lead  or  other  metal. 

The   most    usual   solders  are  the   following : 


Name                Lead 

Tin               Melting   P"int 

Coarse  .  . 

;{ 

I 

4S',°  V. 

Plumbers'  .  . 

2 

1 

44!  )°  F. 

Fine      .... 

1 

1 

370°  F. 

For  making  burnt  lead  joints  a  special  apparatus 
for  generating  hydrogen  gas  and  mixing  it  with 
a  proper  proportion  of  atmospheric  air  is  required  ; 
this  is  fitted  with  a  flexible  tube  and  a  blowpipe. 

Xuils  for  fixing  leadwork  are  usually  of  copper, 
with  large  heads.  For  ordinary  or  open  nailing 
they  are  used  at  intervals  of  3  in.  to  4  in.  ;  for  close 
nailing  they  are  spaced  not  more  than  1  in.  apart. 

Joints  in  lead  fiats  and  gutters  may  occur  across 
the  fall  or  parallel  to  it. 

Joints  Across  the  Fall.  The  simplest  is 
nlapped  joint  [77];  this  may  be  used  when  the  slope 


and  nailed  with  copper  nails  ;  the  lower  end  of  the 
upper  sheet  is  dressed  down  over  the  drip,  and  may 
be  cut  so  as  not  quite  to  reach  the  bottom,  or  it 
may  be  dressed  down  for  2  in.  or  3  in.  on  the  flat 
surface  below  the  drip. 

Before  the  upper  sheet  is  laid,  tingles  [ 79],  which 
are  strips  of  stout  lead  (71b.  or  81b.),  and  about  1|  in. 
broad  may  be  nailed  to  the  upper  level  of  the  flat 
and  dressed  down  over  the  drip,  being  made  long 
enough  to  be  turned  up  over  the  lower  edge  of  the 
upper  sheet  when  it  is  laid,  a  device  which  grips  the 
edge  of  the  sheet  and  helps  to  secure  it  in  position. 

Joints  Parallel  to  the  Fall.  Where 
several  sheets  of  lead  have  to  be  laid  side  by  side  a 
special  joint  is  required,  to  allow  of  expansion  and 
contraction,  as  a  soldered  joint  cannot  be  made. 

The  joint  universally  used  is  a,  roll  [80J;  this  may 
be  made  in  two  ways.  The  first  is  to  turn  up 
the  ends  of  both  sheets  side  by  side,  one  being 
slightly  longer  than  the  other  and  turned  over  it, 
and  then  to  fold  the  two  together  into  a  roll.  Lead 
tingles  are  required  at  intervals  to  hold  down  the 
sheets,  and  are  included  in  the  roll.  The  drawback 


71 


76 


PLUMBERS      TOOLS 

58.  Plumber's  knife    59.  Plumber's  pocket-knife     .60.  Gauge  hook        61.    Plumber's  hammer       62.  Shave  hooks 
63.  Plumber's  devil       64.  Solder  pot      65.    Ladle       66.    Plumber's  iron      67.  Soldering  irons       68.  Dummies 


).  Rasps       70.    Turnpins 


alder  pot 
71.    Ures 


?ssers        72.    Ster 
75.  Mandrel 

exceeds  20°,  and  in  making  it  the  top"  edge  of  the 
.sheet,  after  it  is  laid,  is  secured  with  copper  nails, 
and  the  lower  edge  of  the  next  sheet,  when  laid, 
covers  it  for  about  0  in. 

A  tvelted  joint  may  also  be  used  where  there  is  a 
fairly  good  fall  ;  in  this  the  lower  sheet  is  copper- 
nailed  about  4  in.  below  its  upper  edge,  the  end 
turned  up,  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  sheet  turned 
over  it,  and  the  whole  then  turned  and  dressed  down 
to  cover  the  nails;  or  a  strip  of  lead  or  copper  may 
be  nailed  to  the  roof  and  folded  into  the  welted 
joint  instead  of  nailing  the  lower  sheet  [78]. 

In  ordinary  horizontal  gutters  and  fiats,  where 
the  fall  is  usually  about  1J  in.  in  10  ft,,  or  4  deg., 
none  of  the  joints  described  above  is  satisfactory, 
and  a  drip  must  be  used  to  make  the  joint.  This 
is  an  abrupt  change  in  the  level  of  the  roof,  and 
such  a  drip  is  usually  2  in.  in  height  [79J. 

The  face  of  the  drip  may  be  vertical  or  an  an.ule 
fillet,  oi'  a  quarter  round  fillet  may  be  introduced. 
The  edge  of  the  boarding  at  the  top  is  rebated  to  a 
depth  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  sheets  of  lead  in 
u-e,  and  for  a  width  of  1  in.  to  1 .',  in.  In  making  the 
lead  joint  the  upper  end  of  "the  lower  sheet  is 
•  licked  up  over  the  drip  and  down  into  the  rebate, 

5030 


setter        73.    Resin   box        74.    Plumber's  bolt   or    pin 
76.  Bobbin 

to  this  joint  is  that  the  roll,  being  hollow,  is  liable  to 
damage.  The  more  usual  form  of  roll  requires  a 
solid  roll  of  wood  to  be  nailed  parallel  to  the  side  of 
the  sheets,  and  this  is  usually  of  2- in.  diameter,  and 
in  section  forms  about  three-fourths  of  a  circle. 
The  edge  of  one  lead  sheet  is  dressed  into  the 
hollow  between  the  roll  and  the  flat — care  being- 
taken  not  to  crack  it  where  it  is  bent  —and  bossed 
up  over  it  and  carried  round  about  two-thirds  of 
the  roll  and  copper-nailed.  The  adjoining  sheet 
is  then  dressed  into  the  hollow  on  the  other  side  of 
the  roll,  and  over  it,  covering  the  edge  of  the  first 
sheet.  It  may  either  be  taken  about  two-thirds 
round  the  roll  and  stopped,  in  which  case  lead  tingles 
are  required  to  clip  the  edge,  or  it  maybe  carried 
right  round  the  roll,  dressed  into  the  hollow  between 
it  and  the  flat,  and,  for  a  short  distance,  on  the 
flat.  The  latter  method  gives  a  better  grip  of 
the  roll;  but  if  water  lies  near  the  joint,  there  is 
some  danger  of  it  being  drawn  up  between  the  two 
thicknesses  of  lead  by  capillary  attraction. 

The  distances  between  the  rolls  vary  somewhat 
with  circumstances,  but  when  possible  they  are 
usually  set  out  to  allow  of  two  sheets  of  lead  being- 
cut  from  the  width  of  an  ordinary  market  .sheet,  which 


MFTtP 

51.  DETAIL  OF 
LEAD  GUTTtP 
A.  WALL  FWTt 


PACAPtl  WALL 

PLAtl  Of  AGUHER  rtEXT  4  PAPAPET  WALL 


S9.COVLB  fUlWINQ          90.LEAD  FUMmQ 
WAKEP 


91.  GUTTLB  HtXT  A  PARAPE.T  OP  CHIMML> 


92  GUTRR  S  APPOTl 

TO  A  CHINNLV  5TACK 


93.LLADWOCK  AT  THL 

yax.  or  A  CHinnEY  STOCK 


94.  PLArt  Of  UAOWOBK  AWUHD  A  CWnNDI  5WK 


EXTERNAL   PLUMBING    \\OHK 


5031 


BUILDING 

may  measure  7  ft.  !>  in.  ;i cross  ;  allowing  for  the  lap, 
this  requires  the  rolls  to  be  spired  at  intervals  not 
exceeding  -  ft.  !<>.'.  in.  from  centre  to  centre. 

The  lower  end  of  a  roll  has  the  lead  bossed  over 
it  M>  as  to  encase  the  end  completely,  and  if  this 
rnil  comes  above  a  drip  the  leadwork  is  dressed  down 
over  the  roll  that  occurs  below  the  drip.  If  the 
roll  forms  the  watershed  of  a  gutter  falling  both 
ways,  the  lead  work  is  dressed  up  against  the  parapet 
wall  or  under  the  slates  as  the  case  may  be. 

Soldered  Joints.  These  cannot  be  much 
used  in  le  id  roofs  owing  to  the  undesirability  of 
fixing  the  edges  of  adjoining  sheets,  but  may  be 
used'  in  forming  cesspools,  in  repairing  work,  and  in 
making  soil  pipes.  Solder  is  supplied  in  the  form 
of  long  sticks  which  vary  in  form.  A  joint  that  is 
tojx:  soldered  must  have  the  edges,  if  they  are  butted, 
]>erfeetly  true.  They  are  rubbed  with  a  little  chalk  to 
free  them  from  grease,  and  then  the  surfaces  are 
painted  with  smudge;  after  this  is  dry,  the  por- 
tions to  which  solder  is  intended  to  adhere  are 
shaved  with  a  gauge  hook  or  shave  hook.  The 
work  is  held  together  by  melting  in  bits  of  solder 
at  intervals  while  the  edges  are  held  firmly  together  ; 
the  joint  is  then  sprinkled  with  resin,  and  the  solder 
laid  in  the  seam  with  the  help  of  a  copper  bit.  This  is 
at  iirst  done  roughly,  and  after  again  sprinkling  a 
little  resin  the  heated  bit  is  passed  smoothly  and 
evenly  along  the  whole  length,  so  that  the  solder  floats 
truly  and  evenly  after  it,  making  a  firm,  even  band. 
Lead  Burning.  Lead  burning  is  not  so 
commonly  used  as  soldering,  but  makes  an  excel- 
lent joint;  it  may  be  used  for  welted  or  lapped 
joints,  both  horizontal  and  vertical.  The  surfaces 
must  be  shaved.  Lead  burning  is  specially  ser- 
viceable in  connection  with  chemical  works,  but 
makes  excellent  builders'  work  also.  Solder  is 
not  employed,  but  a  stick  of  lead  is  used  and 
melted  on  to  the  joint  by  the  blowpipe,  already 
described,  in  a  series  of  small  drops  or  beads,  each 
one  covering  partly  the  one  below  it.  The 
process  consists  really  in  melting  the  edges  to  be 
united  with  the  addition  of  some  extra  metal  of  the 
same  kind,  if  necessary,  so  that  they  flow  together 
and  unite  perfectly.  The  advantages  of  such  joints 
are  that,  as  the  metal  in  the  joint  is  the  same  as  in 
the  parts  united,  the  whole  is  homogeneous  and  will 
resist  uniformly  chemical  action  and  the  effects  of 
expansion. 

Leadwork  to  Slate  Roofs.  No  leadwork 
should  be  fixed  in  lengths  longer  than  10  ft.,  and 
where  it  is  possible  to  arrange  for  7  ft.  lengths,  it 
is  better  ;  in  most  eases  not  more  than  two  edges 
of  a  rectangular  piece  of  lead  should  be  fixed. 

Roofs,  valleys,  and  gutters  that  are  to  be  covered 
in  lead  must  be  properly  prepared  [see  CARPENTRY], 
<o  that  the  surfaces  are  not  flat  but  have  a  sufficient 
fall  with  all  drips  and  rebates  and  rolls  required,  and 
it  is  important  that  the  boarding  should  be  laid 
in  the  direction  of  the  fall  of  the  roof,  valley,  or 
gutter,  so  that,  in  the  event  of  the  boards  curling 
-omewhat,  any  small  ridges  that  air  formed  shall 
i.e  parallel  to.  and  not  across,  the  flow  of  the  water. 

Those  parts  of  the  leadwork  of  a  slated  or  tiled 
roof  which  are  to  be  covered  by  the  slates  or  tiles 
must  necessarily  be  laid  before  the  slating  or  tiling 
is  executed:  ,md  such  work  includes  all  forms  (if 
gutters.  Flashings,  drips,  apd  ridges  and  similar  work 
art;  completed  after  the  slating  or  tiling  is  finished. 
Parapet  Gutters.  Where  the  roof  terminates 
behind  a  parapet,  a  gutter  must  lie  formed  to 
carry  "tt  the  water  from  it.  The  outlet  must  be  at 
the  lowest,  part  of  the  gutter,  which  should  have 
a  width  of  at  leasi  !)  in.  at  this  point,  and.  as  the 

0082 


level  rises,  the  width  of  the  gutter  will  in 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent— depending  upon  the 
pitch  of  the  roof — till  the  first  drip  occurs  ;  at  this 
point  a  sudden  increase  in  width  takes  place,  thence 
again  a  gradual  increase  till  another  drip,  and  so  on. 
It  is  therefore  economical,  wherever  possible,  to 
arrange  the  outlet  near  the  centre  of  the  gutter,  so 
that  it  may  fall  in  two  directions.  In  the  case  of  a 
long  gutter  more  than  one  outlet  is  required,  with 
falls  from  two  directions  to  each  of  them  |84]. 

The  Cesspool.  The  outlet  itself  usualh 
takes  the  form  of  a  cesspool,  which  is  a  square 
wooden  box,  the  minimum  size  being  9  in.  square 
and  (')  in.  deep.  The  bottom  is  perforated  for  a  lead 
pipe  to  form  the  outlet.  This  box  is  prepared  by 
the  carpenter,  and  when  possible  should  be  lined 
by  a  single  piece  of  7  or  8  Ib.  lead  bossed  out  to 
the  required  shape;  or  where  this  is  impossible 
the  seams  must  be  soldered  or  burnt.  The  outlet- 
pipe  is  of  7  or  8  Ib.  lead,  or  a  drawn  lead  pipe  may 
be  used  3  in.  in  diameter  or  larger,  and  it  often 
takes  the  form  of  a  swan-neck.  The  lower  end 
delivers  into  a  rain-water  head;  the  upper  end  is 
bossed  out  and  soldered  to  the  lining  of  the  cess- 
pool. The  upper  part  of  the  lead  cesspool  lining 
is  dressed  down  into  a  rebate  prepared  for  it  in  the 
gutter  board,  and  close  copper-nailed. 

Lining  the  Gutter.  The  leadwork  of  the 
gutter  is  cut  from  a  broad  sheet.  The  bottom  or  sole 
of  the  lowest  length  will  be  9  in.  wide  at  its  narrowest 
point ;  it  has  one  edge  turned  up  .5  or  6  in.  against 
the  parapet;  the  other  edge  is  turned  up  the  slope 
for  about  5  in.,  then  over  a  tilting  fillet  and  for 
a  distance  of  3  in.  beyond  this,  where  it  is  copper- 
nailed.  If  the  cesspool  occurs  at  the  end  of  the 
gutter  and  the  parapet  is  returned,  the  end  must 
be  bossed  up  so  as  to  stand  5  in.  up  against 
the  return  wall.  The  sole  is  perforated  for  the 
cesspool ;  the  edges  are  dressed  down  over  the 
sides  of  the  cesspool,  and  a  soldered  joint  may  be 
made  between  the  gutter  and  cesspool,  otherwise, 
should  the  outlet  become  stopped,  water  might 
rise  above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  cesspool  and 
find  its  way  under  the  leadwork  of  the  gutter. 

Wherever  possible  a  free  outlet  should  be  provided 
through  the  parapet  wall  at  or  near  the  lowest 
level  of  the  gutter  so  as  to  provide  against  any  tem- 
porary blocking;  and  in  some  cases,  in  place  of 
any  cesspool,  an  outlet  may  be  formed  in  the  wall. 
the  lead  being  taken  through  and  formed  into  a  shoot 
to  discharge  direct  into  the  rain-water  head.  Every 
cesspool  should  be  provided  with  a  copper  or 
ualvanised  iron  wire  dome,  fitting  over  the  outlet 
to  keep  back  leaves  and  other  obstructions. 

The  upper  edge  of  the  first  piece  of  lead  in  the 
uutter  is  carried  up  over  the  Iirst  drip  as  described. 
The  next  length  of  the  gutter  has  the  lower 
end  bossed  to  fit  over  the  drip,  and  the  portion 
that  lies  in  the  slope  of  the  roof  is  not  cut  per- 
pendicular to  the  line  of  the  gutter,  but  extend- 
forwards.  This  insures  that  any  water  dropping 
oft'  the  slates  near  the  joint  shall  easily  run  down 
the  lead  and  not  tend  to  be  drawn  in  between  the 
two  thicknesses.  This  length  will  start  with  a 
width  as  wide  as  that  of  the  finish  of  the  previous 
strip  and  will  increase  in  a  corresponding  manner. 
The  upper  end  will  be  finished  in  the  same  way 
if  there  is  another  drip,  but  when  the  highest  part 
of  a  gutter  is  reached,  if  the  parajK't  wall  is  returned, 
the  upper  edge  of  the  lead  is  bossed  tip  to  stand 
against  the  wall  :  but  if  the  gutter  falls  again  from 
this  point  in  the  opposite  direction  a  roll  is  used 
to  separate  the  two  slopes  and  the  ends  of  the  lead 
are  dressed  over  it. 


BUILDING 


1L   nul      I 

«UJ 
PKIP. 

.CWPOOL 

I-. 

.(PPIP 

R|                     GUTTfB 

J  Voutui           WPAPfT  MLL 

97  50LID  5TOP  UP  95  MOLWflG  POMn  CUP 


IOZ  PLAN  OF  TW0  PAY?  0FAFUT 


103 

TO  A  }PH?r_ 


105  LEAP  FINAL 


EXTERNAL  PLTJMBINO    WORK 


Cover  Flashings.  When  the  leadwork  of 
the  gutter  is  in  position  the  edge  next  the  parapet 
stands  up  close  to  the  wall.  But  as  the  other  edge 
has  been  nailed  under  the  slates  this  cannot  be 
lixed,  and  to  prevent  water  getting  behind  it  a 
cover  flashing  is  employed  [89].  This  consists  of  a 
strip  of  lead  about  6  in.  wide,  of  which  a  width 
of  1  in.  is  bent  to  form  a  right  angle,  and  is  inserted 
into  the  joint  between  two  courses  of  bricks  which 
lias  been  raked  out  for  the  purpose,  or,  if  the 
parapet  be  of  stone,  into  a  chase  that  has  been  cut 
for  it  termed  a  raglet.  The  lead  is  secured  with 
lead  wedges  driven  into  the  brick  joint,  which  is 
afterwards  pointed  in  cement,  or  into  the  raglet, 
which  is  afterwards  run  or  filled  with  molten  lead, 
this  being  termed  burning -in.  This  completely 
covers  the  top  edge  of  the  lead  gutter,  and  any 
water  running  down  the  face  of  the  parapet  is 
discharged  on  to  the  sole  of  the  gutter. 

A  gutter  between  two  parallel  sloping  roofs  is 
formed  in  a  similar  manner,  except  that  a  tilting 
fillet  must  be  provided  for  the  lowest  course  of 
slates  or  tiles  on  each  slope;  and  as  the  width 
of  such  a  gutter  is  increased  at  both  edges  it  may 
become  necessary,  if  the  gutter  is  a  long  one  and  if  the 
sole  becomes  very  wide,  to  divide  the  width  by  a  roll. 

Trough  Glitters.  It  is,  however,  often  pos- 
sible in  such  positions,  if  the  rafters  of  the  two 


roofs  are  carried  on  pole  plates,  to  use  a  parallel  - 
tided  or  trough  gutter  [85].  This  differs  from  the  one 
already  described  in  having  the  upper  edge  of  the 
gutter  at  a  uniform  level  below  the  eaves,  but 
the  bottom  is  formed  with  the  necessary  slopes 
and  drips,  entirely  contained  in  the  depth  of  the 
gutter  between  its  vertical  sides. 

A  valley  gutter  formed  where  two  sloping  roofs 
intersect  [83]  has  always  a  fairly  rapid  fall,  and  can 
be  constructed  without  drips.  Such  a  valley  is 
prepared  for  by  nailing  two  tilting  fillets  one  on 
each  roof,  parallel  to  the  angle  between  them  and 
at  least  6  in.  from  the  angle. 

The  lead  is  cut  into  parallel-sided  strips  long 
enough  to  allow  of  its  being  dressed  down  into 
the  valley  over  each  tilting  fillet  and  to  extend 
beyond  it  for  about  3  in.  to  4  in.  on  the  roof,  where 
the  edges  are  copper -nailed.  Lapped  joints  arc 
used,  and  at  the  top  of  the  roof  the  valley  pieces 
are  brought  up  on  each  side  of  the  riclge  and  a 
saddle  piece  used,  covering  the  ridge  and  dressed 
down  to  cover  the  upper  part  of  both  valleys. 
Lead  valley  gutters  are  made  at  least  8  in.  wide. 
so  as  to  allow  workmen  to  walk  on  them  when  roof 
repairs  have  to  be  executed. 

Leadwork  to  Hips.  Secret  hip  gutters  a  ri- 
nsed when  the  slates  are  finished  as  close  cut 
without  any  external  cover.  Such  a  gutter  is 

5033 


BUILDING 

prepared  for  like  a  valley,  but  the  tilting  fillets 
arc  placed  onlv  •-' or  :i  in.  apart  so  as  to  allow  of 
a  narrow  gutter  between  them  |87|.  The  lead  is 
drcx>ed  down  into  this  over  the  fillets  and  copper- 
tiailcd  tn  the  roof  boarding.  The  tilting  fillets 
in  both  valleys  and  hips  not  only  serve  as  an  edit- 
or niii'-irin  to  the  valley,  but  raise  the  outer  edge 
.of  the  slates,  throwing*  back  the  water  on  to  the 
slate  slope  rather  than  fato  the  lead  gutters. 

Lead  w«/vr*  may  also  be  used  to  protect  the 
hips.  Thesa  must  be  specially  shaped;  the  length 
equals  the  length  of  the  slate  less  the  gauge,  with 
.in  additional  inch  for  turning  over  the  top.  The 
centre  of  the  soaker  lies  over  the  hip,  and  the  two 
wings  lie  on  the  back  of  the  slate  on  each  side. 
leaving  the  margin  exposed.  Such  a  soaker  is 
used  at  every  course,  and  effectively  prevents 
water  from  entering. 

Hips  may  also  be  protected  by  strips  of  lead 
wide  enough  to  be  dressed  over  a  roll  nailed  above 
the  hip  rafter  [86]  and  down  over  the  slates  on  each 
side  for  a  breadth  of  0  in.  to  8  in.  Lead  tingles 
are  fixed  to  hold  down  the  edges  [86]. 

Ridges  may  be  protected  in  a  .--iniilar  way  by  the 
use  of  a  roll  covered  with  lead  and  lead  winsrs  : 
the  lengths  used  should  not  exceed  7  ft.,  and  the 
joints  are  lapped.  Where  hips  run  up  into  a  ridge, 
the  junction  is  formed  with  a  special  capping 
piece  bossed  over  the  ridge  and  down  over  both 
h  ips. 

Junctions  Between  Roofs  and  Walls. 
Where  a  roof  abuts  against  a  parapet,  wall,  or 
chimney,  the  best  method  of  making  the  joint  is  to 
use  soakers,  one  to  each  slate,  which  in  this  case  are 
rectangular.  One  edge  is  turned  up  against  the 
wall  for  3  in.  to  4  in.,  the  rest  of  the  soaker  lies  on 
the  slate,  and  may  be  turned  over  its  head.  The 
upturned  ends  are  protected  by  a  cover  fla*7t>n</ 
let  into  a  raglet  in  stone  walls,  but  in  the  case  of 
brick  walls,  the  upper  edge  is  stepped — that  is,  a 
series  of  triangular  pieces  are  cut  out  to  allow 
the  lead  to  be  turned  into  every  horizontal  brick 
joint  [88  and  89].  The  upper  edge  of  the  lead  is 
prepared  with  the  help  of  a  step  setter. 

Another  method  is  to  use  a  Stepped  flashing  secured 
to  the  brick  joints  and  dressed  down  on  the  top 
of  the  slates  for  a  width  of  6  in.  to  8  in.,  and  secured 
by  tingles  without  any  soakers  [90] :  but  if  the  edges 
are  raised  by  the  action  of  wind,  wet  may  blow 
under  this.  Another  method  is  to  form  a  narrow 
gutter  by  stopping  the  slating  3  in.  or  4  in.  from 
the  wall  [91  J.  The  side  of  the  gutter  may  be  formed 
by  a  tilting  fillet  or  roll  under  the  edge  of  the  slates. 
This  is  best  lined  with  lead  nailed  under  the  slates 
and  turned  up  against  the  wall  with  a  stepped 
cover  flashing,  but  is  sometimes  formed  with  a 
single  width  of  lead, .  the  upjx'r  end  stepped  and 
secured  to  the  wall. 

JLeadwork  to  a  Chimney.  Where  a 
chimney  stack  occurs  in  a  roof,  the  joint  between  it 

and  the  slates  must  be  protected  all  round.  This  is 
done  by  an  apron  on  the  lower  side  of  the  slope  [92 1. 
This  apron  is  a  strip  of  lead  12  in.  wider  than  'tin- 
width  of  the  stack  and  deep  enough  to  stand  up 
against  the  brickwork  for.")  in.  or  <>  in. — the  top  being 
liu  ned  into  a  brick  joint — and  to  be  dressed  down 
ever  the  slates  for  at  least  <>  in.  The  sides  a  re  formed 
with  step,H-d  flashings,  or  soakers  and  cover  flash- 
ings |93j.  long  enough  to  turn  round  the  lower  face 
of  Hie  chimney  for  about  -Jin.,  the  lower  edge,  where 
it  is  dressed  over  the  apron,  being  cut  a  way  to  a  slope. 
and  the  »-d».-x  ot  the  Bathing  are  secured  with 
tinirles  |94|.  At  I  he  back  of  t  IK-  chimney  a  narrow 
gutter  is  formed,  the  lead  work  at  the 'cuds  be-in-- 

5034 


dr. •>-(•(!  do\\  ii  over  the  slates,  and  turned  round  the 
angle  of  the  chimney  and  covered  with  a  Bashing, 
which  is  also  returned  on  each  face  [92-93]. 

A  skylight  or  trap-door  projecting  above  a  roof 
is  protected*  in  the  same  manner,  but  the  lead  is 
usually  cut  wide  enough  to  cover  the  vertical  sides  of 
the  skylight,  and  is  very  usually  turned  over  the 
top  of  the  kerb  and  close  copper-nailed  to  it  under 
the  frame  of  the  light.  Where  dormers  project  from 
slated  and  tiled  roofs,  if  the  vertical  sides  are  slatted 
or  tiled,  the  junction  between  the  roofs  is  made  by 
means  of  soakers.  Where  a  skylight  kerb  or  window 
sill  stands  above  .a  slated  or  tiled  roof,  a  lead  apron 
is  often  employed  to  secure  a  watertight  joint  below 
the  wood  sill,  and  the  lower  edges  of  the  apron  may 
be  ornamentally  cut  [101  and  104]. 

The  apex  of  a  circular  or  pyramidal  roof  is  also 
often  protected  by  a  lead  capping,  which  may  be 
dressed  over  the  timber  finial  and  down  upon  the 
roof  covering  [105]. 

Lead=covered  Roofs.  For  the  mo>i  part 
roofs  wholly  covered  with  lead  are  as  nearly  flat 
as  possible.  They  are  prepared  by  the  carpenter, 
and  must  be  laid  with  a  regular  fall,  as  described 
for  gutters,  with  drips  at  intervals  of  from  7  ft.  to 
10  ft.,  and  with  rolls  at  every  joint  in  the  lead, 
which  is  parallel  to  the  fall.  The  highest  part  of 
the  flat  has  the  lead  turned  up  against  the  wall  or 
parapet  if  one  exists,  and  is  covered  by  a  cover 
flashing,  or,  if  the  flat  falls  in  two  directions,  over  a 
roll  [102J.  The  outermost  sheets  have  also  the  outer 
edge  turned  up  against  the  wall  with  a  cover 
flashing,  and  if  any  chimney  or  skylight  projects 
through  the  roof,  the  lead  must  be  turned  up  all 
round.  The  lower  edge  of  a  flat  generally  delivers 
into  a  trough  gutter  ifined  with  lead,  and  must  be 
turned  and  dressed  down  over  the  edge.  In  some 
cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  use  of  an  iron 
gutter  to  carry  off  the  water,  and  the  lead  must  then 
be  fixed  so  as  not  to  be  at  any  point  in  contact 
with  the  iron  ;  it  should  be  dressed  over  a  fillet,  so 
as  to  drip  well  into  the  gutter  without  touching 
the  iron.  Where  the  pitch  of  the  roof  exceeds 
20  deg.,  welted  joints  may  be  used  in  place  of  drips. 

If  the  edge  of  a  flat  is  formed  by  a  moulding, 
and  in  other  situations  where  mouldings  occur, 
the  leadwork  mav  be  dressed  over  them  and  into 
the  hollows  of  the  mouldings  with  the  help  of 
bossing  mallets  and  dressers,  care  being  taken  not 
to  crack  the  lead,  and  to  keep  the  thickness  of  the 
sheet  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible. 

Lead  in  Steep  Roofs  and  Vertical 
Faces.  Where  surfaces  are  vertical  or  inclined  as 
a  steep  angle,  and  have  to  be  covered  with  lead,  at 
in  the  case  of  spire  and  turret  roofs,  if  the  rolls  are 
placed  vertically,  the  outer  edges  of  the  sheets  which 
are  not  fixed  gradually  creep — that  is,  they  move 
down  the  roof  owing  to  the  weight  of  the  sheets  and 
the  want  of  elasticity  of  the  material,  which  does 
not  regain  its  former  position  after  expansion.  In 
such  roofs,  therefore,  the  rolls  are  arranged  diagon- 
ally on  the  roof,  so  as  to  reduce  the  strain  on  the  lead 
sheets,  and  give  a  more  direct  support  [103].  Where 
vertical  surfaces,  such  as  the  sides  of  dormers,  have 
to  be  covered  with  lead,  the  sheets  are  generally 
turned  over  the  upper  edge  when  possible,  and 
close  copper- nailed  :  but  additional  supports  are 
required  to  prevent  the  heavy  sheets  from  tearing 
away.  These  may  be  afforded  by  soldered  dots,  and 
when  such  a  dot  is  to  be  formed,  the  boarding  is 
prepared  by  forming  a  cup-shaped  sinking,  and  the 
lead  is  dressed  into  this  and  secured  with  a  brass 
,>erew  '100|.  A  ring  of  smudge  is  painted  round 
the  hollow,  so  as  to  extend  about  2  in.  bevond  the 


dot,  and  the  surface  of  the  lead  in  the  hollow  is 
shaved,  sprinkled  with  resin,  and  is  rilled  in  with 
melted  solder,  poured  in  from  a  ladle;  this  forms 
a  solid  dot,  the  face  of  which  is  flush  with  the  outer 
face  of  the  lead,  thus  forming  a  support  for  the 
lead  work,  and  covering  the  head  of  the  screw. 
Another  method  sometimes  adopted  is  to  solder  to 
the  inner  face  of  the  lead  sheet  strips  or  tacks  of 
stout  lead,  which  are  passed  through  slits  formed 
in  the  boarding  and  nailed  from  inside  [99].  A  slight 
sinking  must  be  formed  in  the  outer  face  of  the 
boarding  to  receive  the  end  of  the  tack  where  it 
is  soldered  against  the  sheet. 

Lead  for  Horizontal  Surfaces.  Lead 
may  be  used  for  protecting  horizontal  .surfaces 
exposed  to  the  weather,  such  as  the  upper  surfaces 
of  wood  sills,  and  of  wood  plates  in  half  timber 
work.  The  upper  edge  is  usually  close  copper- 
nailed  and  the  leadwork  dressed  down  over  the 
surface  to  be  protected.  The  upper  surface'  of 
brick  strings  may  be  protected  by  a  lead  flashing, 
instead  of  by  a  cement  weather  fillet;  the  top  is 
turned  into  a  brick  joint,  wedged  and  pointed,  the 
lower  part  dressed  over  the  brickwork,  and  is  some- 
times arranged  to  form  a  drip.  The  upper  surfaces 
of  stone  cornices  and  projecting  mouldings  may  be 
protected  in  the  same  way,  the  lead  being  fixed  in 
a  raglet.  Projecting  stone  porches  are~similarly 
treated;  where  the  surfaces  to  be  covered  are 
extensive  and  the  inclination  considerable,  welted 
joints  may  be  formed  and  the  lead  secured  to  the 
stonework  by  means  of  soldered  dots. 

Lead  may  also  be  cast  into  ornamental  forms 
for  certain  purposes  such  as  rainwater  heads  and 
the  ornamental  tacks  often  employed  for  securing 
lead  pipes  to  wall  surfaces;  in  such  cases  moulds 
must  be  prepared,  into  which  the  lead  is  poured  in 
a  molten  condition. 

Zinc  Work.  For  ordinary  purposes  zinc 
[see  page  359]  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  lead 
in  work  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  in  much  the 
same  way  as  lead.  It  cannot  be  dressed  and 
bossed  as  lead  is,  but  good  zinc  can  be  bent 
readily  without  cracking.  Its  advantages  are  its 
lightness  and  cheapness  compared  with  lead  ;  its 
drawbacks,  the  comparatively  short  time  during 
which  it  remains  in  good  order,  and  its  liability 
to  attack  by  air  containing  acid,  by  soot,  and 
by  the  urine  of  cats.  Its  expansion  and  contraction 
exceed  that  of  lead,  and  it  must  not  be  laid  in 
contact  with  iron,  copper,  or  lead,  or  with  wood 
containing  acids.  The  zinc  itself  should  be  free 
from  iron  or  it  will  not  resist  the  attacks  of  the 
air.  There  is  a  special  gauge  for  zinc,  and  the 
following  are  the  weights  generally  in  use  : 


No.  of 

Weight  per  foot 

No.  of 

Weight  per  foot 

j;uu.u-e. 

super,  in  ozs. 

i>auge. 

super,  in  ozs. 

10 

in 

14 

18f 

11 

13! 

15 

2!:( 

12 

15 

16 

24;; 

13 

17 

18 

30f 

The  gauges  10  to  12  should  be  used  only  for  \ery 
cheap  or  temporary  work  ;  13  is  the  lightest  that 
should  be  used  for  reasonably  good  work  in  flats, 
etc.,  and  this  should  be  employed  only  where  economy 
is  an  important  point ;  14  to  16  are  the  proper 
weights  for  flashings,  flats,  gutters,  etc.,  and 
nothing  less  should  be  used  for  the  latter.  Soakers, 
flashings,  and  cover  flashings,  both  stepped  and 
plain,  are  formed  similarly  to  those  of  lead,  but 
the  lower  edge  of  cover  flashings,  drips,  etc., 


BUILDING 

have  a  small  bead  formed  on  the  edge,  and  should 
be  turned  into  the  joint  or  raglet  for  1£  in.  Zinc 
is  usually  rolled  in  sheets,  7  ft.  or  8  ft.  long,  but  can 
be  specially  rolled  up  to  10  ft.  long.  The  modern 
system  of  fixing  zinc  work  in  roofs  without  the  use 
of  solder  or  any  perforations  in  the  external  sheets 
was  introduced  by  Messrs.  Braby  &  Co.,  who  are 
the  agents  for  the  Vieille  Montagne  zinc,  which  is 
very  free  from  iron.  The  fall  in  a  flat  to  be  covered 
by  zinc  should  be  2  in.  in  8  ft.,  and  the  drips  are 
formed  at  intervals  of  7  ft.  6  in.  as  a  rule,  and 
should  be  at  least  2|  in.  deep.  Wood  rolls  are  usu- . 
ally  fixed  2  ft.  11  in.  from  centre  to  centre,  and  are 
not  round,  but  If  in.  high  and  diminished  from 
1  v:  in.  at  the  base  to  1 J  in.  at  top  [95j.  The  sheets  of 
zinc  are  turned  up  against  the  roll  at  each  side  and 
secured  by  zinc  clips,  which  are  strips  1£  in.  wide 
fixed  under  the'  wood  roll  and  turned  up  over  the 
edges  of  the  sheets,  which  are  placed  not  more  than 
3  ft.  apart.  The  lower  edge  of  the  sheet  is  turned 
down  over  the  drip,  the  upper  edge  is  turned  up, 
a  fold  being  formed  at  the  angles. 

The  wood  roll  is  covered  by  a  zinc  capping.  The 
upper  end  of  the  capping  is  secured  by  folding  it 
down  behind  the  end  of  the  roll,  and  then  up  so  that 
it  is  covered  by  the  lower  end  of  the  next  roll  above 
it,  or,  if  against  a  ridge  roll,  is  turned  up  under  the 
capping  of  the  ridge  [96].  The  lower  end  is  folded 
over  on  itself  and  turned  under  the  end  of  the  roll, 
so  that  the  whole  capping  is  formed  without  solder, 
and  is  self  fixing.  Should  a  joint  be  necessary  in 
the  length  of  a  capping,  as,  for  example,  in  a  ridge, 
a  special  piece  is  used  for  making  the  joint,  one  end 
of  which  is  folded  back  on  itself  [98] ;  this  special 
capping  fits  over  the  ordinary  capping  first  laid,  and 
is  screwed  through  the  top  to  the  wood  roll,  and 
the  end  of  the  next  piece  of  capping  is  then  inserted 
under  the  fold,  which  securely  holds  it,  and  the 
new  length  entirely  covers  the  heads  of  the  screws. 
When  the  fall  of  a  roof  exceeds  1  ft,  in  8  ft., 
welted  joints  as  described  for  lead  may  be  used  in 
place  of  drips.  Moulded  eaves  gutters,  if  formed  in 
zinc,  require  hollow  zinc  stays  at  intervals  of  18  in., 
and  may  be  fixed  by  means  of  long  screws  driven 
through  these  stays  with  or  without  clips  fixed  to 
the  facia.  Roofs  may  be  covered  with  copper 
sheeting  and  capping  on  exactly  the  same  principle. 
Copper  for  Roofing.  Sheet  copper  is  used 
for  covering  roofs  in  the  same  manner  as  zinc. 
-For  such  work  it  is  specially  rolled  in  lengths  of 
5  ft.,  6  ft.,  7  ft.,  and  8  ft.  long  by  3  ft.  wide,  and 
the  drips  and  rolls  must  be  set  out  to  suit  the 
sheets  selected. 

The  gauge  used  for  copper  is  the  Birmingham 
wire  gauge,  not  the  special  zinc  gauge  which  is  used 
for  zinc. 

The  weights  of  copper  sheets  are  as  follows  : 
B.W.C.  No.     20     . .     26  oz.  per  ft, 
22     ..     20 
24     ..      16 
26     ..12 
28     ..       8 

The  gauges  22  to  26  are  mostly  used  for  Hats, 
the  details  of  which  may  correspond  in  all  respects 
with  zinc  work.  With  a  fairly  good  fall,  welted, 
joints  may  be  made  for  both  horizontal  and  vertical 
joints.  For  small  turrets  and  domes,  where  the  use 
of  rolls  would  be  awkward,  a  special  capping  may 
be  used,  the  edges  of  the  sheets  being  turned  up  to 
form  a  hollow ;  the  capping  is  sprung  in  and  kept 
in  position  by  the  sheets.  Copper  after  some  expo- 
sure becomes  covered  with  a  protective  film  known 
as  verdigris,  which  is  of  a  beautiful  green  colour. 


EXTERNAL  PLUMBING  concluded;    jollou-ed  by  JOINERY 


5035 


Croup  9 

DRESS 
35 

Ml  I.I.I  NKIIY 

ixiiitiniiifl  fi-.ui. 


HAT  AND  BONNET  SHAPES 

Cutting  Out  the  Material  and  Fixing  on  Shape.     How  Velvet 
Should  be  Handled.     Making  and  Sewing   in    Head   Linings 


By  ANTOINETTE   MEELBOOM 


AN  espatra  or  buckram  shape  will  need  a  non- 
transparent  covering  such  as  velvet,  silk,  or 
cloth,  which  is  often  put  on  plainly.  In  handling 
velvet,  the  way  the  shade  runs  is  an  important 
matter.  In  ordinary  velvet,  the  material  should 
be  arranged  so  that  the  darker  effect  is  seen 
when  looking  from  the  front  of  the  hat  to  the 
back.  In  panne  or  miroir  velvets,  the  material  is 
often  arranged  the  reverse  way.  In  cloth  the  nap 
should  run  smooth  from  the  front  to  the  back. 

Cutting  Out  the  Material.  Take  the 
paper  pattern  that  has  been  used  for  cutting  out 
the  shape. 

Place  all  the  pieces  on  the  velvet  with  the  shade 
running  in  the  same  direction,  and  each  centre- 
front  to  the  cross  of  the  material  [80].  Pin  each 
part  with  lillikins,  sticking  them  into  the  table 
to  prevent  marking  the  velvet.  Cut  out  each 
part  with  £  in.  turnings.  For  the  under  brim  place 
the  velvet  upper  brim  pile  to  pile  on  the  velvet  in 
the  same  position.  Do  not  cut  out  the  head  of 
under  brim,  as  it  is  best  to  fit  it  first. 

Notice  carefully  in  the  case  of  brims  that  are 
much  larger  on  one  side  than  the  other,  as  those 
of  the  Gainsborough  type,  that  the  pattern  is 
placed  correctly  for  cutting.  Allow  more  than 
t  IK-  \  in.  turning  for  under  side,  as  the  brim  turns 
up  so  much.  This  also  applies  to  boat  shapes. 

Mark  the  centre-front  in  all  the  pieces.  If  the 
brim  has  a  join  at  back,  the  velvet  will  also  have  a 
join,  neatly  slipstitched.  When  a  piece  is  put  in 
for  making  a  very  fluted  brim,  this  will  also  be 
necessary  in  the  velvet  covering.  Backstitch  the 
joins,  open  out,  and  flatten  the  turnings. 

Putting  On  the  Covering.  We  have  now 
to  learn  how  to  fit  the  velvet  to  the  brim. 

UPPER  BRIM.  Place  the  upper  brim  on  hat, 
and  snick  round  headline  till  it  fits.  Be  careful 
neither  to  cut  too  deeply — in  which  case  the 
shape  will  show— nor  insufficiently,  thus  pre- 
venting it  lying  flat  round  the  headline.  Pin  in 
place  with  lillikins,  smoothing  away  any  creases 
very  gently,  but  only  along  the  straight  threads. 
If  stretched  or  smoothed  out  on  the  diagonal 
threads,  it  will  not  set  flat. 

Large  shapes  must  be  tacked  as  well  as  pinned, 
to  keep  the  velvet  well  to  the  curves.  Fine  silk 
should  be  used  for  this,  and  a  long  stitch  taken 
outside,  and  a  tiny  one  underneath.  Back- 
Miteh  evenly  round  headline. 

Draw  the  turning  over  the  edge,  but  on  no 
account  pull  it  tightly,  or  the  shape  will  contract. 
I'm  all  round.  Catch  stitch  to  the  second  wire 
on  under  brim  [82],  unless  the  under  brim  has 
'•ecu  mulled  all  over,  \\lien  the  velvet  is  catch- 
s'itelied  tu  the  mull. 

Cut  away  the  turnings  so  that  the  velvet  nearlv 
meets  the  second  wire  to  prevent  any  unnecessary 
fulness.  Hold  tin-  brim  with  a  small  piece  of 


velvet,  pile  downwards,  in  the  left  hand — the  two 
piles  facing  each  other  prevents  the  brim  from 
getting  "  plushed."  Hold  the  brim  very  lightly, 
and  prevent  the  edge  getting  plushed,  or  rubbed 
against  the  edge  of  a  table  or  something  similar. 
UNDER  BRIM.  For  the  under  brim,  place  the 
velvet  with  the  snick  marking  centrp-front  on  the 
cent  re -front  of  shape.  Fit  and  pin  it  in  position 
as  before.  For  large  shapes  tack  once  between 
headline  and  edge  with  fine  silk.  Cut  off  super- 
fluous turnings  to  |  in.  With  a  fine  needle  turn 
in  edge  exactly  even  with  the  edge  of  brim.  Pin 
with  lillikins  all  round,  about  1  in.  apart.  [81] 

Slipstitch  the  two  edges,  with  strong  silk  or 
cotton,  taking  alternately  one  stitch  in  the  edge 
of  the  upper  brim  velvet  and  one  in  the  turning 
of  the  under  one.  Sit  in  a  good  light,  and  be 
careful  not  to  stretch  the  velvet  of  the  under 
brim.  Draw  the  silk  fairly  tightly.  It  is  an 
operation  requring  great  care,  as  this  part  of  the 
hat  shows  more  than  any  other. 

Cut  the  headline  with  \  in.  turning,  being 
careful  not  to  snip  beyond  the  actual  headline, 
and  stitch  the  turnings  to  headline  of  shape. 

There  is  another  method  used  in  the  best  class 
of  work,  which  gives  a  better  edge,  and  is  more 
satisfactory  when  an  under  brim  of  different 
colour  or  material  is  required. 

Before  covering  the  upper  side  of  brim  with 
velvet  tack  a  piece  of  stiff  French  net,  with  the 
front  on  the  cross,  to  the  under  brim.  Tack  it  to 
the  brim  about  half-way  between  headline  and 
edge  of  shape.  Cut  it  exactly  even  with  edge, 
which  must  be  wired  with  support  wire,  being 
careful  not  to  contract  the  net.  Mull  the  edge, 
and  then  cover  the  upper  brim  as  explained. 

Cover  the  under  brim  velvet,  velvet-hemming 
the  velvet  to  the  net.  The  velvet  must  not  1-e 
pulled  tightly.  Then  slipstitch  round  edges  of  brim. 
The  point  to  remember  in  this  method  is  to 
keep  the  net  lining  exactly  the  same  size  as  the 
upper  brim.  In  the  process  of  wiring  it  is 
likely,  unless  very  carefully  handled,  that  the  net 
contracts  or  stretches. 

SIDEBAND  AND  TIP.  Line  the  tip  with  sar- 
cenet. If  not  done  at  this  stage,  it  will  have  to  be 
gummed  in.  Cover  tip  with  velvet,  allowing 
%  in.  turning  ;  pin  all  round,  smoothing  it  over 
shape  across  the  straight  threads  only.  Use  long 
backstitch  with  strong  cotton,  and  secure  it 
below  the  edge  of  the  crown.  Cut  away  closely 
any  turnings  and  sew  in  head  lining. 

Fit  the  sideband  carefully,  and  cut  away  un- 
necessary turnings.  With  a  needle  turn  in 
bottom  and  top  quite  even  with  edge  of  crown, 
placing  the  join  where  the  trimming  is  likely  to 
cover  it,  always  keeping  centre-front  to  centre- 
front  of  shape  and  dark  shade  running  up  [81]. 
Backstitch  one  end  of  sideband,  turn  in  the  other 


end,  and  slipstitch  it  down.  A  sideband  of  silk 
will  require  an  interlining  of  muslin,  and  thick 
velvets  are  also  better  for  interlining  in  the  centre. 
The  inner  edge  of  standing-up  brims  like 
toreador,  turban,  and  similar  shapes  needs 
careful  handling.  Keep  it  smoothly  to  the  shape, 
and  see  that  the  join  is  neatly  done.  Secure 
the  top  edge  to  the  under  brim  edge  by  a  catch- 
stitch.  The  outer  edge  is  slipstitched  last  of  all, 
keeping  the  edges  even  with  the  shape.  The  band 
of  crossway  velvet  is  joined,  slipped  over  the  edge, 
and  turned  in  top  and  bottom  with  a  needle. 

Tam-o'-shanter  and  beefeater  crowns  are 
covered  in  one  piece  cut  in  a  circle.  The  founda- 
tion is  of  net  or  leno,  pleated  to  the  sideband 
[74].  For  covering,  cut  a  larger  round  or  a 
half-round,  the  other  half  left  larger  for  standing 
up  at  left  side.  In  soft  material  it  should  be 
interlined  with  fine  leno.  Gather  or  pleat  the 
crown  to  top  edge  of  sideband. 

Lining  the  under  brim  of  a  felt  or  straw  hat 
plainly  with  velvet  or  silk  is  done  in  exactly  the 
same  way  as  the  under  brim  of  a  velvet  hat,  the 
velvet  being  slipstitched  just  above  the  wire 
round  edge.  If  a  velvet  hat  is  to  be  lined  with 
crossway  folds  of  silk,  tulle  or  chiffon,  a  lining  of 
silk,  leno,  or  soft  net  must  be  tacked  to  under 
brim  to  sew  the  folds  to. 

A  broad  edge  2|  in.  to  3£  in.  wide  of  velvet 
on  an  under  brim  is  made  by  fitting  the  velvet  to 
the  under  brim,  slipstitching  the  edges  and  cutting 
out  the  centre-piece,  allowing  for  a  turning  to  the 
inner  edge.  This  edge  will  not  have  any  join. 

Bonnet  shapes  are  cut  out,  shaded,  and  covered 
in  the  same  way  as  hat  shapes.  Very  few  shapes 
are  plainly  covered.  For  covering  shapes  the 
velvet  or  cloth  must  be  bought  on  the  straight.. 

Head  Linings.  All  hats,  bonnets,  and 
toques  have  their  head  linings  sewn  in  fee/ore  being 
trimmed.  As  weight  must  be  avoided,  sarcenet 
silk  is  used— it  may  be  cut  on  the  cross  or  straight. 
The  former  is  the  more  economical,  especially  if 
a  quantity  is  required  ;  three  head  linings  may 
be  cut  out  of  two  crossway  widths.  Join  the 
lengths  first,  hem,  roll  up,  and  use  as  required. 

Measure  the  depth  of  crowrn,  and  add  2  in.,  of 
Avhich  |  in.  is  used  for  the  hem,  and  \  in.  for 
turning  at  the  headline.  When  sewing  in,  allow 
1  in.  longer  in  length  than  the  size  of  the  head  [76]. 
Make  a  hem  \  in.  wide  of  one  cut  edge,  which 
should  be  run  neatly  [75].  It  is  called  a  hem 
though  a  running  stitch  is  used,  and  must  be  kept 
quite  straight  and  not  stretched. 

For  the  tip,  cut  a  piece  of  sarcenet  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  tip.  Sew  in  with  a  few  very  small 
stitches  outside,  large  ones  inside.  For  smooth 
felts,  leghorns,  velvet  and  cloth-covered  hats,  the 
sarcenet  tip  is  gummed  in,  to  prevent  the  stitches 
showing  on  the  outside. 

Sewing  in  the  Head  Lining.  Use 
strong  cotton  (No.  36).  start  from  the  centre- 
back,  turn  in  the  cut  edge  |  in. ,  and  \  in.  at  the  end. 
Take  the  stitch  through  the  two  thicknesses  of 
sarcenet  and  through  the  sideband  of  hat. 
Sew  in  with  the  long  back  stitch,  making  the 
stitches  not  longer  than  \  in.,  and  keeping  them 
just  below  the  line  of  head.  Work  from  right  to 
left.  Turn  in  |  in.  at  end,  and  slipstitch  the  two 


DRESS 


HOW    SHAPES  ARE   COVERED 
[Figures  74-82] 

ends  together.  Smooth  felt  hats  and  toques 
have  only  half  the  thickness  of  the  felt  taken  up 
when  sewing  in  the  head  lining,  unless  the  trim- 
ming will  cover  the  small  stitches  ;  in  that  case, 
take  them  through,  as  it  is  stronger. 

Run  a  narrow  China  ribbon  from  the  centre- 
front  in  the  hem,  which  will  be  drawn  up  after 
the  hat  is  trimmed.  It  is  left  hangiflg  to  prevent 
the  head  lining  being  caught  down  in  sewing 
on  the  trimmings. 

Bonnets.  In  bonnets  [78],  the  tip  is  cut 
to  shape  ;  in  many  cases,  first  sewn  on  tissue 
paper  a,nd  sewn  in  the  same  way  as  for  a  hat, 
with  this  difference  only,  that  across  the  back  it 
is  turned  in  once  and  slip-stitched  on  the  velvet 
bind  for  neatness.  Start  the  head  lining  at  one 
ear,  turning  in  1  in.,  and  work  round  to  the 
opposite  side.  Insert  China  ribbon  in  hem, 
leaving  also  a  turning  ;  and,  when  the  bonnet  is 
trimmed,  slip«titch  the  ends  down  the  sides  to 
meet  at  the  back  of  the  tip,  securing  ends  of 
ribbon  at  the  same  time.  Make  a  small  slit  in 
centre  of  hem,  draw  up  ribbon,  and  tie  in  centre- 
front  when  bonnet  is  trimmed.  Secure  lining  to 
the  bonnet  with  a  tie  stitch  in  two  places  [79]. 

With  smooth  felt  hats,  toques,  and  bonnets 
with  full  or  draped  brims,  the  stitches  are  never 
taken  right  through,  but  only  the  top  surface  or 
inside  of  velvet  is  taken  up".  For  very  flat  or 
peculiar  shaped  bonnets  a  piece  of  lining  cut  to 
shape  i?  sewn  in  after  the  bonnet  is  trimmed. 

Transparent  head  linings  for  lace,  chiffon,  tulle- 
hats,  or  bonnets,  are  made  of  double  chiffon,  net 
and  lisse.  Cut  lining  twice  the  depth  of  sideband 
plus  2  in.  for  turnings  [77].  Fold  it  in  half  and  rur 
|  in.,  from  fold.  Fold  in  half  a  sarcenet  ribbon, 
the  same  colour  as  head  lining,  and  i  in.  wide. 
Place  this  ribbon  in  turning  of  head  lining  at  the 
cut  edges.  Sew  in  as  for  sarcenet  head  lining, 
taking  the  stitches  through  the  centre  of  the 
ribbon  -and  turning  of  chiffon.  The  stitchc?  will 
be  hidden  when  the  ribbon  is  folded  over.  Run 
China  ribbon  in  hem  from  centre-front  [82  j. 
Continued 

5037 


Group  8 

DRAWING 
35 


ilmu-l  Irr, 

,...     .'-. 


INTERSECTIONS  OF  CYLINDERS 

Cylinders  Intersecting  in  various  Axes.      Union  of  Cylinder  and  Cone. 
Cylinder    Intersecting   a    Polygon.     Hemispherical    Ends.      Pipe  Bends 


By  JOSEPH 

Intersections      of      Cylinders.       Two 

Cylinders  intersect  in  90.  We  have  to  find  their 
lines  of  intersection.  Three  views  are  required  : 
Hevation.  plan,  and  end  view. 

Divide  the  semi-circumference  of  the  small 
cylinder.  A  [91],  into  any  convenient  number  cf 
equal  parts  0.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  Through 
thesi-  draw  \ertical  lines,  Oa.  \b.  2-",  3'/.  A'. 
da  e«n  responds  with  the  centre  of  the  cylinder 
A,  and  4e  is  tangent  to  its  circumference. 

Draw  also  horizontals,  to  90;  0  0',  1  1'. 
2  2'.  3  3'.  etc.  In  92  set  off  distances  as 
follows  :  fg  equal  to  a  b  in  91,  gk  equal  to  b  c  in 
91.  //  i  equal  to  cd  in  91.  Through  g.  h  .i  draw 
horizontals  cutting  the  curve  of  the  larger 
cylinder  B  in  /.  m.n.  The 
centre  line  already  cuts 
the  curve  in  fc,  and  the 
]>eriphery  cuts  it  in  o. 
From  k.  I,  m,  n,o  now 
verticals  to  90  in- 
tersecting the  horizon- 
tals there  ;  *  k'  already 
exists.  The  vertical 
line  from  /  in  92  cuts 
the  horizontal  1  1'  in  I' 
[90]  ;  that  from  m  cuts 
the  horizontal  ii  2'  in 
m',  and  so  on.  Then 
k',  /',  m',  n',  o'  give  the 
intersections  of  A  with 
B  round  a  quarter  of 
the  circumference. 

Development    of 
Cylinder.    To  obtain 
the  development  of  the 
cylinder   A    corresponding   with 
90  and  91.  proceed  as  in  93. 

Draw  a  line,  8  8  [93],  equal 
in  length  to  the  circumference  of 
the  cylinder  A,  and  divide  it 
into  as  many  equal  parts  a«  the 
circumference  of  A  was  divided 
in  91.  0,  1.  2,  3.  etc.  Through 
these  point-?  draw  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  8  8.  On  these  lines  measure  off  in 
succession  the  lengths  of  the  corresponding 
lines  on  A  [90].  Tim-',  if  the  joint  is  to  be 
made  in  the  plane  of  the  paper,  then  the 
length  n'k  in  90  will  be  transferred  to  Ok' 
in  93,  and  also  to  8£'  8k'.  Then  the  lengths 
IT  in  90  will  }>e  transferred  to  IP  IP  and 
II'.  11'  in  93:  and  the  length  '2'm'  in  90  to 
-'//'.  •_'///'.  and  6m'.  (»/«'in  93.  and  so  on.  The 
points  of  intersection  of  the  St-nj/ths  taken  on 
the  verticals  of  A  [90].  four  times  repeated,  will 
oe  the  points  through  which  the  curved  cd.t'e 
of  A  will  )*>  drawn  to  give  its  intersection  with 
the  cylinder  B. 


90-93.    INTERSECTIONS   OF 

«   YI.INJ.KIl- 


G.  HORNER 

The  points  of  intersection  can  also  be  obtained 
by  the  methods  shown  in  previous  diagrams,  l>\- 
projecting  horizontal  lines  along  from  the 
points  k',  I',  m',  n',  o  in  93. 

Shape  of  Hole.  The  shape  of  the  hole  in 
the  large  cylinder  B  can  be  obtained  as  in  94 
and  95. 

In  94.  B  is  shown  below,  in  plan,  looking  down 
perpendicularly  on  the  hole,  and  in  half  end 
elevation  above.  first  draw  the  diameter  al 
of  the  cylinder  A.  and  project  the  same  to  the 
view  above,  cutting  its  arc  at  a'b'.  Divide  the 
arc  a7>'  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  1 
4,  5,  6,  7,  b'  and  project  perpendiculars  thence 
to  the  lower  diagram,  cutting  the  diameter  nb  in 
}'.  2',  3'.  etc.,  and  the 
semicircle  struck  on  ab 
in  c.  d,  e.  /,  etc. 

Next,   in    95.  which 
represents  the  plate  for 
the  cylinder  B,  draw  a 
diametral  line  06.  Take 
the  arc  divisions  from 
94,  a',  I,  2,  ::.  A.  :.  »;, 
7.  b'  and  set  them  off 
on  the  line  ab  [95]  at 
o.  ].  2.  3.  4.  r.,  n.  7,  b. 
Clearly  now.  when  the 
plate  95  is  bent  to  the 
curvature  of  the  cylin- 
der B.  the  plane  length 
ab  in  95  must  be  equal 
to  the  arc  length  a'// 
in    94,    provided    the 
divisions     taken     are 
sufficiently    numerous 
to      eliminate     the     difference 
between  taking   chord  and  arc 
measurements,  as  previously  in- 
sisted on.     Actually,  in  a  large 
boiler  plate,  to  which  this  prob- 
lem     frequently     applies,     the 
number  of  divisions  taken  misht 
be  three  or  four  times  as  numer- 
ous   as    those      iven    in    tru-H.- 


gven 

diagrams.  The  shape  of  the  hole  in  the  plate  in 
95  is  now  obtained  from  dimensions  taken  from 
the  lower  part  of  94.  Take  the  length  4'/  in  94, 
and  set  it  off  on  each  side  of  4  in  95.  4/  4/. 
Take  3'e,  in  94,  and  set  it  off  from  3  to  '  e,  in  95  ; 
and  so  on  until  all  the  dimensions  in  94  have  l>een 
transferred  to  95. 

The  lengths  to  right  and  left  of  the  centre  line, 
47.  in  94  are  symmetrical  —  that  is.  3'e.  and 
.">'//.  <>tc-»  are  alike.  Though  in  some  construc- 
tions they  would  not  be  so,  the  same  essential 
method  must  be  pursued.  In  95  the  two  curve-, 
lettered  acdtfalib.  represent  the  elliptical  hole 
in  the  plate,  which  when  bent  to  the  cylindrical 


shape   develops  the  circular  hole  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  cylinder  A  in  90-92. 

Cylinders  Out  of  Centre.  Domes 
or  other  cylindrical  branches  are  sometimes 
titted  to  one  side  of  the  centre 
of  the  larger  cylinder,  as  in  96. 
The  same  method  hi  principle 
is  adopted  as  when  they  are 


94,  95.     HOLES   FOR    INTERSECTIONS    OF    CYLINDERS 

fitted  over  the  centre,  to  which  the  example  just . 
is  applicable. 

Divide  the  semi-circumference  08  of  the  plan 
above  96  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  at 
0,  1,  2,  3.  4,o,  6,  7,  8,  and  project  perpendicular 
lines  therefrom  to  the  base  of  the  dome,  cutting 
its  upper  plane  in  0',  1',  2',  etc.,  and  the  base 
in  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc. 

In  97  draw  a  line  AA  equal  hi  length  to  the 
circumference  of  the  dome,  and  divide  -it  into 
twice  as  many  equal  parts  as  the  semi -circum- 
ference, 0',  I',  2',  3',  etc.,  to  right  and  left  of  the 
centre.      From      these      divisions     draw     lines 
perpendicular    to    AA.     The    riveted    seam    is 
supposed  to  come  down  the  shorter  side  of  the 
dome.  8'i  in  96.     Therefore,  starting  from  the 
centre  of  97,  make  the  length  O'a  equal  in  length 
to  O'a  hi  96.  repeated  on  each  side  of  O'a,  I'b  in  97, 
equal  to  I'b  in  96,  2'r  in  97,  equalt  o  2'c  in  96,  and 
so  on  until  8'i  is  reached  at  each  end.     A  curve 
drawn  through  these  points,  a,  b,  r,  d,  etc.,  will 
give  the  development  of  the  curved  edge.      But 
the     width     for     a- 
flanging  will  have 
to  be  added  out- 
side   that    edge, 
and  also  the  lap 
for  riveting  down 
both    the    edges 
Ai 

Cylinders  on  Angular 
Faces.  Cylinders  are  some- 
times fitted  on  sloping  faces 
instead  of  on  other  cylinders. 
Figs.  93  and  99  illustrate  the 
marking  out  of  the  envelop^  in  such  a  case. 

Fisr.  98  is  the  elevation  and  plan  of  the  cylin- 
der. Half  the  latter  is  divided  round  con- 
veniently. 0,  1.  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10.  and 
vertical  lines  are  drawn  therefrom  to  the  eleva- 
tion above.  These  cut  the  horizontal  end.  nb 
of  the  latter  in  1',  2',  3'.  etc..  and  the  sloping  joint 
face,  cd,  in  e,  f,  g,  h,  etc. 

To  obtain  the  envelope  [99]  draw  a  horizontal, 
a'a'.  equal  in  length  to  the  circumference  of 
the  cylinder,  obtained  either  by  calculation  or 


DRAWING 

Viy  measurement  from  the  divisions  1.  2,  3,  etc. 
on  the  base  of  the  cylinder  [98].  Draw  verticals 
from  the  points  of  division  in  99,  as  shown,  a'c'. 
le',  2f,  3g',  etc.  Also  draw  horizontals  from 
the  intersections  previously  obtained  on  the 
sloping  edge,  cd  thus :  re',  ee'.  //',  gg',  and  so  on. 
The  pouits  in  which  the  horizontals  intersect 
the  verticals  are  points  in  the  developed  curve 
required,  as.  c',  e',  /',  g',  h',  to  the 
centre  d',  and  so  in  backward  order. 
///'./',  etc.  The  com- 
plete outline  of  the 
developed  plate  i- 
therefore  a'b',  a'c'. 
d'c',  and  one  half 
only  of  the  plate  need 
be  marked  thus  up 
to  the  centre,  b'd'. 
and  the  other  half 
therefrom.  But  it  is 
usually  just  as  well 
to  complete  the  en- 
tire plate  in  the 
manner  shown. 

If  it  should  not 
be  convenient  to 
draw  the  develop- 
ment in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  cylin- 
der,  as    often 
happens 
in      big 
work   for 
which     a 
piece     of 
plate  is 
provided 
only  just 


96.  CYLINDERS  orr  OF  CENTRE 


!_^j£_i_»_ 

'.    ?  '   f   f  f   f  ?    ' 

;  i 

i 

—  '  '  — 

i  :  '             j 

97.   DEVELOPMENT   OF  CYLINDERS   OUT     large 

OF  CENTRE  enoughto 

cut  tilt- 
development  out  of,  then  the  horizontals  cannot 
be  drawn.  Then,  the  verticals  being  drawn, 
the  lengths  can  be  set  out  directly  on  these— 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   CYLINDER   ON 
AN    ANGULAR   FACE 


thus,  from  98.  Take  the 
length  ac  [98]  and  mark 
that  from  a'  to  c'  at  the 
extreme  ends  of  99. 
Take  I'e  [98]  and  mark 
that  from  1  to  e'  twice 
in  99.  Take  2'/  and  mark 
that  from  2  to  /'  twice, 
and  so  on.  This  amounts 
to  precisely  the  same  as 
drawing  the  horizontals. 


98. 

CYLINDER   ON   AN* 
ANGULAR   FACE 

9080 


DRAWING 

Jointing.  In  99  the  seam  or  lap  joint 
is  supposed  1o  bo  added  next  to  a'c'.  If  re- 
quiivd  at  I'd'  then  the  pattern  would,  of 
course,  lie  of  the  depth  b'd'  at  the  extreme 
ends,  and  of  the  depth  a'c'  at  the  middle. 
This  would  make  no  difference  whatever 
in  the  method  of  obtaining  the  points  of  inter- 
section. Or  the  joint  might  be  down  5'i  in  98, 
which,  again,  would  alter  the  shape  of  the  plate. 
If  the  object  be  a  dome,  as  would  often  be  the 
case,  an  allowance  for  the  flange  must  be  made 
along  the  curved  edge  c'd'c'.  This  is  not  made 
uni;l  the  outlines  have  been  marked  out  as  shown, 
after  which  the  flange  is  simply  an  added  width 
of,  say,  2.V  in.  or  3  in.,  following  the  curve  c'd'c 
at  a  parallel  distance. 

Cylinders  Fitting  at  Equal  Angles. 
Two  equal  tubes  [100]  are  united  at  an  angle. 
We  require  the  development  of  the  sheets  to  have 
the  seam  either  along  the  inner  or  the  outer 
edges. 

To  obtain  lines  for  development  in  100,  divide 
a  semicircle  into  a  convenient  number  of  equal 
parts,  say  twelve,  and  draw  lines  from  these 
parallel  with  the  sides  of  the  cylinder  and  with 
each  other,  cutting  the  planes  of  the  termina- 
tions of  the  cylinders  at  a,  b,  a,  b,  and  d.  Also 
draw  a  line,  ef,  anywhere  transversely  to  the 
longitudinal  lines  of  division. 

To  obtain  the  development  with  the  seam, 
say  along  the  inner  edges  db,  db,  draw  a  line, 
//  [101],  equal  in  length  to  the  circumference  of 
the  tubes,  and  divide  it  into  twenty-four  equal 
parts  corresponding  with  those  in  100,  and 
similarly  numbered.  Let  the  datum  line,  //,  re- 
present the  line  ef  in  100,  and  from  it  on  the 
points  of  equal  division,  0,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  set  off 
the  lengths  of  the  several  lines  of  division  in 
100.  Thus,  take  the  distance  ea  [100]  and 
transfer  it  from  0  to  a'  in  101  ;  take  the  distance 
j/1'  [100]  and  transfer  it  from  1  to  1'  in  101,  the 
distance  /*2'  [100]  to  2  2',  2  2'  [101],  and  so  on, 
until  the  points  of  intersection  corresponding 
with  the  plane  ab  in  100  are  all  obtained.  Then 
for  the  upper  end  measure  off  ee'  [100]  and 
transfer  to  Oe'  in  101  ;  measure  gg'  in  100,  and 
transfer  to  \g',  !</',  in  101,  and  so  on.  and  draw 
the  outlines,  completing  the  sheet  as  shown. 

Fig.  102  shows  the  sheet  developed  when  the 
seam  is  on  the  outer  edge  ;  the  same  measure- 
ments are  taken,  as  the  references  show. 

An  Ellipse  Uniting  Cylinder  and 
Cone.  Let  us  now  examine  the  method 
adopted  to  connect  a  cylinder  and  a  conic  frus- 
tum with  an  elliptical  fire-hole  ring  [103].  The  tire- 
hole  is  seen  in  elevation  at  A,  and  in  sectional 
plan  at  B,  the  section  being  taken  along  the 
middle  plane  aa.  If  the  ring  had  to  connect  two 
parallel  cylinders  the  views  A  and  B  would  be 
sufficient,  but  as  the  inner  fire-box  is  of  conic 
i-cct  ion  the  view  0  must  be  added.  D  represents 
the  outer  cylinder,  or  shell,  and  E  the  fire-box. 
Very  often  the  fire-box  is  dished  outwards  and 
connected  with  a  parallel  ring. 

T\\o  sets  of  intersectinglinea  at  right  angles 
are  necessary.  Divide  the  circumference  of  the 
ellipse  A  into  any  number  of  equal  part;?,  0, 1 , 2,  3, 
4.  .">.  etc.  und  project  lines  thence  to  B  and  ('. 

.-,040 


cutting  the  lines  D  and  E.  In  B  draw  two  lines, 
FF,  GG,  tangentially  to  the  arcs  to  afford  the 
means  of  measurement  to  be  transferred  to  the 
view  C— -that  is,  the  lengths  in  B  measured  from 
1',  2',  3',  4',  5',  on  the  tangential  line  to  the  curve 
D  on  the  same  divisions  will  be  transferred  to  the 
view  C  from  the  edge  D,  and  similarly  from  the 
edge  E  of  the  other  cylinder.  The  curve  of 
intersection  may  be  drawn  as  shown,  though 
that  is  not  necessary.  But  the  points  in  the 
view  C  are  now  to  be  used  for  the  development 
of  the  plate,  thus  : 

In  104  draw  a  line,  00,  equal  in  length  to  the 
circumference  of  the  ellipse  in  A,  and  divide  it 
similarly.  In  C  draw  a  datum  line  bb.  Now 
measure  off  to  right  and  left  of  bb  the  lengths  to 
the  divisions  in  C.  As  corresponding  reference 
figures  are  used  in  C  and  in  104  the  construction 
is  obvious. 

A  flange  has  to  be  added  for  riveting,  or  an 
edge  for  welding,  but  this  does  not  affect  the 
construction,  but  simply  means  an  addition  to 
the  edge  of  104. 

Cylinder  Fitting  to  Hexagon.  A  large 
number  of  problems  in  sheet-metal  working 
involve  the  attachment  of  objects  of  one  form 
or  size  to  those  of  another  form  or  size — as 
squares  to  cylinders,  cylinders  to  polygonal 
figures,  small  cylinders  to  large  ones,  and  so  on. 
There  is  not  much  difficulty  in  working  out 
problems  of  these  kinds  after  an  example  has 
been  mastered. 

Fig  105  illustrates  a  cylinder  fitting  on  a  hexa- 
gonal body.  To  describe  the  envelope  of  the 
cylinder  proceed  thus  :  Divide  the  semi-circum- 
ference in  the  plan  view  below  into  any  con- 
venient number  of  equal  parts,  0,  1,2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8,  and  project  perpendiculars  to  the  elevation 
above,  cutting  the  hexagon  at  0',  1",  2',  etc..  and 
the  plane  of  the  end  of  the  cylinder  AA  at  a,  b, 
c,  d,  etc. 

Next,  in  106,  draw  the  line  AA  equal  in  length 
to  the  circumference  of  the  cylinder,  and  divide 
it  out  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts  as 
the  plan  view  in  105  (similarly  figured),  and  draw 
lines  therefrom  perpendicular  to  AA.  Take  the 
lengths  of  the  perpendiculars  in  the  elevation  of 
105^  and  transfer  them  to  106,  thus :  The 
length  «0'  [105]  is  transferred  to  8  8'  in  106,  the 
length  llf  in  105  to  7  7'  in  106.  the  length  c2' 
in  105  to  6  6'  in  106,  and  so  on.  Similarly, 
starting  from  the  centre  of  108,  00'  is  equal  in 
length  to  «0'  in  105,  1  1'  [106]  is  equal  to  61'  in 
105i  and  so  on,  until  the  lengths  4  4'  in  the 
two  deepest  parts  of  the  pattern  in  106  are  equal 
to  A4'  in  105. 

Lines  are  now  drawn  through  the  points  of 
intersection  of  the  length  with  the  verticals. 
There  are,  however,  four  locations  not  determined 
by  these  points — namely,  e,  e,  e,  e  [106].  These 
correspond  with  the  joints  e,  e,  e,  e  in  105,  where 
the  cylinder  coincides  with  the  angular  edges  of 
the  hexagon.  They  are  therefore  obtained  by 
measuring  the  arc  Oe  or  8e.  in  105,  and  setting  it 
along  from  8'  to  e  from  both  ends  of  106,  and  from 
0'  to  ee  in  the  central  portion.  If  this  be  done 
correctly,  then  the  distances  1'e  and  I'e  in  106 
should  be  found  equal  to  the  distances  le  and  7* 


i-i 


in   105.     The  joint  of  the  envelope  has  to  be 
allowed  for  on  the  line  aO'. 

Quadrant  of  a  Hemisphere.  Fig.  107 
shows  the  general  construction  involved  in 
obtaining  the  development  of  portions  of 
spherical  surfaces,  A  representing  a  hemisphere  in 
plan  or  end  view,  while  108  illustrates  a  plate 
giving  one-fourth  of  its  development. 

A  quadrant,  ab,  of  the  sphere  107  is  divided  into 
a  considerable  number  of  equal  parts, 
and  arcs  are  drawn  from  the  centre 
line  ob.    The  quadrant  obc  is  a  plan 
view  of  the  elevation  oab,  to  the 
left,  the  envelope  of  which  is 
required.     In  108  draw  a  line 
od,  representing  the  bisec- 
tion of  a  quadrant  od  in 
107,  and  divide  it  into 
the  same  number  of 
equal  parts   as  the 
quadrant    ab    has 
been  divided  into. 
The  length  od 
in  108  will  then 
equal      the  ti\ 
length  ab  mea-    ^  -  s 
sured     round         '% 
the  arc  ab.  On 
the  points  of  division 
1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  in  103, 
the  widths  of  the  plate 
will  be    marked.      It 
would  be  troublesome 
to  calculate  all  these 
separately,      and     it 
would  not  do  to  take 
chord     measurements 
of     any    considerable 
length  on  the  lines  in 
107.       But    if,    now. 
short  chord  lengths  are 
stepped  round  the  arc 
from  the  point  of  bi- 
section d  to  b  [107],  as 
d,  e,  /,  g,  h,  i,  j,  then 
the  dimension  dj  taken 
at  once  will  be  a  suffi- 
ciently   accurate    ap- 
proximation to  the  arc 
length  db.     A  straight 
line  drawn  from  j  to 
the  centre  o  [107]  will 
give      corresponding 
lengths  for  the  other 
arcs. 

Development. 
To  103,  therefore, 
transfer  the  various 
lengths  as  shown,  d  to 
jj,  10  to  kk,  9  to  II 
and  so  on.  The  intersections  of  these  will  give 
the  edges  of  the  plate  on  two  sides.  The  other 
side  is  formed  by  a  curve,  the  radius  of  which  is 
arrived  at  by  experience.  Strictly,  it  should  be 
struck  from  the  centre  o,  with  radius  od  ;  but 
though  that  would  do  for  thin  sheet  metal,  it 
would  not  be  correct  for  plates  of  fin.  or  |in. 
thickness.  The  act  of  bending  or  dishing  would 

1  r  27 


CYLINDERS 

FITTING  AT 

EQUAL  ANGLES 


*>  4-  <ty 


DEVELOPMENT  OF 
CYLINDERS  FITTING  AT 
EQUAL  ANGLES 


DRAWING 

shorten  these  curves.  So  the  radius  is  nfade 
one  and  a  half  times  the  length  od.  If  a  piece 
be  cut  away,  as  indicated  by  the  curve  311, 
this  would  be  struck  from  the  centre  o,  because 
the  effect  of  dishing  would  be  practically  nil. 
A  piece  would  be  removed  thus  in  building  up 
globular  buoys,  or  egg-end  boilers,  as  this  permits 
of  making  better  jointing  with  a  capping  plate; 
than  as  though  the  quadrant  plates  terminated  at 
o.  To  the  outlines  in  108  the  necessary 
amounts  must  be  added  all  round  for 
the  overlap  of  riveted  seams,  from 
2  in.  to  2£  in.,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plates. 
An  Alternative  Method. 
A  variation  on  this  is  shown 
in  the  next  problem  [109. 
110],  where  a  spherical  end 
of  diameter  ab  is  built 
of  six  plates,  one  of 
which  is  indicated  at 
,  ocd.  Di  vide  a  quad - 
%  rant  of  the  circle 
*:^*  into  a  suitable 
"\  number  of  parts, 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6. 
Erect  perpendic- 
ulars frcm  the 
line  ab  at  1',  2',  3',  4 ', 
5',  o.  From  centre  o 
draw  arcs  from  these 
intersections,  cutting  the 
plate  ocd  in  e,  f,  g,  h,  i. 
The  developed  plate 
is  shown  in  110,  above. 
The  length  o'6'  is  equal 
to  the  length  06  in  109, 
which  of  course  is 
measured  round  the  arc 
«6.  The  equal  divi- 
sions e',  /', !/',  h',  i'  cor- 
respond with  those  in 
the  lower  figure  meas- 
ured round  a,  I,  2,  3, 
etc.,  and  the  arcs  cor- 
responding are  des- 
cribed from  o.  On  these 
arcs  the  lengths  of  the 
arcs  of  the  segment  ocd 
[109]  are  laid  off,  e'ee, 
/'//,  etc.,  by  measure- 
ment, or  by  the  intersec- 
tions of  perpendiculars 
raised  from  ocd  to  cut 
the  arcs  of  equal  divi- 
sion, and  the  outlines 
of  the  plate  are  drawn. 
B  nas.  We  now 
show  the  way  to  strike 
the  pattern  for  a  quad- 
rant bend  pipe  in  four  pieces.  Fig.  Ill  is  a 
plan  showing  the  quadrant  in  four  sections, 
uniting  two  pieces  of  straight  pipe  at  right 
angles.  Draw  the  semicircle  1  7,  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  pipe,  and  divide  it  into 
any  number  of  equal  parts,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7. 
Project  lines  from  these  divisions  to  the 
line  lo  at  the  beginning  of  the  bend,  and  from 

5041 


DRAWING 

this  lino  carry  curves  round,  struck  from  the 
same  centre  as  the  bend,  thus  reproducing  them 
on  the  horizontal  line  9o  at  the  base  of  111. 
Bisect  one  cf  the  four  divisions,  9  8,  and  draw 
the  radial  line  lOo.  Then  draw  a  chord  from 
9  to  8,  and  similarly  connect  each  of  the  other 
points  where  the  curves  cut  the  radial  lines  80 
and  9o.  Now  draw  the  centre  line  7  7  of  the 
pattern  [112],  and  the  transverse  centre  8  9. 
With  dividers  set  to  the  divisions  that  were  first 
made  round  the  semicircle  1  7  [112],  step  off  a 
similar  number  of  divisions  from  the  centre,  1  to  7 
at  each  end  of  112,  the  numbers  corresponding  in 
both  figures.  Draw  vertical  lines  through  these 


that  of  the  tinman  and  zinc- worker  in  the 
sensible  thickness  of  the  plates  used.  Thin 
sheets  may,  for  the  practical  purposes  of  develop- 
ment, be  regarded  as  though  they  were  without 
thickness.  That  is,  the  methods  of  geometry 
applied  to  these  treat  them  as  having  length  and 
breadth,  but  no  more  thickness  than  a  sheet  of 
paper,  which  can  be  bent  indifferently  in  all 
directions.  But  this  assumption  would  not 
answer  in  iron  and  steel  plates  having  thicknesses 
ranging  from,  say,  |  in.  to  1  in.  or  more,  or  hi 
the  copper  plates  used  for  locomotive  purposes, 
or  for  pipes  and  bends.  In  working  these,  the 
outer  layers  become  extended,  and  the  inner 


110 


112 


103.   Ellipse  uniting  boiler  shell  and  firebox.  104.   Development  of  same.  10  .  Cylinder  fitting  to  hexagon 

106.  Development  of  same.        107.  Hemispherical  end        103.  Plates  for  sam ?.       109,  110.  An  alternative  method  to  108 

111.   Development  for  bend  pipes.        112.  Plates  for  same 

compressed,  while  the  middle  layers  suffer 
neither  tension  nor  compression.  It  is  these 
inner  layers,  therefore,  that  the  marker-out 
considers  in  drawing  developments,  disregarding 
the  stresses  and  distortions  for  the  time  being, 
just  as  he  disregards  the  joint  seams  until  the 
geometrical  outlines  have  been  determined.  If 
his  experience  tells  him  that  these  extensions 
and  compressions  will  influence  the  final  shape 
BO  far  as  to  distort  the  object,  he  has  to  make 
allowance  for  them.  Such  an  effect  is  termed 
•drawing*  arid  it  occurs  when  some  kinds  of  work 
are  flanged  or  dished.  How  much  to  allow  in  any 
case  can  only  be  determined  by  previous  experi- 
ence of  similar  work  of  a  similar  class. 


on  which  to  mark  the  various  widths  of  the 
pattern.  Then  take  the  length  of  each  of  the 
chords  in  turn  from  111,  and  transfer  them  to  112. 
The  longest  is  from  8  to  9,  occurring  on  the  outer 
radius  of  111,  and  in  the  centre  of  112.  The 
shortest  is  from  11  to  12  on  the  inner  radius  of  111 
and  at  the  ends  of  112.  In  111,  the  line  lOo 
serves  as  a  centre  line  from  which  to  take  half 
the  length  of  each  chord,  and  in  112  they  are 
transferred  to  each  side  of  the  centre  line  7  7. 
Through  the  series  of  intersections  thus  obtained 
on  112,  the  outline  of  the  pattern  is  traced. 

Difference  in  Shee  s  ?nd  Plates. 
The  work  of  the  boilermaker  and  plater,  and 
that  of  the  engineer's  coppersmith,  differs  from 


Continued 


.-.(•42 


CIRCLES 

Reduction  of  a  Polygon  to  a  Triangle.     Theorem  of  Pythagoras  and  its 
Converse.     Properties  oi  Circles.     Chord  Properties.     Angle  Properties 

Group  21 

MATHEMATICS 
35 

taaiaeaa 

continued  from  page  4906 

By  HERBERT  J.  ALLPORT,  M.A. 


Proposition  33.     Problem 

To  construct  a  triangle  equal  in  area  to  a  <jieen 
polygon 

Let  ABCD  be  any  quadrilateral.     Join  DB. 
Tluough  C  draw  CE  ||  to  DB,  meeting  AB  at 
r  E.     Join  DE.     Then 

AADE  will  be  equal 
in  urea  to  the  figure 
ABCD. 

Proof.      The    AS 

DBG    and    DBE    are 

B  £  on  the  same  base  DB 

and  between  the  same  ||s  DB,  CE. 
/.  ADBC  =  ADBE. 
To  each  add  AADB. 
Then,        figure  ABCD  =  A  ADE. 
By  the  same  construction,  any  polygon  can  be 
reduced  to  a  polygon  equal  in  area  but  having 
the    number    of    its   sides  one  less  than  the 
original    number.      Hence,    by   repeating    the 
process    as    often  as  is  necessary,   we  finally 
obtain  a  triangle  equal  in  area  to  the  original 
polygon. 

Proposition  34.     The  Theorem  of 
Pythagoras 

The  sum,  of  the  squares  on  the  sides  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  square  on  the 
hypotenuse. 

Let  ABC  be  a  right-angled  A  in  which  C  is 

the  right  L.     It  is  required  to  prove  that 

Square  011  AB  =  square  on  AC  +  square  on  BC. 

On  AC  and  BC  describe  the  squares  ACDE 

and  BCFG.     Produce  CF  to  K,    making  FK 

-  AC.     Cut  off  BH  =  AC.     Join  HG,  GK,  KE, 

EH. 

D  c         "^        B       Proof.     The     As 

DEH,  HBG,  GFK, 
EAK  are  each  easily 
seen  to  be  equal  in 
all  respects  to  A  ABC 
(Prop.  4). 
/.  EH  =  HG=GK 

=KE 

.'.  figure  EHGK  is 
a  l~l  with  all  its  sides 
equal.  (Exercises  on 
Prop.  24.) 

Again,  if  the  AGBH  turns  about  the  point  G 
until  GB  coincides  with  GF,  the  AGBH  will 
coincide  with  the  A  GFK,  and  will  have  turned 
through  one  right  L. . 

Hence  GH  and  GK  are  at  right  L  s. 
.'.  since  OEHGK  has  its  sides  equal,  and  its 
La  right  angles,  it  is  the  square  on  EH,  i.e., 
the  square  on  AB. 

Now,  it  has  been  shown  that 

AEAK+  AFKG=  AEDH+  AHBG. 


To  each  of  these  equals  add  the  polygon 
EHGFA. 

Then  square  EHGK=  the  squares  ACDE, 
BCFG,  i.e.,  square  on  AB=  square  on  AC 
+  square  on  BC. 

Proposition  35.     Theorem 

If  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  two  sides  of  a 
triangle  is  equal  to  the  square  on  the  third  side, 
the  angle  contained  by  the  two  sides  is  a  right 
angle. 

Let  ABC  be  a  A,  such  that    |> 

Square   on    AB  =  square  on 
AC  +  square  on  BC. 

It  is  required  to  prove  that  L 


Proof.  Draw  AD  J_  to  AC,  and  equal  to  BC. 
Join  CD.  Then,  since  AD  =  BC 

the  squares  on  AD,  AC  =  squares  on  BC,  AC. 
But,  squares  011  AD,  AC  =  square  on  CD 

(Prop.  34), 
and,    squares  on  BC,  AC  =  square  onAB 

(Hyp.). 
.'.  square  on  CD  =  square  on  AB. 

.'.  CD  =  AB 

Hence,  the  AS  ABC,  ADC  have  the  sides  of 
the  one  equal  to  the  sides  of  the  other. 
.'.  AS  are  equal  (Prop.  7). 

.'.  L  BCA  =  L  DAC  =  a  right  L  . 

CIRCLES 

Definitions.  We  have  already,  on  page 
4208,  given  definitions  of  a  circle,  its  circum- 
ference, centre,  radius,  and  diameter  ;  an  arc,  and 
a  semicircle. 

A  chord  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  joining 
any  two  points  on  the  circumference. 

A  segment  of  a  circle  is  the  figure  bounded  by 
a  chord  and  one  of  the  arcs  into  which  it 
divides  the  circumference. 

An  angle  in  a  segment  is  an  angle  formed  by 
two  straight  lines  drawn  from  any  point  in  the 
arc  of  the  segment  to  the  ends  of  the  arc. 

Proposition  36.    Theorem 

The  straight  line  which  joins  the  centre  of  a 
circle  to  the  middle  point  of  a  chord  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  chord. 

Conversely,  the  straight  line 
drawn  from  the  centre  perpen- 
dicular to  a  chord  bisects  the 
chord. 

Let  ABC  be  0  whose  centre^ 
is     O,    and     let     AB    be    any 
chord. 

(i.)  First,  let  the  straight  line  OD  be  drawn 
from  O  to  D,  the  middle  point  of  AB. 

It  is  required  to  prove  that  OD  is  J_  to  AB. 

Proof.   Join  O  A,  OB.    In  the  As  ADO,  BDO, 


5043 


MATHEMATICS 

( )D  is  common, 

<  >  \       <  )B,  since  they  are  radii.       v 
..'.  L  ODA  =  _  ODB  (Prop.  7). 
•    each  is  a  righ    L  (Def.  8), 
£.«  ,   OD  is  ±  to  AB. 

(ii.)  Again,  let  OD  be  drawn  _|_  to  AB.     It  is 
icquired  to  prove  that  OD  bisects  AB. 
I'rnof.     In  the  right-angled  AS  ADO,  BDO, 
Hypotenuse  OA  =  Hypotenuse  OB, 

OD  is  common. 
•    AADO=  A  BDO  (Pi-op.  20). 

/.  AD=BD. 

( 'orollary  1.  The  straight  line  ivhich  &?.*><•/.«  <• 
•  •Imril  at  right  angles  passes  through  the  centre. 

Corollary  2.  A  straight  line  cannot  <•///  « 
fircle  at  more  than  two  points.  For  it  has  been 
proved  that  if  the  straight  line  is  cut  by  the  0 
at  A  and  B,  and  OD  is  drawn  J_  to  AB,  then 
AD  =  BD.  Hence,  if  the  0  cur,  the  straight 
line  a  a  third  point  E,  DE  would  also  be  equal 
to  DB,  which  is  impossible. 

Proposition  37.     Theorem 
lltfiicd  chords  of  a  circle  are  equidistant  front 
/Ii>'  i-entre.     Conversely,  chords  which  are  equi- 
ilixtunt  from  the  centre  are  equal. 

Let  AB,  CD  be  chords  of  a 
whose  centre  is  0.     D^aw  O1V 
ON  _L  to  the  chords, 
(i).  First,  let  AB  =  CD. 
It  is  required  to  prove  that  AB 
and  CD  are  equidistant  from  O, 

i.e,  OM=  ON. 
I'roof.     Join  OA,  OC.     Since  OM  is  J_  to  AB, 

/.  OM  bisects  AB  (Prop.  36). 
Similarly,  ON  bisects  CD. 
ButAB=CD(/fj/p.). 

'    the  halves  of  these  lines  are  equal, 

ie.,  AM-CN. 

Then,  in  the  right-angled  AS  OAM,  OCX. 
Hypotenuse  OA  =  Hypotenuse  OC!, 
and  side  AM  =  side  CN. 
'     -As  are  equal  (Prop  20). 

:.  OM  =  ON. 

(ii.)  Again,  let  OM  =  ON.     It  is  required  to 

prove  thai  AB  =  CD. 

As  before,  it  can  be  proved  that  AM  and  ('X 
are  the  halves  of  AB  and  CD  respectively. 
Also,  in  the  right-angled  AS  OAM,  OCN, 
Hypotenuse  OA  =  Hypotenuse  OC 
andOYt=  ON. 
.'.  AS  are  equal. 

.'.  AM-CN. 
.'.  their  doubles  are  equal,   i.e.,  AB  =  CD. 

Proposition  38.     Theorem 
Of  any  two  chords  of  a  circle,  the  one  whirh  /.s 
nearer  /o  I  he  centre  is  greater  than  the  one  more 
'••mote.     Conversely,  the  chord  wh'x-li  is  greater  is 
leaner  /«-  '//,•  centre  tlian  the  less. 

l.i  i  AB,  CD  be  chords  of  a  0  whose  centre  is 
O.     Draw  OM,  ON  _J_  to  the  chords, 
(i.)  Let  OM  be   <  ON.     It  is 
required    to     prove    that 
AB  is  >  CD. 

rmnf.  Join  OA,  OC.  Then, 
aa  in  Prop.  37,  it  can  be  shown 
that  M  and  N  arc  tho  middle 
points  of  AB  and  CD. 


\<  >w,  since  _  AMO  is  a  right  L. 
Square  on  AM  4-  square  on  MO 
=  square  on  AO  (Prop.  34) 
—  square  on  CO 

--  square  on  CN  4-  square  on  NO  (Prop.  34). 
But,  .square  on  MO  is  <  square  on  NO  (Hyp.). 
.'.  square  on  AM  is  >  square  on  CN, 
i.e.,  AM  is  >  CN. 
.'.  AB  is  >  CD. 
( i  i . )  Let  AB  be  >  CD      It  is  required  to  prove 

that  OM  is  <  ON. 
As  before,  we  have 

Square  on  AM  4-  square  on  MO  =  square  on 
CN-f  square  on  NO 

But  AM  >  CN,  since  they  are  the  halves  of 

AB  and  CD. 
.'.  square  on  MO  is  <  square  on  NO, 

i.e.,  MO  is  <  NO. 

Corollary.  The  greatest  chord  of  a  circle  is  the 
diameter.  F  >r,  its  distance  from  the  centre  is 
less  than  that  of  any  other  chord. 

Proposition  39.     Theorem 

The  angle  at  the  centre  of  a  circle  is  double  of 
the  angle  at  the  circnnifereri<-<'.  funding  on  the 
wine  arc. 

Let  ABC  be  a 
whose  centre  is 
Let    AOB    be    the 
angle  at  the  centre 
and  ACB  an  angle 
at    the    Oce    which 
stand   on  the  same 
arc  AB. 

It  i--  required  to  prove  that  _  AOB  is  double 
of  ^ACB. 

Proof.     Let  CO  cut  the  O  °  again  at  D. 

Then,  since  OA  =  OC, 

L  OAC  -  L  OCA  (Pt-op.  5). 
'    L  OAC  +  L  OCA  =  t  A  ico  L.  OCA. 
But          L.  OAC  4-  L  OCA  -  L  DOA  (Prop.  14). 

.'.  ^DOA=  twice  /.OCA. 
Similarly,  L  DOB  =  twice  L  OCB. 

Adding  these  results  in  Fig.  1,  and  taking 
their  difference  in  Fig.  2,  we  get 

L  AOB  =  twice  L  ACB. 

NOTE.  The  pioposition  is  true  whether  the 
arc  AB  be  greater  than,  equal  to,  or  less  than 
half  the  Oc<; 

If  the  arc  AB  is  greater  than  half  the  Q°e  the 
L  AOB  is  reflex,  i.e.,  greater  than  two  right  z_s. 
Hence  the  L  ACB  is  greater  than  one  right  L  . 

If  the  arc  AB  is  equal  to  half  the  Qce,  AB  is 
a  diameter,  and  the  L  AOB  —  two  right  z.s. 
Hence  the  L  ACB  is  =  a  right  L . 

If  the  arc  AB  is  less  than  half  the  Qce>  the 
L  AOB  is  less  than  two  right  L  s.  Hence  the 
L  ACB  is  less  1  han  one  right  L  . 

We  have,  therefore,  the  following  important 
corollaries. 

Corollary  1.  The  angle  in  a  semicircle  is  n 
right  angle. 

Corollary  2.  The  c-ngle  in  a  segment  less  than 
a  semicircle  is  obtuse,  and  the  angle  in  <t  s^gnietit 
greater  titan  a  sfiiwcircle  is  acute. 


Continued 


RUBBER 


Discovery  of  the  Rubber  Tree.      Erasers  and   Macintoshes.      Vu'canisa- 
tion.     Methods  of  Collecting  and  Preparing1  Rubber.     Cultivating  the  Trees 


Group  23 

APPLIED 

BOTANY 

6 

Continued  from 
page  4929 


INDIA-RUBBER  is  derived  from  the  laticiferous 
juices  of  certain  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
plants.  The  honour  of  making  this  product 
known,  and  of  tracing  its  real  origin,  belongs 
to  two  Frenchmen,  Charles  de  la  Condamine,  a 
scientist,  and  Fresneau,  an  engineer.  La  Conda- 
mine was  sent  by  the  Paris  Academy,  in  1731, 
on  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  equator ;  whilst 
in  Peru  and  Brazil  he,  in  1736,  sent  to  the 
Academy  some  rolls  of  a  blackish,  resinous  mass, 
known  under  the  name  of  caoutchouc.  He  reported 
that  "  in  the  forests  in  the  province  of  Esmeraldas 
grows  a  tree  called  Heve  by  the  natives  ;  when 
the  bark  is  slightly  cut  a  white,  milk-like  fluid 
runs  out,  which  hardens  in  the  open  air  and 

becomes  black In  the  province  Quito 

linen  material  is  covered  with  this  resin  and  is 
then  used  like  oil  cloth.  The  same  tree  grows  on 
the  banks  of  the  Amazon  River  and  the  Mainas  call 
the  resinous  fluid  '  cahuchu.'  They  make  shoes  of 
it,  which  are  waterproof,  and  when  smoked  have  the 
appearance  of  leather ;  they  also  cover  moulds 
made  from  earth  and  shaped  like  bottles  with 
the  material,  and  when  the  resin  is  dry  the  mould 
is  broken  up  and  removed  through  the  neck,  and 
thus  an  unbreakable  bottle,  useful  for  preserving 
all  kinds  of  liquids  is  obtained." 

The  French  botanist,  Fuset-Aublet,  described 
the  caoutchouc  tree  in  his  work  on  the  flora  of 
Guiana,  in  1728,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Hevea 
rjuyanensis.  The  Urceola  elastica  was  found  by 
James  Harrison,  and  in  the  forests  of  Brahmaputra, 
in  Assam,  Roxburgh  discovered  the  Ficus  elastica. 
Later,  Coffigny  described  a  plant  of  the  jasmine 
species,  growing  in  Madagascar,  and  yielding  a 
product  not  unlike  caoutchouc. 

The  Origin  of  India=rubber  Erasers. 

Later,  in  the  year  1786,  Herissant  and  Macquer 
succeeded  in  dissolving  the  resins  in  turpentine, 
pure  ether,  and  Dippel's  oil,  suggesting  at  the 
same  time  that  the  gum  solution  should  be  used 
for  making  medical  probes  and  small  tubes  such 
as  are  used  in  laboratories.  About  this  time 
Priestly  drew  attention  to  the  use  of  caoutchouc, 
and  recommended  it  for  effacing  pencil  marks. 
Accordingly,  small  cubes  were  introduced  fo; 
this  purpose,  to  which  the  name  of  "  india-rubber  " 
was  applied,  and  this  name  has  been  retained  to 
the  present  day. 

From  1780  to  1820  various  chemists  studied  the 
material.  Grossart  made  known  the  most  con- 
venient way  of  making  bottles,  tubes,  and  other 
articles  out  of  Brazilian  caoutchouc  by  softening 
strips  of  suitable  shape  in  ether,  which  were  then 
rolled  round  a  spindle,  being  finally  bound  up 
with  rope ;  in  drying  the  surfaces  united,  thus 
giving  the  article  the  desired  shape. 

Solutions  of  india-rubber  were  tried  by  various 
investigators  for  rendering  cloth  waterproof  but 
it  was  not  until  the  year  1823  that  Charles  Macin- 
tosh, by  dissolving  caoutchouc  in  benzene,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the"  waterproof  industry,  which  has 
taken  the  name  of  the  inventor.  There  were  many 
difficulties,  however,  still  to  be  overcome ;  the 


material  was  not  easy  to  manipulate,  dissolved 
but  slowly,  and  did  not  readily  take  the  desired 
shape.  These  imperfections  were  partially  remed led 
in  1836,  when  Thomas  Hancock  found  thai 
caoutchouc  cut  into  small  strips  and  energetically 
kneaded  under  the  influence  of  heat  became 
inelastic  but  tough,  and  could  then  be  pressed 
into  any  desired  form.  This  gave  a  remarkable 
impetus  to  the  industry.  Its  existence,  however, 
would  still  have  been  very  precarious  had  it  not 
been  for  an  opportune  invention  Natural 
caoutchouc  has  the  great  defect  of  being  extremely 
sensitive  to  changes  of  temperature.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  it  is  very  adhesive  and  sticky  : 
heat  renders  it  pitchy,  when  it  gives  of?  an  unpleasant 
odour  ;  cold,  on  the  other  hand,  causes  it  to  be- 
come hard,  and  to  lose  its  elasticity.  It  can 
readily  be  imagined,  therefore,  that  a  waterproof 
garment  which  split  and  cracked  in  cold  weather 
and  became  sticky  and  odoriferous  under  the  action 
of  the  sun's  rays  could  hardly  be  considered  satis- 
factory. These  disadvantages,  therefore,  at  one 
time  quite  imperilled  the  progress  of  the  india- 
rubber  industry. 

The  Discovery   of  Vulcanisation.    It 

was  in  the  year  1839  that  an  American,  Charles 
Goodyear,  succeeded  in  solving  the  problem  after- 
ten  years  of  energetic  research.  His  process 
consisted  of  subjecting  a  mixture  of  caoutchouc 
and  finely  powdered  sulphur  to  a  high  temperature, 
the  caoutchouc  being  thereby  rendered  capable  of 
remaining  elastic  at  both  high  and  low  tempera- 
tures. The  term  vulcanisation  was  given  to  this 
process  and  caoutehoxie  thus  treated  is  called 
vulcanised  rubber. 

From  the  announcement  of  this  invention  and 
during  the  next  twenty  years  great  strides  were 
made'in  the  production  of  rubber  articles,  fresh  dis- 
coveries and  improvements  following  quickly 
upon  one  another.  Among  these  were  :  Hancock's 
method  of  vulcanising  in  a  sulphur  bath,  and  the 
use  of  carbon  bisulphide  for  dissolving  caoutchouc, 
discovered  by  Parkes,  who  also  patented  the  process 
of  vulcanising  by  immersion  in  a  bath  of  chloride 
of  sulphur,  the  so-called  cold  vulcanisation.  The 
iise  of  alkaline  sulphides  was  proposed  by  Gerard 
for  vulcanising  thin  goods,  and  a  further  discovery 
by  Goodyear  resulted  in  the  production  of  hard 
rubber  goods,  or  ebonite,  by  increasing  the  amount 
of  sulphur  before  vulcanisation.  Finally,  Han- 
cock patented  a  process  of  moulding  rubber  goods 
which  formed  the  basis  for  the  production  of  a 
great  variety  of  objects. 

The  regeneration  of  vulcanised  rubber  has  yet 
to  be  perfected,  being  still  an  unsolved  problem, 
although  of  late  years  great  improvements  have 
been  made  in  this  direction. 

The      Plants      that     Yield      Rubber. 

Rubber-yielding  plants  embrace  a  large  number  of 
trees,  shrubs,  lianas,  and  several  kinds  of  grass, 
growing  in  the  tropical  countries.  The  juice- 
bearing  vessels  are  situated  in  the  interior  rings  of 
the  bark  and  send  numerous  branch  veins  in  an 
outward  direction,  which  end  near  the  surface  : 

5045 


APPLIED     BOTANY 


11  ore  rare] 


3ly  they  penetrate  inwardly  to    the   pith. 

It  is  maintaiiu'd  that  after  the  plant  has  reached 
a  certain  a-v  ilie  hydrocarbon  which  constitutes 
india-rubber  is  no  longer  necessary,  to  its  life; 
hut  the  opposite  view  is  also  held  by  some,  namely, 
that  it  affords  nourishment  to  the  plant.  Upon  an 
incision  being  made  in  the  bark  of  a  rubber-produc- 
ing plant  a  milky  fluid  flows  out,  which  is  called 
the  latex.  By  suitable  treatment  the  microscopical 
globules  suspended  in  the  fluid  unite  to  form  a 
more  or  less  solid  substance,  india-rubber,  or,  if 
the  latex  be  allowed  to  stand,  these  globules  rise 
to  the  surface,  like  the  cream  on  milk.  The 
latex  from  rubber  trees  is  a  slightly- coloured 
liquid  having  the  density  of  cream  ;  it  will  mix 
with  water  but  not  with  naphtha  or  other  solvents 
of  india-rubber.  Its  specific  gravity  varies  from 
1-02  to  1-41,  whilst  that  of  caoutchouc  lies  between 
0'93  and  T03.  The  percentage  of  pure  rubber 
in  a  latex  varies  considerably ;  the  best,  that 
from  the  Para  tree  in  Brazil,  contains  32  per- 
cent., together  with  12  per  cent,  of  albuminoid 
and  mineral  constituents,  and  50  per  cent,  of 
water. 

All  plants  yielding  a  milky  juice  do  not  contain 
rubber;  there  are  a  large  number  of  such  growing 
in  temperate  climates — for  instance,  the  nettle, 
poppy,  lettuce,  castor  oil  plants,  and  fig-trees — 
which  cannot  be  considered  as  rubber-yielding 
plants.  In  fact,  the  rubber- producing  zone  may 
be  said  to  consist  of  a  belt  500  miles  wide  encircling 
the  globe  at  the  equator.  A  moist,  warm  climate, 
that  is  to  say  of  a  temperature  of  80°  to  105°  F., 
and  an  average  rainfall  of  about  80  inches  per 
annum,  are  the  general  conditions  necessary  for 
the  production  of  india-rubber  plants  of  commercial 
value,  and  such  prevail  within  this  region. 

The  Four  Chief  Orders  of  Rubber 
Plants.  Rubber  plants  of  various  species  are 
found  in  different  parts  of  this  zone,  but  they 
belong  chiefly  to  four  botanical  orders,  the  Enphor- 
biacece,  the  Artocarpece,  the  A'pocynacece  and  the 
Asdepiadece.  Besides  the  nature  and  age  of  the 
plant,  its  surroundings,  the  soil,  the  season,  and 
even  the  hour  of  collecting,  affect  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  latex.  The  following  are  the  chief 
rubber-yielding  plants  and  the  districts  in  which 
they  grow.  To  take  the  Euphorbiacea>  first,  the 
Hevea  brasiliensis  [1],  a  tree  attaining  a  height  of 
from  70  to  100  ft.,  and.  growing  in  Brazil,  Para, 
and  Venezuela,  yields  the  purest  and  most  esteemed 
commercial  rubber,  generally  known  as  Para 
rubber.  This  is  not  the  tree  originally  discovered 
by  La  Condamine  and  Fresneau,\vhich  only  yields 
a  poor,  resinous  product.  Then  the  Manihot 
glaziowii  of  Ceara  [2],  which  supplies  a  well-known 
brand  of  rubber  known  as  "  Ceara  scraps."  This 
tree  grows  on  dry,  stony  soil,  and  will  stand  a 
prolonged  drought.  The  Hevea,  on  the  other  hand, 
requires  a  low-lying  well-watered  ground. 

The  two  most  important  rubber  plants  belonging 
to  the  Ulmacece  (a  kind  of  the  Artocarpece)  are  the 
Castilloa  elaxtica  [3]  and  the  Fic-us  elastica  [4],  the 
former  ranking  foremost  amongst  the  Mexican  and 
'  Vntral  American  rubber  trees.  The  Ficus  dastica 
abounds  in  Eastern  Asia  and  Oceania,  but  is  only 
occasionally  met  with  in  America  and  Africa.  As 
t  hothouse  and  ornamental  plant,  a  variety  of  this 
-pecics  is  well  known  in  Europe,  where  it  thrives 
is  long  as  it  is  protected  from  the  frost.  The 
Artocarptu,  or  bread  tree,  also  belongs  to  this  order, 
ft  is  found  in  Burma  and  Assam,  and  yields  a  viscous 
I  ttex  which  is  used  by  the  natives  for  making  bird- 
iime.  The  tree  grow*  to  a  height  of  from  50  to 

504(5 


70  ft.,  and  its  fruit  constitutes  a  very  nourishing 
food. 

The  African  Rubber  Trees.  The 
o;der  of  ApocynacecB  includes  a  large  number  of 
rubber-yielding  plants.  The  Landolphias  [5],  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties,  are  a  species  of  this 
order,  and  are  very  good  rubber-yielding  lianas  found 
throughout  the  tropics  of  Africa  and  Madagascar. 
The  Hancornia,  another  member  of  the  same  family, 
is  a  latescent  shrub  growing  in  certain  parts  of  South 
America.  It  supplies  a  very  excellent  brand  known 
as  Mangabeira  rubber.  The  Kickxia,  renamed 
Funtwmia,  is  an  African  rubber  tree,  occurring 
on  the  west  coast  from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  Congo 
State,  and  in  the  hinterland.  It  has  only  been 
recognised  as  a  valuable  rubber-yielding  plant  since 
1894.  It  grows  to'  a  height  of  from  50  to  60  ft, 
with  a  straight,  circular  trunk,  and  has  the  further 
advantage  of  being  adaptable  for  transplantation. 
The  Carpodiniis  and  Clitandra  are  two  creeping 
plants  also  belonging  to  this  order,  and  are  indigenous 
to  the  Congo  State.  They  yield  root-rubber,  so-called 
owing  to  its  being  procured  from  the  main  root 
branches. 

Rubber  plants  belonging  to  the  Asdepiadece  order 
are  not  of  great  importance,  and  do  not  call  for  any 
special  mention. 

The  vascular  system  of  all  rubber  plants  is  not 
ex  c  ly  the  same.  It  is  especially  well  developed 
in  the  Ficus  species.  The  age  at  which  different 
rubber-producing  plants  bear  also  varies  greatly  ; 
thus,  it  is  15  or  20  years  before  the  Hevea  brasiliensis 
is  ready  to  be  tapped,  while  the  Manihot  and  the 
Urceola  yield  well  at  10  years.  The  quantity  of 
rubber  in  the  latex  fluctuates  with  certain  conditions; 
if  the  soil  be  too  damp  and  moist,  it  becomes 
watery,  while  a  dry  season  renders  it  richer,  but 
more  difficult  to  collect.  It  often  reaches  40  per 
cent.,  but  15  per  cent,  is  regarded  as  the  lowest 
workable  figure. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  certain  districts  the  desire 
to  obtain  rubber  at  all  costs  has  led  to  acts  which 
can  be  described  as  nothing  short  of  wanton  waste. 
In  the  Congo  State  in  particular  the  collection  of 
rubber  has  been  pursued  with  the  utmost  barbarism 
and  rapacity  arid  disregard  of  future  productiveness 
of  the  trees;  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  more  rational 
state  of  affairs  will  be  speedily  introduced  into  this 
district,  which  is  probably  the  richest  caoutchouc 
producing  land  in  the  world.  Recent  reports  from 
South  American  rubber  districts  are  on  the  whole 
satisfactory,  the  tendency  being  to  more  rational 
management  of  caoutchouc  production,  but  the 
uncertain  state  of  political  affairs  in  many  South 
American  States  often  renders  the  business  pre- 
carious. 

How  the  Latex  is  Collected  in  South 
America.  The  collection  of  the  latex  requires 
care  and  experience.  There  are  two  recognised 
methods  by  which  it  is  obtained  from  the  rubber 
trees.  One  by  felling  the  trees,  and  the  other  by 
tapping — that  is,  marking  incisions  in  the  bark. 
The  former  gives  the  larger  yield  at  the  time,  but,  as 
a  general  practice,  is  extremely  wasteful,  and  is  only 
permissible  when  the  tree  would  in  any  case  decay 
after  the  first  tapping,  and  secondty  when  a  virgin 
forest  requires  thinning  out.  The  best  method 
of  tapping  is  that  employed  on  the  Amazon.  The 
seringuerio  or  cauchero,  as  the  collector  is  called, 
starts  at  dawn,  his  implements  consisting  of  a 
small,  short-handled  axe,  called  a  machado,  a  pail, 
and  drip  tins.  The  stems  of  the  trees  selected 
for  his  operations  having  been  carefully  cleaned, 
and  the  ground  round  about  swept,  he  proceeds 


to  make  about  twelve  incisions  in  every  tree ; 
the  cuts  must  be  deep  enough  to  allow  the  latex 
to  flow,  but  not  severe  enough  to  damage  the  trees. 
Making  vertical  cuts,  one  below  another,  from  a 
height  that  can  be  reached  down  to  the  ground  is 
the  simplest  and  easiest  way,  but  some  collectors 
prefer  to  make  V-shaped  or  curved  incisions.  Careful 
tapping  does  riot  appear  to  hurt  the  Hevea  tree,  but 
if  carelessly  and  irregularly  cut,  the  yield  of  latex 
diminishes  after  the. third  year,  and  eventually 
ceases  altogether.  The  seringuerio 
generally  selects  from  100  to  150 
trees,  which  he  divides  into 
three  sections,  upon  one  of 
which  he  operates  each  day. 
The  best  season  for  collecting 
in  Brazil  is  from  the  end  of 
August  to  the  beginning  of 
January,  and  about  twenty 
tappings  are  made  every  year; 
more  would  tend  to  impoverish 
the  trees.  A  tin  cup  is  fixed  by 
means  of  clay  under  each  in- 
cision to  receive  the  latex,  the 
quantity  of  which  varies  with 
the  season,  whether  wet  or  dry, 
and  according  to  the  age  of  the 
tree ;  150  trees  tapped  20  times 
a  year  are  calculated  to  yield 
about  14  cwt.  of  crude  rubber. 
Having  collected  his  rubber,  he 
brings  it  to  Manaos  or  Para,  or  disposes  of  it 
through  an  agent. 

Collecting  in  the  Old  World.  English 
companies  have  of  recent  years  started  collecting 
in  Brazil,  but  with  what  success  is  not  yet  evident. 
The  above  method  of  tapping,  with  slight  variations, 
is  in  vogue  throughout  South  America.  The  Central 
American  rubber  plant,  CastiUoa  dastica  [3],  does 
not  require  such  a  large  incision;  in  fact,  instead  of 
a  exit  a  hole  merely  is  made  in  the  bark.  A  variety 


1.    HEVEA   BRASILIENSIS 


APPLIED     BOTANY 

adopted  in  Australia  are  to  a  certain  extent  similar 
to  those  of  Asia,  but  unless  the  natives  are  supervised 
they  cause  needless  destruction;  for  instance,  a 
liana  a  foot  or  so  thick  will  be  cut  into  pieces, 
which  are  then  held  over  vessels  to  receive  the  latex, 
the  flow  being  accelerated  by  heating.  It  can 
easily  be  understood  that  indifferent  tapping 
causes  an  admixture  of  sap  with  the  latex,  which  is 
prejudicial  to  the  quality  of  the  rubber.  This,  there- 
fore, also  points  to  the  necessity  of  conducting  the 
operation  carefully,  apart  from 
the  preservation  of  the  tree. 
Special  knives  are  now  made 
for  the  purpose  of  tapping  the 
various  kinds  of  rubber  trees. 

Preparing  the  Caout= 
chouc.  Having  collected  the 
latex,  the  next  operation  is  to 
separate  the  caoutchouc,  which 
is  effected  by  coagulation  in 
many  ways.  For  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  Para  rubber,  on  the 
Amazon,  the  tins  containing  the 
collected  latex  are  emptied  into 
a  vessel,  or  if  the  trees  are  con- 
veniently situated,  the  entire 
collection  is  placed  in  a  tank 
until  the  coagulation  process  is 
ready  to  be  carried  out.  A  fire 
having  been  lighted  in  a  specially 
constructed  oven,  palm  nuts 
are  added  to  produce  a  thick  smoke,  on  the  lower 
Amazon,  while  in  other  districts  the  smoke  from  a 
wood  fire  is  considered  sufficiently  thick.  Taking 
a  long  wooden  form,  or  paddle,  the  cauchero 
dips  the  blade  into  a  pail  of  latex,  and  then  exposes 
it  each  side  alternately  to  the  smoke;  the  moisture 
in  the  latex  is  evaporated  by  the  heat,  and  the  first 
thin  layer  of  rubber  is  formed;  the  wooden  instru- 
ment is  again  dipped  in  the  latex,  and  the  process 
repeated  until  a  sufficiently  thick  layer  of  caoutchouc 


2.  MANIHOT  GLAZIOWII         3.  CASTILLOA  ELASTICA         4.  FIOUS  ELASTICA         5.  LANDOLPHIA  OWABIENSIS 


of  methods  are  employed  in  Africa,  and  in  many 
parts  the  natives  have  no  hesitation  in  sacrificing 
ti  e  trees  so  long  as  they  procure  the  rubber.  In 
collecting  caoutchouc  from  the  Ficm  species  in 
As.a,  care  is  exercised  in  making  incisions  to  cut 
just  down  to  the  cambium  layer,  but  not  to  penetrate 
the  wood,  so  that  the  wounds  heal  as  soon  as  possible. 
The  best  months  for  collecting  in  India  are  February 
and  March,  and  also^in  August,  for  although  the 
quantity  of  latex  obtained  is  not  so  large,  it  is  very 
much  richer  during  these  months.  The  methods 


is  obtained.  The  thin  coat  is  removed  from  the  form 
by  cutting  it  open  with  a  knife,  and  in  this  way  a 
workman  can  make  from  four  to  five  pounds  of 
rubber  in  an  hour.  The  usual  lumps,  not  unlike 
loaves,  in  which  lower  Amazon  rubber  comes  on  the 
market  are  termed  biscuits,  which  are  still  moist 
when  removed  from  the  forms,  and  have  to  be 
dried  two  or  three  days  in  the  sun.  Smoking  in 
this  manner  is  undoubtedly  tedious,  but  taken  in 
conjunction  with  the  excellent  quality  of  the  latex, 
it  produces  the  finest  rubber  in  the  world,  known 

5047 


APPLIED    BOTANY 

as  ran  fuMt,  i:  The  action  of  the  smoke  is  anti- 
septic, thus  preventing  fermentation  and  decom- 
position. Para  rubber  of  a  less  fine  quality,  known 
as  Pom  grossa,  Para  entrefino,  and  negro  heads,  are 
prepared  from  the  residues  of  caoutchouc  which 
adhere  to  the  wounds.  They  are  formed  into  flat 
I >al Is.  and  these  are  dipped  into  fresh  latex  and 
smoked.  In  outward  appearance  they  resemble 
fine  Para,  but  if  cut  open  it  is  apparent  that  the 
rubber  is  of  less  value,  bein.u  dirty  and  incom- 
pletely coagulated. 

Coagulation  by  Boiling.  Boiling  the  latex 
is  another  means  of  coagulation  employed  in  Central 
America  for  the  latex  from  Castilloa  trees.  The 
crude  rubber  collects  on  the  top,  and  is  then  pressed. 
This  method,  however,  is  defective,  as  pressing  is 
not  sufficient  to  remove  all  the  moisture,  so  that 
the  rubber  is  interspersed  with  bubbles  filled  with 
a  thick,  green  fluid.  Improved  methods  of  coagula- 
ting this  latex  have  been  introduced  in  Mexico,  sea 
salt  being  employed,  since  the  rubber  is  much 
cleaner  and  nearly  as  elastic  as  that  from  Brazil. 
For  coagulating  the  latex  of  the  Funtumia,  the 
African  rubber  tree,  the  boiling  process  appears  to 
be  the  most  suitable,  and  entails  but  little  labour. 
The  latex  is  first  mixed  with  water,  then  boiled,  and 
afterwards  thrown  into  a  vessel  containing  cold 
water;  the  rubber,  which  has  now  acquired  some 
consistency,  is  pressed,  and  drawn  out  like  a 
sausage;  it  is  then  cut  up,  and  dried  in  the  shade. 
It  is  then  ready  to  be  shipped.  The  root  rubber 
of  South  Africa  from  the  Carpodinus  and  Clitandra 
species  is  obtained  by  a  similar  method.  The 
roots  are  cut  into  pieces  about  eight  inches  long, 
and  placed  in  the  sun  for  five  or  six  days;  they  are 
then  immersed  in  water  for  ten  days,  beaten  with 
sticks,  and  boiled  in  water,  finally  being  beaten 
again.  The  product,  however,  is  of  an  inferior 
quality,  frequently  containing  as  much  as  50  per- 
cent of  foreign  substances.  Improved  mechanical 
means  are  being  tried  for  the  purpose  of  separating 
the  rubber  more  perfectly. 

Coagulation    by     Natural     Heat.       A 

very  primitive  way  of  coagulating  the  latex  by 
natural  heat  employed  by  certain  East  African 
tribes  consists  of  merely  tapping  the  trees  and 
allowing  the  latex  to  flow  on  the  ground,  where  its 
moisture  is  quickly  absorbed  by  the  hot,  dry  soil; 
needless  to  say,  this  rubber  is  largely  contaminated 
with  vegetable  and  mineral  impurities,  and  the 
nitrogenous"  substances  retained  in  the  rubber 
render  it  soft,  sticky,  and  odoriferous.  Another 
curious  method  by  which  the  natives  of  East  Africa 
obtain  rubber  consists  of  smearing  the  latex  as  it 
runs  from  the  trees  over  their  own  bodies ;  when  dry, 
it  is  peeled  off  and  rolled  into  balls. 

Ceara  Rubber.  Ceara  rubber,  obtained  from 
the  latex  of  the  Manilwt  glaziowii  [2],  is  collected 
by  the  following  process,  which  is  also  employed 
in  West  Africa  and  India.  The  ground  around  the 
tree  is  cleared  and  covered  with  banana  leaves. 
As  the  latex  is  much  thicker  than  that  of  the  Para 
rubber  tree  it  flows  out  slowly,  and  in  many  cases 
coagulates  before  it  reaches  the  ground.  After 
drying  on  the  trees  for  two  or  three  days,  it  is 
removed  and  formed  into  balls.  Ceara  rubber 
is  of  good  quality,  but  liable  to  fermentation  unless 
stored  in  a  cold,  dry  place  ;  that  which  is  collected 
from  the  ground  often  contains  impurities.  When 
tapping  Ficus  trees  in  India,  mats  made  of  thin  strips 
of  bamboo  are  employed  in  a  similar  way  for  catching 
the  latex.  These  are  moved  about  on  the  ground 
by  boys  until  quite  covered  over  by  the  dripping 

5048 


latex.  After  forty -eight  hours  a  skin  sufficiently  toujih 
to  be  pulled  off  is  formed,  and  this  is  then  dried. 
The  latex  that  coagulates  in  the  cuts  is  of  a  reddish 
brown  colour,  and  after  pieces  of  bark  and  the 
impurities  have  been  removed,  the  dried  rubber 
is  pressed  into  cubes  of  a  hundredweight  each,  which 
are  wrapped  in  white  cloths  for  transport.  Crude 
rubber  has  recently  been  placed  on  the  market 
in  the  form  of  blocks,  termed  block  rubber,  and  in 
this  convenient  form  it  finds  great  favour. 

The  latex  of  the  Hancornia  is  coagulated  in 
Bahia  by  adding  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  and, 
after  allowing  the  mixture  to  stand,  skimming 
off  the  upper  layer  consisting  of  raw  rubber,  which 
is  dried,  and  is  then  ready  for  sale.  This  method 
is  also  employed  in  some  parts  of  Central  America 
and  Assam,  though  it  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
since  a  certain  quantity  of  uncoagulated  latex 
remains ;  the  rubber  itself,  however,  is  of  a  good, 
strong  quality.  Another  similar  process  is  used 
by  the  natives  of  the  Congo  for  coagulating  the 
latex  of  the  Landolphias.  The  latex  is  conducted 
from  the  incision  into  a  bottle,  and  mixed  with  four 
or  five  times  its  quantity  of  water;  the  caoutchouc 
rises  to  the  top  on  standing,  and  the  lower  watery 
layer  is  run  off  from  the  bottom.  The  caoutchouc 
is  then  further  coagulated,  kneaded,  and  dried, 
but  it  is  very  liable  to  fermentation,  as  it  contains 
too  much  water,  and  also  nitrogenous  matters. 

Coagulation     by     Chemical    Agents. 

Various  chemical  reagents  have  been  suggested 
from  time  to  time.  Strauss  recommended  the 
addition  of  a  solution  of  alum,  which  brings 
about  immediate  coagulation,  but  it  has  the 
great  defect  of  causing  the  rubber  to  speedily  lose 
its  elasticity.  Both  sulphuric  acid  and  salt  also 
effect  rapid  coagulation,  the  antiseptic  properties 
pf  the  latter  giving  it  an  advantage  over  the  acid, 
which  it  has  accordingly  superseded  in  some 
districts.  Chemical  treatment  is  chiefly  utilised 
in  America  and  Africa.  In  addition  to  these 
reagents,  soapsuds  have  been  tried  in  Peru  for 
coagulating  the  latex  from  the  Hancornia.  About 
half  a  pound  of  soap  dissolved  in  two  pails  of  water 
is  sufficient  for  65  Ib.  of  latex  ;  the  liquids  are 
thoroughly  agitated  together;  when  coagulated, 
the  rubber  is  removed  in  the  form  of  a  block. 

Alcohol  also  gives  very  good  results  in  effecting 
coagulation,  but  is  too  expensive. 

Certain  vegetable  juices  and  infusions  containing 
an  organic  acid  are  employed  in  Madagascar  and 
parts  of  South  America,  but  these  offer  no  special 
advantages. 

Use  of  Machinery.  Coagulation  by  machinery 
is  now  practised  in  India  and  Ceylon.  The  latex 
is  first  freed  from  all  impurities  by  passing  it 
through  a  centrifugal  strainer,  and  it  is  then  run 
into  a  settling  tank  until  a  sufficiently  large  quantity 
has  accumulated  for  further  treatment.  Meanwhile 
mechanical  stirrers,  with  which  the  tanks  are  pro- 
vided, keep  the  latex  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
preservatives  ammonia  and  formalin ;  by  this  means 
it  can  be  stored  for  several  days.  The  latex  is  then 
passed  through  the  smoking  machine,  which  is  an 
arrangement  whereby,  in  running  over  a  series  of 
plates,  it  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  smoke  from  a 
fire  made  from  wood  steeped  in  creosote.  Finally 
the  latex  is  coagulated  with  acid,  either  in  a 
special  appliance  or  in  ordinary  settling  tanks. 
Rubber  prepared  in  this  way  is,  of  course,  infinitely 
to  be  preferred  to  the  frequently  greatly  contami- 
nated product  resulting  from  native  methods  in 
Africa  and  parts  of  America. 


Cultivating  Rubber  Trees.     By  far  the 

largest  proportion  of  rubber  produced  at  present  is 
obtained  from  naturally  grown  trees.  The  cultivation 
of  rubber-producing  plants  has,  however,  been 
vigorously  taken  up  of  late  years,  and  large  areas 
have  been  planted  with  rubber  trees,  especially 
in  India,  Ceylon,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the 
French  Colonies.  Small  plants  have  been  found  to 
give  very  satisfactory  results.  Hevea  plants,  for 
instance,  are  grown  in  nurseries  until  about  20  in. 
high ;  they  are  then  cut  off  about  4  in.  above  the 
roots,  and  packed  in  a  special  way  in  cases.  In 
this  state  they  have  undergone  a  six  weeks'  journey, 
and  when  planted  out  have  only  had  a  mortality 
of  2  per  cent. 

Seeds  of  the  Hcvca  brasiliensi-s  were  obtained 
from  the  Amazon  district  some  thirty  years  ago. 
These  were  propagated  in 
Kew  and  the  plants  dis- 
tributed to  various  bot- 
anical gardens  in  the 
Colonies.  Ceylon  suc- 
ceeded best  in  the  early 
cultivation,  and  as  the 
transported  plants  grew 
and  gave  seed  these  were 
given  out  to  planters. 
Ceara  (Manihot  glaziowii) 
and  CaslUloa  dastica  were 
also  planted,  the  former 
being  the  favourite. 
Gradually,  however,  the 
claims  of  the  Hevea  were 
recognised,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  other  now 
existing  or  being  planted 
is  small.  In  1898  alone 
about  750  acres  were 
planted  in  rubber  in 
Ceylon.  This  grew  to  2,500 
acres  in  1 901.  At  the  pre- 
sent time  it  is  estimated 
that  over  100,000  acres 
are  planted  in  rubber. 

The  Superiority 
of  the  Hevea.  The 
selection  of  the  most 
suitable  kind  of  tree 
naturally  depends  upon 
the  district,  but  certain 
species  have  advantages 
over  others.  The  Ftcus 
e'astica  is  slow  in  growing, 
but  its  cultivation  in  India  meets  with  good 
success. 

The  Hevea  bfasfflensia  has  been  introduced  into 
the  Malay  State  with  eminently  satisfactory 
results,  climatic  conditions  being  here  as  favourable 
for  its  growth  as  in  its  home  in  Brazil,  and  about 
00,000  acres  have  already  been  planted  with  this 
tree.  The  Funtumia  elastica  appears  to  be  the 
rubber  plant  that  is  most  suited  for  African  cultiva- 
tion, and  in  many  districts  it  is  to  be  preferred  to 
the  Landolphia,  although  it  is  maintained  that  it 
does  not  produce  such  good  quality  rubber.  With 
the  proper  treatment,  however,  this  could  be 
improved.  Its  cultivation  offers  few  difficulties: 
the  seedlings  are  planted  16  ft.  to  17  ft.  apart  after 
clearing  the  undergrowth,  and  need  no  further 
attention,  which  is  very  advantageous. 


APPLIED    BOTANY 

Given  suitable  soil  and  climate,  the  cultivation  of 
the  Hevea  is  simple.  The  seeds  are  either  planted 
at  stake — that  is,  planted  in  the  spot  to  be  occupied 
by  the  tree — or  grown  in  nurseries,  and  then 
planted  out.  The  number  planted  to  the  acre 
is  150  or  upwards  to  200.  The  tree  requires  good, 
deep  soil,  with  plenty  of  water.  It  is  generally  con- 
sidered that  at  least  80  in.  per  annum,  with  no 
very  long  dry  season  is  the  minimum.  After  the  seeds 
or  plants  are  put  out,  careful  watch  has  to  be 
kept  that  they  are  not  destroyed  by  vermin  or  wild 
animals.  The  weeds  are  kept  down — a  somewhat 
expensive  item — until  the  trees  (about  the  third 
or  fourth  year)  have  grown  large  enough  to  check 
the  undergrowth.  Well-growing  trees  can  be  tapped 
in  the  "fifth  year.  It  is  estimated  that  on  the 
average  a  six-year-old  tree  will  give  £  Ib.  of  dry 
rubber ;  a  seven-year-old, 

1  Ib.  ;     a  ten  -  year  -  old, 

2  Ib.    to     3    Ib.  ;    and    a 
sixteen-year-old,   al   least 
5  Ib.    The  cost  of  clearing, 
planting,       and      tending 
rubber     xmtil     it     is    six 
years  old  is   estimated  at 
£20  per  acre  in  Ceylon.  In 
these  notes  Ceylon  is  only 
taken  as  a  typical  instance 
of  what    is    going  on    in 
other  tropical  countries. 

Tapping.  Tapping 
the  rubber  trees  is  con- 
ducted on  the  estates  in 
a  very  regular  manner. 
Care  has  to  be  taken 
that  only  the  bark  is  cut 
and  the  wood  of  the  tree 
left  untouched.  Various 
knives  have  been  invented 
to  perform  this  duty. 
The  principal  method 
now  employed  is  to 
make  a  preliminary  cut, 
either  a  spiral  round  the 
tree  [6]  or  a  less  distance, 
or  only  a  short,  oUique 
cut.  The  bark  at  the  foot 
of  this  cut  is  trimmed 
away  every  secon-1  day 
or  so,  the  latex  collected 
in  a  cup,  mixed  with 
latex  from  other  trees,  and 
then  taken  to  the  factory. 


TAPPING  THE  MJBBER  TREE  IN  THE  EAST 
(From  a  photograph  by  B.  Hoffmann,  Esq.) 


Here  it  is  allowed  to  coagulate,  until  the  soft, 
spongy  mass  of  rubber  can  be  lifted  out.  It  is  then 
washed  by  hand  or  put  through  a  regular  washing 
machine.  It  is  then  dried  thoroughly.  Deter- 
mined by  the  method  which  has  been  employed, 
this  plantation  rubber  comes  upon  the  market  in 
either  biscuits,  sheet,  crepe,  or  block  rubber,  t he- 
latter  being  sheet,  which  has  been  dried  in  vacuum, 
and  while  still  hot  and  somewhat  soft,  pressed 
into  a  solid  block.  Such  plantation  rubber  well 
prepared  brings  about  8d.  per  Ib.  more  than  fine 
Para,  since  it  is  much  purer  and  drier.  As 
rubber  for  manufacture,  however,  it  has  not 
commended  itself  to  the  makers,  who  consider  it 
weaker  than  fine  Para.  [The  drawings  in  this 
article  are  from  "Rubber,  Gutta-percha,  and 
Balata."  by  F.  Clouth.  Maclaren.] 


Continued 


50-10 


Group  25 

HEALTH 
17 


Cciitinm'il  from 
pige  4*il 


THE   BEST  HOUSE  TO  LIVE   IN 

The  Material  of  which  a  Healthy  House  is  Made.      Conditions  of  Perfect 
Sanitation.     How  Infection  may  be  Averted.      Isolation  and  Disinfection 


A  HEALTHY  dwelling  should  stand  on  dry 
^  soil,  should  have  light  rooms,  and  be  of 
cheerful  aspect,  There  should  be  good  ventila- 
tion, perfect  drainage,  abundant  pure  water,  and 
dry  foundation ;  walls,  roof,  and  the  corners  of 
the  house  should  be  to  the  points  of  the  com- 
pass. The  living-rooms  should  face  south  and 
west;  the  working  and  breakfast  rooms,  stairs, 
and  larders  north  and  east;  the  bed-rooms 
north-east  [4].  This  gives  the  morning  sun, 
and  leaves  them  cool  at  night  and  in  the  day. 
All  morning  rooms  should  face  east. 
Sick  bed-rooms  and  nurseries  should 
be  south-east. 

Houses  should  not  be  back  to 
back  in  close  courts  or  alleys.  Every 
house  must  have  a  space  in  the  front 
and  back  at  least  equal  to  its  own 
height.  In  temperate  climates,  the 
distance  between  two  opposite  build- 
ings must  be  twice  the  height  of  the 
higher  one. 

In    an    artisan's    house    of     four 
rooms   in    two    storeys,  the  bottom 
floor  is  9  ft.  high,  the  top  8  ft.     The  front  room 
has  150  sq.  ft.,  the  back  room  (scullery)  75  ft., 
the   front    bed-room   80   ft.,  the  others  50  ft.. 
with  fireplaces  in  all. 

For  a  healthy  house,  these  conditions  must 
be  maintained : 

1.  The   site,  free   from   offensive   made   soil, 
must  be  covered  with  concrete. 

2.  The  external  walls  thick  enough  to  resist 
damp. 

3.  An    efficient    damp-proof    course    in    all 
internal  and  external  walls. 

4.  Weather-tight  roof. 

5.  Good  light  and  ventilation  in  all  rooms 
and  passages. 

6.  Good,  airtight  sewerage. 

7.  Pure  water,   well  stored. 

Houses  should  not  be  too  crowded ;  48  six- 
roomed  cottages  to  the  acre  is  enough,  holding 
240  people.  In  model  dwellings  there  are  over 
1,000  to  the  acre. 

Basements.      In   basements   the   drainage 
must  be  good,  and  the  sewage  not  under  the 
house.     If  built  on  an  old  brickfield,  all  pits  and 
hollows    near    must    be 
drained;     if     on    made 
earth,     the     soil    should 
have  stood  for  two  yeara 
before  being  built  upon. 

Basements  must  either  have  a  concrete  floor 
G  in.  to  8  in.  thick,  or  one  of  puddled  clay ;  if 
neither,  then  there  should  be  9  in.  between 
earth  and  floor  for  ventilation,  but  this  is  the 
least  desirable  of  the  three. 

Notice  the  height  of  the  subsoil  water.     There 

r>050 


POINTS  OF  COMPASS 


there  [5]. 


By  Dr.  A.  T.  SCHOFIELD 

must  be  no  foul  sewer  near.  If  the  foundation 
for  the  walls  is  not  good,  a  foundation  must  be 
put  in  for  them,  four  times  as  broad  as  the  walls. 
There  must  be  free  ventilation  under  the  floors, 
and  it  should  be  noted  that  iron  gratings  are 
better  than  perforated  bricks.  Concrete  is  a 
good  protection  against  damp. 

Houses  are  like  sponges  ;  tluy  suck  up  all  the 
gases  out  of  the  ground.     The  water  and  gases  in 
tiie  earth  move  in  currents.     There  is  a  record 
of  an  empty  beef  tin  being  carried  seven  miles 
underground  by  the  subsoil  water. 

Concrete  serves  as  a  floor.  If  wood 
is  required,  it  need  only  be  3  in.  above 
it.  Wood-brick  floors  are  best,  or 
concrete  for  all  basement  rooms. 

Walls.  Walls  should  have 
broad  footings  after  the  solid  earth 
has  been  reached.  A  damp-proof 
course  must  be  inserted.  There 
should  be  no  earth  against  the  wall. 

4.  HOUSE  BUILT  TO  FOUR   £  .^f^6  ™7>  **£  ^11  must  be 
built  hollow   till   above   the   earth, 
and    two    damp    courses    inserted 
The  moisture  rises  from  the  sides 
of  the  walls  as  well  as  the  base,  also  from  soil 
splashings.      A  damp  course  may  be  made  in 
the  wall  of  slate,  stone,  vitrified  slabs,  glazed 
bricks,  or  asphalte  rock  that  does  not  squeeze 
out  with  weight. 

Bricks  are  made  of  clay,  which 
is  alumina  and  silica ;  of  marl ; 
of  the  same  substance  mixed 
with  lime,  and  of  loam,  a  light, 
sandy  clay.  A  brick  should 
weigh  seven  pounds,  and  can 
hold  one  pint  of  water.  Mortar 
5.  POSITION  OF  should  be  one  part  lime  and 
DAMP  COURSES  three  parts  clean  sand  (no  sea 
shells)  and  fresh  water — never 
salt. 

If  stone  be  used,  sandstone 
of  various  colours,  according  to 
the  iron  in  it,  is  good  ;  or  limestone.  Portland 
stone  is  also  good ;  bathstone  is  soft  and 
crumbly.  Magnesia  limestone  is  really  con- 
solidated Epsom  salts.  The  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment are  built  of  this. 

In  100,000  bricks  there  are  10,000  gallons  of 
"  building  water."  Each  brick  will  absorb  1  Ib. 
of  water.  In  old  houses  all  this  has  evaporated, 
and  the  pores  are  full  of  air  ;  in  new  ones  much 
is  retained.  Water  keeps  the  walls  too  cold,  and 
the  air  condenses  in  the  rooms. 

Water  glass  (silicate  of  potash)  renders  soft 
stone  impervious  to  damp  and  decay.  Inter- 
walling  bricks,  etc.,  can  be  "  enamelled  "  with 
it.  To  find  if  the  walls  are  dry  enough,  pick  out 
bits  of  mortar.  Those  should  not  have  above 


a.  Upper   course 

b.  Ground  against 
wall        c.  Lower 

course 


6.    ROLLED    JOINTS 


8.    STRUTT'S    PIPES 


5  per  cent,  of  water  in  them.  In  building, 
English  bond  is  better  hygienic  ally  than 
Flemish.  In  the  latter,  whole  bricks  (not 
bats — half  bricks)  should  always  be  used  for 
"  headers." 

A  9  in.  wall  is  not  enough  externally  to  prevent 
weather  from  penetrating  "  header  "  bricks.  It 
must  be  14  in.,  or  more  if  of  stone.  This  is 
important,  as  an  ; 

even  tempera- 
ture in  the  Jiouse 
depends  on  the 

thickness  of  the  7.  DIMINISHING  PIPES 

walls 

On  the  wettest, 
or      "  weather  " 
side     of     the 
house,    there 
should    be    slate   or    pitch 
or    Portland    cement ;     or 
the     wall     may    be     tiled 
or  rough    cast,    or    slated 
with  a  cavity.      A   cavity 
wall  does  not  interfere  with  natural  ventilation. 

Concrete  is  good  for  walls,  and  so  is  terra  cotta. 
Party  walls  should  be  9  in.  thick,  and  carried 
15  in.  above  the  roof.  Bathstone  facings  and 
stucco  are  both  bad,  and  constantly  require 
painting.  The  laAv  is  that  a  house  two  storeys 
high  (25  ft.)  must  have  a  minimum  thickness 
of  one  brick  (9  in.) ;  if  over  25  ft.,  then  1|  bricks 
for  the  first  storey,  and  one  brick  after ;  if  over 
35  ft.,  two  bricks  for  two  storeys,  and  1|  bricks 
for  the  rest ;  if  over  50  ft.,  then  2|  bricks  for  the 
first  story,  two  for  the  next,  2  and  1|  for  the 
others.  Modern  American  buildings  of  steel, 
filled  in  with  stone  and  brick,  alter  all  these 
calculations. 

Inside  walls  can  be  glazed  with  tiles,  plastered, 
covered  with  impervious  paint  or  wrashing  paper, 
or  a  new  sheet  of  tin  painted  on  one  side,  which 
is  admirable  for  pantries,  bath-rooms,  etc. 
Ceilings  are  made  of  lath  and  plaster,  to  deaden 
the  sound.  Floors  are  tongued  and  grooved,  or 
caulked.  Carpets  should  be  in  squares,  and  not 
fit  into  corners. 

The  Roof.  The  slates  of  a  roof  are  laid  on 
boarding  covered  with  felt.  "  Countess  "  slates  are 
20 in.  by  10  in.,  and  are  best  with  a  3-in.  overlap,  a 
lead  gutter,  and  cement  joints  round  the  chimney 
stacks.  All  channels  should  be  of  sheet  lead. 
Avoid  nails  in  lead  roofwork,  because  galvanic 
action  sets  up.  Have  rolled  joints  to  allow 
expansion  [6]. 

Rows  of  houses  should  run  north  and  south, 
and  there  should  be  no  borrowed  lights.  Theo- 
retically the  kitchen  is  always  best  a,t  the  top 
of  the  house.  Hinged  windows  are  better  than 
those  built  on  the  sash  principle,  and  can  be 
more  easily  cleaned  outside. 

All  closets  should  be  separate  rooms,  well 
ventilated  into  the  external  air.  They  should 
be  in  the  external  wall  with  a  window  2  ft. 
square,  and  be  supplied  with  a  separate  cistern 
and  ventilated  with  air  bricks.  This  also  applies 
to  the  larder.  The  kitchen  should  be  well 
ventilated  into  the  air.  The  coal-cellar  should 
be  cut  off  from  the  house  on  account  of  the 


HEALTH 

gases  given  oft'.  There  must  be  no  dry  rot  in 
the  wood  for  there  is  no  cure  for  this  when  it 
has  once  set  in.  Gas  dry  meters  should  be 
fitted  with  Stott's  gas  regulator  to  avoid  flaring 
and  to  save  the  gas. 

No  water-pipes  must  run  on  outside  walls 
unless  protected  with  felt.  Where  necessary 
taps  should  be  marked  "  Main  "  or  "  Cistern." 
In  buildings  generally  avoid  all  porous  absor- 
bent materials — there  should  be  no  damp 
anywhere. 

Furniture.  In  rooms  the  style  of  furni- 
ture is  getting  more  Oriental.  Woollen  hangings 
should  be  avoided ;  they  encourage  dirt.  A 
velvet  boudoir  in  Mayfair  nearly  caused  the 
death  of  a  well-known  doctor.  Plainness  and 
cleanliness  should  be  insisted  on  in  towns,  and 
while  the  bareness  of  a  hospital  ward  is  un- 
desirable all  needless  hangings  and  other  dirt 
traps  should  be  avoided.  The  basement, 
especially,  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from 
hoarded  rubbish. 

Arsenic  is  still  found  in  some  wall-papers  not 
necessarily  green,  as  well  as  in  green  lamp- 
shades, etc.  ;  but  it  is  only  injurious  when  the 
dust  is  brushed  off  and  particles  are  allowed  to 
fly  about  in  the  air.  Before  now  a  pair  of 
gloves  dyed  with  arsenic  have  caused  apparent 
"  hay  fever  " — in  reality,  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing. If  the  health  deteriorates  without  apparent 
cause  it  is  probably  due  to  sewer  gas — less 
probably  to  arsenic.  Glazed  washing  paper  or 
paint  on  all  walls  is,  of  course,  the  best  kind  of 
covering. 

Any  articles  supposed  to  contain  arsenic  can 
be  tested  at  a  moderate  cost,  or  perhaps  free  of 
expense,  by  the  borough  analyst  of  the  borough 
or  district  council. 

To  test  arsenic,  four  square  inches  of  paper 
should    be    placed   in  a  test  tube 
half  full  of   water,  with   one  tea- 
spoonful  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
boiled.       When    boiling    dip    in    a 


10.    INSPECTION   CHAMBER 

I,  2,  ami  3.  Side  drains       4.   Main  drain  open  in  inspection 
chamber    5.  Main  drain    6.  Disconnecting  trap    7.  Inspection 
arm    8  Drain  to  sewer     9.  Fresh  air  inlet    10.  Grating  nitcli 

II.  Airtight  cover    12.  Condensing  dome    13.  Seal    14.  Glazed 
bricks    15.  Cement    16.  Plug     17.  Ordinary  joint    18.  Water 

joint  automatically  sealed  by  condensation 

bright  copper  or  platinum  wire.  If  it  turns 
black,  there  is  a  quantity  of  arsenic.  If  it 
becomes  covered  all  over  in  half  an  hour  or 
less,  there  is  a  proportion  of  arsenic  ;  if  not 
covered  there  is  none.  Merc  blotehes  do  not 
count. 

5051 


HEALTH 

House  Sanitation.  A  drain  should  be 
4  in.  in  diameter  ;  in  large  mansions  it  may  be 
(>  in.,  and  in  public  institutions  9  in.  ;  but  the 
^mailer  it  i>.  the  better  the  floAV.  It  should  be 
hcddecl  in  6  in.  of  solid  concrete  so  that  if  there 
should  be  a  leakage  or  a  fracture  nothing  can 
••scape.  It  should  never  be  carried,  even  with 
these  precautions,  underneath  the  house. 

All  branches  or  connections  should  join  at  an 
angle  like  a  Y  and  not  at  right  angles  like  a  T. 
The  drain  must  run  from  point  to  point  in  a 
straight  line  in  true  gradients,  with  an  even  fall, 
Avhich  should  be  1  in  50  on  an  average,  or  1  in 
40  for  4-in.  pipes,  1  in  60  for  6-in,,  1  in  90  for 
9-in.  pipes.  With  the  us  lal  gradient  the  velocity 
of  the  flow  is  3  ft.  to  4  ft.' per  second.  In  a  4-in. 
pipe  half  full  the  flow  is  8  cubic  ft.  every  second, 
in  a  6-in.  18,  in  a  9-in.  40. 

The  velocity  of  the  current  is  the  same  if  the 
pipe  be  full  as  if  it  were  half  full.     The  internal 
surface  of  the   drain-pipe    should    be  smooth, 
polished  and  round,  with  no  ridges  at  the  joints. 
The  joints  should  be  cemented  and  Avell  wiped 
inside  Avith  one  part  of  tar,  one 
of  sand,  and  one  and  a  half        ^     (•?      \^> 
sulphur.     The  ordinary  socket          D       p        Q 


joint,  if  well  made  in  cement  or 
bituminous  rings  and  cement 
is  good.  There  must  be  no  movable  joints. 

Diminishing  pipes  must  be  used  when  needed  or 
the  joint  will  come  the  wrong  way  [7].  Strutt's 
pipes,  with  rebate  inside  and  perfect  centring  [8] 
are  the  best  sort.  All  curves  and  bends  should 
be  avoided.  If  it  has  to  be  carried  inside  the 
walls  an  arch  must  be  turned  in  the  Avail  so  that 
it  does  not  press  on  the  pipe.  There  must  be 
an  inspection  manhole  at  every  change  of  angle. 
A  manhole  should  be  3  ft.  4|  in.  by 
2  ft.  3  in,  with  galvanised  airtight 
iron  doors,  not  stone  [9],  made  air- 
tight by  a  water  seal.  The  manhole 
must  be  kept  perfectly  clean  or  it 
becomes  a  cesspool.  A  syphon  trap 
into  the  sewer  is  best  in  the  area 
with  air  inlet  on  the  house  side  of 
trap. 

If  all  the  closets  are  upon  the  ground  floor,  and 
there  is  no  vertical  soil-pipe,  there  can  be  two 
inlets  in  the  air  chamber — one  for  foul  air  and 
one  for  fresh.  In  the  manhole  itself  the  drain- 
pipes are  open  and  are  called  "  channel  pipes." 
They  are  £  in.  or  f  in.  wide,  and  the  side  channels 
deliver  above  the  base  of  the  main  drain,  with 
a  steeper  gradient  and  joining  at  a  Y  angle 
[10]. 

The  trap  in  a  4-in.  or  a  6-in.  pipe  is  4  in. 
Avide.  There  should  be  a  fall  in  all  of  2  ft,  to 
the  Avatcr  seal  to  give  the  Avater  a  "head." 
Longer  systems  may  require  more  than  one 
disconnecting  trap. 

Traps  and  Seals.  It  Avill  be  well  here  to 
describe  exactly  what  is  meant  by  traps  and 
seals,  as  Avell  as  to  understand  the  various  sorts 
of  closets.  The  leading  principle  of  house 
sanitation  is  that  there  must  be  no  communica- 
tion between  the  house  and  the  drainage.  The 
earliest  traps  were  syphon.  The  D  trap  was 
invented  to  improve  them,  and  noAv  AVO  revert 

5052 


11.    COMMON   FORMS   OF   TRAPS 


12.    TRAP  SK  vLKI) 
AND    UNSEALED 


to  some  form  of  the  syphon  again  [11].  The  point 
is  to  have  as  few  traps  as  possible.  They  all 
avert  the  flow  and  encourage  stagnation  of  solids 
and  decomposing  water.  The  water  seal  gives 
them,  of  course,  all  their  efficiency  and  consists 
of  a  certain  amount  of  water  Avhich  settles  in 
the  lowest  part  of  the  bend,  and,  filling  the  pipe, 
then  cuts  off  the  air  on  one  side  from  that  on 
the  other.  This  seal  [12]  is  generally  2  in.  to  3  in. 
deep  abo\Te  the  bend  of  the  pipe.  The  Avater  tends 
to  dry  up  in  summer  if  the  drains  are  not  used. 
All  traps  should  have  their  inlet  vertical  to 
secure  a  good  fall,  and  the  outlet  inclined.  The 
inlet,  also,  must  be  higher  than  the  outlet. 
The  latter  should  be  egg-shaped  in  section. 

The  trap  should  be  A^entilated  on  both  sides 
to  keep  down  any  pressure  of  gas  that  might 
tend  to  force  itself  through  the  water.  There 
should  be  a  good  raking  arm  kept  hermetically 
sealed  in  disconnecting,  traps. 

The  Avater  seal  absorbs  and  gives  off  gases. 
When  the  pressure  from  the  sewer  is  greater 
than    the    AA'eight    of   water   which    constitutes 
the  seal,   the  trap  is   forced 
(bO    Dv^P    T^         ky    the     gas     and     becomes 
suv          useless.     This  often  occurs  in 
the  higher  parts    of    an  ex- 
tensive drainage  system,  as  at 
Highgate  and  Hampstead.     Sewer  gas  is  con- 
stantly forcing  the  traps  there,  and  the  only 
course  to  relieve  the  pressure  is  free  ventilation 
of  the  drains. 

Close's.  Solid  matter  from  sewage  cannot 
be  forced  back  through  the  trap,  but  if  air  is 
mixed  AArith  the  water,  as  Avhen  a  trap  is  forced, 
so  as  to  make  bubbles,  they  burst,  and  particles 
of  seAvage  are  ejected  into  the  air.  Flooded  traps 
Avill  carry  seAvage  back  into  the  house. 
Closets  may  be  dry  or  on  the 
AA7ater  system  ;  the  latter  are  better. 
"Privys"  and  "middens"  have  no 
Avater.  Water-closets  are  of  two 
sorts :  those  without  movable  appa- 
ratus for  retaining  water  in  pan. 
and  those  with  it.  In  the  first  kind 
Ave  have  long  hoppers  [13],  short  hoppers,  and 
Avash-outs.  The  long  hopper  is  just  a  long  cone, 
and  is  bad  and  dirty.  The  short  hopper  [14]  is 
a  short  cone  nearly  vertical  behind,  with  all 
the  slope  in  front,  and  with  or  Avithout  a  trap 
at  the  bottom.  This,  with  a  good  flushing 
apparatus,  is  not  bad.  It  is  also  made  with  a 
rim  and  of  a  boAvl  shape.  The  flush  should 
allow  3  gallons  down  a  1-j-in.  pipe  Avith  a  fall 
from  6  ft.  down  the  closet.  The  ordinary 
alloAvance  is  2  gallons  with  a  4- ft.  fall.  No 
safes  or  oA^erfloAvs  are  needed  Avith  hopper 
closets,  AA-hich  are  very  good  out  of  doors. 

There  should  be  concrete  floors  and  a  hinged 
seat,  no  hack  and  no  Avood  casing,  but  all  of  one 
piece  of  earthenware,  and  P  or  S  traps  through- 
out, jointed  Avith  cement  to  a  4-in.  drain. 

The  disadvantages  of  all  hoppers  is  that  the 
contents  are  exposed  and  there  is  waste  of 
Avater.  The  third  form,  the  wash-out  [15],  has  a 
shalloAv  pool  kept  by  a  ledge  in  the  pan,  and  a 
syphon  trap  beloAV.  It  requires  more  than 
2  y  'lions  of  water  to  carry  contents  over  the  edge 


LONG   HOPPER 


and  through  the  syphon,  and  becomes  soiled  by 
splashes,  the  water  in  the  basin  being  too  shallow. 

The  "  Dececo,:>  or  syphon  closet  [16],  has 
deeper  water  in  the  basin  ;  it  is  cleaner  and 
needs  more  flushing ;  but  it  has  the  disadvantage 
that  if  slops  are  thrown  down  it,  the  water 
syphons  out  of  bo£h  traps,  and  leaves  it  un- 
t  rapped. 

An  improved  Dececo,  the  Century  closet 
[17],  has  a  puff  pipe  that  prevents  syphoning 
by  stopping  the  suction  action  ;  half  the  flush 
of  water  is  not  sent  into  the  basin,  but  between 
the  two  syphons,  thus  sucking  down  the  upper  air. 

The  cistern  should  have  a  branch  to  the  pan 
to  fill  up  the  water  there  as  the 
cistern  fills,  if  it  is  syphoned.  The 
waste -pre  venting  cistern  is  best  with 
a  syphon  action  so  that  a  short  pull 
starts  it,  and  empties  the  cistern. 

If   the  drain   be   indoors,  and  there 
are  lead  soil  pipes,  it  is  hard  to  make 
a  good  joint  between  lead  and  stone.    ^3  CLOSET,  WITH 
Marine    glue    or    a    brass    collar    with 
asbestos  and  cement  is  best ;  or  a  brass 
socket  can  be  fixed  on  the  earthenware  pipe 
with  cement  and  gaskin.      The  lead  pipe  can 
be  opened  and  the  brass  collar  put  inside  and 
soldered  firmly. 

The  second  form  of  closet  alluded  to  is  with 
movable  apparatus  of  some  sort,  and  may  be 
pan,  valve,  or  plug: 

The   pan   is   largely   used,    but  is  now   for- 
bidden to  be  fixed.     It  has  a  dirty  retainer  and 
a  D  trap.     The  dirt  decomposes  in  it,  but  no 
overflow  is  needed  to  the  basin.     Pipe  3  is  in 
direct  communication  with  the  dirty 
trap   [18].     The   drinking  water  is 
drawn  up  (11)  from  the  closet  cis- 
tern.    Tiie   container,   of  iron  (8), 
gets    inconceivably   foul.       The    D 
trap  (9)  is  the  worst  and  most  in- 
effective one  known.      The  seal  is 
often  syphoned  and  ineffective. 

The  valve  [19]  is  not  a  good  ar- 
rang.ment.  It  is  water-tight,  so 
that  an  overflow  is  needed  in  case  of 
faulty  action,  and  there  is  always  a 


CLOSET,  WITH  SHORT 
HOPPER 


HEALTH 

cither  by  the  side  of  the  closet  and  flushes  it 
out,  or  into  a  trap,  and  passes  out  of  doors  [22]. 
The  automatic  flushing  gully  (in  principle 
like  a  Dececo  closet)  is  best  out  of  doors  for 
slops  to  discharge  over,  as  it  will  not  clog. 

Syphonage.      One  word  about  syphonage, 
which  is  such  a  trouble  in  ill-managed  closets 
and  traps.     It  always    occurs  when    the  water 
fills  the  full  bore  of  a  pipe,   or  it  may  occur 
by  suction  and  momentum,  when  there  are  three 
or   four   closets    one  above  another    emptying 
down   the  same   pipe.      It  is   obviated  by  the 
ventilation   of  the   soil   pipe   and   by  an   anti- 
syphon  pipe,  2  in.  in  diameter,  inserted  into  the 
crown  of  the  trap  of   all   closets   and 
sinks  except  the  highest.     This  entirely 
stops  all  suction. 

The   soil  pipes   should   be   of    lead, 
4  in.  in   diameter,  und   8   Ib.    to   the 
square  foot,  and  should  be  continued 
to   6   in.  above   the  roof   with  a  wire 
cover.     Iron    is   rougher  and   cheaper, 
but  if  much  hot  water  is  poured  down, 
the  iron  twists  and  wears  out. 
The  pipe  should  be  drawn  lead  without  seam 
and  wiped  joints.     The  joints  are  made  by  a 
tampon  of  wood  which  bulges  out  the  end  of 
lower  pipe.     The  upper  is  rasped  and  fits  in 
smoothly   for   half  an  inch.     The  pipe  is   then 
painted    with    lampblack    for  4   in. — the    two 
inches  are  shaved  tightly  in  each  pipe.     Then 
the   solder   [see  Soldering]   is   poured   on   and 
wiped  with    a   cloth.     Some    joints    are    badly 
made,  the  two  ends   being   heated   and  stuck 
together  with  solder. 

,—,  If  the  soil  pipe  is  inside  the  house 

it  may  have  an  S  disconnecting  trap 
at  the  foot  with  a  fresh-air  inlet, 
but  in  this  case  the  drain  cannot,  of 
course,  be  ventilated  by  the  soil  pipe, 
which  is  closed  by  the  trap  ;  and 
there  must  be  then  a  second  venti- 
lating pipe  from  the  drain  by  the 
side  of  the  trap  to  above  the  roof. 
For  this  and  other  reasons  the  trap 
at  the  foot  of  the  soil  pipe  is  often 
an  evil.  There  must  be  no  curves 


danger  of  water  or  foul  air  entering  by  the  over- 
flow. There  is  a  trapped  box  under  the  valve. 

The  plug  [20]  plunges  up  and  down  and 
splashes  badly.  It  must  have  a  syphon  trap 
below.  If  not  held  up  a  little  time  it  catches  the 
excreta  as  it  is  forced  down  and  jams. 

The  Axis  closet  is  another  modification  [21]. 

Jenning's  side  plug  is  an  improvement  on  the 
short  hopper.  It  holds  more  water  in  the  basin 
and  there  is  less  splashing.  The  disadvantage 
of  the  plug  and  valve  is  that  there  is  foul  air 
Mow  the  plug.  For  large  numbers,  for  use  in 
camp  or  out  of  doors,  a  trough  with  syphon  trap 
and  automatic  flush  with  reversed  ball  valve, 
which  lets  all  out  when  full,  is  most  sanitary 
and  useful  [22]. 

Slop  closets  must  be  used  when  flushing  down 
by  slops  is  insufficient.  Automatic  flushing  is 
used  when  slops  are  not  poured  into  closets  but 
into  a  sink,  and  run  into  a  three-gallon  tipper 
which  discharges  automatically  when  full, 


in  the  pipe,  and  the  top  must  be  30  ft.  laterally, 
and  10  ft.  vertically  from  windows. 

An  unventilated  soil  pipe  ventilates  itself 
when  not  wanted  into  the  house.  Never  allow 
a  trap  or  a  drain  to  be  unventilated.  All 
wastes  and  sinks  should  have  a  syphon  trap 
with  a  screw  to  prevent  foul  "  soap "  air 
entering  the  house,  and  to  wash  out  the  trap. 
Whenever  the  pipe  is  entered  by  others,  as  we 
have  seen,  an  anti-syphonage  pipe  is  needed. 

Where  iron  pipes  are  used  they  should  be 
coated  with  Angus  Smith's  Tar  Solution. 
They  must  have  sockets  and  be  caulked  with 
lead,  and  not  with  putty  or  cement 

Wastes  may  discharge  into  the  hopper  head 
(with  a  wire  cover)  of  stack  pipes.  Rainwater 
pipes  must  never  be  used  as  ventilators  for 
drains. 

All  wastes  must,  by  law,  now  discharge  into 
the  open  air  on  to  a  channel  18  in.  from  the 
gully  trap.  This  law,  however,  is  not  to  Ix1 

5053 


HEALTH 

commended,  as  it  causes  needless  smells  in  that 
18  inches.  There  is  also  the  danger  of  overflow 
from  the  cistern. 

In  yard  traps,  for  surface  water  of  the  yard, 
the  seal  often  dries  up  and  lets  out  the  gas. 

Unsealable   traps   should  never    .  _^ 

be  used.  Sink  wastes  should  be 
trapped  under  the  sink,  and  go 
into  a  grease  trap,  and  there 
should  be  an  automatic  flush  of 
four  gallons. 

Yard  inlets  to  the  drain  for  air 
are  often  outlets  from  the  soil 
pipe,  if  the  air  in  it  is  warmer 

than   the  drain.      A  4-in.  flush  

of   a  large  closet  will  draw  the 

fresh  air  out  of  the  inlet ;  inlets,         15.  "  WASH-OFT 


•and  has  nearly  gone  out.  The  modern  plan  of  a 
reservoir  of  galvanised  iron,  tested  to  20  Ik 
to  square  inch  is  very  good.  Where  there  is 
nothing  but  the  boiler  and  hot  cistern  and  the 
two  pipes  explosions  are  common,  but  when  the 

-rjrwMMtnuTf,      intermediate    reservoir    is    used 

they  are  unknown. 

We  will  conclude  with  domestic 
refuse,  which  includes  excreta, 
slops,  kitchen  waters  and  grease, 
bones  and  scraps,  broken  iron  and 
crockery,  dust,  ashes,  cinders, 
and  rubbish  generally. 

London  house  refuse  works 
out  at  4  cwt.  per  head  per 
annum ;  in  the  country,  7-10 
cwt.  Points  to  be  noted  in  this 


therefore,  are   often  dangerous,  «.  Basin 
and  should  not  be  Hear  windows.   beal,  c-  * 
All      gully     traps     should     be 
self-cleansing,     for    they    are    never    cleansed. 
Briefly,  the  dangers  attending  domestic  sanita- 
tion are  these  :   Bad  seals,  dry  seals,  syphonage, 
wastes  discharge  with  drain,  unventilated  drain 
in  soil   pipes,   the   possi- 
bility of   the   water  seal 
being   destroyed    by    sy- 
phonage, and  pressure  of 
gas      and      evaporation, 
these     matters     are     so 
simple  that  they  can  be 
seen  to  by  any  intelligent 
householder  without   any 
difficulty,  and  are  of  great 
importance  to  health. 


16.  SYPHON  CLOSET 

I,.  Second  trap 


CLOSET 

b.  Level  of  water  forming   connection    are   speedy   removal 
Drain111"0  f°rm    °^    excreta,   prevention    of    foul 
deposits    and  escape  of  gas,  the 
ventilation  of  all  pipes,  and  provision  against 
sewer  gas  in  the  house. 

Each  person  loses  £  Ib.  of  solids  and  1  quart  of 
fluid  daily.  There  "must,  therefore,  be  good 
drains,  well  laid  and 
accessible,  ventilated,  and 
not  under  the  house. 
Good  closets,  lighted,  in 
outside  wall,  ventilated, 
with  windows.  All  wastes 
must  discharge  in  open 
air.  There  must  be 
separate  closet  systems. 


17.  CENTURY  CLOSET 


Sewer  gas  contains  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
ammonia,  and  4  per  cent.  CO .  and  germs.  It  may 
produce  peritonitis,  puerperal  fever,  pneumonia, 
sore  throats,  typhoid,  or  erysipelas.  Sewer  gas 
may  be  inodorous.  Inmates  of  hospi- 
tals have  been  poisoned  from  the  top 
of  the  soil  pipe  being  ventilated  by 
the  larder,  and  people  have  been 
poisoned  by  the  nearness  of  the  soil 
pipe  to  an  open  cistern  in  the 
roof. 

In  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  an 
epidemic  of  typhoid  was  traced  to  the 
splash  of  a  closet  pan  into  the  lead 
safe  beneath.  A  pipe  drew  up  the 
germs  into  the  main,  and  poisoned 
the  water  supply. 

The  drains  should  be  tested  by 
water  pressure  and  by  smoke 
test.  Half  an  ounce  of  oil  of 
peppermint,  placed  in  the  highest 
closet,  can  soon  be  detected  be- 
low if  there  is  leakage  anywhere. 

Cisterns.  Cisterns  should  he 
covered,  and  dark.  The  cubic 
feet  multiplied  by  six  gives  the 


18.  PAN  CLOSET 

2.  Air-pipe 
-.  Ball  cock    5 „        _ 

contents  in  gallons,  and,  divided   <>.  Seat   7.  closet  basin    8.  Con- 


by    five,   the    number    of    people   **'"«*  .(,ir°n> 

it  will    supply.      If    they    are   of 

lead,  they  must  not  Ix?  scraped  when  cleaned. 

Hot  water  supply  is  often  dangerous.  The 
old  fashion  of  a  tap  in  the  boiler,  or  draw- 
ing off  water  direct  from  the  boiler,  is  bad, 

.-><  »r.  1 


and     an    abundant    con- 
stant   supply    of     water. 
No  leakage  and  no  waste-pipe  in  bed-rooms. 

The  old  insanitary  brick  ashpit  is  now  done 
away  with,   and   the  new  galvanised  dustbin, 
with  lid,  has  taken  its  place  [23].     It  must  not 
contain  more  than  one  week's  refuse, 
and    should    be     about    15    in.    by 
18  in.,  with  perforations  at  the  bottom 
of  each  side.      The  capacity  should 
not  be  above  2  cubic  ft.     No  decom- 
posing or  wet  matter  must  'be  thrown 
on  it,  but  should  be  burnt. 

House  refuse  should  not  be  mixed 
with  manure  and  spread  on  a  field. 
At  Hendon  this  practice  caused  an 
outbreak  of  diphtheria.  Town  manure 
is  kept  above  the  ground  in  places 
\\ith  cement  bottoms  and  wire  re- 
movable cages  round.  No  manure 
heaps  are  allowed  in  town  stables. 

Prevention  of  Disease. 
The  tables  appearing  on  page  505G 
give  a  list  of  some  of  the  most 
common  diseases,  with  the 
time  of  incubation  and  length 
of  the  duration  of  infection. 
The  school  law,  showing  when 
a  child  may  return,  is  also  given, 

!i.DnS  £2  a"d  *  j %one  that  should  *»  strictl>' 

adhered  to. 

We  should  now  consider  the  principal  pre- 
ventives against  disease. 

1.  Modify  susceptibility  by  protective  inocu- 
lation. 


2.  Attention     to    health     measures    against 
specific  causes. 

3.  Stamp  out  by  compulsory  notification  and 
immediate  removal  to  special  hospital. 

4.  Isolate  every  case. 

5.  Isolate  and  watch  each  person  for  14  days, 
and  destroy  all   infected  clothing.     Quarantine 
is  ineffectual. 

6.  Always   notify  an   outbreak 
of  disease  to   schools   and  close 
them  in  epidemics. 

7.  Revaccinate  persons  over  14, 
also  when  an  epidemic  of  small- 
pox is  about. 

8.  Disinfect  all  clothing,  furni- 
ture, and  rooms.     All  clothes  and 
linen,     etc.,     should     be     boiled 
before  being  sent  to  the  laundry. 
Steam    is  better    than    heat  for 
cleansing. 

air  least  so. 


19.    VALVE    CLOSET 

Moving  steam  is  most  effectual,  dry 


HEALTH 

ganate  of  potash  5  per  cent.,  osmic  acid  1  per 
cent.,  and  carbolic  acid  5  per  cent.  Deodorisers 
mask  the  smell  only,  while  antiseptics  stop  the 
growth  of  the  germs. 

The  Lyons  disinfecting  steam  chamber  con- 
sists of  superheated  steam.  Steam  is  raised 
to  three  atmospheres,  or  30  Ib.  steam  pressure. 
This  steam  is  made  to  circulate 
in  an  outer  jacket,  and  the  heat 
in  an  inner  chamber.  The  steam 
is  turned  on  for  twenty  minutes,  and 
then  turned  off,  while  the  heat  of 
the  chamber  dries  the  articles. 
Steam  at  220°  F.  for  eight  hours, 
Q  or  250°  F.  for  one  hour,  or  270°  F. 
for  fifteen  minutes,  kills  all  ordi- 
nary germs. 

If  one  cannot  disinfect  by  steam, 
the   articles  should  be  soaked  in 


Drying  alone  does  not  kill  the  spores  of  germs, 
or  even  the  bacteria  in  all  cases.  Steam  is  best, 
because  of  the  latent  heat  required  to  raise  water 
at  212°  F.  to  steam  requires  1,000  times  more 
heat  than  to  raise  water  from  211°  F.  to  212°  F. 
This  heat 
steam  parts 
with  when 
penetrating 
the  cold 
clothes.  Hot 
air  has  no 
such  latent 
heat  to  give 
out.  It 


carbolic  (50  per  cent.)  for  twenty- four  hours. 
Fumigation  is  rarely  quite  efficacious  and  never 
when  done  at  home.  One  cannot  disinfect  an 
inhabited  room. 

Notification  of  Disease.  Increasing 
compulsion  is  being  placed  on  the  doctor  to  notify 
all  infectious  diseases.  It  is  needed  because 


con- 
ceal    t  h  e  i  r 


should    be 
borne     in 
mind  that  r--^,-, 
bacteria,    and 


20.  PLUG  CLOSET 


bend 

perchloride  of  mercury  kills  all 
TOGO    perchloride    of    mercury 
destroys  all  spores. 

Disinfection      After      Disease.       Hot 

chambers  and  two  separate  rooms  should  be  used 
for  disinfecting  by  steam,  with  heat  not  over 
250°  F.,  or  it  will  scorch.  For  disinfecting  rooms, 
3  Ib.  of  sulphur  will  do  for  each  1,000  cubic  ft., 
or  sulphurous  acid  can  be  set  free.  One 
per  cent,  of  sulphurous  acid  in  the  air 
kills  all  germs,  but  even  6  per  cent,  will 
not  kill  all  spores. 

Never  less  than  1  Ib.  per  1,000  cubic 
ft.  should  be  used  for  dry  burning.  This 
produces  SO.,;  but  the  active  disin- 
fectant is  H,SO:;  or  SO.2  +  H20  (water) ; 
therefore,  before  fuming  the  room,  the 
walls  should  be  well  moistened  with 
water  or  steam. 

Typhoid  fever  requires  that  an  equal 
quantity  of  5  per  cent.  H  S04  (sulphuric  acid) 
and  permanganate  of  potash  be  added  to  the 
volume  of  each  stool.  This  is  a  real  steriliser. 
Carbolic  acid  is  used  to  kill  all  germs  but 
typhoid.  Lime  should  be  added  before  empty- 
ing it  into  the  drain,  in  order  to  neutralise  the 
acid. 

The  only  solutions  that  have  destroyed  spores 
in  twenty-four  hours  are  chlorine,  bromine, 
and  iodine  water,  chloride  of  mercury,  perman- 


21.  AXIS  CLOSET 

Connection  between  outlet  and  lead 


22.  SLOP  SINK 


der  water 


23.    DUSTBIN 

Capacity,  2  cubic  ft. 


The  dis- 
eases to  be 
notified  are : 
Smallpox, 
cholera, 
scarlet  fever, 
typhoid 
fever,  re- 
laps  i  n  g 

fever,  continued  and  puerperal  fever,  and 
measles.  Influenza,  mumps,  chicken-pox,  Ger- 
man measles,  and  consumption  are  still  exempt. 
Notification  can  never  stamp  out  all  cases,  for 
some  are  very  mild,  and  escape  recognition, 
although  they  may  often,  of  course,  be  just  as 
infectious. 

Isolation.  To  ensure  complete  isolation 
the  patient  should  be  in  an  empty  room 
at  the  top  of  the  house,  with  a  sheet  satu- 
rated with  carbolic  acid  (5  per  cent.)  and 
water  before  the  door.  The  window  should 
remain  open,  and  the  room  should  con  tain 
no  furniture  or  carpet.  A  special  nurse 
should  be  engaged  and  no  one  else 
should  enter  the  room  but  the  doctor. 
The  nurse's  hair  should  be  covered,  and 
a  linen  or  cotton  washing-dress  worn. 
All  utensils  should  be  immersed  in  water 
containing  a  proportion  of  3  per  cent, 
of  carbolic  acid,  and  all  linen  soaked.  Hags 
should  be  used  for  handkerchiefs  and  after- 
wards burnt.  Carbolic  soap  should  be  used 
for  washing,  and  carbolic  oil,  if  oil  is  needed, 
should  be  used  on  the  body — the  best  is  acid 
carbolic,  1  drachm ;  eucalyptus,  3  drachms ; 
and  olive  oil,  8  oz. 

Disinfection  consists  in  destroying  germs, 
and  not  only  in  removing  smells  or  arresting 
putrefaction.  Condy's  Fluid  is  an  antiseptic. 

5055 


HEALTH 

Nuisances.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place 
here  to  consider  what  constitutes  a  "  nuisance." 
The  following  are  those  which  may  be  abated 
under  the  Health  Acts  : 

1.  Any  premises  that  are  in  such  a  sta,te  as  to 
be  a  nuisance  or  injurious  or  dangerous  to  health. 

2.  Any     pool,     ditch,     gutter,     watercourse, 
cistern,  water-closet,  earth-closet,  privy,  urinal. 
cesspool,  drain,  clungpit,  or  ashpit  so  foul  or  in 
such  a  state  as  to  be  a  nuisance  or  injurious  or 
dangerous  to   health.     This  is  commonly  put 
in  force  for  defective  drains. 

3.  Any  animal  kept  in  such  a  place  or  manner 
as  to  be  a  nuisance  or  injurious  or  dangerous 
to  health. 

4.  Any  accumulation  or  deposit  which  is  a 
nuisance  or  injurious  or  dangerous  to  health. 
This  does  not  apply  to  accumulation  in  connec- 
tion with  certain  trades,  but  to  dustbins,  manure 
heaps,  rag  and  bone  shops,  etc. 

5.  Any  house  so  overcrowded  as  to  be  in- 
jurious or  dangerous  to  health  of  inmates.     This 
is  an  important  provision,  especially  when  whole 
families  in  such  numbers  sleep  in  single  rooms. 
Provisions  as  to  overcrowding  are  not  put  in  force 
as  thev  should  be,  either  for  health  or  morality. 

6.  The  absence  from  any  premises  of  the  water 
fittings  prescribed  by  the  Act,  thus  rendering  the 
house  unfit  for  habitation. 

7.  An  unoccupied  house  without  a  proper  and 
sufficient  supply  of  water. 

8.  Any  factory  or  workshop  wrhich  is  not  a 
factory  according  to  the  Act,  and  which : 

(a)  Is  not  kept  clean  and  free  from  effluvia 

of  drains,  closets  or  other  nuisances. 

(b)  Is  not  ventilated  so  as  to  be  harmless,  and 

contains  gases,  vapour,  or  dust  that  are 

a  nuisance  or  dangerous  to  health  being 

carried  off. 
(e)  Is  so  overcrowded  while  work  is  carried  on 

as  to  be  injurious  or  dangerous  to  health. 
(The  offensive  trades  are  dealt  with  separately. 
This  aims  at  home  workshops  and  sweating  dens.) 

9.  Any  tent,  van  or  shed  which  is  a  nuisance, 
or  so  overcrowded  as  to  be  injurious  or  dangerous 
to  health. 

10.  Any  fireplace  or  furnace  which  does  not  as 
far  as  possible  consume  its  own  smoke. 

Respecting  nuisances  the  sanitary  authority 
can  mak^  any  one  of  four  orders.  They  can  : 

(1)  Abate  the  nuisance — an  abatement  order. 

(2)  Forbid  its  recurrence — a  prohibition  order. 

(3)  Combine  the  two  first — a  combination  order. 

(4)  Close  the  premises — a  closing  order. 
Disobedience   to   a  nuisance   order   may   be 

punished  by  a  fine  of  20s.  a  day  and  upwards. 

If  an  owner  or  occupier  fails  to  abate  a  nuisance 
the  sanitary  authority  has  power  to  take  all  steps 
and  execute  all  work  necessary  and  charge  the 
expense  to  the  owner. 

With  regard  to  tenanted  houses,  the  Act  re- 
quires that  any  sanitary  authority  shall  make 
and  enforce  such  by-laws  as  are  necessary  for  : 

(1)  Fixing  the  number  of  persons  who  may 
occupy  any  house,  or  part  of  a  house,  let  in 
lodgings,  and  regulate  the  separation  of  the 
sexes  as  needed. 


TAl'.LK  OF  INFECTIOl'S  DISEASES 

Di-eate. 

luimlKition. 

DunitioM  of 

bifetttion. 

Chicken  -pox 
Cholera 
Diphtheria 
Diarrhoea 
Enteric,  or  typhoid 
Erysipelas 
Influenza 
Measles 
German  measles    .  . 
Mumps 

10  to  14  days 
1         ,">     .. 
1         8     ,, 
I         4     „ 
S       14     , 

i      5  .; 
i    21   ;, 

s       20     „ 
6       12     .. 
14  .,  22     .. 

:!  weeks 

1        ., 

l 

Scarlet  fever 
Smallpox    .  . 
Phthisis 
Typhus 
\Vhooping-cough 

'•• 

1  „     6     ,. 
—     12     ., 
not   known 
6  „  14     .. 
4  ,,  14 

li  1  o  ,-.    .  , 

f. 

4 

s 

l 

SCHOOL    LAW    AFFECTING    DISK 

Disease. 

incubation.         ^^^E^  » 

Smallpox 
Chicken-pox    .  . 
Scarlet  fever  .  . 

Diphtheria 
Measles    .  . 
Whooping-cough 
(i-erman  measles 
Mumps 

18  days 
18 
14 

12 
16 
21 
16 
24 

When  scabs  are  gone 
When  scabs  are  gone 
6  to  8  weeks,  and  all  peel- 
ing over 
3  weeks,  and  no  sore  throat 
3  weeks,  and  no  cough 
6  weeks,  and  no  cough 
2  weeks,  and  no  cough 
4  weeks,  and  no  cough 

(2)  Registering  such  houses  so  let  and  occupied. 

(3)  Inspecting  such  houses. 

(4)  Enforcing  drainage,  cleanliness,  and  venti- 
lation of  such  houses. 

(5)  Cleansing    and    whitewashing    at    stated 
times. 

(6)  Precaution  in  case  of  infectious  disease. 
Cases  of  infectious  diseases  must  be  notified, 

removed  and  tb.3  house, .  etc.,  disinfected.  On 
notice  being  given  all  articles  must  be  disinfected 
or  destroyed,  or  the  sanitary  authority  can 
enter  at  any  time  between  6  a.m.  and  9  p.m. 
for  this  purpose. 

Trade  Nuisances.  Trades  that  arc- 
offensive  but  not  necessarily  unhealthy  are  bone, 
blood,  soap  and  fat  boiling. 

Trades  that  are  unhealthy  but  not  offensive 
are  lime,  cement  and  charcoal  burning.  None 
of  these  must  be  established  near  London. 

The  manufacture  of  fat,  tallow,  candle,  soap, 
blood,  bone,  phosphate ;  or  the  carrying  on  of 
tripe  boiling,  curing,  tanning,  glue  works, 
manure  wrorks,  sewerage  and  scavenging  may  be 
classed  under  offensive  and  unwholesome  smells. 

Poison  works  by  contact,  absorption,  in- 
gestion,  inhalation — as  arsenic,  mercury,  lead 
and  antimony  work,  ussd  as  colours  in  wall- 
papers, bronzing,  gilding,  artificial  flowers, 
matches,  hat  and  enamel  work. 

Nuisances  from  offensive  trades  should  be 
prevented  by  providing  increased  cubic  space, 
perfect  ventilation,  screens,  splashboards,  fans 
to  carry  off  dust,  machines  for  doing  hard  work,- 
non-poisonous  ingredients  used ;  by  insisting  on 
no  meals  being  taken  in  workshops,  lavatories, 
disinfection  before  entry,  mechanical  stokers  for 
furnaces,  respirators  in  poisonous  trades. 

[Illustrations  4-20  and  23  are  reproduced  from 
"  Diagrammettes,"  by  W.  H.  Knight ;  21  and  22 
by  permission  of  Messrs.  Twyford,  Ltd.] 


Continued 


BRIDLES  AND  OTHER  SADDLERY 

The  Manufacture  of  Bridles,  Winkers,  Cheeks, 
Nosebands,     Chin-straps,     and    Throat-lashes 


Group  20 

LEATHER 
16 


continued  from 
puge  4887 


By  W.  S.  MURPHY 


Bridles.  The  stuff  has  all  been  cut  and 
lies  ready  to  hand  for  the  bridles.  As  the  more 
elaborate  and  inclusive,  the  cart  bridle  is  the 
most  interesting  and  important  to  learn. 
Machine  manufacturers  have  introduced  novel 
modes  of  procedure  ;  but  the  hand  method 
has  always  been  to  make  the  parts  first,  and  then 
to  build  them  together. 

Winkers.  Race  the  sides  with  three  deep 
grooves,  edge  with  the  edge  tool,  and  blacken 
the  edges.  Soak  in 
water  a  short  time, 
bend  inwards  to  a 
half  circle,  and  nail 
the  winkers  down 
on  a  board  to  dry 
in  that  shape. 
When  dry,  heat  a 
bevelling  iron  and 
polish  the  "raced 
grooves. 

The  winkers  ha  ve 
buckles  and  cross - 
belt  in  front,  but 
the  body  of  the 
winkers  affords  no 
hold  for  buckles. 
We  have  therefore 
to  make  chapes  or 
loops  of  leather.  Cut  and  sew  on  the  chapes 
and  put  in  the  buckles. 

Cheeks.  Turn  over  the  ends  of  the  cheek - 
straps  and  meet  them  in  the  centre,  flattening 
down  the  bends  with  the  hammer.  Cut  a  hole 
•for  the  buckle  at  one  end,  and  another  in  the 
centre  of  the  strap,  slitting  Jt  out  to  both  sides 
and  skiving  down  the  edges  of  the  slit.  Fine 
the  outer  side  pf  the  cheeks  with  the  edge  tool, 
race  double  lines  on  the  upper  half,  blacken  the 
edges  and  the  lines,  and  polish  with  a  soft  rag. 
With  the  pricker-wheel  mark  the  lines  for  stitch- 
ing, put  the  buckle  in  place,  and  the  bit  ring 
at  the  other  end,  then  sew  the  ends  of  the  cheek 
together.  Both  cheek-straps  are 
made  alike,  with  the  exception 
that  the  faces  are  reversed. 

Noseband.  Double  back  the 
ends  of  the  noseband,  making  it 
about  1  ft.  4  in.  in  si/e ;  shave 
the  turned-in  ends,  and  punch  a 
hole  in  the  centre  of  the  band 
at  each  side,  slitting  out  from 
both  holes.  Edge  the  sides  of  the 
noseband  where  it  is  not  double, 
race  two  lines  along  it,  and  deepen,  with  the 
heated  bevelling  iron.  Mark  the  lines  for 
stitching  on  the  doubled  sides. 

Forehead     Band.       The    forehead    band 
itself  is  very  simple  ;  but  it  joins  on  to  the  ear 
1  x  28 


STRAP-CUTTING    MACHINE 


piece,  which  needs  some  managing.  Edge, 
crease,  blacken,  and  polish,  and  deepen  the 
grooves  with  the  beveller.  Double  the  ear  piece 
and  flatten  down  and  shave  the  undermost  end. 
Crease  and  rub  the  top  side  ;  mark  off  from  the 
bend  as  much  space  as  will  allow  of  a  broad  belt 
to  slip  easily  through  ;  prick  for  stitching  the 
rest  of  the  ear  piece  ;  stitch  across  and  along. 
Make  the  other  ear  piece  the  same  ;  sew  them 
on  each  end  of  the  forehead  band,  and  at  the 
joints  cut  a  small  V 
nick  for  the  tongue 
of  the  buckle. 

Corner  Piece 
and  Chin=strap. 
Corner  pieces  are 
meant  to  ease 
the  joint  between 
the  noseband 
and  the  cheek  ; 
they  are  cut  to 
shape  and  skived 
to  pass  in  between 
the  bend  ends  of 
the  noseband,  on 
one  side,  and  the 
cheeks  on  the  other. 
Small  straps  are 
cut  with  a  machine 
as  shown  in  9,  Cut  the  short  side  of  the  chin- 
strap  in  a  slant  from  the  breadth  of  2  in.  to 
|  in.  at  the  end  ;  thin  the  long  part  of  the  strap 
down  to  |  in.  broad  all  but  2  in.  of  its  length ; 
turn  back,  and  make  a  hole  for  the  buckle  in  the 
narrow  end  ;  crease,  blacken,  and  rub  up  both 
parts,  and  place  the  buckle. 

Head=strap.      Narrow    the  ends;    crease, 
blacken,  and  finish. 

Throat=lash.  This  is  a  typical  strap,  and 
is  treated  exactly  as  has  been  formerly  described. 
Turn  down  at  the  end,  make  a  hole  for  the  tongue 
of  the  buckle,  narrow  the  point  of  the  strap; 
crease,  black  and  finish ;  sew  in  buckle  and  loop. 
Stitching  the  Bridle.  The 
cheeks  form  the  backbone,  so  to 
say,  of  the  bridle.  Bring  the 
forehead  band  between  the  cheeks 
and  fix  them  together  with  nails. 
On  the  lower  ends  of  the  cheeks 
we  have  a  ring,  and  into  this  the 
noseband  is  linked.  Strengthen 
the  link  by  slipping  the  corner 
pieces  into  the  fold  of  the  nose- 
band and  the  chape  of  the  cheek. 
Adjust  the  winkers  close  to  the  forehead  band, 
and  bring  up  the  cheeks  level  with  a  piece  of 
leather  the  same  thickness  as  the  winkers,  the 
breadth  of  the  cheeks.  Set  the  chin  -straps,  the 
one  with  the  buckle  going  on  the  left  side  of  the 

5057 


BEVELLING    OR    SKIVING 
MACHINE 


LEATHER 

bridle,  viewing  it  from  the  front  of  the  horse. 
Stitch  the  outside  lines  of  both  cheeks  first ; 
tack  in  the  noseband  on  each  side  and  continue 
the  sewing  up  the  inner  side  of  the  cheeks. 
Stiu-h  the  inner  side  of  the  noseband  ;  level  the 
edges  all  round,  scraps, 
black,  and  rub  with  tal- 
low or  smoothing-bone. 
Fix  in  winker  straps, 
headband,  and  throat- 
lash,  and  finish  off  in 
the  manner  already 
described. 

Reins.  We  have 
here  two  reins,  one  long 
and  one  short.  Let  us 
begin  with  the  short 
rein,  and  turn  it  over  at 
one  end  for  the  buckle 
chape,  at  the  other  to 
go  over  the  ring  of  the 
bit.  Put  four  rows  of 
stitching  on  at  the  ring 
end,  and  sew  firmly  the 
buckle.  Stitch  the  long 
rein  into  the  other  ring, 
and  adjust  it. 

Several  small  details, 
such  as  trimming  [11],  bevelling  and  skiving 
[10],  come  up  in  actual  working  which  can 
hardly  be  set  down  within  reasonable  compass ; 
but  they  suggest  themselves  as  the  work  grows 
under  your  hand. 

Van  Bridles.  The  bridles  used  in  van 
work  are  different  in  form  and  kind  of  leather 
from  carthorse  bridles. 

WinRers.  The  main  body  of  the  winker 
is  the  plate,  which,  of  course,  we  get  ready-made. 
Cut  out  the  leather  \  in.  larger  than  the  plate 
front  and  side,  and  f  in.  larger  at  the  back. 
Race  a  double  line  all  round 
the  edges  ;  prick  the  lines 
for  stitching,  and  stitch  the 
inner  line  with  a  double 
thread  of  black  linen.  Cut 
the  lining  to  size,  put  the  top 
on  it  with  a  little  stuffing, 
and  sew  round  three  sides, 
leaving  the  back  open.  Fig. 
12  shows  a  machine  used  for 
this  purpose.  Soak  the 
leather  in  water,  and  then 
<-<>a1  the  inside  of  what  is 
practically  a  bag  with  a  thick 
coating  of  paste.  Thrust  in 
the  plate  into  each  winker, 
bringing  the  iron  close  up  to 
ili<-  front  stitching;  rub  well 
down  on  both  sides  to  stick 
.•II  dose  together  ;  put  a  soft 
pad  under  the  lining  of  the 
b< t;i  I'd,  and  fix  down  the 
winkers  to  dry. 

Cheeks.    Take  the  strip 


11.    TRIMMING    MAfHTNE 


band   is   lined   on    the 


12.     SADDLERS'     AND     HARNESS- MAKERS 
SEWING    MACHINE 

;<  heady  cut ;  measure  Sin.  from  the  end  and  mark  The  Pelham  bridle  has  a  noseband,  and  thv- 

for  a   billet  ;  from  that  mark  measure  Sin.  and      Wymouth  has  a  double  head;    but  these  have 


edge,  black,  and  crease  along  the  billet  part  ; 
groove  on  the  under  side  half  the  thickness  of  the 
leather.  Set  the  buckles  in  place  and  fix  the 
winkers  on  the  cheeks,  the*  bottom  of  the  winker 
coming  level  with  the  end  turned  up  from  the 
cheek-strap.  Hold  the 
edges  down  with  tacks. 
Special  features  of 
this  class  of  bridle  are 
the  loops,  which  are 
large  and  important. 
Having  cut  the  loops, 
7  in.  by  If  in.,  from 
good  stiff  leather,  form 
them  square  on  the  loop 
stick,  then  set  the  side 
of  one  half-way  under 
the  cheek,  stitch  it  in  the 
groove,  and  bring  over 
the  other  side  of  the 
loop  in  the  same  way. 
The  other  cheek  is 
treated  similarly.  Next, 
the  loop  is  ornamented 
in  the  usual  style. 

The  other  specialities 
of  the  van  bridle  may  be 
briefly  given.  The  nose- 
inner  side.  Forehead 
band,  headband,  and  throat-lash  join  together 
in  a  rosette  at  the  top  of  the  cheek-straps,  the 
ear  and  corner  pieces  being  absent. 

Riding  Bridles.  Curiously  enough,  the 
riding  bridle  is  at  once  the  simplest  and  finest 
of  all  its  kind ;  cut  out  of  the  very  best  light 
leather,  and  sewn  wi  th  silk  or  the  highest  grades 
of  lint. 

The  cheeks  of   a  riding  bridle  have  buckles 
at  each  end,  one  held  by  a  chape  turned  over 
and  one  by  a  billet  sewn  on  to  the  back.     Set 
the  buckles  in  place,  leaving 
space  for    a   loop  in  front; 
stitch  from  the  back  in  order 
that  the  best  face  of  the  stitch- 
ing may  lie  to  the  horse. 

As  the  head-strap  has  to 
join  the  throat-lash  and  the 
cheeks,  it  must  be  kept 
broad;  slit  it  5  in.  on  each 
side.  Take  the  front  band 
and  bend  over  each  end  so 
as  to  enclose  the  head-strap 
comfortably  and  leave  room 
for  stitching.  Turn  down  the 
throat-lash  for  the  buckles, 
and  fit  into  place.  Now  stitch 
down  all  the  ends  with  a 
double  roAv  of  stitching.  The 
stitching  of  the  bridle  re- 
quires to  be  neatly  and 
soundly  done,  not  only  for 
the  appearance,  but  also  for 
the  wearing  quality  of  the 
bridle. 


make  a  band. 


Punch  a  buckle  hole  at  each  end ;       already  been  shown. 
Continued 


THE   BAGPIPES 

Distinguishing  Features  of  the  Scottish  and  Irish  Bagpipes.     The 
Parts.     Fingering.     Grace   Notes  and  Other  Effects.     Exercises 


Group  22 

MUSIC 
35 

Continued  from 
page  4901 


By    ALGERNON    ROSE 


SCOTTISH     BAGPIPES 

To-day,  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  we  possess 
the  most  highly  developed  examples  of  the  two 
great  varieties  of  the  bagpipe.  First,  we  have 
those  blown  by  the  mouth,  and  secondly,  those 
inflated  by  bellows  worked  under  the  arm; 

The  air  which  supplies  the  Scots'  pipes  is  con- 
tained in  a  receptacle  of  leather  held  under  the 
left  arm  [1].  In  this  bag  are  five  holes,  which 
furnish  sockets  for  as  many  tubes.  First,  we 
have  the  blow-pipe,  which  supplies  as  much 
breath  as  will  keep  the  skin  well  filled  ;  secondly, 
there  is  the  chanter,  or  melody  pipe,  which  plays 
the  tune  to  which  the  troops  march.  Thirdly, 
fourthly,  and  fifthly,  we  have  the  drone  pipes,  or 
stocks,  which  give  accompanying  sounds  to  the 
air.  At  the  base  of  each  drone-stock  is  a  single 
beating  reed.  The  chanter,  however,  at  its 
apex,  is  furnished  with  a  double  reed  somewhat 
akin  to  that  of  the  hautboy. 

The  Chanter.  The  beginner,  before 
attempting  to  play  on  the  entire  instrument, 
must  first  take  up  what  is  known  as  a  "  prac- 
tising chanter."  Such  a  pipe  costs  from  5s. 
to  £1,  according  to  the  make  and  finish.  The 
tube  is  pierced  by  seven  holes — four  large  and 
three  small.  In  the  mouthpiece  joint  is  situated 
the  double  reed,  over  which  is  screwed  a  wooden 
tube  or  cover,  tapering  almost  to  a  point.  Place 
this  end  in  the  mouth,  and  blow.  The  breath  Avill 
cause  the  reed  within  to  vibrate  and  produce  the 
tone  of  the  open  note.  The  melody  scale  of  the 
bagpipe  is  confined  to  seven  sounds.  Formerly, 
these  had  separate  Celtic  names,  by  which  alone 
they  were  known.  To-day,  although  they  are 
not  quite  in  tune  with  our  scale,  they  are  repre- 
sented by  the  notes  which  run  from  G  on 
the  second  line,  treble  clef,  to  F, 
on  the  fifth  line.  This  compass 
may  appear  exceedingly  simple  ; 
yet,  although  there  are  no  sharps 
or  flats,  the  wonderful  way  in 
which  melodies  are  embroidered 
by  a  wealth  of  grace  notes 
dexterously  interpolated  neces- 
sitates long  and  persevering 
study  before  the  instrument  can 
be  mastered. 

Hand  Position.  Beginning 
with  the  practising  chanter, 
detaohed  from  the  bag  with  drones,  place 
the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  uppermost  so 
as  to  stop  the  three  top  holes.  The  first, 
second,  third,  and  fourth  fingers  of  the  right 
hand  cover  the  lower  holes.  The  latter  fingers 
must  be  placed  well  across  the  chanter,  so  that 
the  smallest  easily  stops  the  lowest  ventage. 
Whereas  in  flute,  clarionet,  and  hautboy  playing 


b.  Chanter 


(Mahillon  &  Co.) 


the  tips  of  the  fingers  and  a  very  light  surface 
touch  is  used,  in  Scottish  bagpipe  playing  this 
is  not  the  case.  Do  not  stop  the  holes  with  the 
finger-tips.  Cover  them  by  the  fleshy  part  of 
the  finger  between  the  middle  joints.  "Keep  the 
thumb  exactly  under  the  right  second  finger  to 
give  proper  leverage  for  the  digits  above.  Place 
the  left  thumb  on  the  hole  at  the  back  of  the 
chanter,  the  left  first,  second,  and  third  fingers 
stopping  the  apertures  above.  In  playing,  the 
fingers  must  not  be  curved,  but  must  fall  rigidly 
upon  the  holes  without  being  bent. 

To  make  this  action  more  emphasised,  raise 
each  finger  high  above  the  chanter  so  that,  as 
it  descends,  it  may  give  a  report  without  the 
assistance  of  the  breath.  Later  on,  when  the 
student  gets  facility  in  the  playing  of  grace 
notes,  and  the  fingers  have  to  move  rapidly,  the 
endeavour  should  be  to  make  them  fall  on  the 
pipe  with  the  strength  of  small  steel  bars,  so  that 
when  each  finger  is  lifted  it  may  be  taken  away 
cleanly,  in  order  that  every  note  may  be  dis- 
tinctly articulated.  Therefore,  in  practice, 
exaggerate  the  finger  movements  at  first.  Lift 
each  digit  stiffly  as  high  as  possible,  and  bring 
it  down  with  force.  Movements  should  all 
be  from  the  knuckle  joint.  We  give  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  chanter,  showing  the  reed,  and 
another  with  the  reed  covered  for  practising 
purposes  [2].  To  the  latter  is  appended  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  way  in  which  every  note  in  the 
scale  is  obtained  in  the  fingering.  Closed  notes 
are  marked  by  an  opaque  disc,  and  open  notes  by 
a  circle.  The  top  G  and  A,  it  will  be  observed, 
have  alternate  methods  of  fingering. 

Fingering.     This  method  of  rigid  playing 
may  be  painful  at  first,  especially  with  the  right 
thumb    held   tightly   under    the 
second  finger.     But  it   must    be 
kept  there,  well  down,  to  give  the 
lower  fingers  their  requisite  power. 
Now  put  down  all  the  fingers 
and  sound  the  low  G,  counting 
four  slowly.    The  little  finger  must 
cover   the   bottom   hole   cleanly. 

THE    SCOTTISH  Now  lift  it>  an(J  blow  the  A,  cOUnt- 

PIPES  mg  four  beats  s\ow\y.      Lift  the 

thir(j_  nnger  &nft  blow  the  B, 
keeping  correct  time.  Lift  the 
second  finger  and  blow  the  C  in 
the  same  manner.  To  get  the  D,  lift  the  first 
right  finger  and  put  down  the  little  finger  on 
the  bottom  hole.  For  the  E  above,  raise  the 
third  left  finger,  and,  simultaneously,  the  little 
right  finger,  whilst  the  first,  second,  and  third 
right  fingers  are  brought  down.  If  this  is  not 
done  cleanly,  the  note  A  will  be  heard  to  sound 
in  between,  and  the  effect  will  be  spoilt,  Be 

5059 


a.    Blowpipe 
c,  d,  e.  Drones 


MUSIC 

very  particular,  therefore,  to  make  the  change 
correctly,  and  repeat  the  notes  D  and  E  until  the 
result  issatisfactory.  To  get  F  after  the  E  is  easy, 
,is  the  same  fingering  is  used,  except  that  the 
second  left  finger  is  raised.  But,  to  get  the  G 
after  the  F  needs  almost  as  much  care  as  changing 
from  D  to  E.  In  putting  back  the  second 
finger  of  the  left  hand  and  raising  the  first,  they 
should  just  pass  each  other,  so  that  no  inter- 
mediate sound  is  heard.  For  the  A  above  the  G, 
remove  the  left  thumb.  Another  way  of  producing 
the  same  note  is  to  leave  open  the  thumb-hole 
and  first  and  second  vents  as  well  as  the  bottom 
hole,  stopping  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
holes  respectively  with  the  third  left  finger  and 
first,  second,  and  third  right  fingers.  With  this 
fingering,  the  top  G  can  also  be  sounded  by 
closing  the  thumb-hole. 

The  Grace  Note.  A  grace  note  means 
an  embellishment,  or  ornament,  to  a  tune  which 
is  being  played.  Although  it  is  not  essential  to 
the  melody,  it  invests  Scottish  bagpipe  playing 
with  a  distinctive  and  peculiar  charm.  Great 
players  please  themselves  as  to  the  way  they 
introduce  such  embellishments,  and  some  pipers, 
between  the  last  up-beat  of  one  bar  and  the  first 
down- beat  of  the  next,  will  execute  distinctly  as 
many  as  eleven  grace  notes.  These  are  called 
"  warblers,"  and  are  said  to  resemble  the 
warbling  of  birds.  It  is  important,  therefore, 
for  the  beginner  to  acquire,  by  diligent  practice, 
the  ability  to  execute  shakes,  double-cuts,  and 
other  graces,  before  attempting  to  play  tunes. 

Beginning  the  scale  again,  introduce,  before 
each  long  sound,  the  first  grace  note,  or  top  G. 
This  is  effected  by  raising,  and  putting  down 
sharply,  the  first  left  finger  on  the  top  hole, 
leaving  all  the  other  holes  meanwhile  closed. 
This  will  give,  first,  the  G  grace  note,  and  then 
the  full  low  G  note.  The  grace  note  should 
always  be  of  the  shortest  possible  duration. 
After  the  low  G  has  been  sounded,  take  off  the 
right  little  finger  and  the  right  third  finger  in 
succession,  so  as  to  blow  the  A  and  B  above 
steadily.  Next,  let  the  top  G  sound  precede 
the  second  note  in  the  scale,  A,  by  raising  the 
first  right  finger,  and,  while  doing  so,  dropping 
the  third  finger  into  position  for  the  low  A. 


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Bringing  the  first  finger  down  smartly  will  sound 
the  G  as  before,  the  low  A  immediately  following 
it.  Then  raise  in  succession  the  second  and  third 
fingers  to  finish  the  triplet  consisting  of  A,  B  and 
C.  Again,  raise  the  grace  note,  dropping  at  the 
same  time  the  second  right  finger,  to  produce  I) 
Stopping  the  top  hole  with  the  first  finger  smartly 
will  give  the  grace  note,  and  lifting  the  second 
and  first  right  fingers  will  sound  the  C  and  D 
above,  provided  the  little  finger  is  put  down  for 
the  latter  note.  • 

The  next  triplet  requires  special  attention. 
Raise  the  grace  note,  putting  back  the  first  right 
finger  for  C,  and  lifting  the  little  finger.  Then 
bring  down  the  first  left  finger  for  the  grace  note, 
and  sound  the  C,  raising  the  first  right  finger  and 
putting  down  the  right  little  finger  for  D,  and 
then  dropping  the  first,  second  and  third  right 
fingers  and  lifting  the  little  finger  as  well  as  the 
third  left  finger  to  give  E.  This  must  be  prac- 
tised until  the  sounds  come  smoothly.  Again, 
raise  the  first  left  finger  for  the  grace  note,  bring- 
ing the  right  fingers  into  position  for  D.  Then 
put  down  the  first  finger  smartly  to  sound  the 
top  G  ;  drop  the  first,  second  and  third  left 
fingers  and  raise  the  little  finger,  together  with 
the  third  right  finger,  for  E,  raising  next  the 
second  left  finger  for  F.  Take  care,  in  the 
finger  changes,  that  they  are  made  with  precision, 
so  that  no  A  may  sound  in  between.  Couple  the 
top  G  with  the  E  by  raising  the  grace  note  and 
dropping  the  second  left  finger.  Then  put  down 
the  grace  note  smartly,  sustaining  the  E,  follow- 
ing this  by  the  F,  by  raising  the  second  left 
finger,  and  the  G,  by  taking  off  the  first  left 
finger  and  putting  down  the  second. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  grace  note  itself. 
To  couple  that  with  the  F  below  is  scarcely 
possible,  so  the  A  grace  note  takes  its  place. 
To  get  this,  raise  the  left  thumb  and  close  the 
holes  smartly.  At  the  same  time,  depress  the 
first  left  finger  and  the  first,  second,  and  third 
right  fingers  for  F.  Repeat  the  sound  G.  Then 
raise  the  thumb  for  A.  If  these  instructions  are 
followed  this  exercise  will  be  found  less  difficult 
to  execute  than  appears  at  first  sight.  [Ex.  1.] 

The  "  High  A  Shake."  Having  learned 
to  interpolate  one  grace  note  before  each  triplet 
without  disturbing  the  steadiness  of  the  latter, 
proceed  to  master  the  introduction  of  two  grace 
notes  by  coupling,  with  the  G,  the  high  A. 
This  is  called  the  "  high  A  shake."  The  G 
finger,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  first  left  finger. 
In  like  manner,  the  A  is  given  by  the  left  thumb 
passing  with  a  smart  upward  movement  over 
the  hole  in  the  back  of  the  chanter.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  before  sounding  high  A 
following  a  low  note  not  to  put  down  the  right 
hand  before  the  left  is  raised.  Now  depress  all 
fingers  for  low  G  and  then  prepare  for  a  long  top 
A  by  raising  the  first  and  second  left  fingers, 
the  little  right  finger,  and  uncovering  the  thumb- 
hole.  Before  sounding  this,  interpolate  the  A 
and  G  grace  notes  by  smartly  closing  the  thumb- 
hole  and  the  top  hole  rapidly  in  succession,  and 
immediately  opening  them  again.  In  the  same 
way  sound  the  low  A  by  stopping  all  the  holes 
except  the  bottom  one  and  preparing  for  the 


top  A,  as  before,  preceding  it  by  the  two  grace 
notes.  Then  sound  the  B,  the  C,  and  D,  in  like 
manner,  always  preparing  for  the  long  A  which 
follows,  making  all  movements  emphatically 
and  cleanly;1  otherwise  the  effect  will  be  spoilt 
by  a  wrong  sound  coming  in  between.  [Ex.  2.] 

Having  doubled  the  high  A  with  the  G  in 
between,  the  student  must  now  double  the  G, 
with  the  F  as  the  passing  note.  The  way  to  join 
the  grace  note  F  to  the  grace  note  G  is  learnt 
by  practising  the  "  high  G  shake."  Tt  will  be 
seen  by  the  diagram  that  to  produce  the  F  and 
G  at  the  top  of  the  treble  clef,  the  first,  second,  and 
third  right  fingers  are  down  for  both  notes,  as 
well  as  the  left  thumb,  but  that  the  first  left 
finger  is  down  for  F  and  the  second  left  finger 
for  G,  all  other  holes  being  left  open.  Yet  the 
G  here  is  not  fingered  according  to  the  scale,  as 
the  whole  of  the  left  hand,  except  the  thumb, 
is  raised.  For  the  G  shake,  therefore,  raise  the 
first,  second,  and  third  left  fingers  as  well  as  the 
little  finger,  striking  the  top  hole  of  the  chanter 
smartly  with  the  first.  Between  the  two  G 
strokes  the  connecting  F  will  sound.  Practise 
in  this  manner  the  high  G  shake  from  the  low 
G  to  the  F  above.  [Ex.  3.] 

Doubling  the  Notes.  Having  doubled  the 
G  with  the  F,  sounding  the  top  G  twice,  endeavour 
now  to  sound  the  top  F  twice,  interpolating  before 
it  the  three  grace  notes,  G,  F,  G,  by  raising  the 
first,  second,  and  third  left  fingers,  always  keep- 
ing the  right  little  finger  up.  Put  down  the  first 
left  finger  smartly,  raise  it,  and  put  it  down 
again.  This  repeated  stroke  by  the  first  left 
finger  gives  the  G,  F,  G  shake  and  the  sustained 
F  to  sound  the  long  note.  The  beginner  must 


Ex.  1 


MUSIC 

work  day  by  day  to  get  the  F  shake  cleanly, 
linking  it  with  the  other  notes  of  the  scale  from 
G  to  E,  and  then  with  the  top  A.  [Ex.  4.] 

Having  doubled  the  A,  G,  and  F,  now  practise 
to  double  the  E.  The  "  E  shake  "  consists  of 
the  grace  notes  G,  E,  and  F  linked  together. 
This  is  done  by  raising  smartly  the  first  and 
third  left  fingers,  keeping  up  the  right  little 
finger.  Bring  the  first  left  finger  down.  Then 
raise  the  second  left  finger  and  put  it  down  also. 
See  that  the  first  is  down  before  the  second 
is  raised.  Before  beginning  the  shake,  always 
sound  the  first  note  of  the  group.  Now  blow  the 
low  G  with  all  the  fingers  down.  Remove  the 
left  fingers.  With  the  thumb  strike  the  octave  G 
above.  Keeping  it  down,  slip  the  first  finger 
over  the  top  hole,  raising  the  second  finger  and 
bringing  it  down  smartly  for  E.  Take  off  the 
E  finger  immediately,  and  strike  the  top  hole  for 
the  F,  repeating  the  E.  The  shake  needs,  of 
course,  careful  practice  before  it  can  be  done 
with  facility.  [Ex.  5.] 

The  D  shake  consists  of  linking  together 
quickly  the  low  G,  D,  and  C  before  the  second 
D  is  sounded.  Close  all  holes  on  the  chanter, 
then  raise  smartly  the  first,  second,  and  third 
fingers  to  get  the  D  above  ;  strike  the  first  right 
finger  for  the  C,  and  then  sustain  the  D,  keeping 
the  little  finger  down.  [Ex.  6.] 

The  Grip.  What  is  known  as  the  "  grip  "  or 
"  round  movement "  is  the  alternation  of  low 
and  high  notes,  preceded  by  appoggiaturas,  the 
first  sustained  note  being  dotted.  Now  the  student 
who  is  familiar  with  musical  theory  may  be 
reminded  that  a  dot  or  point  placed  after  a  note 
increases  its  duration  one -half.  The  next  note 


Ex.  2. 


etc. 


*- — ^ 1 — \—      " ^         I = — 


5061 


MUSIC 


g=p5cE  S£fe»— fe* 


being  diminished  in  proportion,  the  effect  is 
generally  staccato,  or,  at  least,  semi-detached  in 
a  fairly  quick  passage.  In  Highland  music,  the 
interpolation  of  grace  notes  gives  a  swing  or 
jumpiness  to  a  melody  difficult  to  describe  ; 
and  in  reel  playing,  unless  the  fingers  have  been 
trained  to  put  the  grace  notes  in  neatly,  the 
entire  idea  of  the  "  snap  "  is  lost.  Now  endeav- 
our to  get  a  long  A,  preceding  it  by  top  G,  and  a 
long  D  and  E,  preceding  them  by  two  bottom 
G's.  This  gives  the  so-called  "  round  move- 
ment." Prepare  the  fingers  for  A,  and,  imme- 
diately before  sounding  it,  strike  with  the  first 
left  finger  for  top  G.  Prepare  for  D.  Close  all 
holes  of  the  chanter  for  low  G,  and  strike  the  D 
finger  smartly,  lifting  E  with  the  little  finger. 
Here,  although  D  is  written  as  a  plain  note,  it 
is  played  as  a  grace  note.  [Ex.  9.] 

The  Double  Cut.  What  is  known  as 
"the  double  cut"  has  of  ten  a  startling  effect  if  it 
is  executed  quickly  and  smartly.  It  frequently 
occurs  in  the  quickest  of  all  finger  movements, 
but  must  be  practised  by  the  student  in  slow 
time  at  first  before  the  knack  can  be  acquired, 
especially  without  the  assistance  of  a  master 
whose  playing  can  be  imitated.  All  the  best 
players  have  practised  industriously  on  the 
chanter  until  they  have  drilled  themselves  suffi- 
ciently to  execute  almost  any  combination  of 
grace  notes  automatically.  We  give  here  an 
example  of  the  double  cut.  [Ex.  7.]  Tried  on 
the  pianoforte,  this  illustration  does  not  convey 
the  proper  intonation  of  the  chanter,  the  scale  of 
the  latter  instrument  not  being  in  equal  tempera- 
ment. In  other  words,  the  intervals  between 
B  and  D,  and  E  and  G  are  natural  on  the  bag- 
pipe, and  the  same  as  the  old  Arabic  and  Persian 
scales ;  whereas,  on  the  piano,  to  which  our  ears 
are  accustomed,  they  have  been  artificially 
tempered.  So,  Avhen  musicians  say  that  the 
bagpipes  are  out  of  tune,  it  is  their  ears  which 
are  at  fault. 

Attitude.  It  is  now  time  to  consider  the 
instrument  as  a  whole.  Attached  to  the  bag, 
five  tubes  will  be  observed.  These  are,  first,  the 
blow-pipe  ;  secondly,  the  chanter  or  melody  pipe  ; 
thirdly,  fourthly,  and  fifthly,  the  long  and  the 
two  shorter  drones.  Place  the  bag  under  the 
left  arm.  Throw  the  long  drone  over  the  left 
shoulder,  and  let  the  two  shorter  ones,  connected 
by  a  ribbon,  hang  down  fan-fashion.  Place  the 
blow-pipe  in  the  mouth,  and  bloAv  out  the  bag 

5062 


till  it  is  full,  keeping  the  left  arm  pressed 
firmly  on  it,  so  as  to  have  the  chanter  and 
drones  going  when  pausing  to  take  breath.  So 
feed  and  press  the  bag  that  an  equal  current  of 
air  is  maintained  when  a  piece  is  played.  Instead 
of  the  breath  acting  immediately  on  the  chanter, 
as  in  the  preceding  exercises,  the  melody  pipe, 
held  by  both  hands,  is  now  fingered  lower  down, 
as  it  is  fed  with  wind  from  the  bag. 

In  beginning  to  "  wind  "  the  bag,  the  student 
may  hold  up  the  drones  on  the  left  shoulder  with 
the  right  hand.  With  his  left  hand,  he  must 
stop  the  thumb-hole  and  the  first  and  second 
vents.  The  bag  can  then  be  blown  out  full,  and 
placed  under  the  left  arm.  Two  drones  ought 
to  be  stopped,  and  only  the  smaller  used  at 
first,  until  the  beginner,  by  alternately  blowing 
and  pressing,  is  able  to  keep  the  wind  steady. 

Tuning.  The  player  tunes  his  instrument 
to  A  by  closing  all  holes  in  the  chanter  excepting 
the  lowest.  Check  the  low  A  with  the  octave  A 
above.  If  the  two  sounds  are  correct,  the  chanter 
reed  is  all  right.  If  it  sounds  flat  with  the  long 
drone  it  must  be  made  to  agree.  The  reed  will 
be  heard  vibrating  very  quickly  if  it  is  wrong. 
Shift  the  joint  of  the  drone  by  pulling  the  tuning- 
string  back  or  forward  till  the  pulsations  get 
slower  and  become  steady.  Different  players 
tune  the  drone-stocks  in  various  ways.  Pipe- 
Major  Glen  recommends,  in  some  cases,  all  the 
drones  being  tuned  to  A.  Henderson  prefers  the 
big  drone  being  tuned  to  E.  Other  players 
set  the  drones  to  G,  D,  G,  and  G,  D,  A,  giving 
the  tonic  and  dominant  drone  bass.  Always  let 
down  the  reed  if  too  flat,  or  raise  it  if  too  sharp. 

Particular  care  should  be  taken  in  adjusting 
the  reed  of  the  chanter,  because  the  slightest 
alteration  may  make  considerable  difference  to 
the  pitch.  Having  closed  the  two  longer  drones, 
the  student  should  now  practise  the  exercises  he 
has  learnt,  with  the  smallest  drone.  When  these 
are  performed  satisfactorily,  the  whole  three 
drones  can  be  set  going.  The  point  is,  when 
playing,  always  to  keep  the  bag  tight,  or  fully 
distended.  Any  good  piper  will  affirm  that  the 
body  of  the  instrument  is  remarkably  sensitive ; 
when  in  order,  it  will  respond  to  very  gentle 
pressure.  It  stands  to  reason,  then,  that  if 
the  skin  is  allowed  to  get  hard  and  dry,  its 
elasticity,  or  sensitiveness,  will  be  gone.  It  will 
neither  fill  nor  empty  itself  readily,  nor  answei 
to  the  wishes  of  the  nlaver.  so  that  notes  will 


be  missed  and  the  performance  unsatisfactory. 
If,  therefore,  the  pipes  have  not  been  used  for  a 
while  it  is  the  custom  in  some  Highland  regi- 
ments, the  day  before  a  march  out,  to  prepare 
the  instrument  in  this  manner :  Take  off  the 
cover  of  the  bag,  and  cork  the  drone-stocka 
tightly.  Mix  three  tablespoonfuls  of  treacle  with 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  water.  Pour  this  into  the 
bag,  and  hang  up  the  instrument  so  that  the 
liquid  runs  out  through  the  chanter  stock.  If  this 
is  done  overnight,  by  the  morning  the  contents 
will  have  percolated  through  the  tube.  The  per- 
former will  feel,  when  his  arm  presses  the 
bag,  that  after  this  treatment  the  response  of 
the  instrument  is  delightful. 

Progressive  Practice.  Considering  the 
work  there  is  in  the  manufacture  of  a  set  of 
Highland,  or  military  bagpipes,  the  cost,  com- 
pared with  that  of  many  other  musical  instru- 
ments, is  small.  A  full  set  can  be  obtained  from 
£5,  and  sometimes  less  ;  and  what  are  known  as 
half-size,  or  reel  pipes,  suitable  for  a  drawing- 
room,  can  be  obtained  from  about  £3.  The 
student,  having  practised  the  preliminary  exer- 
cises on  the  full  instrument,  should  now  proceed 
to  learn  simple  tunes.  Such  music  can  be  pro- 
cured from  the  Highland  Pipe  Society,  154, 
Oxford  Street,  London.  Pains  should  always 
be  taken  to  play  at  first  slowly  and  correctly. 
If  a  difficulty  is  encountered  which  needs 
much  repetition,  it  is  better  to  learn  it  first 
on  a  practising  chanter,  and  concentrate  the 
mind  on  the  fingering.  Steadiness  in  posi- 
tion should  always  be  maintained,  no  matter 
how  staccato  the  music  which  is  performed  may 
be.  Valuable  assistance  in  preserving  correct 
time  and  a  slow  rhythm  in  practising  can  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  a  metronome.  Playing  in 
quick  time  will  come  easily  when  correctness  in 
slow  practice  has  been 
mastered.  In  conclu-  Ex. 
sion,  we  give  the  first 
eight  bars  of  the  March 
of  the  Seaforth  High- 
ganders.  [Ex.  8.] 

IRISH     PIPES 

Here  we  have  a  much  more  elaborate  and 
complicated  instrument  than  the  pipes  used 
in  Highland  regiments.  There  are  no  written 
instructions  for  playing  the  Irish  pipes  to  be 
found,  either  in  Gaelic  or  English.  In  this 
respect,  therefore,  we  are  breaking  entirely  fresh 
ground. 

Union  Pipes.  The  instrument  was  used 
originally  for  military  purposes,  each  force 
being  led  by  a  musician  with  bagpipes  more 
than  twice  the  present  size,  as  the  longest 
drone  measured  upwards  of  six  feet.  The  other 
drone,  instead  of  being  spread  out  fan-fashion, 
like  the  Scots  pipes,  was  carried  over  the  left 
shoulder,  close  together,  like  a  bundle  of  sticks, 
and  the  bag  hung  down  in  front  instead  of  being 
placed  under  the  left  arm.  Both  of  these  features 
are  preserved  in  the  Irish  pipes  of  to-day.  The 
Union  Pipes  contrast  with  those  of  Scotland 
chiefly  in  three  respects.  First,  instead  of  the 
tone  being  strident  and  warlike,  it  is  mellow  and 


MUSIC 

fluty.  Secondly,  instead  of  being  blown  by  the 
mouth,  the  bag  is  inflated  by  small  bellows. 
Thirdly,  the  compass  is  not  only  more  extensive, 
containing  25  semitones  instead  of  9  notes,  but 
the  drones  are  furnished  with  keys  capable  of 
giving  an  accompaniment  of  varying  harmonies. 
Position.  Place  round  the  neck,  over 
the  right  shoulder,  the  broad  strap  which 
supports  the  instrument.  Tuck  the  bellows 
under  the  right  arm  so  that  the  elbow  may  work 
them  easily.  When  the  performer  stands  to 
play,  these  bellows  are  kept  up  conveniently  by 
placing  a  walking-stick  underneath  them.  The 
bag,  then,  is  suspended  in  front,  well  up,  and 
inclined  to  the  right,  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
supplied  with  wind.  Below  the  bag  hangs  the 
chanter.  Hold  the  lower  joint  of  this  with  the 
fingers  of  the  right  hand.  The  Irish  idiom 
"  More  power  to  your  elbow  "  refers  to  the  play- 
ing of  the  pipes,  because  both  elbows  have 
important  duties.  Whilst  the  right  elbow  must 
pump  the  bellows  steadily,  the  left  manipulates 
the  top  keys  of  the  cronan,  or  drones. 

With  so  much  work  to  do,  the  most  convenient 
position  for  the  performer  is,  obviously,  to  be 
seated.  In  that  case,  the  bag  is  nursed  in  the 
lap,  and  the  butt,  or  socket,  of  the  cronan  comes 
well  under  the  chanter,  resting  on  the  left 
thigh.  The  chanter  itself  is  inclined  to  the 
left,  and  the  drones,  which  are  all  close  together, 
project  in  an  oblique  direction  over  the  left 
shoulder.  The  left  hand  is  placed  on  the 
socket  of  the  drones  in  such  a  way  that  the 
forearm  and  elbow  can  press  down  the  upper 
keys.  But  the  lower  keys  are  negotiated  by 
the  right  wrist,  or  the  right  fingers  when  the 
latter  are  not  needed  for  the  chanter.  So  the 
right  fingers  either  stop  the  bottom  holes  and 
keys  of  the  chanter  or  the  bottom  keys  of  the 
cronan,  the  wrist  otherwise  negotiating  the 
latter,  while  the  right  forearm  presses  the  bag 
when  needed,  and  the  elbow  pumps  the  bellows. 
The  left  fingers  manipulate  the  top  holes  of  the 
chanter,  the  left  forearm,  as  well  as  the  elbow, 
being  used  for  the  levers,  or  keys,  of  the  cronan. 
The  regulators,  or  cronans,  are  either  two, 
three,  or  even  four  in  number.  They  fit  into 
a  large  circular  socket  or  tube,  much  in  the 
manner  of  the  Chinese  "Tcheng." 

The  Tone.  Those  who  have  heard  this 
instrument  played  in  Sir  Villiers  Stanford's 
opera,  "  Shamus  O'Brien,"  will  know  that  the 
tone  of  the  Irish  pipes  is  entirely  unlike  the 
Scottish.  The  upper  notes  have  been  compared 
to  the  flute  and  the  lower  to  the  chalumeau  of  the 
clarionet.  The  smallest  Recorder  was  pierced 
in  olden  times,  like  the  Irish  chanter,  with 
eight  holes,  seven  in  front  and  one  at  the  back 
for  the  left  thumb,  the  thumb-hole  being  the 
most  important  feature.  In  tuning,  the  reeds 
of  the  Irish  pipes,  should  the  vibrations  be  too 
strong,  must  be  subdued  by  the  application  of 
a  little  melted  wax. 

The  Chanter.  The  chanter  is  cylindrical, 
and  of  greater  length  than  in  the  Highland 
instrument.  An  important  point  is  that  it 
is  tuned  to  the  modern  scale  in  equal  tempera- 
ment. Instead  of  the  lowest  note  being  G 

5063 


MUSIC 

(below  second  ledger  lino,  treble  clef)  to  the 
octave  above,  it  extends  from  D  below  staff  to 
D  above  second  ledger  line,  or  two  octaves,  with 
all  the  intervening  semitones.  These  are  made 
practicable  by  the  keys,  the  usual  chanter 
having  eight  of  the  latter.  So  the  compass  is 
that  of  the  ordinary  eight-keyed  D  flute,  the 
fingering  of  which  is  given  with  that  instrument. 
When  notes  are  required  in  the  higher  register, 
the  right  forearm  exerts  extra  pressure  on  the  bag. 
The  knack  of  doing  this  can  only  be  acquired  by 
the  student  stopping  the  drones  and  practising 
the  chromatic  scale  very  slowly,  both  ascending 
and  descending,  until  the  tone  is  given  correctly. 
In  any  case,  mastery  over  the  chanter  must  be 
obtained  in  playing  melodies  correctly  before 
a  harmonised  accompaniment  is  attempted 
with  the  cronan. 

The  Cronan.  Even  as  the  word 
"  chanter  "  implies  "  .singing  "  the  tune,  so 
does  "  cronan  "  mean  "  crooning,"  or  droning 
a  chorus  to  the  air.  Generally  speaking,  the 
cronan  are  two  tubes  placed  laterally  together, 
so  pierced  as  to  produce  thirds  at  the  upper 
and  fifths  by  depressing  the  lower  levers. 
These  levers  are  worked,  as  far  as  possible, 


left  elbow  press  down  the  lever  furthest  from 
the  stock,  or  socket.  This  in  an  instrument  with 
ihree  onman  Avill  give  G  below  second  ledger 
line,  treble  clef.  Get  the  elbow  over  the  second 
lever,  so  that  both  upper  keys  are  depressed. 
The  result  will  be  A.  With  the  right  hand 
depress  the  third  lever.  This  will  give  B. 
Finally,  with  the  right  wrist,  press  down  the 
fourth  lever.  The  sound  will  be  CjJ.  Now 
pull  the  valve  to  shut  off  the  sound  in  the  long 
tube,  and  open  the  valve  of  the  second,  or 
medium,  regulator.  Working  it  in  the  same 
way,  when  the  top  lever  is  down  D  below 
treble  staff  will  sound  ;  when  the  next  lever  is 
down  the  result  will  be  F  jj .  When  the  third 
is  depressed  the  note  given  will  be  G.  With 
all  four  down  the  result  is  A. 

In  the  same  manner,  try  the  shortest  drone. 
This  usually  has  five  keys,  and  therefore  gives 
six  sounds,  the  deepest  being  that  when  all 
the  levers  are  down — namely  E,  first  line,  treble 
clef.  Putting  down  the  top  lever  with  the 
elbow,  the  result  is  Fjf,  first  space,  treble  clef. 
Pressing  down  the  next,  together  with  the  first, 
G  is  obtained.  Getting  down  the  three  together, 
the  result  is  A.  Pressing  down  four,  the  sound 


10. 


LONG  DRONE 


MEDIUM  DRONE 


SHORT  DRONE 


Closed 


with  the  wrist  of  the  right  hand.  The  longest 
tube  gives  the  drone  bass.  This  can  be  shut 
off  at  will  by  means  of  a  valve,  so  as  not  to 
interfere  with  an  accompanying  harmony  for 
which  it  is  unsuited  [Ex.  10]. 

In  a  typical  instrument  we  have  handled  with 
three  regulators,  or  drones,  the  longest  gives  the 
four-foot  F,  written  on  third  ledger  line  below 
treble  clef,  a  semitone  below  the  lowest  note  on 
the  violin,  which  shares  the  musical  honours  in 
rustic  Ireland  with  the  bagpipes,  so  that  both 
instruments  can  be  played  together ;  and, 
moreover,  before  the  piper  starts,  he  invariably 
tunes  the  reeds  of  the  cronan  to  the  same  note 
as  the  fiddler  —namely  A.  The  second  regulator, 
being  not  quite  2  feet,  produces,  as  its  lowest 
note,  C  $  below  treble  staff  ;  and  the  shortest 
regulator,  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  gives, 
as  its  lowest  note.  E,  first  line,  treble  clef. 

If  the  instrument  which  the  student  possesses 
has  only  two  regulators,  he  must  ascertain  their 
notes  for  himself  ;  but  the  reeds  should  always 
be  tuned  to  A.  It  may  be  helpful  if  the  cronan, 
to  which  we  have  referred,  are  described.  The 
longest  has  four  brass  levers,  or  keys,  closing  as 
many  holes.  First,  inflate  the  bag.  and  with  the 


is  B.  With  the  whole  five  down,  the  result  i.s 
< '  £.  third  space,  treble  clef.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  with  a  little  practice  it  is  possible 
to  get  all  parallel  keys,  from  the  top  down- 
wards, depressed  simultaneously.  The  two 
lowest  notes  of  the  two  longest  'drones  are  in 
fifths.  Then  we  have  three  consecutive  sixths, 
whilst  the  two  shorter  tubes_  give  two  con- 
secutive thirds,  a  second,  and  three  consecutive 
thirds. 

If  the  elbow  places  down  the  top  lever 
of  the  longest  and  medium  regulators  and  the 
two  top  levers  on  the  shortest  regulator,  G, 
D,  and  octave  G  will  sound  simultaneously, 
giving  a  rough  tonic  and  dominant  drone  bass 
to  the  bottom  D  of  the  chanter.  Put  down 
the  two  upper  levers  on  the  longest  and  medium 
regulators  and  three  on  the  shortest.  The 
effect  will  be  A,  Fit,  and  octave  A.  <«r  tin- 
common  chord  of  Di'  Put  down  the  three 
upper  levers  on  the  long  tubes  and  four  on  the 
shortest.  This  will  give  B,  G,  and  B,  or  the 
first  inversion  of  the  common  chord  of  G.  If 
all  the  levers  on  the  three  cronan  are  down,  the 
result  will  be  CjJ,  A,  and  C£  above,  or  the  first 
inversion  likewise  of  the  common  chord  of  A. 


litl'Ji>i i><-*   rand  tided 


G064 


MORSE  SOUNDER  AND  RELAY 

The  Simplest  and  Most  Popular  System  of 
Telegraphy.      Wheatstone's    ABC    System 


Group  10 

TELEGRAPHS 
5 

Continue.'.!  from  page  4904 


By  D.   H.   KENNEDY 


TTHE  single-current  key  was  described  on 
page  4383. 

The  student  who  has  read  the  description  of 
the  sounder,  given  on  page  4383,  should  also 
refer  to  Professor  Thompson's  explanation  of  the 
principle  of  the  electromagnet,  given  on  page  562. 
It  now  remains  only  to  add  that  the  two  coils 
are  wound  to  a  total  resistance  of  .20  ohms.  The 
two  inner  ends  are  connected  together,  and  the 
two  outer  ends  carried  to  the  terminals.  The 
resistance  of  the  electromagnet  is  therefore  20 
ohms.  The  current  required  to  work  a  sounder 
is  90  milliamperes. 

In  the  wooden  base  of  the  sounder  there  is 
inserted  a  500-ohm  resistance  coil  [see  page  790]. 
Its  ends  are  brought  to  the  brass  terminals, 
so  that  it  is  in  parallel  with  the  coils  of  the 
electromagnet,  and  their  joint  resistance  is 
19 '2  ohms.  Fig,  26  shows  a  complete  sounder, 
and  27  its  separated  parts. 

There  is  a  more  recent  pattern  of  sounder 
in  which  the  resistance  of  the  electromagnet 
coil  is  21  ohms,  and  the  shunt  440  ohms,  making 
a  joint  resistance  of  20  ohms.  The  resistance 
coil  is  introduced  to  provide  a  path  for  the  high 
voltage  induced  secondary  current  which  is 
generated  at  the  instant  when  the  circuit  of  the 
electromagnet  is  opened  after  being  energised. 
In  the  absence  of  such  a  path,  injury  to  the 
relay  contact  points  results,  owing  to  excessive 
sparking. 

The  function  of  the  galvanometer  was  ex- 
plained on  page  4606.  It  is  now  necessary  only 
1<>  add  that  except  for  its  external  appearance 
the  single-current  galvanometer  is  practically 
the  same  instrument  as  the  receiving  portion  of 
the  single  needle.  It  is  usual  in  joining  up  these 
instruments  to  form  a  direct  working  sounder 
set,  to  connect  a  five-ohm  resistance  coil  in 
parallel  with  the  galvanometer.  This  is  done 
because  the  current  required  to  work  the 
galvanometer  is  only  about  one -seventh  of  that 
necessary  for  the  sounder,  and  the  introduction 
of  this  shunt  reduces  the  total  resistance  of  the 


8OT7NDBB    PARTS 


circuit,  and  thus  tends  to  reduce  the  number 
of  cells  required  for  battery  power.  Fig.  28 
is  a  diagram  of  the  connections. 


The  student  must  take  pains  to  become 
thoroughly  familiar  with  it  because  from  it  we 
shall  develop  more  complex  cases.  He  should 
sketch  it  out  as  shown  in  29. 

This  will  enable  him  to  see  clearly  how  the 
key  see-saws  between  the  sounder  and  battery 
connecting  either  one  or  other  in  the  circuit.  Ho 
should  note  how  the  line  is  arranged  at  each 
station.  Then  he  should  follow  the  path  of  a 
received  current,  and  number  the  terminals  1  to  6, 
as  shown. 

If  these  numbers  and  terminals  are  carefully 
memorised  they  form  a  mnemonic  base  on  which 
the  more  complex  sets  can  be  built  up. 


28.    SOUNDER — COMPLETE 


The  Relay.  Direct  sounder  working  is 
used  only  on  suburban  circuits.  As  soon  as 
the  distance  becomes  considerable  it  is  necessary 
to  use  a  relay.  The  difficulty  in  working  on  long 
lines  is  not  due  merely  to  the  increased  resistance. 
This  could  be  met  by  either  increasing  the  bat- 
tery power  or  suitably  increasing  the  diameter 
of  the  conductor,  though  neither  of  these  are 
desirable  expedients.  The  greater  difficulty 
is  due  to  the  leakage  of  current  which  takes 
place,  leakage  not  merely  from  line  to  earth, 
but  also  from  out;  line  to  another.  Attempts  to 
treat  this  by  increasing  the  battery  power 
merely  aggravate  the  trouble,  and  it  is  found 
best  to  work  with  the  smallest  practicable  cur- 
rent. The  Bounder,  which  requires  what,  in 
telegraphic  practice,  is  a  very  heavy  current, 
is  therefore  removed  from  1,  2,  and  its  place 
taken  by  an  electromagnet  built  on  much  more 
delicate  lines,  and  only  requiring  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  sounder's  current.  The  sounder 
and  a  local  battery  are  then  connected  to  the 
armature  of  this  relay,  as  it  is  called,  so  that 
when  a  current  affects  the  relay,  the  relay  closes 
the  circuit  of  the  sounder.  This  is  shown  in 
principle  in  30,  which  represents  the  relay  in  the 

5065 


TELEGRAPHS 

line  circuit,  and  the  local  sounder  worked  by  a 
local  battery  and  actuated  every  time  that  the 
armature  of  the  relay  moves  from  2  to  1  under 
the  influence  of  a  line  signal.  Early  types  of  relay 
were  designed  on  the  same  lines  as  the  sounder, 
but  improvements  in  design  have  evolved  much 
better  forms. 

In  the  sounder  we  notice  that  the  magnetic 
field  developed  by  the  current  must  be  strong 
enough  to  overcome  the  tension  of  a  spring,  and 
moreover  that  just  at  the  point  where  we  require 
the  maximum  force  to  begin  the  movement  of 
the  armature,  the  magnetic  force  is  at  a  minimum 
owing  to  the  large  air  gap.     Out  of  a  consider- 
able number  of  modern  forms  we  need  describe 
only  the  Post  Office  standard  relay.     Like  the 
sounder,  it  has  two 
coils  of  silk-covered 
copper    wire,    but 
they  are   much 
longer,  and  are  not 
connected     by     a 
yoke  at  the  bottom. 

Its  absence  reduces    28.  DIRECT  s.-c.  SOUNDER 
the        electromag- 
netic  inertia  of  the  instrument  and  therefore 
tends  to  greater  rapidity  of   action. 

The  cores  of  the  coils  are  of  carefully  annealed 
soft  iron,  and  they  are  provided  at  each  end  with 
soft  iron  pole-pieces,  as  shown  in  31. 

Two    armatures    are   provided,  one   playing 
between  the  upper  pair  of  pole -pieces  and  one 
between  the  lower  pair.     They  are,   however, 
rigidly  attached  to  the  vertical  axle,  which  also 
carries   the   contact   arm   or   tongue,    made   of 
German  silver   and  tipped   with    platinum.     A 
large    and     powerful    horseshoe - 
shaped     permanent    magnet     is 
placed  with  its  poles  adjacent  to 
the  armatures,    S  above   and  N 
below.  To  enable  a  circular  cover 
to  enclose  all  the  parts,  the  mag- 
net is  bent  round  the  coils. 

The  student  has  considered  [on 
page  560]  the  distribution  of 
magnetic  fields,  and  he  can  see 
that  in  this  case  the  lines  of  force 
will  emerge  from  the  N  pole  of 
the  permanent  magnet,  and  enter  39.  STUDENT'S  DIAGRAM  OF  A  SOUNDER  CIRCUIT 


the  bottom  soft  iron  armature. 
At  its  further  extremity  they  will  divide  into  two 
streams.  These  will  pass  up  the  iron  cores  of 
the  electromagnets,  and,  reuniting  at  the  top, 
reach  the  S  pole  by  way  of  the  upper  armature. 

When  the  armatures  are  midway  between 
the  pole-pieces,  they  are  in  a  position  where 
there  is  what  may  be  called  unstable  magnetic 
equilibrium.  Two  sets  of  forces  are  acting  on 
them,  tending  to  pull  them  over  to  one  side  or 
the  other.  If,  now,  a  current  be  sent  through  the 
coils,  this  delicate  balance  is  upset,  because  the 
lines  of  force  due  to  the  coil's  field  act  so  as  to 
increase  the  force  acting  on  one  side,  and  to 
decrease  the  force  on  the  other  side.  To  illus- 
trate this,  the  parts  are  distorted  and  laid  out 
flat  in  32.  In  the  case  of  the  sounder  we  saw 
that  the  armature  was  maintained  in  its  normal 
position  by  the  tension  of  a  spring.  This  spring 

5066 


is  not  needed  in  the  relay,  because,  by  placing 
the  armatures  so  that  they  are  normally  nearer 
to,  say,  the  left  side,  we  produce  what  is  called 
a  magnetic  bias.  The  side  with  the  smaller  air 
gap  has  the  greater  magnetic  flux.  The  arma- 
tures are  therefore  adjusted  so  that  normally 
they  lie  to  the  left.  Under  the  influence  of  a 
signalling  current,  they  move  over  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  right  side,  but  the  movement  is 
limited  by  the  "marking"  contact  screw,  so  that 
the  centre  point  is  not  passed.  When  the 
signalling  current  ceases,  the  armatures  return 
to  the  left,  under  the  influence  of  the  magnetic 
bias. 

The  end  of  the  tongue  plays  between  the  two 
contact  screws  S  (spacing  side)  and  M  (marking 
side)  [33].    These  are  attached  to  a  little  ebonite 
platform,  which  is  in  turn  attached  to  a  brass 
cr  mage  sliding  in  a  slot  in  the  brass  table  which 
covers  the  coils.     Under  thi<*  brass  table  a  spiral 
spring,  Q,  is  fixed,  and  connected  to  the  contact 
carriage,  so  that  it  tends  to  pull  it  to  the  left.     A 
vertical  brass  lever  has  its  top  end  connected  to 
the  contact  carriage,  so  as  to  control  its  movement. 
The  bottom  end  of  the  lever  lies  against  the  end 
of  the  adjusting  screw,  A.     The  position  of  the 
carriage  is  therefore  adjustable  by  turning  A. 
This  determines  the  magnetic  bias.     The  only 
other  adjustment  is  the  "  play  " — that   is,  the 
distance      between     the     S     and    M     contact 
screws.      It  should  be  noted  that  in  connection 
with   the    latter    there    are    small    blue    check 
screws,  which  have  to  be  slackened  before  any 
adjustment  can    be  made,  and  tightened  after- 
wards to  preserve  it.     Each  coil  of  the  relay  is 
wound  with   two  parallel  wires,    and  these  are 
connected   to   ter- 
minals, as  shown  in 
31.     The  coil  ter- 
minals are  marked 
D,  ®,  u,  ©.     Brass 
straps  are  provided 
so  that  D  may  be 
joined  to     ®,  and 
u  to  ©,   in  which 
case    the  relay  is 
joined   in   parallel 
or  quantity,  or  else 
brass  straps 


may   be    used  to 
join  ®  to  u,  thus  joining  the  coils  in   series. 

The  student  should  specially  note  and  memorise 
the  fact  that  a  current  entering  at  u  or  ® ,  and 
leaving  at  D  or  ®,  marks.  He  should  also  note 
that  if  a  current  be  sent  through  one  coil  from 
u  to  D,  and  an  equal  current  through  from 
®  to  ©,  the  armature  will  be  unaffected.  From 
this  fact  this  method  of  winding  is  called  differen- 
tial. There  are  two  forms  of  relay,  alike  except 
in  resistance.  In  the  A  form,  each  coil  has  a 
resistance  of  200  ohms,  making  400  ohms  in 
series,  and  100  when  in  parallel.  In  the  B  form 
each  coil  has  100  ohms  resistance,  and  so  we 
have  200  ohms  in  series,  and  50  ohms  when 
joined  in  parallel.  Fig.  34  gives  a  diagram  of  a 
sounder  circuit  with  relay.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  relay  takes  the  place  of  the  sounder 
at  1,  2.  Fifteen  to  twenty  milliamperes  is 


the  usual  working  current.  Small  Daniell  cells 
are  employed  for  the  main  battery,  and  large 
Daniell  cells  for  the  local  battery. 

Printer  or  Ink-writer.  Fig.  35  is  a  diagram 
of  the  connections  of  the  printer,  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  the  direct  writer.  It  was 
illustrated  and  described  on  page  4383.  The 
galvanometer  (30  ohms),  the  receiving  coil 
(300  ohms),  and  the  key  are  mounted  on  one 
base,  which  also  serves  to  carry  the  slip  roll. 

Small  Daniell  cells  are  usually  used  on  printer 
circuits,  the  working  current  being  about  17 
milliamperes.  The  slip  should  travel  at  6  ft. 
to  7  ft.  per  minute. 


TELEGRAPHS 

with  his  right  hand  a  small  crank.  Normally, 
the  needles  of  both  sending  and  receiving  instru- 
ments are  at  +.  The  generator  is  not  connected 
to  the  line,  even  when  the  generator  handle 
is  revolving,  until  another  key,  say  D,  has 
been  depressed,  and  the  sending  pointer  moves 
round  from  +  to  D.  It  is  only  during  this 
interval — i.e.,  while  the  centre  pointer  is  moving 
round— -that  the  generator  is  joined  to  the  line 
wire.  It  sends  out  a  series  of  positive  and  nega- 
tive currents,  one  current  for  each  letter  passed 
by  the  needle.  Immediately  the  needle  reaches 
D  the  generator  is  cut  off  the  line.  At  the 
receiving  end  there  is  an  electromagnet  and 


30.    MACXETLC    CIRCUIT   OF    RELAY 

'D 


33.     P.O.S.     RELAY    ADJUSTMENTS 


EARTH 
32.    PRINCIPLE    OF    RELAY 


UP    LINE      OR     EAKTH 


31.    P.O.S.     RELAY— CORES, 
COILS,    AND    TERMINALS 


dJ.Jdr 

'semes'  BOTH   STRAPS  A*e   joirveo  BETWEEN  @AHOU. 
34.    SOUNDER    CIRCUIT    WITH   RELAY 


35.     PRINTER    OR    DIRECT 
WRITER 


Wheatstone's  ABC.  As  already  stated 
[see  page  4384]  the  manipulation  of  this  instru- 
ment is  very  easily  acquired.  As  a  result,  it 
at  one  time  was  rapidly  coming  into  extensive 
use  on  private  wires.  The  invention  of  the 
telephone,  however,  interrupted  its  career,  and 
its  use  is  now  mainly  confined  to  small  and 
remote  country  post-offices,  where  the  fact  that 
only  one  wire  is  needed  gives  it  an  advantage 
from  a  financial  point  of  view. 

No  batteries  are  used,  the  sending  currents 
being  generated  by  a  small  dynamo,  power  for 
which  is  supplied  by  the  operator,  who  turns 


armature  very  similar  in  arrangement  to  the 
P.O.S.  relay  just  described.  Instead  of  a  tongue, 
however,  there  is  an  escapement  wheel  controlling 
the  needle  of  the  receiving  dial  in  such  a  manner 
that  for  each  current  received  the  needle  moves 
forward  one  letter.  The  letter  at  which  the 
needle  stops  is  noted  down  by  the  receiving 
telegraphist. 

For  instance,  to  send  the  word  "  Do,"  we 
should  have : 


Continued 


5067 


Group  29 

TRANSIT 
21 

lILWAY   MANAGEMENT 

continued  from 
page  4314 


MERCHANDISE  TRAFFIC 

Railway  Waggons.     The  Carriage  of  Goods.     Consignment  Notes.     Rail- 
way Rates.     The   Delivery  of  Goods  by  Horse    Waggons  and  Motor-cars 


By    H.    G.    ARCHER 


VY/HEN  the  man  in  the  street  speaks  of  a  goods 
train  he  has  in  his  mind  a  train  conveying 
either  merchandise  or  minerals,  and  does  not 
pause  to  differentiate  between  what  really  form 
two  distinct  classes  of  traffic.  To  a  certain 
extent  he  is  warranted  in  confusing  the  two. 
For  the  purpose  of  classification,  goods  are  de- 
fined as  anything  entering  the  Railway  Clearing 
House  Classification  Schedules  A,  B,  C,  and 
Numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  the  basis  of  which  classi- 
fication is  their  value  or  the  cheapness  with 
which  the  articles  can  be  conveyed,  while  other 
factors  that  are  taken  into  consideration  may  be 
summed  up  as  weight  and  bulk,  method  of 
packing,  and  liability  to  damage.  Further,  the 
Clearing  House  "  Rules  and  Regulations  "  only 
speak  of  a  "  goods  train,"  which  "  is  understood 
to  include  all  trains  except  those  composed  of 
coaching  stock."  However,  in  practice,  the 
mineral  traffic  is  a  thing 
apart,  and  it  may  be 
defined  as  covering  the 
transport  of  coal,  coke, 
iron  ore,  and  patent  fuel, 
while  some  companies 
also  include  in  it  granite, 
slag,  and  limestone — in 
short,  the  heavier  and 
cheaper  articles.  The 
mineral  traffic  conveyed 
annually  by  the  railways 
of  the  United  King- 
dom now  amounts  to 
350,000,000  tons,  and 
this  traffic  consists 
largely  of  coal. 

Private  Ownership  of  Waggons. 
The  first  railways  were  constructed,  like  the 
canals,  with  the  idea  of  the  motive  power  and 
the  moving  or  rolling  stock  being  supplied 
by  the  public.  The  railways  were  to  be 
improved  roads,  for  the  use  of  which  customers 
were  to  pay  tolls,  and  the  large  number  of 
traders'  waggons  in  use  is  a  substantial  reminder 
of  the  original  idea. 

Formerly,  private  owners'  waggons  were  a 
fruitful  source  of  trouble  and  anxiety.  A  railway 
company  in  building  its  stock  has  too  much  at 
stake  to  risk  sacrificing  efficiency  to  economy, 
but  the  same  conditions  do  not  apply  with 
equal  force  to  private  traders.  In  1881,  the 
Midland  Company  decided  upon  the  new  policy 
of  becoming  owners  of  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  waggons  running  upon  their  railway.  Accor- 
dingly they  obtained  power  to  raise  a  large 
sum  of  money  with  which  to  buy  up  the  traders' 
waggons  by  tens  of  thousands,  the  object  being 
to  raise  the  standard  of  such  vehicles  and  to 

5068 


increase  the  safety  of  the  line.  Shortly  after- 
wards, the  Board  of  Trade  intervened,  by  issuing 
a  "  standard  specification  "  for  ensuring  unifor- 
mity in  size,  construction,  and  maintenance. 
Therefore  private  owners  are  compelled  to  build 
their  waggons  strictly  in  accordance  with  the 
standard  specification,  the  provisions  of  which 
have  been  revised  from  time  to  time  to  meet  up-to- 
date  requirements.  Further,  before  any  waggon 
is  accepted  for  conveyance  on  its  own  wheels,  it 
must  be  examined  and  passed  as  sound  by  the 
locomotive  or  waggon  department,  after  which 
a  register  plate,  bearing  the  name  of  the  company, 
the  registered  number,  the  date  of  registry,  and 
the  maximum  load  to  be  carried,  is  affixed  to 
each  side.  The  waggon  is  then  free  to  work 
over  the  company's  or  any  other  line  of  railway, 
the  arrangement  being  a  mutual  one  between  all 
the  railway  companies  in  the  kingdom.  As  a 

result,  to-day  there  are 

probably  as  many  private 
owners'  waggons  on  the 
Midland  as  on  any  other 
railway. 

Varieties  of  Ve= 
hides.  All  mineral 
waggons  are  open  trucks, 
whereas  merch  andise 
waggons  may  be  broadly 
divided  into  the  open 
truck  and  what  is 
variously  termed  the  box 
van,  covered  waggon,  or 
cupboard  truck.  There 
is,  in  addition,  a  large 
assortment  of  specially 

fashioned  vehicles  for  special  purposes — namely, 
cattle  trucks,  fish  waggons,  refrigerator  vans, 
gunpowder  vans,  ballast  trucks,  plate  glass 
waggons,  trucks  for  the  conveyance  of  timber 
in  long  lengths  [50],  low-bedded  trucks,  nick- 
named "  crocodiles  "  [51],  for  transport  of  any- 
thing abnormally  high  or  heavy,  such  as  boilers 
and  machinery,  and  special  "fender"  waggons 
for  straw  hats  and  feathers  [52].  The  trans- 
portation of  practically  all  merchandise  and 
minerals  in  this  country  is  effected  by  the 
means  of  vehicles — open  or  closed — carried  on 
two  axles  and  four  wheels,  and  having  doors 
at  the  side  adapted  to  cart  level.  The  mineral 
waggons  have,  as  a  rule,  a  slightly  larger 
capacity  than  those  intended  for  merchan- 
dise, but  some  companies  discountenance  any 
difference,  as  they  wish  all  their  waggons  to  be 
interchangeable.  The  standard  British  merchan- 
dise and  mineral  waggon  is  the  10-ton  open  truck 
(a  truck  being  described  according  to  its  capacity 
and  not  by  its  tare,  which  is  the  weight  of  the 


LIFEBOAT  POISED  ON  A  RAILWAY  WAGGON 


vehicle  unloaded).     The  open  truck  began  with 
one  plank  at  each  side,  which  has  been  gradually 
extended,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  larger  loads 
combined  with  greater  safety,  to  a  height  of 
from  3  ft.  to  4  ft.     Closed  waggons  are  not  so 
popular  in  this  country 
PJS  elsewhere.     There  is 
the  difficulty  of  getting  a 
crane  into  them,  unless 
provided  with  a  sliding 
roof,  which  in   turn  is 
liable  to  admit  wet;  on 
the    other    hand,    they 
obviate  the  necessity  of 
sheeting.      Many    com- 
panies are,  however,  con- 
siderably increasing  their 

stock  of  box  vans,  and         51.  LARGE  TANK  ON  LOW-BEDDED  TRUCK 
the  cubical  contents  of 


the  new  vehicles,  with  which  the  sliding  roof  is 
abandoned,  are  twice  as  large  as  those  of  the  old 
ones'  It  is  customary  for  railway  companies  to 
give  their  own  waggons  distinctive  marks.  For 
instance,  the  London  and  North  Western  mark 
is  a  white  diamond,  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire 
a  triangle  within  a  circle,  the  North  Staffordshire 
the  Staffordshire  knot,  and  the  Great  Central  a 
star.  The  tarpaulin  sheets  of 
open  waggons  also  are  distinc- 
tively marked,  as  a  safeguard 
against  loss  or  theft.  Thus, 
the  Midland  is  a  black  sheet 
with  an  orange  border,  while 
the  Great  Western  sheet  is 
scored  with  crossed  bars  and 
griffin's  Avings.  Lastly,  every 
company  has  its  ropes  made 
up  with  differently  coloured 
strands,  though  this  dis- 
tinction is  not  visible  unless 
one  of  the  standard  ferrules 
affixed  to  each  end  be  lost. 

High=capacity  versus  Low=capacity 
Waggons.  During  the  last  few  years  a  great 
controversy  has  been  raging,  and  is  still  raging, 
relative  to  the  desirability  of  increasing  the  capa- 
city of  mineral  waggons.  The  average  capacity 
of  these  vehicles  nOw  is  10  tons,  and  waggons 
larger  than  this  are  considered  high-capacity 
trucks.  The  exponents  of  the  high-capacity 
waggons — a  vague  term,  as  it  covers  anything  be- 
tween 15  tons 
and  40  tons— 
allege,  with 
some  truth, 
that  owing  to 
the  low  -  capa- 
c  i  t  y  system, 
British  rail- 
ways are  haul- 
ing consider- 
ably more 
dead  weight, 

capacity  for  capacity,  than  is  the  case  in  some 
other  countries,  notably  America.  Their  line 
of  argument  is  that  the  adoption  of  high-capacity 
mineral  waggons  would  considerably  reduce  the 
foregoing  source  of  expense,  and,  at  the  same 


TRANSIT 

time,  tend  towards  reducing  the  length  of  trains, 
oecause,    given    a    uniform   wheel    base,    there 
would    be    fewer   waggons.      However,   several 
technical  difficulties   stand   in   the  way  of  the 
adoption  of  larger  waggons.     In  the  first  place, 
it  must  be  remembered 
that     all     turntables, 
sidings,  coal  drops,  weigh- 
bridges, pit  screens,  etc., 
at  collieries,  stations,  and 
wharves,    are    designed 
for    the    low  -  capacity 
waggon.     The  wholesale 
alteration   of   these   ap- 
pliances  and  accommo- 
dations would  be  a  most 
costly    business,     while 
another  obstacle  is  that 
in      the     majority      of 


SPECIAL   WAGGON   FOR    STRAW 
HATS   AND   FEATHERS 


instances  they  do  not  even  belong  to  the  railway 
companies,  but  to  private  traders,  or  corporate 
bodies,  which  could  not  be  compelled  to  bear  the 
expenses  of  the  change. 

Generally  speaking,  the  traders  are  not  en- 
amoured of  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  high- 
capacity  waggon.  They  fear  damage  to  their 
small  trucks  when  working  with  larger  ones, 
and  they  scent  damage  to 
minerals  while  loading  and 
being  conveyed  in  the  latter. 
Colliery  owners  carefully  guard 
against  breakage  of  coal,  as 
freedom  from  "  small "  en- 
hances its  sale.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  there  is 
much  greater  risk  of  breakage 
in  loading  fuel  into  large 
trucks,  and  also  during  its 
transit  in  the  same.  Iron  ore, 
again,  is  said  to  be  depreciated 
in  value  when  carried  in  large 
trucks,  for  similar  reasons.  In 
the  case  of  companies,  like  the  Midland  and 
North-Eastern,  which  prefer  to  own  all  the 
waggons  running  over  their  line,  and  also  desire 
to  make  them  interchangeable,  the  employment 
of  two  different  sizes  of  waggons,  for  merchandise 
and  mineral  traffic  respectively,  is  deprecated. 
The  higher  the  capacity  of  a  waggon,  the  longer 
it  takes  to  unload,  as  only  one  checker  can  be 
employed  at  this  end.  Now  it  does  not  much 

matter  what 
length  of  time 
the  unloading 
of  minerals 
occupies,  but 
the  case  is  very 
different  where 
goods  are  con- 
cerned,  as 
such  consign- 
ments must  be 
dealt  with  ex- 
peditiously.  Suppose  a  40-ton  truck  be  fully 
loaded  with  goods,  it  would  take  many  hours  to 
unload,  whereas  a  10-ton  waggon  can  be  disposed 
of  within  the  hour.  On  the  other  hand,  this 
loss  of  time  would  probably  be  met  to  some 

5069 


HIGH-CAPACITY  30-TON   MINERAL  WAGGON,  CALEDONIAN  RAILWAY 


TRANSIT 


54.    SHUNTER   WITH   COUPLING   POLE, 
L.    &    N.W.R. 

extent  by  better  working.  However,  setting 
aside  the  question  of  effecting  interchange- 
ability,  the  crux  of  the  problem  rests  on  the 
fact  that  in  this  country  there  are  very  few 
cases  which  warrant  the  running  of  high- 
capacity  mineral  waggons — much  less  high-capa- 
city merchandise  waggons.  In  comparing 
our  methods  with  those  of  other  countries, 
it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are 
important  restrictions  here  which  do  not  exist 
elsewhere.  The  industrial  con- 
ditions of  this  country  require 
small  consignments  and  a  "short 
haul."  In  America  trams  of 
fully-loaded  30-ton  or  40-ton 
waggons  are  despatched  across 
the  continent,  and  are  not 
broken  up  until  they  reach  their 
terminal. 

British  Short  Haul  Con  = 
ditions.  A  British  mineral 
train  rarely  travels  for  a  greater 
distance  than  200  miles,  and  the 
coal  consignments  rule  comparatively  small. 
For  example,  it  is  estimated  that  on  the 
London  and  North -Western  80  per  cent,  of 
the  coal  is  carried  in  consignments  of  less  than 
'20  tons  ;  and,  accordingly,  there  would  be  no 
economy  in  employing  20 -ton  waggons  for  the 
transportation  of  80  per  cent,  of  the  traffic. 
Nevertheless,  there  are  some  openings  for 
high-capacity  waggons.  Coal  passing  in  large 
quantities  for  locomotive  use,  and  a  regular 
traffic  between  specific  points  in  coal,  ore  or 
bricks  can  be  conveyed  in  30-ton  or  40-ton  trucks 
with  advantage.  Several  companies  have  built 
waggons  of  this  description  for  those  special  pur- 
poses [53].  When  a  waggon  attains  a  capacity 
of  30  tons  it  must  be  carried  on  bogies.  To  sum 
up,  it  is  unlikely  that  the  agitation  in  favour  of 
high-capacity  waggons  will  succeed  as  its  ex- 
ponents wish  it  to  succeed,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  the  idea  is  based  on  economical 
conditions  which  do  not  prevail  in  the  United 
Kingdom  ;  but  the  movement  has  been  of  great 
value  by  demonstrating  that  trucks  of  a  moder- 
ately increased  capacity— namely,  from  15  tons 
to  20  tons,  are  likely  to  ensure  success,  if  the 
change  be  made  gradually.  The  North  Eastern 
Company  now  carry  the  major  portion  of  their 
mineral  traffic  in  four-wheeled  waggons  having 
a  tare  weight  of  9  tons  13  cwt.  and  cap- 
abl<-  of  carrying  23  tons,  while  many  other 

5070 


55.    PAIR-HORSE   VAN   WITH 
LOAD    OF   EMPTIES 


companies  are  acquiring  a  stock  of  15-ton  to 
20-ton  mineral  waggons.  These  waggons  fulfil 
a  want,  and  confirm  the  fact  that  a  paying  load 
up  to  20  tons  can  be  carried  within  reasonable 
dimensions  on  two  axles  and  four  wheels,  and 
with  a  tare  in  a  ratio  of  only  2J  to  1,  which  are 
results  equal  to  anything  achieved  with  the 
larger  bogie  waggons. 

Either  =  side  Brakes,  and  Auto= 
matic  Couplings,  In  the  technical  equip- 
ment of  goods  waggons  three  points  remain  to 
be  noticed.  First,  there  is  the  question  of  pro- 
viding them  with  either-side  brakes.  Secondly, 
there  is  the  question  of  fitting  them  with 
automatic  couplings,  which  change,  like  the 
former,  might  any  day  be  imposed  upon  the 
companies  by  the  Board  of  Trade  under  the 
Railway  Employment  (Prevention  of  Accidents) 
Act  of  1900.  It  is  alleged  that  the  present 
coupling  pole  and  coupling  system  [54]  have 
caused  accidents  to  some  20,000  railway  ser- 
vants during  the  past  25  years.  The  delay 
in  enforcing  this  provision  is  due  solely  to 
the  difficulty  experienced  in  finding  •  suitable 
apparatuses.  Hundreds  of  automatic  couplers 
have  been  invented,  but  the  genius 
of  the  inventor  has  gone  unre- 
warded in  so  far  as  practical  appli- 
cation is  concerned.  Thirdly, 
the  "  dumb  "  buffer  is  doomed, 
although  the  date  appointed  for 
its  final  abolition  is  not  until 
January  1st,  1910.  The  damage 
which  occurs  in  the  shunting 
yards  when  these  old,  solid,  dumb- 
buffered  waggons  are  used  in 
conjunction  with  those  having 
spring  buffers  is  very  consider- 
able, and  causes  a  vast  amount  of  otherwise 
unnecessary  repairs.  Many  accidents  on  the 
line  can  also  be  attributed  to  the  use  of  the 
former  buffers,  and  the  decision  to  supersede 
them  is  viewed  with  great  satisfaction  by  all 
railway  men. 

Definition  of  "  C  and  D "  Rates. 
The  cardinal  point  of  difference  between 
the  goods  and  passenger  traffic  is  the  very 
obvious  fact  that  the  former  does  not  find  its 


56.    SUBTERRANEAN    STABLES   AT   KINGS    CROSS, 
G.N.R. 


TRANSIT 


own  way  to  and  from  the  railway,  neither  does  it 
transfer  itself  at  junctions.     In  the  former  case 
there  are  two  ways  of  dealing  with  the  articles,      hand,  in  the  country 
either  they  are  collected  and  delivered  by  the      consignments    (as     a 
railway    company,    when    they     are    charged 
"  C  and  D  "  rates — that  is,  providing   for  the 
expense  of  collection  and  delivery — or  they  are 

brought  to  and  from  the  terminal  stations  by      taken  straight  to  the 
the  traders,  who  also  undertake  all  loading  and      station.    The  employ- 
unloading.     In    the    latter    case    "  station    to 
station  "  rates  are  charged,  and  all  station  to 
station  consignments  are  carried  in  full  truck- 
loads,  as  far  as  possible.     Cartage  is  provided 
for  in  two  ways ;    a  railway  company  either 
employs  its  OAvn  horses,  vans,  lorries,  and  men, 
or  commissions  an  agent  to  carry  out  the  whole 
of  this  work. 

The  Cartage  of  Goods.  The  staff 
of  the  cartage  department  comprises  the 
following :  van  boys,  van  drivers,  stablers, 
van  washers,  van  mechanics,  cartage  super- 
intendents or  inspectors,  horse  managers,  and 
veterinary  surgeons.  Van  boys  are  employed 
only  in  large  towns,  where  the  police  regulations 
do  not  allow  vehicles  to  be  left  unattended,  and 


an  agent,  clerks,  and 
orters.     On  the  other 


rule)  are  collected  to 
order  at  the  con- 
signer's premises  and 


ment  of  self-propelled 
vehicles  in  the  cartage 
department  is  dealt 
with  later. 

The  Care  of  the 
Horses.  The  car- 
men at  small  stations 
have  to  groom  and 
stable  their  horses, 
and  also  to  wash  their 


57.    GIVING    OXYGEN 
TO   A   SICK  HORSE 


vans.  All  this  is,  how- 
ever, done  for  them  at  important  goods  depots, 
where  the  number  of  horses  employed  runs  into 
hundreds  and  the  stables,  in  consequence,  form 
a  separate  establishment.  In  the  case  of  depots 
situated  in  the  heart  of  large  towns,  the  abso- 
goods  run  the  risk  of  being  stolen  from  the  rear  lute  necessity  of  keeping  the  animals  near 
of  the  vehicle  while  in  transit.  In  course  of  time  at  hand  compels  them  to  be  stalled  on  the 

a  van  boy  becomes  a  single-horse  van    upper    floors    of    warehouses,   in    the 

driver,  and  is  subsequently  promoted    |     ~^~~  ~~]    arches  of  bridges,  and  even  in  subter- 

to  the  charge  of  pair-horse  [55],  three- 
horse,  and  four -horse  teams.  In  certain 
districts,  where  very  heavy  and  bulky 
articles  have  to  be  handled,  two  men 
are  sent  out  with  each  van,  so  as 
to  assist  one  another  in  lifting  the 
weights.  Some  companies  call  the 
second  man  a  "  book  carrier,"  as  he 
is  responsible  for  receiving  moneys  and 
getting  the  book  signed,  while  his  com 


panion,   the   carman  or  driver,   is   in 
charge  of  the  horses.    Companies  under- 
taking   their    own   cartage    give    the 
drivers   and  van   boys  uniform  caps 
and  overcoats,  in  order  to  act  as  an 
advertisement     and    protect    customers    from 
fraud,    while    some   companies    compel    their 
cartage  agents  to  do  likewise. 

In  London  and  all  big  towns  the  major 
portion  of  the  "C  and  D"  goods — that  is,  the 
orders,  go  through  the  companies'  receiving 
offices.  The  staff  of  a  receiving  office  comprises 


59.    SHUNTING   WITH   HYDRAULIC   CAPSTAN 


ranean  labyrinths  [56].  Here  there  are 
a  horse  manager,  who  is  entrusted  with 
the  health,  care,  and  feeding  of  the 
horses  (although  he  does  not  select 
what  horses  are  to  pull  what  loads) ; 
a  veterinary  surgeon,  with  hospital 
staff ;  foremen  horsekeepers,  each  of 
whom  has  charge  of  ten  horses  ; 
stablers ;  van  washers ;  and  van 
mechanics,  for  every  van  is  over-, 
hauled  before  making  a  journey.  More- 
over, at  these  depots  there  is  a  cartage 
58.  HORSE  IN  inspector,  who  is  a  salaried  official  under 
BLOOMERS  tne  station-superintendent  or  the  goods 

agent.  It  may  be  noted  that  cartage 
exigences  necessitate  the  employment  of  different 
kinds  of  horses  at  different  places.  Thus,  in 
London,  good  trotting  horses  are  mainly 
required,  whereas  in  Liverpool  strong  draught 
horses  to  pull  very  heavy  loads  at  walking  pace 
are  essential.  The  work  in  the  metropolis  is 
of  such  an  arduous  character  that  some  com- 
panies relegate  their  horses  to  country  stations 
after  six  years  of  city  work. 

All  companies  have  horse  hospitals,  where  the 
last  word  of  veterinary  science  is  practised  upon 
the  inmates.  The  refinements  of  the  treat- 
ment include  the  administration  of  oxygen 
inhalations  to  stimulate  the  action  of  a  weak 
heart  [57],  while  for  applying  hot  fomentations 
the  horse's  legs  are  enveloped  in  "  bloomers " 
made  of  several  thicknesses  of  felt,  and  the 
"  bloomers "  are  packed  with  hay  which  has 
been  dipped  in  almost  boiling  water  [58]. 

Consignment  of  Goods.  Let  us  noAV 
describe  the  procedure  followed  Avhen  a  package 
or  a  consignment  of  merchandise  charged  at 
"  C  and  D "  rates  is  handed  to  a  railway 
company  for  transit. 

5071 


TRANSIT 

The  consigner  fills  in  a  document  known  as  a 
consignment  note,  in  which  he  describes  the 
consignment  for  classification  rates,  states  who 
pays  the  cost  of  carriage — consigner  or  consignee 

and    signs    the    ordinary    conditions    of    the 

Carrier's  Act,  printed  on  the  back.  There  are 
special  consignment  notes  for  special  kinds  of 
consignments,  such  as  inflammable  liquids, 
bullion  and  specie,  explosives,  damageable 
goods,  etc.  On  arriving  at  the  depot  the 
carman,  drives  over  a  weighbridge,  which 
registers  the  weight  of 
his  load  in  bulk.  The 
reason  for  taking  this 
weight  is  to  furnish 
returns  of  the  tonnage 
entering  and  leaving  the 
yard,  to  prevent  pilfering, 
and  for  the  purposes 
of  the  bonus  system, 
by  which  the  wages 
of  the  carmen  are  regu- 
lated. 

The  Work  of  the 
Goods      Staff.       The 
articles   next    pass   into 
the  hands  of  the  work- 
ing goods  staff,  which  includes  the  following : 
INDOOR  WORKING          OUTDOOR  WORKING 
Porters  and  Checkers        Capstanmen 
Loaders  or  stowers  Shunters 

Callers-off  and  Searchers  Truck-markers 
Shed  Foremen  Number-takers 

Inspectors  Yard  Foremen 

The  carman  gives  his  consignment  notes  to  a 
checker.  The  latter  checks  the  address  of  each 
consignment  as  it  is  communicated  to  him  by 
a  caller-off  during  the  unloading  process, 
notes  whether  or  not  the  package  or  article  is 
in  good  condition,  weighs  it,  enters  its  weight 
on  the  consignment  note,  and  transfers  it, 
together  with  the  consignment 
note,  to  a  porter,  with  instruc- 
tions as  to  its  destination  and 
the  waggon  into  which  it  is  to 
be  loaded.  A  goods  porter 
wheels  the  consignment  to  the 
appointed  section  of  the  shed 
or  to  where  the  proper  waggon 
is  standing,  and  here  it  is  taken 
over  by  the  loader. 

The  Science  of  Load= 
ing.  There  is  considerable  art 
in  stowing  or  loading  waggons. 
The  consignments  must  be 
stowed  in  the  sequence  in  which 
they  are  to  be  unloaded,  and  they  must  be  distri- 
buted evenly  over  the  floor  so  as  to  ensure  an  even 
weight  on  the  bearings,  otherwise  the  axles  might 
run  hot.  An  experienced  loader  will  stow  3  tons 
where  an  untrained  man  would  find  difficulty  in 
storing  30  cwt.  Further,  in  the  case  of  open 
trucks,  the  goods  must  be  packed  so  that  when 
tho  truck  is  sheeted  the  whole  erection  will  be 
ark-like  in  shape,  thus  allowing  rainwater  to  run 
off.  The  loaders  arc  responsible,  first,  for  the 

5 .  and  secondly,  for  the  size  of  the  loads. 
5072 


and    description     of 


FOREMAN  SHUNTER  UNBRAKING  WAGGON    a3 


61.  CHAIN  DRAG  AND  HOOK  FOR 
ARRESTING  RUNAWAY  WAGGONS 


Invoice  System.  Meantime,  another 
checker  has  added  the  number  of  the  waggon 
to  the  consignment  note,  after  which  it  is  sent 
up  to  the  invoicing  or  "  shipping  "  office.  An 
invoice  is  then  prepared,  showing  the  forwarding 
and  receiving  stations  ;  the  number  of  the 
waggon  in  which  the  consignment  is  loaded  : 
the  point  to  which  it  is  loaded:  the  route  by 
which  it  is  to  be  conveyed ;  the  names  of 
the  consigner  and  consignee  ;  the  number 
the  packages,  together 
with  any  marks  (for 
some  merchandise  is 
conveyed  under  specific 
, marks)  ;  the  weight, 
showing  whether  carted, 
non-carted,  or  mineral  ; 
the  rate  per  ton  ;  the 
charge,  whether  it  is 
"paid"  or  "to  pay"; 
and  any  charges  other 
than  those  for  actual 
carriage,  such  as  ship- 
pers' fees,  agents'  fees, 
etc.,  technically  known 
paid  on,"  if  it  is  to 
be  charged  forward.  The 
invoice  either  accompanies  the  goods  themselves 
by  being  handed  to  the  guard  of  the  train  that 
conveys  it  or  by  being  affixed  to  the  waggon 
side,  or  it  is  sent  by  post.  At  any  rate,  the 
invoice  is  supposed  to  reach  the  receiving 
station — that  is,  the  station  to  which  the  con- 
signment is  loaded,  by  the  time  the  goods 
arrive  there. 

The  System  of  Loading  and  Trans= 
ferring.  The  shed  foreman  is  really  responsible 
for  the  proper  loading  of  the  waggons  with 
safety,  efficiency,  and  economy.  He  has  to  see 
that  two  waggons  are  not  used  where  one 
would  suffice,  and  that  before  leaving  the  shed 
each  waggon  is  properly  sheeted,  doors  shut, 
and  everything  safe  for  it  to 
proceed  on  its  journey.  The 
shed  foreman  is  the  goods 
agent's  deputy  and  right-hand 
man,'  but  at  the  more  im- 
portant depots  he  has  an  in- 
spector over  him.  The  system 
of  loading  goods  is  as  follows. 
When  there  is  not  a  sufficient 
number  of  articles  forthcoming 
to  make  up  a  full  truckload 
to  one  destination,  a  truck  is 
fully  loaded  to  what  is  termed 
a  transfer  point,  where  the 
goods  are  re-sorted  and  com- 
bined so  as  to  give  good  loads  on  to  their  re- 
spective destinations.  On  coming  to  a  transfer 
point  with  another  company,  the  fully  loaded 
trucks  containing  heavy  consignments  are  passed 
through,  while  the  smaller  consignments  break 
bulk,  and  perhaps  have  to  be  carted  some 
distance.  A  few  of  the  great  junctions — Crewc. 
for  example — have  tranship  sheds  where  nothing 
but  the  work  of  transferring  goods  from  train  to 
bench  and  from  bench  to  train  is  carried  out. 
In  the  case  of  smaller  consignments,  the  weight 


of  which  is  too  light  to  warrant  the  running 
of  a  special  truckload,  the  station  truck  system 
is  employed.  These  latter  trucks  do  not  travel 
for  long  distances,  and  they  work  regularly  on 
local  goods  trains  which  call  at  every  station  en 
route. 

"Inwards"  Traffic  Methods.  Having 
explained  how  the  "outwards"  or  forwarded 
"  C  and  D "  traffic  is  dealt  with,  it  will 
be  understood  that  the  procedure  with  the 
"  inwards,"  or  received,  is  mainly  a  reversal  of 
the  foregoing,  with  one  or  two  refinements  added. 
For  example,  immediately  on  the  arrival  of  a 
main  line  train  at  a  big  depot,  it  is  met  by  a 
"  truck  marker,"  who,  from  particulars  supplied 
by  the  delivery  office,  chalks  for  their  proper 
discharging  berths  those  waggons  containing 
"  order  goods  "  (to  await  orders)  or  full  loads. 
Again,  waggons  containing  goods  for  districts 
that  can  be  more  advantageously  dealt  with  by 
another  station,  or  for  which  forwarding  instruc- 
tions have  been  received,  are  also  re-labelled  by 
the  truck  marker,  thus  saving  unnecessary 
shunting  and  delay.  Many  vexatious  incidents 
arise  to  interfere  with 
the  smooth  working  of 
the  traffic,  and  the  chief 
of  these  may  be  classed 
under  four  heads  — 
-namely:  (I)  goods  ar- 
riving without  invoice  ; 
(2)  discrepancies  be- 
tween the  invoice  and 
the  goods  actually  re- 
ceived in  the  waggons  ; 
(  3 )  invoices  arriving 
w  i  t  h  o  u  t  the  goods  ; 
(4)  goods  accidentally 
trucked  to  the  wrong 
position  on  the  shed  plat  - 
form.  Special  cut-and- 
rlried  methods  are 
applied  for  rectifying 
each  of  the  above  errors, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  last  named,  the  services 
of  skilled  men,  known  as  "  searchers,"  are 
requisitioned. 

Arrangement  of  Goods  Depots. 
The  special  accommodation  provided  for 
dealing  with  the  merchandise  traffic  naturally 
varies  in  size  and  equipment  according  to  the 
volume  and  description  of  the  goods  to  be 
handled.  In  ordinary  circumstances,  this  ac- 
commodation is  situated  adjacent  to  a  passenger 
station,  but  in  large  towns  there  are  distinct 
goods  stations  or  depots,  which,  as  a  rule,  are 
located  as  near  as  possible  to  the  centres  of  trade 
and  industry,  although  they  may  be  some  distance 
away  from,  but,  of  course,  physically  con- 
nected with,  the  main  line  of  the  railway  com- 
pany. For  example,  in  London  the  City  depot 
of  the  London  and  North-Western  Railway  is 
at  Broad  Street,  which  is  reached  by  means  of 
the  North  London  Railway  via  Camden  and 
Dalston  ;  that  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway 
at  Farringdon  Street ;  that  of  the  Great  Western 
at  Smithfield ;  and  that  of  the  Midland  at 
Whitecross  Street— access  to  all  the  latter  being 

1  * 


62.    G.N.R.    EXPRESS   GOODS  TRAIX 


TRANSIT 

obtained  over  the  Metropolitan  line.  The  peculiar 
accommodation  set  aside  for  goods  comprises 
sheds,  warehouses,  cattle  pens,  turntables,  and 
sidings.  The  arrangement  of  sheds  and  ware- 
houses has  always  been  a  subject  of  controversy. 
No  standard  principles  exist,  for  every  company 
has  evolved  its  own  scheme  as  best  suited  to 
its  peculiar  requirements.  Broadly  speaking, 
however,  the  laying  out  of  goods  accommodation 
must  be  governed  by  the  exigences  of  the  three 
different  kinds  of  traffic  into  which  the  question 
resolves  itself — namely:  (1)  local  traffic  (traffic" 
which  begins  or  ends  its  journey  at  the  station) ; 
(2)  transfer  traffic  (traffic  loaded  to  the 
station  for  the  purpose  of  being  transhipped  into 
other  waggons  and  forwarded  to  destination) ; 
and  (3)  warehouse  traffic  (traffic  in  goods 
which  are  to  be  stored,  awaiting  orders  for 
forwarding  or  delivery).  A  shed  that  deals  with 
both  receiving  and  forwarding  traffic  must  clear 
out  the  former  early  in  the  day,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  dispose  of  the  latter  at  night.  The  "  rush  " 
hours  at  an  important  goods  depot  are  from  3  a.m. 
to  8  a.m.,  between  which  hours  the  "  inward  " 
traffic  is  steadily  arriv- 
ing, and  from  6  p.m.  to 
midnight,  when  the  out- 
wards traffic  is  being 
despatched.  In  the  case 
of  depots  like  Camden, 
where  several  thousands 
of  tons  have  to  be  dis- 
posed of  every  twenty- 
four  hours,  one  section 
must  be  completed 
before  it  is  possible  to 
tackle  the  other.  A 
typical  big  goods  shed 
consists  of  an  array  of 
platforms,  with  lines  of 
way  on  each  side  on  the 
ground  level,  and  an 
upper  floor  devoted  to 
storage  or  office  pur- 
poses ;  while  underneath  the  shed  lines  are  capa- 
cious cellars  for  the  storage  of  beer,  bacon,  hides, 
and  such  commodities  as  can  be  lifted  or  lowered 
direct  between  the  cellars  and  the  carts,  or  railway 
waggons,  by  means  of  suitable  cranes.  It  will  be 
understood  that  the  shed  lines  are  used  only 
for  the  loading  and  unloading  of  ordinary  goods 
carried  at  "  C  and  D  "  rates,  which  comprise 
all  fragile  or  damageable  articles,  the  mineral 
traffic,  together  with  "  C  and  D  "  consignments 
of  greater  weight  or  bulk,  being  dealt  with  in  the 
open,  where  more  powerful  cranes  can  be 
installed.  A  large  goods  shed  is  mapped  out  so 
as  to  facilitate  the  work  of  the  carmen,  porters, 
loaders,  and  checkers.  The  walls  of  the  cartage 
space  bear  number  plates,  corresponding  to  the 
numbers  of  the  various  districts  into  which  the 
collecting  and  delivery  area  is  divided  ;  thus 
each  driver  knows  where  to  station  his  dray. 
The  platform  pillars  are  hung  with  destination 
boards  for  the  information  of  the  goods  porters 
and  loaders,  and  the  right  waggons  will  be  found 
opposite  their  respective  boards.  Lastly,  to 
facilitate  the  handling  of  the  articles  power  or 

5073 


TRANSIT 

hand-worked  eranc.5  are  liberally  provided  on  the 
loading  and  unloading  platforms  for  both  carts 
and  railway  waggons. 

"Mileage"  and  "Running"  Sidings. 
The  lines  of  way  in  the  open  are  divided  into 
"  mileage  "  sidings  and  "  running  "  sidings. 
The  former,  which  are  arranged  in  pairs,  with 
room  for  a  roadway  between  each  pair,  are 
utilised  for  the  loading  and  unloading  of 
"  station-to-station  "  consignments,  together  with 
abnormally  heavy  "  C  and  D  "  consignments. 
The  "running"  sidings  are  groups  of  lines  for 
shunting  operations,  and  not  for  the  reception 
or  delivery  of  goods.  All  shunting  is  performed 
either  by  engines,  hydraulic  or  electric  capstans 
[59],  horses,  or  gravitation,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  staff  of  shunters,  whose  grades  are 
superior  foreman,  foreman  shunter,  shunter,  and 
assistant  -shunter. 

The  Goods  Shunter's  Arduous  Task. 
The  chief  yard  foreman  is  responsible  for  the 
shunting  operations,  but  he  delegates  his 
responsibility  to  the  superior  foreman.  The 
latter  must  be  an  intelligent  man  thoroughly 
conversant  with  the  geography  of  the  rail- 
way. His  art  lies  in  accomplishing  the  greatest 
possible  amount  of  work  in  the  minimum 
number  of  movements.  Shunting  is  arduous  and 
dangerous  work.  The  men  are  out  in  all 
weathers,  and  are  exposed  to  serious  risks  of  being 
run  over,  as  not  only  do  the  trucks  move  up  and 
down  the  parallel  lines  of  way  in  a  constant 
stream,  but  in  many  yards  they  are  transferred 
from  one  track  to  another  by  means  of  turn- 
tables and  lines  running  at  right  angles  across 
the  yard.  Formerly,  shunters  were  exposed  to 
further  risk  by  having  to  get  between  vehicles 
for  the  purpose  of  coupling  or  uncoupling  them, 
but  the  obligatory  provision  and  use  of  shunting- 
poles  [54]  has  obviated  this.  The  object  of 
shunting  is,  of  course,  to  classify  the  outwards 
waggons  in  complete  trains,  to  marshal  them  in 
district  and  station  order  in  their  trains,  and 
to  split  up  the  inwards  trains  by  picking  out  the 
waggons  to  be  unloaded.  The  latter  have  then  to  be 
shunted  into  the  goods  shed  or  into  the  "  mileage  " 
sidings,  where  they  must  be  properly  placed  for 
the  trader  to  get  at  them  easily  with  his  carts. 

"Dressing  the  Yard."  In  order  to 
facilitate  and  economise  the  work  of  "  dressing 
the  yard,"  which  at  important  centres  is  an 
operation  of  immense  magnitude,  difficulty, 
and  costliness,  schemes  of  marshalling  sidings 
of  elaborate  construction  and  of  great  extent 
have  been  laid  down.  A  very  popular  design 
is  a  fan-shaped  yard,  with  a  long  shunting  neck 
forming  the  handle  of  the  fan,  and  occasion- 
ally the  fan  is  double-handled,  so  to  speak.  All 
the  sidings  run  into  a  common  departure  lino,  so 
that  waggons  can  be  drawn  out  in  any  order  in 
which  they  are  required  to  be  marshalled,  or  a 
miscellaneous  collection  of  waggons  for  different 
destinations  can  be  broken  up  into  sections  in 
the  trains,  while  sometimes  the  "  fan  "  is  laid 
out  on  a  falling  gradient  so  as  to  economise  power. 

"  Dressing"  by  Gravitation.  The  latter 
plan  was  first  put  into  operation  by  tho  London 
and  North-Western  Company  at  Edge  Hill,  near 

5074 


Liverpool,  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  up  all 
goods  trains  arriving,  and  sorting  out  the  waggons 
for  the  several  depots  in  the  city,  whence  they  are 
distributed  to  the  various  docks  and  warehouses, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  of  assembling  the 
waggons  loaded  at  all  the  depots,  and  subse- 
quently classifying  and  marshalling  them  in 
trains  for  despatch  in  all  directions.  The  sidings 
consist  of  (1)  the  reception  lines  at  the  summit  of 
the  incline  ;  (2)  the  sorting  sidings,  into  which 
the  waggons,  when  separated,  first  run  ;  (3)  the 
"  gridirons,"  through  which  the  trucks  are 
filtered,  so  as  to  make  them  take  their  proper 
order  of  precedence  in  the  train  ;  and  (4)  the 
departure  lines,  which  receive  the  trains  in  their 
complete  state,  and  where  the  engines  are 
attached  to  take  them  away.  On  the  arrival  of 
a  set  of  waggons  in  the  reception  lines,  the  rear 
brakes  are  applied,  the  engine  is  detached,  and 
on  each  waggon  a  truck  marker  chalks  the  num- 
ber of  the  sorting  siding  it  has  to  enter.  The 
waggons  are  then  let  down  the  incline  [€0],  the 
shunters  passing  the  number  on  by  hand  or  lamp 
signal  to  the  men  who  have  charge  of  the  points. 
This  process  gives  each  sorting  siding  a  separate 
train,  although  the  waggons  composing  it  are  in 
indiscriminate  order,  but  by  a  repetition  of  the 
operation  the  waggons  of  each  train  are  separated 
in  the  "  gridirons,"  whence  they  are  lowered  one 
by  one  into  the  departure  lines  in  their  proper 
sequence.  The  gradient  of  such  sidings  varies 
according  to .  the  requirements.  It  may  begin 
at  from  1  in  40  to  1  in  60,  and  finish  up  at  from 
1  in  1.00. to :1  in  300.  Much  depends,  however, 
upon  the  resistance  to  be  overcome  froni  points, 
crossings,  or  curves.  All  the  curves  are  of  the 
same  radius,  so  that  the  resistance  offered  by 
each  may  be  the  same. 

Arresting  Runaways.  The  Shunters  are 
provided  with  brake-sticks,  which  they  insert 
between  the  wheel  and  the  frame  to  steady  the 
vehicles  in  descending,  and  they  also  use  these 
implements  for  letting  down  the  brake-levers 
as  required.  Runaway  waggons  are  arrested  by 
means  of  a  "chain-drag"  apparatus  [61].  This 
consists  of  a  heavy  iron  cable,  wound  on  a  drum, 
which  is  placed  in  a  receptacle  between  and 
below  the  level  of  the  rails  ;  a  steel  hook  attached 
to  the  cable  is  fixed  at  the  height  of  the  waggon 
axle  and  is  worked  by  a  lever,  which  also  works 
a  signal.  When  the  line  is  clear  for  a  train  to  pass, 
the  hook  is  kept  lowered,  but  if  it  is  desired 
to  stop  a  waggon,  the  hook  is  raised  and  catches 
the  axle  of  the  waggon,  and  the  heavy  cable 
being  drawn  out  of  the  tank  by  its  weight,  when 
dragged  over  the  ballast,  so  brings  the  runaway 
to  a  standstill.  The  Edge  Hill  yard  covers  an  area, 
of  200  acres,  comprises  57  miles  of  running  lines, 
and  deals  with  3,000  waggons  per  24  hours.  The 
Great  Northern  Railway  has  a  similar  yard  for 
the  concentration  of  its  mineral  traffic  at  Cohviek, 
near  Nottingham,  and  the  Great  Central  Railway 
is  laying  out  a  huge  yard  at  Wath,  in  the  South 
Yorkshire  district.  Traffic  from  45  collieries, 
lying  east,  west,  north  and  south,  will  be  worked 
to  Wath  in  the  rough,  to  be  sorted,  marshalled, 
and  worked  away  in  full  through  trainloadf?, 
empty  trucks  being  similarly  collected  there  and 


worked  to  the  respective  collieries.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  yard  there  will  be  36  miles  of 
sidings,  and  the  length  from  one  far  junction  to 
the  other  will  be  1|  miles.  It  is  estimated  that 
when  completed  about  5,000  waggons  can  be 
dealt  with  in  24  hours  at  Wath. 

"  Number-takers."  Before  a  goods 
train  leaves  the  yard  the  chief  yard  foreman 
is  responsible  for  seeing  that  the  loads  of 
open  trucks  do  not  exceed  the  limits  of  the 
load  gauge  (a  load  gauge  apparatus,  with 
swinging  bar,  is  the  safeguard),  and  that  no 
timber-truck,  boiler  waggon,  or  other  vehicle 
furnished  with  ropes  or  chains,  is  permitted  to 
start  without  the  ropes  or  chains  being  made 
secure  and  safe.  In  all  important  goods  yards, 
and  especially  at  junctions  of  any  two  companies, 
you  will  see  officials  examining  the  waggons  and 
taking  notes.  These  are  the  "  number-takers  " 
employed  in  jotting  down  the  numbers  and 
descriptions  of  all  the  waggons,  and  it  is  from 
their  records  that  returns  are  made  to  the 
Railway  Clearing  House.  Number-takers  are 
employed  by  both  the  railway  companies  and  the 
Clearing  House,  but  some  companies  have  dis- 


TRANSIT 

loaded  with  goods  liable  to  be  set  on  fire  by  sparks 
or  cinders  unless  the  waggons  are  properly 
sheeted.  Such  waggons  must  be  placed  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  engine.  Every  goods  guard 
who  has  used  a  van  with  a  stove  in  it,  must,  befoie 
leaving  duty,  take  care  that  the  fire  in  the  stove 
is  entirely  extinguished,  unless  the  van  has  to 
be  sent  out  again  immediately,  in  which  case  a 
small  fire  may  be  allowed  to  remain.  Good? 
guards  must  not  leave  their  trains  until  they 
have  been  delivered  over  to  the  yard  foreman, 
relief  guard,  or  "  train  meeter."  As  the  run- 
ning of  goods  trains  is  subject  to  some  incer- 
titude, due  to  the  faot  that  this  traffic  yields 
precedence  to  the  passenger  variety,  special 
measures  are  devised  in  order  to  obviate  the 
necessity  of  making  the  guards  work  unduly 
long  hours.  Goods  guards  depots  are  situated 
at  strategic  centres  of  the  line,  and  if  a  guard 
finds  that  he  cannot  get  home  within  twelve 
working  hours  he  may  wire  to  the  nearest 
depot  en  route  for  a  relief  guard,  and  then,  as 
soon  as  relieved,  he  may  please  himself  whether 
he  puts  in  a  rest  at  the  depot  barracks,  or 
continues  his  homeward  journey  off  duty.  For 


63.    N.E.    HIGH-CAPACITY   MINERAL  TRAIN   EQUIPPED   WITH    WESTINGHOUSE   QUICK-ACTING 

CONTINUOUS   BRAKE 


continued  the  practice,  or,  rather,  relegated  the 
task  to  the  guards,  who  enter  the  number  of 
every  waggon  on  the  train  in  a  special  book. 

Duties  of  Goods  Guards.  Every  goods 
and  mineral  train  is  accompanied  by  a  brakes- 
man or  guard,  and  sometimes  by  both,  for  the 
distinction  is  only  one  of  grade,  the  former 
being  a  junior  and  the  latter  a  senior  guard. 
Goods  guards  are  recruited  from  station  porters, 
shunters,  etc. 

Although  the  guard  of  a  goods  train  has  no 
luggage  or  parcels  to  attend  to,  he  is  given  plenty 
of  occupation.  He  has  to  keep  a  log,  or  journal 
of  his  train,  like  the  passenger  guard ;  is  respon- 
sible for  the  proper  connection  and  equipment 
of  his  train,  and  has  to  see  that  waggons  labelled 
for  certain  places  are  put  off  correctly,  while  at 
wayside  stations  he  directs  shunting  operations. 
Except  incase  of  emergency  the  passenger  guard 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  actual  working  of  his 
train,  whereas  the  goods  guard,  in  travelling  down 
steep  inclines,  must  assist  the  engine-driver  by 
applying  the  rear  hand  brake — care  being  taken 
not  to  skid  the  wheels— and  where  necessary, 
fastening  down  a  sufficient  number  of  hand  brakes 
on  the  waggons.  Guards  must  not  take  on  waggons 


the  same  purpose  there  is  a  staff  of  train  meeters 
at  all  the  principal  terminal  yards,  the  members 
of  which  relieve  the  guards  of  incoming  trains, 
and  finish  up  their  work  for  them. 

Limits  of  Load  and  Speed.  The 
loads  of  merchandise  and  mineral  trains  are 
arranged  according  to  the  speed  at  which  thej' 
are  booked  to  travel,  which,  in  turn,  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  line  as  regards  curves  and 
gradients,  and  the  power  of  the  locomotives. 
The  standard  loads  vary  from  24  to  60  waggons. 
With  the  uninitiated,  a  misconception  is  preva- 
lent that  goods  trains  are  worked  anyhow,  the 
only  stipulation  being  that  they  do  not  interfere 
with  the  running  of  the  passenger  trains.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  working  of  the  goods  traffic 
is  as  carefully  provided  for  and  supervised  as 
that  of  the  passenger,  while  it  is  infinitely  harder 
to  arrange,  for  the  very  reason  that  it  is  con- 
stantly being  called  upon  to  shunt  out  of  the 
way.  of  the  faster  traffic.  Absolute  punctuality 
is  insisted  upon,  and  errors  and  delays  are  the 
cause  of  searching  inquiry.  The  major  portion 
of  the  goods  traffic  is  conducted  by  night,  when 
there  are  few  passenger  trains  running,  which,  of 
course,  somewhat  simplifies  matters,  while  the 

5975 


TRANSIT 

heavy  trade  companies  have  Ixsen  at  great 
expense  to  provide  their  main  lines  with  an  addi- 
tional pair  of  rails  to  be  appropriated  to  the 
goods  and  slow  passenger  trains. 

Express  Goods  Trains.  In  this 
country  the  merchandise,  as  distinct  from  the 
mineral  traffic,  bas  ever  been  worked  at  com- 
paratively high  rates  of  speed,  and  the  tendency 
now  is  to  increase  the  speed  of  such  trains 
until  they  fall  little  below  that  of  express 
passenger  trains.  The  Great  Northern  Railway 
was  the  pioneer  of  "  express  "  goods  trains  [62], 
and  at  the  time  of  writing  boasts  of  giving  a 
score  of  these  daily,  which  are  timed  at  inclu- 
sive speeds  of  from  forty  to  forty-five  miles  per 
hour.  A  rate  of  speed  exceeding  fifty  miles  per 
hour  is,  however,  often  maintained  from  start 
to  stop  by  trains  conveying  fish  and  other 
perishable  consignments. 

The  faster-timed  merchandise  trains  are  com- 
posed entirely  of  new  large -capacity  cupjboard 
waggons,  equipped  with  oil- boxes,  and  an 
automatic  continuous  brake,  while  the  most 
powerful  express  engines  are  employed  to  haul 
them  [63]. 

Goods  Rat  s.  The  charges  upon  a  railway 
may  be  classified  as  rates,  fares,  and  tolls.  A 
rate  is  the  cost  per  ton  of  hauling  merchandise 
and  minerals  from  one  point  to  another  ;  a  fare 
is  the  cost  per  mile  of  carrying  passengers  in 
the  company's  own  carriages  from  station  to 
station  ;  and  a  toll  denotes  "  a  tax  or  custom 
paid  for  passage,"  as  when  one  company 
exercises  running  powers  over  the  lines  of 
another.  Tolls  may  take,  therefore,  the  shape 
of  a  fixed  allowance  per  passenger,  parcel,  or 
ton  of  goods,  or  the  amount  may  be  determined 
by  a  mileage  proportion  of  the  receipts.  In 
addition,  companies  are  sanctioned  to  charge 
bonus  mileage  rates  and  fares  for  the  use  of 
special  works,  such  as  the  Severn  Tunnel,  or 
Runcorn,  Tay,  and  Forth  bridges,  the  construc- 
tion of  which  entailed  expenditure  out  of  the 
ordinary.  For  instance,  the  Severn  Tunnel  is 
4J  miles  long,  but  the  Great  Western  Company 
are  authorised  to  charge  for  the  use  of  it  as 
though  it  were  12  miles  in  length. 

The  rates,  fares,  and  tolls  to  be  charged  upon  a 
railway  are,  in  a  sense,  regulated  by  Act  of  Par- 
liament and  the  maximum  charges  now  author- 
ised to  British  railways  for  the  conveyance  of 
merchandise  and  mineral  traffic  date  from  1892. 
when,  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  charges,  all  goods 
liable  to  railway  conveyance  were  classified  under 
eight  different  heads,  three  of  which  are  known 
as  classes  A,  B,  and  C,  and  the  remainder  as 
classes  1  to  5.  The  system  of  classification 
followed  still  is,  as  it  always  has  been,  according 
to  the  weight,  bulk,  value,  method  of  packing, 
and  liability  to  damage  of  the  articles.  Class  A 
traffic  includes  coal,  coke,  iron  ore,  patent  fuel, 
etc. — in  short,  the  heavier  and  cheaper  articles 
which  are  carried  at  the  lowest  rates,  while  at 
the  other  end  of  the  scale  is  Class  5  traffic, 
which  covers  furniture,  china,  straw  hats,  per- 
fumery, etc. — in  short,  the  more  valuable  or 
fragile  articles,  for  which  rates  are  naturally 
highest. 

5076 


Important  Rules.  Classes  A  and  B  are 
applicable  to  consignments  of  four  tons  and 
upwards.  In  Class  A  the  ordinary  rate  stipu- 
lates that  the  freighter  shall  supply  trucks. 
If  the  railway  company  supplies  trucks  an 
additional  charge  is  made.  In  Class  B  the 
normal  rate  applies  to  traffic  in  railway  com- 
panies' waggons,  and  if  the  freighter  supplies 
the  waggons  an  allowance  may  be  made.  In 
neither  A  nor  B  do  the  rates  cover  any  labourage. 
Class  C  is  applicable  to  consignments  of  two 
tons  and  upwards,  and  the  ordinary  rate  covers 
loading  and  unloading  by  the  companies,  but 
not  cartage.  Classes  1  to  5  apply  to  consign- 
ments of  from  3  cwt.  to  2  tons,  and  unless 
otherwise  provided,  the  rates  include  collection 
and  delivery  within  the  boundaries  prescribed 
by  the  companies  at  the  various  places.  Con- 
signments not  exceeding  3  cwt. — technically 
known  as  "  smalls  " — are  charged  in  accordance 
with  the  regulations  and  scales  for  small  parcels 
by  merchandise  trains. 

The  Goods  Clerk's  Classic.  The 
statutory  classification  of  goods  not  being  con- 
sidered sufficiently  comprehensive,  the  Railway 
Clearing  House  issues  a  "  General  Railway 
Classification  of  Goods  by  Merchandise  Trains," 
which  has  been  appropriately  christened  the 
"  Goods  Clerk's  Classic."  This  latter  volume 
is  published  annually,  and  a  reduced  specimen 
page  out  of  the  146  which  it  contains  is 
reproduced  below. 


GENERAL  RAILWAY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  GOODS,  1905.                  71 

Iron  and  St»e\-continued 

Wheel  Centres.  locomotive    .  . 
In  less  Iflt  than  2  tons    .  . 
Wire    (iron),   not    packed   or 

Class. 
C 
C 

C 
C 

| 
2" 

3 

4 

1 

31 
31 

Japanned  Ware— 
In  casks,  cases,  or  crater   .  . 
E.o.h.p  •  

(Jlasi. 

31 
4 
3 
2 

I 

2 
3 

I 
3 

3 
31 

•Ci 
3 

Japan   Moss. 

Japan  Wax 

Jarrah      Wood—  (see     Timber. 
P.   H2.) 
t.Iars  and  Bottles,  earthenware 
or  stoneware,   packed  or  pro- 
tected by  wickertcork    
Not    packed    nor    protected 
by    wicktrwork.    Station 
to     Statitn,     minimum 
charge  as  jtr  2  tons  per 
waggon,      exclusive      of 
labour.   Owner's    risk  .  . 
tJars  and    Bottles,  tarlhenwart 
or  stoneware,  e.o.h.p  
Jelly  or  Grease,  Petroleum  

Wire,  Pt>wi—  Staples  (of    iron 
wire)  sent  with  Iron  Wire  to 
be  charged    at      the    same 
rate*  as  the  Wire. 
Wire,    steel  —  Staples  (of    steel 
wire)  sent   with  Steel  Wire 
•to  be  charged    at  th«  game 
rate*  as  the  Wire. 
Wire     (steel),    not     packed    or 
wrappered   
Wire,  wrapped  in  paper,  can- 
vas,  or  brattu-e  cloth  
Wire    Iron,    rolled    in    rods  nr 
coils,  not  packed   
Wire  Rope.  old.  cut  in   pieces 
Isinglass,  in  casks  or  cases  .... 
Isinglass,  e.o.h.p  
stle.  /or  Brush.  making    
talian  or  Box  Irons      
vory  Waste  or  Dust    
Ivory,   e.o.h.p  
vory.   Vegetable,   packed.  .'.... 
e.o.h.p  
Ivory  Black,  in   bags  and  casks 
E.o.h.p  

«V. 

Jackets    or    Mantle*,    Women's 
(not  silk),   in  bales,  packs,  or 
trusses     
Jackets    or    Mantles,   Women'* 
(not  silk),  e.o.h.p  
Jacks— 
Hottle     

's'inaU'     ....  "°n.  '.  '.'.'.'.  '.  '.  '.  '.  '. 

Jew's  Harps  .  ;  
.!im  Crows  or  Benders  (/or  rails) 
.lodelita   Oil.  in    tasks   or   iron 
drums,   round    01    tapered   at 

E.o.h.p  
Joiners'   Tools  

Joiners'   Work   (common   uood) 
—  Beadings     and    Mouldinga 
(not   gilt,    lac'/uertd.    or    var- 
nished).      Doors     and    Door 
Frames.    Fitting    nncl    Fix- 
tures   for    Buildings,    Stair- 
cases,   Balan.-rs,    and    Hand 
Hails,  Window    Sashe*     and 
Frames  and   Shutters  
Doors,  Door  and  Window 
Frames,  made  of   Mahogany. 
Walnut,  and  other   expensive 
Timber   
Joists,  iron  or  steel  (Bridgework) 
Juniper  Berries     

Jute  Waste,  not  oily,  lor  paper 
making,    hydraulic    or   steam 

JuU>  Wa«e,  not  oily,  e.o.h.p.   .  . 

•Subject    to  special  arrangement   when  o(   unusual   length,    bulk,  or  weight,  or  of 
exceptional  bulk  in  proportion  to  weigh  . 
If  not  properly  protected  by  packing  to  be  only  accepted  at  Owner's  rink 
Grocery  List  No.  1.         |  Paper-making  Materials  List.         1  Hardware  List. 
i  Iron  and  Steel  List.        y  Reduced  rate  at  Owner's  risk, 

A  part  of  the  htfok  is  printed  on  yellow  paper, 
which  portion  contains  a  special  classification 
of  explosives  and  other  dangerous  goods,  while 
there  is  also  a  private  supplement  on  pink  paper 
which  contains  instructions  for  the  information  of 


railway  servants  alone  respecting  the  method  of 
charging  for  articles  of  unusual  length,  weight,  or 
bulk,  articles  requiring  an  exceptional  truck 
or  a  special  train,  articles  not  packed  or  in- 
securely packed,  any  wild  beast,  and  specie, 
bullion,  plate,  and  statuary,  etc.  which  the  railway 
companies  are  authorised  to  charge  "  any 
reasonable  sum  they  think  fit."  In  the  present 
statutory  classification,  Parliament,  instead  of 
providing  for  all  unenumerated  articles  in  the 
highest  class,  has  placed  them  in  Class  3  ;  but 
an  appeal  is  permissible  on  either  side.  Thus, 
if  a  freighter  deems  that  a  traffic  in  which  he  is 
interested  be  too  highly  placed  in  Class  3,  he  may 
apply  to  the  Board  of  Trade  to  have  it  reduced, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  railway  companies 
consider  that  its  classification  in  Class  3  be  too 
low,  they  may  apply  for  it  to  be  transferred  into 
a  higher  class.  A  case  in  point  is  the  recent  suc- 
cessful application  on  the  part  of  the  companies 
to  have  gramophone  records  placed  in  Class  5. 

Legal  Restrictions  Against  In= 
creasing  Rates.  Another  "  Railway  and 
Canal  Traffic  Act,"  passed  in  1894,  renders  it 
obligatory  for  the  companies  to  prove  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  Railway  Commissioners  if 
challenged  that  any  increase  of  rate  made 
directly  or  indirectly  since  December  31st,  1892, 
is  a  reasonable  increase  ;  and  for  this  purpose 
it  is  not  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  rate  is  within 
any  limit  fixed  by  Act  of  Parliament.  The  pro- 
visions of  this  latter  Act  have  had  the  not  un- 
natural effect  of  making  the  companies  timorous 
of  temporarily  lowering  during  bad  times  what 
is  a  fair  rate  from  fear  of  incurring  litigation 
should  it  be  subsequently  restored  to  its  original 
height  when  the  depression  has  passed  away. 

Adjustment  of  Rates.  In  practice, 
the  railway  companies  rarely  avail  themselves 
of  their  maximum  charges.  The  principle  of 
the  companies  is  to  charge  what  the  traffic  will 
bear — that  is,  rates  based  not  on  the  cost  of 
the  service  to  the  railway  company,  but  on  what 
it  is  considered  the  freighter  can  and  ought  to 
pay  for  it.  Within  their  statutory  maxima  the 
cojnpanies  are  free  to  adjust  their  rates  on  a 
free  commercial  basis,  subject  to  the  foregoing 
provision  regarding  increase  of  rate.  Thus, 
they  may  charge  differential  rates,  in  contra- 
distinction to  uniform  mileage  rates ;  but  one 
thing  they  are  de ban-eel  from  doing  is  to  establish 
a  bounty  system,  or  to  give  one  trader  undue 
preference  over  another.  As  to  what  constitutes 
undue  preference  is,  however,  a  very  thorny 
question.  For  example,  different  rates  charged 
for  consignments  of  coal,  grain,  and  agricultural 
produce  carried  between  the  same  points,  one 
for  export  or  import  and  the  other  for  home 
consumption,  are  not  deemed  to  exhibit  undue 
preference,  as  in  the  former  case  what  is 
invariably  the  lower  rate  is  considered  to  be 
justified  by  the  much  larger  volume  and  greater 
regularity  of  consignments  carried  to  and  from 
the  ports  than  between  inland  stations. 

Machinery  o  the  Rates  Office.  The 
Head  "  Rates  Office,"  which  is  entrusted  with 
the  making  and  keeping  accounts  of  rates, 


TRANSIT 

etc.,  forms  the  busiest  and  most  complex 
branch  of  the  goods  managerial  department. 
Each  district  goods  manager  also  has  a  "  Rates 
Office,"  whose  proceedings  are  regulated  by  the 
headquarters  office,  but  which  in  some  cases  is 
empowered  to  fix  local  rates  within  the  district 
without  first  referring  them  to  headquarters. 
A  rate  book  must  be  kept  at  each  station,  where 
any  trader  may  inspect  it  on  demand. 

The  head  and  other  important  "  rate  offices  " 
are  subdivided  into  three  departments,  one 
to  deal  with  merchandise  rates,  another  with 
mineral  rates,  and  another  with  livestock  rates. 

Millions  of  rates,  of  course,  are  already  in 
existence,  while  how  they  came  to  be  so  is 
best  explained  by  recapitulating  the  procedure 
followed  when  a  company  receives  an  application 
from  a  trader  to  quote  a  rate  between  any  two 
points  not  scheduled  in  the  rate  book,  and  per- 
haps for  some  newly  invented  article  which  is 
not  found  in  the  classification  book.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  decide 
how  the  article  in  question  should  be  classified. 

In  calculating  a  rate,  various  interests  are 
taken  into  consideration — the  value,  nature, 
size,  and  quantity  of  the  consignment  (the 
quantity,  whether  a  few  tons  or  several  trainloads, 
being  a  most  important  factor),  cost  of  service, 
consumers'  interest,  producers'  or  manufac- 
turers' interest,  possible  competition  by  rail  or 
water,  possible  competition  from  other  produce 
districts,  geographical  disadvantages  to  be  over- 
come, and  margin  of  profit. 

Fixing  Through  and  Competitive 
Rates.  Through  and  competitive  rates — that  is, 
those  rates  in  which  more  than  two  railways  are 
interested — are  to  a  large  extent  governed  by 
conferences.  There  is  the  English  and  Scotch 
Conference,  which  explains  itself  ;  the  Norman- 
ton  Conference,  which  controls  almost  the  whole 
of  the  competitive  rates  in  the  North  not  dealt 
with  by  the  former  ;  the  English-Irish  Con- 
ference ;  the  Birmingham  and  South  Stafford- 
shire Conference  ;  the  Metropolitan  Conference  ; 
and  a  host  of  minor  local  conferences,  such  as 
the  Mersey  Ports. 

Where  only  two  companies  are  affected  in  the 
fixing  of  a  through  or  competitive  rate  the  rates 
clerks  meet  to  discuss  the  matter,  and  both 
companies  are  bound  to  publish  the  agreed  rate 
upon  the  same  day.  The  analysis  of  a  "  rate  " 
reveals  that  the  maximum  charge  which  may  be 
made  is  set  out  under  two  heads— namely,  (1) 
Station  and  Service  Terminals  ;  (2)  Rate  for  Con- 
veyance. A  station  terminal  is  the  maximum 
charge  for  the  provision  of  buildings  (including 
warehousing  during  free  period)  and  sidings, 
exclusive  of  coal  drops  ;  and  a  service  terminal 
is  the  maximum  charge  for  such  labourage  as 
loading,  unloading,  sheeting,  and  unsheeting 
merchandise. 

The  rate  for  conveyance  is  the  actual  cost  of 
haulage,  and  this  is  based  upon  no  hard  and  fast 
rules,  although  the  axiom  is  "  the  shorter  the 
mileage  the  higher  the  rate."  At  the  chief  rates 
office  of  a  great  railway  company  a  complete 
record  is  kept  of  every  calculated  rate  between 

5077 


TRANSIT 

any  two  points,  and  the  number  of  rates  runs 
into  many  millions.  At  Paddington  the  rates 
library  comprises  upwards  of  1,000  volumes. 

It  is  a  simple  enough  matter  to  ascertain  from 
these  volumes  particulars  about  non -competitive 
or  local  rates  between  any  two  points,  but  none 
but  an  expert  rates  clerk  can  trace  those  of 
through  and  competitive  rates,  which  are 
common  to  several  companies.  At  headquarters 
a  special 
"not  ing  staff" 
of  clerks  is 
kept  con- 
stantly e  m  - 
ployed  enter- 
ing up  all  new 
rates  as  they 
are  issued, 
together  with 
keyed  refer- 
ences to  the 
authority 
under  which 
each  rate  was 
promulgated. 

A  separate 
department 
exists  for  cal- 
culating and  keeping  account  of  the  passenger 
train  rates  for  parcels,  etc.  These  rates  are 
fixed  by  the  superintendent  of  the  line,  or,  in  the 
case  of  the  North-Eastern  and  Great  Northern 
Railways,  by  the  chief  passenger  agent. 

How  Disputes  are  Settled.  There 
is  a  specially  organised  statutory  depart- 
ment to  deal  legally  with  the  various  phases  of 
controversy  between  railway  companies,  or 
questions  of  difference  between  a  railway 
company  and  a  canal  company.  -  This  is  the 
Railway  and  Canal  Commission,  which,  in 
addition  to  the  above,  is  empowered  to  adjudi- 
cate upon  the  question  of  through  rates  over 
different  lines  where  such  rates  would  be  of 
public  benefit  ;  to  hear  and  determine  cases 
instituted  by  the  consignor  or  consignee  of 
merchandise  against  railways  in  respect  of 
excessive  or  preferential  rates  and 
charges,  insufficient  accommoda- 
tion and  facilities,  and  as  to  any 
allowance  or  rebate  to  be  made 
from  the  rates  charged  on  the 
ground  that  the  railway  company 
did  not  perform  terminal  services  ; 
to  order  traffic  facilities,  notwith- 
standing existing  agreements ; 
and  to  apportion  the  expenses  of 
erecting  any  improvement,  such 
as  a  necessary  bridge,  subway, 
etc.,  between  a  railway  company 
on  one  side  and  the  applicants  for  the  desired 
improvement  on  the  other. 

Bv  the  Act  of  1888,  under  the  powers  of  which 
tlte  present  ( 'ommission  now  sits,  the  department 
consists  of  two  appointed  and  three  ex-officio 
Commissioners.  The  Board  of  Trade  appoints 
two  Commissioners,  one  of  whom  must  have 
had  considerable  railway  experience,  while  the 
ex-officio  commissioners  have  to  be  Judges  of 
6078 


64.    N.E.R.    LONDONDERRY   STEAM   MOTOR   WAGGON 


FIRST   ELECTRIC 
IN    ENGLAND 


Superior  Courts  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland.  There  are  also  a  registrar  and  clerk  to 
the  Commission. 

Automobile  Transport  of  Goods.     The 

question  of  the  employment  of  mechanical  road 
traction  for  the  transport  of  goods,  both  heavy 
and  light,  is  of  great  importance.  Nevertheless, 
automobilism  has  not  as  yet  materially  affected 
railways  where  the  cartage  department  is  con- 
cerned; that  is 
to  say,  it  has 
not  displaced 
horses  to  any 
appreciable 
extent  in  the 
collection  and 
delivery  of 
c  o  nsignments 
carried  under 
"C  and  D" 
rates.  T  h  e 
chief  reason 
for  this  is  that. 
in  order  to 
render  the  use 
of  self  -  pro  - 
polled  vehicles 
profitable,  at 
least  three  factors  must  be  present — namely, 
a  fairly  long  haul,  a  full  load  of  consignments 
for  conveyance  to  or  from  a  fixed  point,  and 
a  clear  road.  Generally  speaking,  each  of 
these  factors  is  absent.  Whether  in  country 
or  town,  the  bulk  of  the  business  done  consists 
of  the  cartage  of  goods  and  parcels  over  short 
distances,  and  through  congested  roads  or  streets, 
while  the  loads  themselves  are  made  up  of  mis- 
cellaneous consignments,  which  are  collected 
or  delivered  at  frequent  intervals,  thus  entailing 
a  great  deal  of  waiting  about.  In  congested 
thoroughfares  a  motor  vehicle  possesses  no 
advantage  in  point  of  speed  over  a  horse-drawn 
van,  and  it  is  obvious  that  to  keep  expensive 
machinery  idle,  and  consuming  fuel  and  water, 
during  a  constant  series  of  intermittent  halts 
must  be  a  wasteful  procedure 

Another  drawback  is  that 
nothing  approaching  the  same 
amount  of  work  can  be  got  out 
of  self-propelled  waggons  as  from 
carts  and  horses.  A  team  of  horses 
can  be  employed  on  two  or  three 
consecutive  trips.  There  are,  say, 
400  vans  at  a  goods'  depot :  half 
the  number  can  be  loaded  and  sent 
out,  and  while  they  are  away  the 
remainder  can  be  loaded  up. 
Then,  when  the  former  return, 
loaded  with  "outwards"  goods  or 
empty,  it  is  only  a  question  of  transferring  the 
teams  to  the  latter  ;  whereas,  with  motor 
vehicles  the  motive  machinery  would  have  to  be 
kept  idle  during  both  the  loading  and  unloading 
processes.  Again,  motor  vehicles  are  not  so 
adaptable  for  drawing  up  into  what  chances  to 
be  the  most  convenient  position  for  loaf  liny 
and  unloading,  and  there  are  many  warehouses 
in  which,  owing  to  the  inflammable  natuie  of 


the  contents,  their  presence  would  be  resented 
as  a  source  of  danger.  Lastly,  if  the  railway 
companies  were  to  adopt  mechanical  traction 
on  a  large  scale  they  would  be  faced  by  the 
problems  of  providing  stabling  for  the  vehicles 
(carts  can  be  left  in  the  open),  and  of  storing 
the  petrol  safely. 

The  conditions  under  which  motor  traction 
can  be  profitably  employed  are  between  impor- 
tant, self-contained  collecting  and  distributing 
centres,  and  between  the  railway  and  depots 
in  towns  or  villages  which  lie  a  good  many 
miles  away.  In  the  latter  case,  a  service  of 
passenger  and  goods  motor-cars  might  prove 
an  enduring  substitute  for  a  branch  line  of 
railway.  Traction  engines  are  to  be  preferred 
for  very  heavy  and  unwieldy  loads,  such  as 
machinery,  which  would  otherwise  necessitate 
the  employment  of  large  teams,  say,  of  a  score 
of  horses. 

Different  Types  of  Vehicles.  The  diffe- 
rent types  of  motor  waggons  at  present  in  use  by 
railway  companies  are : 
steam  waggons  and 
lorries  [64]  for  heavy 
goods  transport — that  is, 
for  loads  of  from  5  tons 
to  8  tons  ;  'small  steam 
traction  engines,  coming 
under  the  Motor  Car 
Act;  petrol  lorries,  for 
light  goods  and  parcels 
transport,  2-ton,  3-ton, 
and  5-ton  vehicles  [66] ; 
and  electric  vans  [.65], 
of  about  2  tons  capa- 
city, for  the  expedi- 
tious delivery  of  light, 
perishable  g'oods. 

Steam  possesses  several  advantages  over  petrol 
in  the  heavy  goods  service — namely,  both  the 
initial  outlay  and  cost  of  maintenance  are 
much  less ;  the  deliveries  with  this  class  of 
consignment  being  chiefly  centred  at  one  fixed 
point,  fuel  and  water  are  not  consumed  to  no 
purpose  during  intermittent  calls ;  the  pace  being 
slow,  iron  tyres  can  be  used;  and  there  exists 
larger  reserve  power  for  emergencies.  On  the 
other  hand,  petrol  is  more  advantageous  and 
more  economical  than  steam  for  light  goods 
transport,  and  the  carriage  of  mails  and  parcels. 

All  technical  matters  relating  to  road  motor- 
cars are  delegated  to  the  department  of  the 
chief  mechanical  engineer,  while  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  services  and  the  supervision  of 
the  staff  rests  with  the  superintendent  of  the 
line,  who  acts  in  unison  with  the  chief  goods 
manager  in  arranging  the  goods  car  service. 

Organisation  and  Staffing.  The 
North-Eastern  Railway  has  an  officer  attached 
to  the  chief  traffic  manager's  department  who 
has  had  a  mechanical  engineer's  training,  and 

Continued 


TRANSIT 

he  deals  with  everything  connected  with  the 
road  motors,  communicating  as  follows :  with 
the  mechanical  engineer  upon  mechanical 
matters  ;  with  the  chief  goods  manager  about 
goods  matters  ;  and  with  the  chief  passenger 
agent  about  passenger  matters.  He  is  practi- 
cally a  joint  servant  of  these  three  departments, 
and  if  the  head  of  any  of  them  has  a  point 
which  he  cannot  settle  himself  it  is  settled  by 
the  chief  traffic  manager. 

The  Great  Western  Railway,  which  was  the 
pioneer   of   the   adoption   of  mechanical    road 
traction   for  railway  requirements,    and  which 
possesses    the    largest    stock    of    self-propelled 
vehicles  of  every  description,  has  organised  a 
special    motor-car    department,  under  the  aegis 
of  the  superintendent  of  the  line,  to  deal  with 
cars    all    over    the    company's    system.     The 
headquarters    of   the   department   are    located 
at  Slough,  and  there,  too,  are  shops  that  carry 
out  nearly  all  repairs.     The  staff  of  the  depart- 
ment consists  of  :  (1)  for  indoor  working,  a  chief 
mechanical  superin- 
tendent,    an     assistant 
mechanical    superinten- 
dent,   a  chief'  clerk,    a 
keeper  of  retail  stores,  a 
tyres  and  staff  clerk,  who 
keeps  a  register  of  the 
mileage  of  all  cars,  and  a 
travelling  inspector    of 
stores  ;  (2)  for  outdoor 
working,  a  foreman  fitter 
in  charge  of  repair  shops, 
a  foreman  driver,  who 
arranges  the  services,  a 
traffic  inspector,  and  a 
staff    of    drivers,    and 
conductors. 

Selection  and  Training  of  Drivers. 
To  begin  with,  the  companies  had  to  recruit 
for  drivers  from,  outside  the  railway  service, 
but  now  they  train  their  own  drivers,  and  the 
more  satisfactory  drivers  are  the  men  whom 
they  have  trained  themselves.  Drivers  are 
divided  into  four  grades — namely,  foremen 
drivers,  leading  driver,  driver,  cleaner-driver. 
A  man  is  promoted  foreman  driver  from  the 
shops,  and  every  important  car  centre  is  placed 
in  charge  of  a  foreman  driver. 

Candidates  for  the  post  of  cleaner-driver  must 
be  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  years  of  age, 
although  ex-locomotive  firemen  are  accepted 
at  a  later  age.  A  cleaner-driver  receives  a 
practical  training  in  the  elementary  mechanism 
of  motor  traction,  and  when  passed  by  the 
foreman  he  is  allowed  to  drive  one  or  two  trips 
a  day,  to  relieve  an  ordinary  driver.  In  due 
course,  he  is  promoted  to  driver,  and  then  to 
leading  driver,  and  in  the  latter  capacity  he 
becomes  eligible  to  be  given  charge  of  a  small 
oar  centre. 


N.E.R.    DUBKOPP  MOTOR   PARCEL  VAN 


5070 


Group  18 

LANGUAGES 
35 

Continued  from 
W44 

ITALIAN-FRENCH-SPANISH-ESPERANTO 

Italian  by  F.  de  Feo  ;  French  by  Louis  A.  Barbe,  B.A.  ;  Spanish  by 
Amalia  de  Alberti  and  H.   S.   Duncan  ;    Esperanto  by  Harald  Cleg-g 

ITALIAN 

CoiS*'-«0111                                      By  Francesco  de  Feo 

ADVERBS — continued 
Adverbs  of  Manner 

come  ?  how  ?  .  in  fretta,  in  a  hurry ' 

comunque       (comoon-         volentieri,  willingly 

kooeh),  however  mai  volentieri,  unwillingly 

cost,  so  alV  improvviso,  suddenly 

bene,  well  gratis,  gratis 

male,  badly  a  memoria,  by  heart 

appena,  hardly  a     mano     a     mano, 

insieme  (eensee-ehmeh),          gradually 
together  etc.,  etc. 

The  termination  -oni  added  to  some  nouns  and 
verbs  forms  adverbs  indicating  position  of  the 
body,  as  : 

bocconi,  lying  on  the  face,  prostrate 
penzoloni,  ciondoloni,  hanging  down 
a  tentoni,  groping 
a  cavalcioni,  on  horseback 
saltelloni,  skippingly 

Other  compound  adverbs  of  manner  are  formed 
by  understanding  the  words  moda,  maniera,  uso,  as : 
AW  inglcse  =  secondo  la  moda  inglese,  in  the  English 
fashion  ;  Alia  francese  =  secondo  Vuso  francese,  in 
the  French  way,  etc. 

Adverbs  of  Quantity 

molto,  much  niente,  nothing 

assai,  much  quasi  niente,  almost  nothing 

troppo,  too  much  affatto,  completely 

poco,  little  di  piu,  more 

abbastanza,  enough,         meno,  less 

sufficiently  presso  a  poco,  nearly 

soltanto,  only  etc.,  etc. 

The  student  must  not  confound  assai  with  the 
French  assez  =  enough. 

Adverbs  of  Time 

allora  (ahllo-rah),  then        da  quando  ?  since  when? 
ora,  now  adesso,  ora,  now 

oggi,  to-day  fra  poco,  shortly 

domani,  to-morrow  or  ora,  just  now 

mai  (mah-ee),  never  sempre,  always 

spesso,  often  talvolta,  sometimes 

prima,  before  gid  (dgee-ah),  already 

dopo,  poi  (po-ee),  after       poco  fa,  a  little  while  ago 
appena,  as  soon  as  ^ln  mese  fa,  a  month  ago 

presto,  soon  un  giorno  si  e  un  giorno 

tardi,  late  e         710,  every  other  day 

quando  ?  when  ?  etc.,  etc. 

Many  adverbs  have  different  meanings.  Examples : 
Quel  poveretto  appena  (manner)  si  regge  in  piedi, 
That  poor  man  can  hardly  stand  on  his  feet; 
Appena  (time)  arrivammo  fummo  ricevuti,  As  soon 
as  we  arrived  we  were  received. 

In  familiar  language  oggi  is  frequently  used  for 
"this  afternoon.  Example:  La  vedro  oggi,  I 
shall  see  you  this  afternoon. 

The  adverb  gid  used  as  an  adjective  means 
"  formerly,"  as  :  Via  Roma,  gid  Toledo,  Via  Roma 
formerly  Toledo. 

EXERCISE  XLVI. 

1.  A  veto  fatto  bene  a  venire  da  me;  io  vi  cavero 
toflmente  d'impiccio.  2.  Egli  parla  sempre 

5080 


modestamente  di  se  medesimo.  3.  Parlate  chiaro. 
se  volete  che  io  vi  ascolti.  4.  Sfortunatamente  ar- 
rivammo  troppo  tardi.  5.  A  poco  a  poco  sormon- 
teremo  tutte  le  difficolta.  6.  Ditegli  di  aspettare  ; 
io  verro  giu  subito  subito.  7.  Probabilmente 
avremo  una  risposta  stasera.  8  Era  tanto  buio  che 
andavamo  a  tentoni.  9.  II  latore  e  un  mio  intimo 
amico;  glielo  raccomando  particolarmente. 

Adverbs  of  Place 

dove,  where  ?  sopra,  su,  on 

donde,  whence  ?  sotto,  giu,  down,  below 

qui,  qua,  here  lassu,  up  there 

II,  Id,  there  laggiu,  down  there 

qua  e  Id,  here  and  there       altrove,  somewhere  else 
costi,  costd,  where  you  are  dovunque,  everywhere 
ecco,  here  is  avanti,  forward 

ei,  vi,  here,  there  dietro,  behind 

nc,  from  here,  from  there    lontano,  far 
etc.,    etc. 

1.  Both  qui  and  qua  indicate  the  place  where  the 
speaker    is ;     but   qui   defines    the    locality    more 
closely  than  qua.      Example :     Venite   qua,    Come 
here  ;    Venite  qui,  Come  here  (near  me). 

2.  Costi    and    costd    indicate    the    place    of    the 
person     addressed,    with    the   same   difference     as 
exists  between  qui  and  qua.     Example  :   Sard  'costd 
domani,  I  shall  be  in  the  place  where  you  are  to- 
morrow. 

3.  Ld,  II,  cold  indicate  a  place  where  neither  the 
speaker  is  nor  the  person  addressed.      LI  indicates 
a  place  nearer  than  Id. 

4.  Di  qua,  di  qui,  di  Id  mean  this  way,  that  way, 
and   also   this   side   of,    that-   side    of.     Example : 
Venga  di  qua,  Come  this  way  ;   Vada  dild,  Go  that 
way. 

Adverbs  of  Order 

primieramente,  firstly          successivamente,     succes- 
sccondariamente,  secondly       sively 
in  terzo  luogo,  thirdly  a  uno  a  uno,  one  by  one 

a  vicenda,  in  turns  a  due  a  due,  two  by  two 

alia  rinfusa,  in  confusion 
etc.,  etc. 

Adverbs   of  Affirmation 

si,  yes  senza   dubbio,    without 

gid  (dgee-ah),  quite  so  doubt 

c<rto,  certainly  senza  fallo,  without  fail 

certo  certo,  most  certainly    infatti,  indeed 

davvero,  in  truth,  etc. 
Adverbs  of  Negation 
no,  no  niente  affatto,  not  at  all 

non,  not  mai  (pron.  mah-ee),  never 

ne.anche,  not  even         ma  che,  certainly  not,  etc. 

Adverbs  of  Doubt 

forsc,  perhaps  chi  sa  se,  who  knows  it 

probabilmentc,  probably      e  possible,  it  is  possible 
potrebbc  darsi,  it  may  be      caso  mai,  if  by  any  chance 

etc.,  etc. 

EXERCISE  XLVII. 

1.  Venga  di  qua,  signore  ;  la  strada  e  molto  piu 
breve.  2.  Vuol  dunque  ch'  io  sia  costrctta  di 
domandar  qua  e  la  cosa  sia  accaduto  al  mio  padrone? 


3.  Uno  dopo  1'altro  tutti  si  allontanarono  e 
nii  lasciarono  solo.  4.  Caso  mai  dovesso  venire 
quel  signore  di  ieri,  ditegli  che  non  sono  in  casa. 
5.  Chi  sa  se  arriveremo  in  tempo.  0.  Non  pro- 
mettete  mai  se  non  siete  aflfatto  sicuri  di  poter 
mantenere  la  vostra  promessa.  7.  A  veto  giocato 
abbastanza,  ora  e  tempo  di  andare  a  letto.  8. 
E  possibile  che  c'  incontreremo  a  Milano  in  aprile 
o  maggio.  9.  Se  camminiamo  cosi  lentamente 
non  saremo  lassu  nemmeno  per  domani.  10. 
Venite  giu ;  la  carrozza  e  pronta. 

CONVERSAZIONE 

Quando  possiamo  vederci  per  parlare  del  nostro 
nffare  ? 

Veramente  in  questo  mqmento  sono  molto 
occupato,  ma  se  vuol  venire  d'a  me  domani,  prima 
di  mezzogiorno,  mi  trovera  certamente. 

Benissimo,  saro  da  lei  domani  verso  le  undici. 

Che  cosa  ha  risposto  all'avvocato  ? 

Ho    risposto    chiaro    e    netto    che    non    intendo 


lei  giovanotto  veste  molto  semplicemente, 
non  e  vero  ? 

Si,  ed  e  sempre  molto  elegante. 

Se  avete  bisogno  di  danaro,  ditemelo  franoa- 
mente. 

Grazie,  ne  ho  abbastanza. 

Da  quanto  tempo  non  vede  la  signorina  di  cui 
mi  parlo  tanto  bene  ? 

La  vidi  un  mese  fa  in  casa  Raffi. 

Andate  spesso  in  citta  ? 

Prima  ci  andavo  ogni  settimana,  ma  ora  sono 
obbligato  di  andarci  molto  piu  spesso. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS— continued 

Remarks.  Before  the  terminations  of  the 
past  definite  (-si.  -se,  -sero)  and  of  the  past  participle 
(-so,  -to,  -sto)  the  final  consonants  of  the  stem  undergo 
many  and  different  phonetic  changes.  It  has 
already  been  seen  [page  4792]  that  the  verbs  with 
the  stem  in  d,  nd,  n  drop  these  consonants  before 
the  terminations  -si,  -so,  -sto.  Other  important 
changes  of  the  stems  are  : 

1.  In  the  verbs  with  the  stem  ending  in  c,  g,  t,  v, 
preceded  by  a  vowel,  these  letters  are  assimilated 
with  the  following.,?,  t,  which  are  therefore  doubled. 
Examples  : 

Cuocere  (to  cook),  past  def.  cossi,  pa-it  part. 
cotto. 

Distruggere  (to  destroy),  past  dcf.  distrust, 
past  part,  distrutto. 

Scuotere   (to    shake),   past  def.  scossi,  past   part. 


Muovere  (to  move),  past  def.  mossi,  pad  part, 
mosso. 

2.  The  verbs  with  the  stem  in  c,  g,  v,  preceded  by 
a  consonant,  drop  these  consonants.     Examples : 

Vincere  (to  win),  pa-st  def.  vinsi,  past  part, 
vinto. 

Dipingere  (to  paint),  past  def.  dipins%,  past 
part,  dipinto. 

Risolvere  (to  resolve),  past  def.  risolsi,  past 
part,  risolto  (better  risoluto). 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  verbs  having  gu  in 
the  stem.  Examples  : 

Distinguere  (to  distinguish),  past  def.  distinsi, 
past  par.  distinto. 

3.  The  verbs  with  the  stem  in  rr,  II,  gl,  drop  the 
first  consonant  before  the  terminations.    Examples  : 

Correre  (to  run),  past  def.  corsi,  past  part, 
corso. 

Svettere  (to  root  up),  past  def.  svclsi,  past  part, 
svelto. 


LANGUAGES— ITALIAN 

tiwgltcre  (to  choose),  past  def.  scelsi,  past 
part,  scelto. 

4.  The  verbs  with  the  stem  ending  in  m  change 
the  m  into  ss  before  the  terminations.     Examples  : 

Esprimere  (to  express),  past  def.  espressi, 
paM  part,  espresso. 

5.  The  compounds  of  sumere  change  the  m  into  u. 
Example  : 

Presumere  (to  presume),  past  def.  prestnt*i. 
past  part,  presunto. 

6.  Some  verbs  have  two  forms  of  the  past  par- 
ticiple, regular  and  irregular.     Example  : 

Aprire   (to    open),    past    def.    aprii   and   apersi. 

7.  Some  have  a  double  participle.     Example  : 
SeppeUire    (to    bury),    past    part,   seppdlito   and 

sepolto. 

8.  Of  the  verbs  in  i  (which  have  been   already 
mentioned),  some  change  the  vowel  of  the  stein, 
and  these  generally  take  the  original  vowel  of  tho 
Latin.     Examples : 

Fare  (to  do),  past  def.  fed. 
Vedere  (to  see),  past  def.  vidi. 

9.  Also  some  verbs  in  -si  change  the  vowel  of  the 
stem.  •    Examples : 

Espdlere  (to  expel),  past  def.  espulsi,  past 
part,  espulso. 

10.  Some  double  the  consonant.     Example  : 
Tenere  (to  hold),  past  def.  tenni. 

11.  Some  double  the  consonant  and  change  the 
vowel  at  the  same  time.     Example  : 

Romper  e  (to  break),  past  def.  ruppi. 

12.  Some  end  in  the  past  def.  in  ui.     Example  : 
Nasccre  (to  be  born),  past  def.  nacqui. 

Note  the  past  def.  in  vi  of  parere  (to  seem)  and 
apparire  (to  appear),  parvi,  apparvi ;  and  in  bbi  of 
conoscere  (to  know),  and  crescere  (to  grow),  conobbi 
and  crebbi.  [See  page  4647.] 

Second  Conjugation — continued 
Verbs  in  ere  (short) — continued 
Accorgere  (-si),  to  perceive 
Past  Dcf. — Accdrsi,  accorse,  accorsero. 
Past  Part.—Accorto. 

Addurre  (adducere),  to  adduce,  to  convey 
Ind.  Pres. — Addiico,  adduci,  etc.    - 
Imperf. — Adducevo,  adducevi,  etc. 
Past.    Def. — Addussi,    adducesti,   addusse,   addu- 
cemmo,  additceste,  addiissero. 

Future, — Addurro,  addurrai,  etc. 
Subj.  Pres. — Adduca,  etc. 
Subj.  Imperf. — Adducessi,  etc. 
Condit. — Addurrei,  addurresti,  etc. 
Oer  und — A  dd  ucendo. 
Past  Part.—Addotto. 

Affliggere,  to  afflict 
Past  D<f. — Afjlissi,  afflisse,  afflisscro. 
Past  Part.—Afflitto. 

Aspergere,  to  sprinkle 
Past  Def. — Aspersi,  asperse,  aspersero. 
Past  Part.— Aspe.rso. 

Assolvere,  to  absolve 

Past.  Def. — Assolvetti  (regular),  assolsi,  assolse, 
assolsero. 

Past  Part. — Assoluto  and  assolto. 

Assumere,  to  assume 
Past  Def. — Assunsi,  assunse,  assunscro. 
Past  Part. — Assunto. 

Cingere,  to  gird 
Past.  Def. — Cinsi,  cinse,  clnsero. 
Past  Part.—Cinto.  • 

Cogliere,  to  gather 
Ind.  Pres. — Colgo,  cogli,  cdglie,  cogliamo,  cogliete, 


5081 


I 


LANGUAGES  -FRENCH 

/•,/.„/  Dt-f.—dfa!,  rota 
Sub).  Pres.—Cotgu,  coign,  cdga,  coyliamo, 
colgano. 

Past  Part.—Colto. 

Conjugate  like  cogliere  :   accogliere,  to  welcome  : 
raccoglierc,  to  collect. 

Comprimere,  to  compress 
Past    Def. — Comprcftsi,    compresse,    eompfi»9ero. 
Past  Part.—Compresso. 

Condurre  (conducere),  to  lead 

[see  addurre]. 

Connettere,  to  connect 

Past    Def.—Connettei    (regular),     and    conne&fti, 
connesse,  connessero. 
Past  Part. — Connesso. 

Correre,  to  run 
Past  Def. — Corsi,  corse,  corsero. 
Past  Part.—Corso. 
Conjugate  like  correre, : 

concorrerc,  to  concur  rincorrere,  to  pursue 

incorrere,  to  incur  ricorrere,     to    recur,     to 

occorrere,  to  occur  have  recourse 

accorrerc,  to  run  up  percorrere,  to  peruse 

decor  r  ere,  to  elapse 

Cuocere,  to  cook  (pron.  koo-6-chehreh) 
Ind.  Pres. — Cuorio,  cuoci,  cuoce,  cociamo,  cocelc, 
cMociono. 

Past  Def. — Cossi,  cosse,  cossero. 
Subj.     Pres. — Cuocia,     etc.  ;      cociamo,     cociate, 
cuociano. 

Pant  Part.—Cotto. 

Deprimere,  to  depress  [see  comprimere] 
Desumere,  to  infer  [see  assumere] 

Depingere,  to  paint 
Past  Def. — Dipinsi,  dipinse,  dipinsero. 
Past  Part.—Dipinto. 

Dirigere,   to   direct 
Past  Def. — Diressi,  diresse.  diressero. 
Past  Part.—Diretto. 

Discutere,  to  discuss 
Past  Def. — Discussi,  discusse,  discussero. 
Past  Part. — Discusso. 

Dissolvere,  to  dissolve 

Past  Def. — Dissolvetti  or  dissolve*  (regular),  and 
dissolsi,  dissolsc,  dissdlsero. 
Past  Part.— Dissolute. 

Distinguere,  to  distinguish 
Past  Def. — Distinsi.  distinse,  distinsero. 
Past   Part.— Di«tinto. 


Distruggere,  to  destroy 
Past  Def.  —Distnmsi,  di-strusse,  distrussero. 
Past  Part. — Dis1n>i.t<:. 

CONVERSAZIONE. 

Qual'e  la  via  piu  corta  per  andare  a  .  .  .  ? 

Prenda   la    prima    strada    qui   a   destra,   e   vao 
senipre  diritto. 

E  lontano  ? 

Non  molto.  Camminando  di  buon  passo,  ci 
vorra  un  venti  minuti. 

A  che  ora  ritornera  ? 

Prestissimo,  per  le  undici  e  mezzo  al  piu  tardi 
devo  essere  in  casa. 

Ecco  un  ufficio  postale,  voglio  comprare  dei 
francobolli  (stamps). 

Due  francobolli  da  dieei  centesimi  (Id.)  e  uno  da 
veiiticinque  (2 Ad.),  per  piacere. 

Dove  posso  "comprare  della  carta  da  lettere  ? 

Dal  libraio  qui  vicino. 

Grazie,  signore  ;   le  sono  molto  obligate. 

EXERCISE  XLVIII. 

1.  Le  ragioni  che  avete  addotte  non  giustificano 
il  vostro  operato.  2.  La  volta  di  questa  chiesa  fu 
dipinta  da  un  grande  artista.  3.  II  fuoco  distrusse 
una  gran  parte  del  fabbricato.  4.  Quando  esse 
si  accorsero  della  mia  presenza,  cominciarono  a 
parlar  d'  altro.  5.  Ho  corso  tutto  il  giorno,  ora 
ho  bisogno  di  un  po'  di  riposo.  6.  Non  posso 
mangiare  questa  came:  e  troppo  cotta.  7.  Si  e 
gia  molto  discusso  su  questo  soggetto.  8.  Venne 
giu  una  nebbia  cosi  fitta,  che  non  si  poteva  dis- 
tinguere  niente.  9.  I  nemici  diressero  il  fuoco 
contro  il  forte  B.  10.  Ecco  quanto  abbiamo 
potuto  raccogliere. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XLV. 

1.  The  poor  child  has  been  bitten  by  a  dog. 
2.  Boys,  where  have  you  hidden  this  gentleman's 
hat  ?  3.  We  have  played,  and,  as  usual,  we  have 
lost.  4.  Who  has  taken  my  penknife  ?  5.  I  am 
surprised  at  your  behaviour.  6.  We  were  surprised 
from  behind,  and  were  obliged  to  surrender.  7. 
I  am  surprised  that  you  have  not  yet  answered  (to) 
my  letter.  8  I  have  spent  more  than  I  should  have 
done.  9.  The  works  have  been  suspended  until 
further  orders.  10.  Have  you  heard  Puccini's 
new  opera  ?  1 1.  I  have  given  you  two  months'  pay. 
I  do  not  know  what  you  claim  more. 


Continued 


FRENCH 


By  Louis  A.  Barbe,  B.A. 


THE    ADVERB 

Adverbs  (lea  adverbes)  may  be  either  (a)  single  and 
simple  words— that  is,  words  not  formed  from  others 
by  the  addition  of  a  suffix  ;  (b)  single  words  derived 
from  adjectives  by  the  addition  of  a  suffix  ;  or  (c) 
expressions  made  up  of  several  words.  In  this  last 
case  they  are  called  adverbial  phrases  (locutions 
adverbial  •-•). 

With  regard  to  their  meaning,  adverbs  may  be 
divided  into  adverbs  of  (1)  time,  (2)  place,  (3)  quan- 
tity, (4)  affirmation,  (.">)  negation,  arid  (6)  manner. 

The  chief  of  thc-e  will  be  found  in  the  following 
lists  : 

1.  Adverbs  of  Time 

///or.v.  then  n i.rpfi-dcmain,     the     day 

"'/"'-•  after  after  to-morrow 

5082 


aujourd'hui,  to-day 
autrefois,  formerly 
ausstiot,  immediately 
auparavant,  before 
avant-hier,  the  day  be- 
fore yesterday 
bientot,  soon 
cependant,  meanwhile 
deja,  already 
demain,  to-morrow 
tlff>n'iH,  since 
dcsormais,  henceforth 
dorenavant,   hencefor- 
ward 

encore,  again,  yet,  still 
at/in,  at  last 


ensuite,  afterwards 
hier,  yesterday 
jadis,  formerly 
jamais,  ever,  never 
longtemps,  long 
maintenant,  now 
parfois,  at  times 
puis,  then 
quand,  when 
quelquefois,  sometimes 
souvent,  often 
turd,  late 
tantot,  by  and  by,  a  short 

time  ago 
tot,  early 
toujoiirs,  always,  still 


LANGUAGES     FRENCH 


Other  expressions  of  time  are  : 
la  veille,  the  day  before     le  lendemain.  next  day 
I'avant- veille,  two  days        le  surlendemain,  two  days 

before  after 

le  lendemain  matin  (soir)     la  veille  au  matin,  (soir) 

next  morning  (evening)       the  morning  (evening) 
before 

Tard  cannot   be  used   as   an   adjective.     "  You 
;ire  late  "  is  "  Vous  etes  en  retard." 


2.  Adverbs  of  Place 

ailleurs,  elsewhere  decant,  before,  ahead 

id,  here 
la,  there 
loin,  far 
ou,  where 
d'oii,  whence 
partont,  everywhere 


alentour,  around 
aupres,  near 
dedans,  inside 
dehors,  outside 
dessus,  above 
dessous,  below 
derriere,  behind 


partout  oft,  wherever 
there. 


7  is  a  pronoun  when  it  means  not  "  there  "  but 
"  to  it,"  "  to  them,"  etc.  In  any  ease,  however,  its 
place  in  the  sentence  is  always  that  of  a  conjunctive 
pronoun. 

"  There  "  is  to  be  translated  by  y,  not  by  la, 
when  it  refers  to  a  place  mentioned  before.  .After 
"  it  is,"  etc.,  la  is  to  be  used. 

3.  Adverbs  of  Quantity 


assez,  enough 
autant,  as  much 
beaucoup,  much,  many 
bien,  much,  many 
combien,  how  much 
davantage,  more 


g^^ere.,  but  little 

tnoins,  less 

pen,  little,  few 

phis,  more 

trop,  too  much 

que,    how !    how    much  ! 

how  many  ! 

When  these  adverbs  are  used  in  connection  with  a 
noun,  the  preposition  de  is  always  required,  between 
the  adverb  and  the  noun  :  II  a  beaucoup  de  lures, 
He  has  many  books. 

Bien  is  the  only  one  that  takes  the  definite 
article  as  well  as  de:  II  a  bien  des  livrcs,  He  has 
many  books. 

When  the  noun  is  understood,  and  replaced  by  a 
pronoun,  that  pronoun  must  be  en  :  A-t-il  beaucoup 
de  litres  ?  Oui,  il  en  a  beaucoup,  Has  he  many 
books  ?  Yes,  he  has  many. 

Assez  (enough)  may  never  come  after  the  noun, 
as  it  sometimes  does  in  English :  Avez-vous  aasez 
d"argent  ?  Have  you  money  enough  ? 

Davantage  (more)  is  never  followed  by  either  qiie 
or  de.  Its  place  is  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.  It 
may  be  preceded  by  en  (before  the  verb)  like  any 
other  adverb  of  quantity  :  11  a  assez  tf argent ;  ne 
lui  en  donnez  pas  davantage,  He  has  enough  money  ; 
do  not  give  him  any  more. 

Beaucoup  must  never  be  preceded  by  any  other 
adverb.  If  a  stronger  expression  be  required,  some 
other  word  must  be  used,  such  as  infiniment,  ex- 
cessivement,  etc. 

4.  Adverbs  of  Affirmation,  Negation, 
and  Doubt 

oiii,  yes  non,  no 

si,  yes  ne,  not 

certes,  certainly  pas,  not 

tneme,  even  point,  not 

cependant,  however  guere,  little 

peut-etre,  perhaps 

Oui  is  the  ordinary  affirmative  adverb.  Si 
is  used  either  by  way  of  contradiction  or  in  answer 
to  a  question  put  negatively.  It  is  frequently 
preceded  by  mais,  which  makes  it  more  emphatic. 
It  may  also  be  emphasised  by  placing  fait  after  it. 
The  English  equivalent  of  si  is  commonly  "  yes  " 


plus  ;in  auxiliary:  Est-ce  qiie  ron-s  n'allez  pas  a 
Paris  ?  Si.  Are  you  not  going  to  Paris  ?  Yes,  I  am. 
Even  in  French,  si  is  very  frequently  followed  by 
e  verb  used  in  the  previous  statement  or  question  : 
avcz-vous  pas  lit  ce  roman  ?  Si,  je  Vailu,  Have  you 
t  read  this  novel  ?  Yes,  I  have  read  it. 


Even  in  French,  si  is  very  frequently  followed  by 
the  verb  used  in  the  previous  statement  or  question  : 
N' 
not 

Owing  to  its  contradictory  force,  si  is  hardly 
a  polite  expression,  and,  except  in  familiar  conver- 
sation, had  better  be  replaced  by  some  other  formula, 
such  as:  Je  vous  dcmande  pardon,  I  beg  your  pardon. 

In  ''  indirect  speech,"  oui  and  si  are  preceded  by 
que  :  Plent-il  ?  Je  crow?  quo  oui,  Is  it  raining  '! 

I  think  so  (yes).      Vous  dites  que  non,  je  dis  que  si, 
You  say  no,  I  say  yes. 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  last  example,  the  same 
remark  applies  to  non  (no). 

Ne  is  the  only  simple  negative.  Except  in  certain 
idiomatic  constructions,  where  its  use  is  pleonastic, 
it  seldom  occurs  alone.  It  is  used  in  connection 
with  pas,  point  (which  is  rather  stronger  than  -pas), 
nul,  nullemcnt,  ni,  aucun,  aucunement,  guere, 
jamais,  plus,  rien,  personne  :  Nul  n'est  propJiete 
en  son  pays,  No  one  is  a  prophet  in  his  own  country. 

II  n'a  aucune  envie  de  partir,  He  has  no  wish  to 
go  away.     Personne  n'est  mecontent  de  soi,  No  one 
is  dissatisfied  with  himself. 

Ne  is  frequently  used  without  pas  or  -point  in 
connection  with  the  verbs  cesser,  to  cease;  oser, 
to  dare  ;  pouvoir,  to  be  able  ;  and  savoir,  to  know  : 

Get  enfant  ne  cesse  de  nous  tourmenter,  That  child 
does  not  cease  worrying  us.  II  ne  peut  parler,  He 
cannot  speak.  Je  ne  sais  s'il  reussira,  I  no  not  know 
whether  he  will  succeed.  Je  n'ose  vous  adresser 
ma  demande,  I  dare  not  make  my  request  to  you. 

A  sentence  in  which  peut-etre  occurs  admits  of 
three  constructions  : 

(a)  Peut-etre   may  begin   the   sentence,  and    in 
this    case    the    subject    and    verb   take  the  same 
places  as  in  interrogative  sentences  :  Pent-  tire   se.s 
amis  Vont-ils  vu  pour  la  derniere  fois,  Perhaps    his 
friends  have  seen  him  for  the  last  time.     Pevt-etre 
ne  voudra-t-il  pas  nous  repondrc,  Perhaps  he  will 
not  wish  to  answer  us. 

(b)  Peut-etre  may  be   placed  after  the  verb  in  a 
simple  tense,  or  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  past 
participle  in  a  compound  tense  :  Nous  lui  ecr  irons 
peut-etre    demain,    We    shall  perhaps  write  to  him 
to-morrow.     II  ne  vous  a  peut-etre  pas  vu,  Perhaps 
he  has  not  seen  you. 

(c)  When  peut-etre  begins  a  sentence,  it  may  be 
followed  by  que,   and  does  riot  then  require  any 
change    in    the    order    of   the   subject    and    verb  : 
Peut-etre  qiCil  ne  nous  a  pas  compris,  Perhaps  he 
has  not  understood  us. 

5.  Adverbs  of  Manner 

A  few  adverbs  of  manner  are  simple  forms,  such 
as  bien,  well;  mieux,  better;  mal,  badly;  pis,  worse  ; 
ainsi,  thus.  The  majority  of  them  are  derivatives 
ending  in  ment,  and  formed  from  adjectives  accord- 
ing to  the  following  rules  : 

Formation  of  Adverbs  from  Adjectives 

1.  To  form  adverbs  from  adjectives  ending  in  a 
vowel,  add  ment  :  facile,  easy  ;  facilement,  easily  ; 
obstine,  stubborn  ;  obstinement,  stubbornly  ;  poli, 
polite;  poliment,  politely;  du,  clue;  diiment,  duly; 
eperdu,  distracted  ;  eperdument,  distractedly.  Ex- 
ceptions : 

(a)  A  circumflex  accent  is  to  be  placed  on  the 
final  of  the  following  adverbs  ending  in  u  :  assidu, 
assiduous  ;  assidument,  assiduously  ;  era,  crude  ; 
crument,  crudely  ;  resolu,  resolute  ;  resolument, 
resolutely  ;  indu,  undue  ;  indument,  unduly. 

5083 


LANGUAGES— FRENCH 

The  adverb  formed  from  gat  (gay)  may  be  written 
either  gahneiit  or  gaiement. 

(b)  The   following   adjectives   ending   in   e   must 
take   an   acute   accent  before  the  additional  ment : 
nr.-Hfjf,'.     blind  :    aveuglement,    blindly;      commode, 
convenient;      commodernent,       conveniently;      in- 
n, ni  mode,    inconvenient;     incommodement,     incon- 
veniently;   enorme,     huge;     enormement,   hugely; 
confoj-me  conformable  ;  conformement,  conformably ; 
immense,      immense;     immensement,     immensely; 
t>l>htidtrc,    stubborn;     opinidtrement,    stubbornly; 
uniform*,   uniform;     uniformement,    uniformly. 

(c)  Traitre    (treacherous)    and    impuni  (unpun- 
ished) have   the  corresponding  adverbs  traitreuse- 
»icnt   (treacherously)  and   impunement    (with    im- 
punity). 

2.  To  form  adverbs  from  adjectives  ending   in 
a    consonant,    add   ment   to    the    feminine    form  : 
fa  >u-,    false ;     faussement,    falsely ;     frais,     fresh ; 
fraichement,    freshly;      actif,    active ;      activement, 
actively ;     nouveau,    new ;     nouvellement,     newly. 
Exceptions  : 

The  following  adjectives  take  an  acute  accent  on 
the  e  of  the  feminine  form  preceding  the  termination 
ment:  commun,  common;  communernent,  com- 
monly; confus,  confuse;  confusement,  confusedly; 
diffus,  diffuse ;  diffusement,  diffusely ;  expres, 
express ;  expressement,  expressly ;  importun, 
importunate ;  importunement,  importunately; 
inopportun,  inopportune;  inopportunement,  in- 
opportunely; obscur,  obscure ;  obscurement, 
obscurely ;  opportun,  opportune ;  opportunement, 
opportunely;  profond,  deep;  profondement,  deeply; 
precis,  precise :  precisement,  precisely. 

The  adverbs  corresponding  with  gentil  (nice)  and 
href  (brief)  are  gentiment  and  brievement. 

3.  To  form  adverbs  from  adjectives  ending  in 
ant   or    ent,    change    nt    into   m,  and   add  ment : 
prudent,   prudent ;    prudemment,    prudently ;    con- 
•<{fint,    constant;     constamment,    constantly.     Ex- 
ceptions : 

The  adverbs  corresponding  with  lent  (slow), 
present  (present),  and  vehement  (vehement)  are 
lentement  (slowly),  presentement  (at  the  present 
time),  and  vehementement  (vehemently).  This 
last  is  of  rare  occurrence. 

4.  The  following  adverbs  are  derived  from  ad- 
jectives either  wholly   obsolete   or    seldom   used : 
grievement,  grievously  ;  journettement,  daily  ;  notam- 
ment,  notably  ;    nuitamment,  by  night ;    sciemment, 
wittingly. 

The  last  syllable  but  one  of  adverbs  ending  in 
amment  or  emment  has  no  nasal  sound,  but  is 
pronounced  like  a :  prudemment,  pru-da-ment ; 
constamment,  con-sta-ment. 

Position  of  Adverbs 

In  French  an  adverb  nmst  never  be  placed,  as 
it  frequently  is  in  English,  between  the  subject 
and  the  verb :  Je  le  vois  souvent,  I  often  see  him. 

Its  position  is  generally  after  the  verb  if  the  verb 
is  in  a  simple  tense,  and  between  the  auxiliary  and 
the  past  participle  if  the  verb  is  in  a  compound 
trust-  :  Nous  en  parlons  rarement,  We  rarely  speak 
of  it.  J'ai  bien  dormi,  I  have  slept  well. 

Many  adverbs  of  time  and  place,  however,  and 
adverbial  phrases  come  after  the  past  participle  : 
Je  lui  ai  parle  hier,  I  spoke  to  him  yesterday. 
Nous  Vavons  envoye  ailleurs,  We  sent  him  elsewhere. 
\'ous  Vavez  fait  a  dessein,  You  have  done  it  on  pur- 
pote. 

EXERCISE  XXXVI. 

1.  Men  do  not  arrive  immediately  at  the  know- 
ledge of  truth.  2.  There  is  nothing  more  vexatious 
(fdc)ieux)  than  uncertainty  (incertitude,  f.).  3.  If 

5084 


we  had  only  lived  two  centuries  earlier,  we  should 
have  had  no  idea  of  steam-engines  (la  machine  a 
rti/icur),  of  railways,  of  the  telegraph  (le  telegraphc). 
4.  Laziness  goes  so  slowly  that  poverty  soon  over- 
takes (atteindre)  it.  5.  The  reason  of  the  strongest 
is  always  the  best.  6.  Young  people  must  speak 
little  and  listen  much.  7.  The  happiness  of  the 
wicked  (sing.)  does  not  last  (durer)  long.  8.  That 
thief  is  accused  of-  having  entered  (s1  introduire)  a 
house  by  night.  9.  Let  him  come  Friday  or  Satur- 
day ;  those  are  the  days  when  I  am  most  usually 
(ordinaire)  at  home  in  the  evening.  10.  And  now, 
answer  me  frankly,  what  is  there  (de)  true  in  this 
accusation  ?  11.  I  have  always  wondered  (asked 
myself)  why  the  French,  who  are  so  smart  (spirituel) 
at  home,  are  so  stupid  (bete)  when  travelling  (en 
voyage).  12.  An  extraordinary  good  fortune  (le 
bonheur)  has  constantly  accompanied  that  brigand 
(le  brigand)  to  (jusqu'a)  this  day.  A  price  is  set  on 
his  head  (his  head  has  been  put  to  price) ;  never- 
theless he  continues  with  impunity  his  dangerous 
trade  (le  metier),  13.  He  is  extremely  generous 
(genereux) ;  money  costs  (couter)  him  but  little 
to  earn  (gagner),  and  he  spends  (depenser)  it  easily 
with  the  poor.  14.  He  ordinarily  wears  (porter) 
a  costume  (le  costume)  of  very  great  elegance 
(elegance,  f.) ;  his  linen  (le  linge)  is  always  of 
dazzling  (edatant)  whiteness  (la  blancheur). 

KEY  .  TO  EXERCISE  XXXV. 
Dans  une  lettre  a  sa  cousine,  un  ecrivain  fransais. 
Paul-Louis  Courier,  raconte  une  aventure  terrible 
qui  lui  est  arrivee  en  Italic.  II  voyageait  en 
Calabre  avec  un  ami.  C'est  un  pays  montagneux, 
et  les  chevaux  des  deux  voyageurs  marchaient 
avec  beaucoup  de  peine.  C'etait  le  camarade  de 
Courier  qui  allait  devant.  II  vit  un  sentier  qui 
lui  parut  plus  practicable  et  plus  court,  le  prit  et 
les  egara.  Tant  qu'il  fit  jour  ils  chercherent  leur 
c  hem  in  ;  mais  plus  ils  cherchaient  plus  ils  se  per- 
daient,  et  il  etait  nuit  noire  quand  ils  arriverent 
pres  d'une  maison  fort  noire.  Ils  y  entrerent, 
non  sans  soup9on,  et  seulement  parce  qu'ils  ne 
pouvaient  (pas)  faire  autrement.  La  ils  trouvent 
toute  une  famille  de  charbonniers  a  table,  ou  Ton 
invita  aussitot  les  deux  voyageurs.  "Mon  jeune 
homme  ne  se  fit  pas  prier,"  dit  Courier.  "  Nous 
voila  mangeant  et  buvant,  lui,  du  moins.  Car  pour 
moi,  j'examinais  le  lieu  et  la  mine  de  nos  notes. 
Nos  hotes  avaient  bien  mines  de  charbonniers  ;  mais 
la  maison,  vous  1'eussiez  (auriez)  prise  pour  un 
arsenal.  Ce  n'etaient  que  fusils,  pistolets,  sabres, 
couteaux,  coutelas."  Tout  cela  lui  deplut,  et  il  vit 
bien  qu'il  deplaisait  aussi.  Son  camarade,  au 
contraire,  etait  de  la  famille ;  il  riait,  il  causait, 
il  dit  d'ou  il  venait,  ou  il  allait,  qui  il  etait. 
Pour  ne  rien  omettre  de  ce  qui  pourrait  le  perdre, 
il  fit  le  riche,  prornit  aux  charbonniers  tout 
ce  qu'ils  voulurent  pour  lui  servir  de  guides  le 
lendemain.  Enfin,  il  parla  de  sa  valise,  les  pria 
d'en  avoir  grand  soin  et  de  la  mettre  au  chevet 
de  son  lit.  II  ne  voulait  point,  disait-il,  d'autre 
traversin.  Les  charbonniers  durent  croire  qu'il 
portait  les  diamants  de  la  couronne.  Quand  le 
sou  per  fut  fini  les  hotes  descendirent  et  laisserent 
les  voyageurs,  qui  devaient  coucher  dans  la  chambrc 
haute  ou  Ton  avait  mange.  Le  plus  jeune  des  deux 
se  coucha  sans  la  moindre  hesitation,  la  tete  sur 
la  precieuse  valise.  L'autre,  determine  a  veiller. 
fit  bon  feu,  et  s'assit  aupres.  La  nuit  se  passa 
tranquillement,  et  il  commengadt  a  se  rassurer. 
quand  sur  (vers)  1'heure  ou  il  lui  semblait  que  le 
jour  ne  pouvait  etre  loin,  il  entendit  qu'on  parlait 
au-dessous  de  lui.  II  ccouta.  C'etait  le  charbon- 
nier  qui  di-»ait  k  sa  femme  :  "Eh  bien!  Enfin, 


voyons,  faut-il  les  tuer  tons  cleux  ?  "  A  quoi  la 
femme  repondit,  "  Oui."  Le  malheureux  voyageur 
resta  respirant  a  peine  ;  a  le  voir  on  n'eut  (aura it) 
su  s'il  etait  mort  ou  vivant.  II  n'osait  appeler 
ni  faire  du  bruit ;  il  ne  pouvait  s'echapper  tout 
seul.  La  fenetre  n'etait  pas  bien  haute,  mais 
en  bas  il  y  avait  deux  gros  dogues  qui  hurlaient 
comme  des  loups.  Au  bout  d'un  quart  d'heure 
qui  lui  sembla  bien  long,  il  entendit  quelqu'un 
sur  1'escalier,  et,  par  les  fentes  de  la  porte,  il  vit 
le  pere,  sa  lampe  dans  (a)  la  main,  dans  1'autre  un 
de  ses  grands  couteaux.  Le  charbonnier  monta, 
sa  femme  apres  lui.  II  ouvrit  la  porte ;  mais 
avant  d'entrer  il  posa  la  lampe,  que  sa  femme  vint 


LANGUAGES-SPANISH 

prendre ;  puis  il  entre  pieds  nus,  et  elle  de  dehors 
lui  disait  a  voix  basse  :  "  Doucement,  va  doucement" 
Quand  il  fut  venu  pres  du  lit  ou  etait  etendu  le 
pauvre  jeune  homme,  offrant  sa  gorge  decouverte, 
d'une  main  il  leve  son  couteau  et  de  1'autre— il 
saisit  un  jambon  qui  pendait  au  plafond,  en  coupe 
une  tranche,  et  se  retire  comme  il  etait  venu. 
Des  que  le  jour  parut,  toute  la  famille.a  grand 
bruit  vint  eveiller  les  voyageurs.  On  servit  un 
dejeuner  fort  propre  et  fort  bon.  II  consistait  de 
deux  chapons,  dont  il  fallait,  dit  1'hotesse,  emporter 
1'un  et  manger  1'autre.  En  les  voyant,  Courier 
comprit  enfin  le  sens  deces  terribles  mots:  "Faut  il 
les  tuer  tous  deux." 


Continued 


SPANISH 


Continued  fro 
page  4943 


By  Amalia  de  Albert!  &  H.  S.  Duncan 


PREPOSITIONS 

Spanish  prepositions  are  simple  and  compound. 
Simple  prepositions  consist  of  one  word  placed 
before  the  noun — as  de,  of,  from.  Compound  pre- 
positions are  prepositional  phrases  composed  of  a 
noun,  adjective,  or  adverb  with  a  preposition,  or 
of  two  prepositions— as  acerca  de,  concerning ;  de 
abajo,  from  under. 

Simple  Prepositions.  The  simple  preposi- 
tions are  : 

d,  to  Jiasta,  till,  until,  up  to,  to 

ante,  before  mediante,      through,      by 

bajo,  under  means  of 

con,  with  menos,  except  [ing 

contra,  against  no  obstante,  notwithstand- 

de,  of,  from  para,  for,  in  order  to,  to 

desde,  from,  since  por,  by,  through,  for 

duraitte,  during  salvo,  except,  save 

en,  in,  at,  on  segun,  according  to 

entre,  between,  among       sin,  without 
cxcepto,  except  sobre,  on,  upon,  about 

Jidcia,  towards  tras,  after 

Use  of  a.  1.  A,  to.  The  primary  meaning  of 
d  is  motion  towards  a  certain  point.  Examples  : 
Ir  d  Londres,  to  go  to  London ;  Voy  d  la  iqlesia,  I 
am  going  to  church. 

2.  d  is  also  used  to  express  the  dative  "  to," 
and  the   "  to "   standing  between  a  verb  and  an 
infinitive.     Examples  :   Dar  d  los  pobres,   to  give 
to  the  poor ;   Fui  d  verla,  I  went  to  see  her. 

3.  d   must  also  be  used  after  the  verb  before  a 
definite  personal  object.     Examples  :  Leer  libros,  to 
read  books;  leer  d  libro,  to  read  the  book;  verninos, 
to  see  children;   ver  d  la  nina,  to  see  the  child  (f.). 

4.  In    the    following    senses    d    represents    the 
English  "  at."     Examples  :   Estoy  d  la  puerta,  I  am 
at  the  door;  estan  d  la  mesa,  they  are  at  table ;  d  las 
diez  de  la  noche,  at  ten  o'clock  at  night;  d  diez  duros 
la  docena,  at  ten  dollars  a  dozen ;  al  anochecer,  at 
nightfall;  jugar  d  los  naipes,  to  play  at  cards:  d 
tres  dias  vista,  at  three  days'  sight. 

5.  Certain  verbs  are  always  followed  by  d.     Ex- 
amples :    A  mar  (qiterer)  d  alguien,  to  love  anyone  ; 
aborrecer  d   alguien,  to   hate  anyone;    saber  d,  to 
taste  of :  oler  d,  to  smell  of. 

6.  d  expresses  the  English  "  by  "  in  such  phrases  as : 
Poco  d  poco,  little  by  little :  uno  d  uno,  one  by  one. 

7.  d  is  also  frequently  used  to  express   manner, 
and  in  adverbial  phrases.     Examples  :  d  la  Inglesa, 
in  the  English  manner ;  d  la  Turca,  in  the  Turkish 
manner;  d  mi  manera,  in  my  own  way;   d  pie,  on 
foot;  d  caballo,  on  horseback. 

Use  of  De,  of,  from,  and  Desde,  from. 
1.  De  represents  all  the  general  uses  of  "of  "  and 


"  from  "  in  English  ;  it  also  shows  the  possessive 
case  where  the  apostrophe  would  be  used  in  English. 
Examples  :  De  Londres  d  Madrid,  from  London  to 
Madrid ;  una  carta  de  mi  hermana,  a  letter  from  my 
sister;  la  casa  de  mi  madre,  my  mother's  house. 

2.  It  may  also  represent  "  to,"   "  with,"    "  at." 
Examples :    El  camino  del  pueblo,  the  way  to  the 
village ;    temblar   de    frio,    to    tremble    with    cold ; 
ofenderse  de  nada,  to  be  offended  at  nothing. 

3.  It  also  denotes  a  state.      Examples  :    Estoy  de 
Into,  I  am  in  mourning;  Estdmos  de  visitas,  We  ;ire 
paying  calls;  ciego  de  furor,  blind  with  fury. 

4.  When    "  from "    signifies   a   starting-point  of 
time  or  place,  desde  must  be  used  instead  of  de. 
Examples  :   Desde  la  tierra  kasta  la  luna,  from  the 
earth  to  the  moon  •  desde  entonces,  from  thenceforth  ; 
desde  la  manana  hasta  la  tarde,  from  the  morning 
until  the  evening. 

Use  of  Para  and  Por.  1.  Para  signifies 
"  for  "  in  the  sense  of  purpose,  destination,  "  for 
the  purpose  of,"  "  in  order  to  "  generally  being 
implied. 

2.  "  For  "  is  translated  para  when  it  expresses  : 

(a)  The  destination   of   an  object   or  a  journey. 
Examples :   Ese  traje  es  para  mi,  That  dress  is  for 
me ;  Lo  hizo  para  Vd,  He  did  it  for  you ;  Salgo  para 
Londres,  I  am  starting  for  London. 

(b)  Duration  of  anything.      Examples  :   Tenemos 
vino  para  tres  anos,  We  have  wine  for  three  years : 
Durard  para  siempre,  It  will  last  for  ever. 

(c)  A  fixed  epoch.     Example  :   Dejemos  eso  para 
manana,  Let  us  leave  that  for  to-morrow. 

(d)  The  relation  between  one  thing  and  another. 
Example :     Es  muy  pequeno  para  su  edad,   He  is 
very  small  for  his  age. 

3.  When  a  comparison  is  intended,  con  must  be 
inserted  after  para.     Example  :  /Quien  soy  yo  para 
con  ella  f   What  am  I  compared  to  her  ! 

4.  Para  con  also  means  conduct  towards  a  person. 
Example :    Su    conducta   para    con    su    hijo,    His- 
behaviour  towards  his  son. 

5.  In  the  following  sentences  para  signifies  "just 
on    the    point    of"    or    "in   order."      Examples: 
Estamos  para  salir,  We  are  just  going  out;  Para 
ensenar  es  menester  saber,  In  order  to  teach,  it  is 
necessary  to  know. 

1.  Por  signifies  "  for  "  when  it  expresses  : 

(a)  Length  of  time.  Example  :  Me  voy  por  una 
semana,  I  am  going  away  for  a  week. 

(6)  The  price  of  anything.  Example  :  Lo  venden 
por  tres  duros,  They  sell  it  for  three  dollars. 

(c)  In  favour  of,  instead  of.  Examples  :  Hablare 
por  Vd,l  will  speak  for  you  (in  your  favour) ;  Lo- 
t/are por  Yd,  I  will  do  it  for  you  (instead  of  you). 

5085 


LANGUAGES— SPANISH 

(d)  Exchange.     Example  :  Dar  nna  cosa  par  otm, 
to  exchange  one  thing  for  another. 

(e)  With  verbs  of  action  or  motion.      Examples  : 
Ir  por  agua  y  Una,   to  go  for  water  and  wood  : 
enviar  por  el  medico,  to  send  for  the  doctor. 

2.  Por  also  signifies  "  out  of,"   "through,"  "on 
account  of" — namely,  the  motive  or  cause  of  an 
action.      Examples  :  Lo  hizo  por  malicia,  He  did  it 
out  of  spite ;  Lo  hare  por  Vd,  I  will  do  it  for  you 
(for  your  sake). 

3.  Por  after  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice  denotes 
agency,  and  is  translated  "  by."    Example  : 

Fue  criado  por  su  tio.  He  was  brought  up  by 
his  uncle. 

Prepositional  Phrases 
ademas  de,  besides  d  causa  de,  because  of 

alrededor  de,  around,     d  exception  de,  excepting 

about  d  fucrza  de,  by  dint  of 

antes  de,  before  (anterir)  d  razon  de,  at  the  rate  of 
a  la  vista  de,  in  sight  of  de.  parte  de,  on  the  part  of, 
al  cabo  de,  at  the  end  of       fronv 


al  traves  de,  across, 

through 

d  pesdr  de,  in  spite  of 
cerca  de,  near 
dcbajo  de,  under 
delante  de,  before  (in 

front  of) 

•dentro  de,  within,  into 
•despues  de,  after 
•detrds  de,  behind 
encima  de,  on 
,fuera  de,  outside 
lejos  de,  far  from 
conforme  d,  according  to 


de  casa  de,  from  the  house  of 
en  frente  de,  opposite 
en  lugar  de,  instead  of 
en  medio  de,  in  the  midst  of 
en  vez  de,  instead  of 
en  vista  de,  in  view  of 
mas  alia  de,  beyond 
por  causa  de,  on  account  of 
por  el  lado  de,  on  the  side  of 
por  razon  de,  by  reason  of 
sin    embargo    de,    notwith- 
standing 

juntamente     con,     together 
with 


contrario  d,  contrary  to   en  cuanto  d,  with  respect  to, 

junto  d,  near  to  as  to 

respecto  d,  with  respect  to  por  entrc,  between 

tocante  d,  touching  por  encima  de,  over 

d  casade,  to  the  house  of  por  detrds  dc,  behind 

EXERCISE  XX  (1). 

Translate  into  Spanish  : 

1.  At  the  dinner  hour,  before  the  soup,  under 
pretext  that  the  table  was  not  well  laid,  he  gave 
the  lamp  a  knock  with  his  hand,  and  overturned  it. 

2.  During  a   thunderstorm   fear  made  her  faint. 

3.  According    to    what    they    tell    me,    without 
doubt  Mr.   A.  leaves  to-morrow.       4.  In  spite  of 
having  no  friendship   for  her,  I  went  to  see  her. 
5.  He  came  to  see   me   at   ten   o'clock   at  night, 
and   offered  me  those  knives  at  ten  dollars   the 
dozen.     6.  We  will  drive  out  in  a  carriage  at  night- 
fall.     7.   I  love  that  woman ;     I  am  fond  of  her 
dog,  and  hate  her  family.      8.  This  water  tastes  of 
earth.      9.    Little  by  little,  they  left,  one  by  one. 
10.  How   do   you   like  coffee,    in   the   Turkish   or 
the  French  manner  ?     11.  How  did  you  go  into  the 
country — on  foot  ?     I  went  on  horseback.     12.  Can 
you    dine  with    me  to-morrow  ?     No,  I  leave   to- 
morrow morning  for  Paris.     13.  Besides  this  purse, 
he  gave  me  this  silver  pencil.     14.  There  is  shade 
under  the  trees,  and  it  is  a  good  thing  they  are  in 
front  of  the  house.     15.  There   is   exquisite   furni- 
ture  in   the   house,  and  it   is   sad   to   think   that 
after  so  many  years  it   is   to   be   sold;    the   sale 
will    take    place    on    the   lawn  behind   the  house. 
10.  She  carries  over  her  shoulders  a  shawl  worth  a 
fortune.     17.  His  ignorance  is  in  sight  of  all. 

EXERCISE  XX.   (2) 

Translate  the  following  into  English  : 
1.  Al  cabo  de  veinte  afios,  cuando  lo  creiamo* 
muerto :   volvio  a  casa.    2.   En  vez  de  yenir  el  mismo 
ninndo  su  delegado.     3.  Por  razon  de  su  desventur;. 
5080 


le  perdone  su  ofensa.  4.  En  cuanto  a  lo  que  Yd 
me  dijo  he  venido  a  saber  que  no  es  verdad.  5.  Por 
encima  de  las  montanas  cayo  el  agua  en  forma 
de  cataratas,  destruyendo  todo,  y  la  muerto 
sorprendio  a  esa  pobre  gente  en  medio  de  su  alegria. 
G.  Mas  alia  del  camino  real  encontrara  la  vereda 
que  conduce  a  la  fuente.  7.  Sin  embargo  de  haberle 
clicho  que  no  volviera  mas,  vino  esta  maiiana. 

8,  Salio  de  casa  de  su  padre  para  no  volver  mas. 

9.  Me  trajo  una  carta  de  parte  de  mi  abogado;  el 
pleito  va  mal. 


Commercial 
Phraseology 

I  beg  you  will  return 
me  this  document  after 
perusal 

To  be  responsible  for 
a  payment 

We  effect  sales  and 
guarantee  the  payment, 
charging  you  £  per  cent, 
per  month 

The  different  copies 
forming  a  set 

At  sight,  sixty,  ninety 
days'  sight 

To  the  order  of  Messrs. 
...  or  ourselves 

The  sum  of  .  .  .  ,  at 
the  exchange  of  .... 

To  force  a  person  to 
keep  the  contract 

To  cancel,  or  annul  a 
contract 

A  contract  in  force 

An  expired  contract 

Smuggled  goods 

The  promissory  note 
The  import  list 


Fraseologia 

Commercial 

Le  ruego  se  sirva  de- 
volverme  este  documento 
despues  de  repasado 

Contraer  la  responsa- 
bilidad  de  un  pago 

Efectuamos  ventas,  y 
garantizamos  el  pago, 
cargandole  ^°/0  mensual 

Los  diferentes  ejem 
plares  que  forman  un 
juego 

A  la  vista,  sesenta, 
noventa  dias  vista  (d/v) 

A  la  orden  de  los  Sres. 
.  6  de  nosotros 


The  market  opened 
very  firm 

The  market  is  very 
slack 

The  market  closes 
unchanged 

Prices  are  high 

Prices   are   improving 

Prices  have  a  down- 
ward tendency 

We  are  enabled  to  re- 
port a  slight  improve- 
ment in  the  prices 

There  is  hardly  any- 
thing doing  for  the  mo- 
ment 

The  market  offers  no- 
thing of  a  striking  nature 

A  falling  market 

A  letter  of  advice 

The  share 

The  Post  Office 

The  almanac 
The  shipowner 

The  arrivals 

The  wine  vaults 

The   Stock   Exchange 


mismos 

La  suma  de  .  .  .  ,  al 
cambio  de  .  .  .  . 

Forzar  a  una  persona 
a  que  cumpla  su  contra  to 

Cancelar  6  anular  un 
contrato 

Un  contrato  vigente 

Un  contrato  caducado 

Mercancias  de  contra- 
bando 

El  pagare 

La  lista  de  impor- 
tac  Jones 

El  mercado  abrio  muy 
firme 

El  mercado  esta  flo- 
jisimo 

El  mercado  cierra  sin 
variacion 

Los  precios  estan  altos 
6  elevados 

Los  precios  estan  nic- 
jorando 

Los  precios  tienden  a 
la  baja 

Podemos  anunciar  una 
ligera  mejora  en  los 
precios 

Casi  es  nada  lo  que  se 
hace  por  el  momento 

El  mercado  no  ofrece 
nada  nuevo 

Un  mercado  en   baja 
Una  carta  de  aviso 
La  ace  ion 
La  Administracion    de 

Correos 
El   almanaque 
El  armador 
Los  arribos 
Las  bodegas 
La  Bolsa 


The  blot  Ei  borron 

The  rough  proof  El  borrador 

We  quote  cocoa  from  Cotizamos  el  cacao  do 
70s.  to  80s.  70s.  a  80s. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  Se  hace  dificil  cotizar 
correct  quotations  atinadamente 

The  quotation  for  La  cotizacion  de  cafe 
coffee  is  merely  nominates  puoramente  nominal 

No  business  of  note  No  se  hail  efectuado 
lias  been  effected  ningunos  negocios  dignos 

de  reseiiarse 

The  buyers  are  already  Los  compradores  se 
slocked  hallan  ya  abastecidos 

A  general  desire  has  La  tendencia  general 
prevailed  to  effect  sales  ha  sido  a  efectuar  ventas 

In  cotton,  a  good  many  Se  han  llevado  a  cabo 
transactions  have  taken  muchas  operaciones  en 
place  algodon 

The  demand  has  di-  La  demanda  ha  dis- 
minished  minuido 

The  safe,  the  strong- box     La  caja  de  hierro 


The  cashier 

Copper  (money) 

The  desk 

The  pigeon-holes 

To  register 

The  consignments 

The  bill  of  lading 

A  circular 

Credit 

To  copy 

A  broker 

A  correspondent 

Specie 

To  write 

The  book-case 

The  invoice 

The  date 

The  freight 

The  signature 

The  draft 

The  eraser 

The  balance-sheet 

Goods 

Current  money 

The  counter 

The  samples 

The  office 

The  writing-paper 

The  blotting-paper 

The  sealing-wax 

The  penholder 

Hard  cash 

Private 


El  cajero 

Calderilla  (f.) 

El  escritorio 

Los   casilleros 

Certifiear 

Las  consignaciones 

El     conocimiento       de 

embarque 
Una  circular 
Credito  (m.) 
Copiar 
Un  corredor 
Un  corresponsal 
Efectivo  (m.) 
Escribir 

El  estante  de  libros 
La  factura 
La  fecha 
El  flete 

La  firma,  rubrica 
El  giro 

La  goma  de  borrar 
El  hoja  de  balance 
Mercancias  (f.) 
Moneda  corriente 
El  mostrador 
Las  muestras 
La  oficina,  el  despacho 
El  papel  de  cartas 
El  papel  secante 
El  lacre 
El  palillero 
Pago  al  contado 
Particular 


The  parchment 

Weight 

The  pen 

A  steel  pen 

The  postcript 

The  copying-machine 

To  borrow 

The  receipt 

The  claim 

The  ruler 

The  envelope 

To  underline 

The  public  sales 

The  copy  ing- ink 

A  note 


LANGUAGES     ESPERANTO 

El  pergamino 

Peso  (m.) 

La  pluma 

Una  pluma  de  acero 

La  posdata(f.) 

La  prensa  de  copi;ir 

Pedir  prestado 

El  reel  bo  (m. ) 

La  reclamacion 

La  regla 

El sobre 

Subrayar 

Las  subastas 

La  tinta  de  copiar 

Un  volante 


KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XIX.  (1) 
1.  Es   cierto    que   su   conducta   dio    prueba   de 
valor.       Ciertamente  que  nadie  lo  hubiera  creido. 

2.  Orgullosamente    rehuso    la   recompensa   que  le 
fue    ofrecida;   en  este  caso  su  orgullo  fue  justo. 

3.  Muy  contento  se   quedo   con  el  regalo   que   le 
hicieron.     J  Quedo  contento  ?      Contentisimo.      4. 
Muchisima  gente  acudio  para  ver  la  procesion.   (No 
se  sirve  del  superlative,  sera  suficiente  decir  que 
mucha  gente  acudio.)     5.  Siempre  fue  perezoso,  y 
jamas  se  corregira  de  ese  defecto.   j  No  perdamos  la 
esperanza  ;   quizas  con  la  edad  se  corrija  !     Tal  vez 
sea  asi,  pero  temo  que  no.      6.  Dio  prueba  de  ser 
prudente   al  retirarse  de  la    contienda.      Yo  diria 
que  prudentemente  se  retiro,  pues    su  desventaja 
era  clara.     7.  j  No  niego  que  es  cortes,  pero  no  es 
persona    grata,     y    quisiera    cortesmente    decirle, 
adios  !     8.  Recientemente  murio  nuestra  amiga,  y 
tambien  el  recien  nacido. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XIX.  (2) 
1.  Happy  is  he  who  lives  a  tranquil  life  without 
great  events  ;  there  are  many  to  whom  this  happens. 
2.  Hardly  had  he  inherited  a  large  fortune,  than 
he  squandered  it.  3.  Probably  the  public  will  sing 
our  praises  when  it  learns  what  we  have  done^ 
without  understanding  the  motives  which  impelled 
us.  4.  Our  friend  retires  early,  and  rises  late. 
5.  Up  and  down,  in  and  out,  here  and  there,  without 
ceasing  all  day,  until  we  got  tired  of  seeing  him  and 
closed  the  door,  and  I  fear  he  will  never  forgive 
us  the  affront.  6.  He  discoursed  to  us  learnedly, 
explaining  various  subjects,  very  cleverly  ex- 
pounded, but  extremely  tedious.  7.  He  gave  more 
or  less  all  he  possessed  to  the  poor,  and  that  was 
very  little ;  I  should  willingly  have  added  something, 
but  feared  to  offend  him.  8.  The  room  was  filled 
with  smoke,  and  I  blindly  sought  for  the  door. 
9.  The  moment  that  I  saw  him  I  knew  him,  and  I 
immediately  spoke  to  him. 


Continued 


ESPERANTO 


Continued  from 
page  4944 


By  Harald  Clegg 


CONJUNCTIONS 

Esperanto  possesses  in  all  about 
sixty  conjunctions,  many  of  which 
are  adverbial.  They  are  used 
to  link  words  arid  sentences 
together,  and  their  position  is 
indicated  by  the  context  of  the 
sentence.  Besides  kaj  (and),  which 
has  already  been  introduced,  the 
following  are  the  most  important 
conjunctions,  with  examples  show- 
ing the  manner  of  their  use. 


Anstatau*,  instead  of. 

Example :  Li  sidis  SUK  la  herbo, 
ansta-tail  labori,  He  sat  on  the 
grass  instead  of  working. 

Antau  ol*,  before  (time). 

Example:  St  forkuris,  antau 
ol  mi  vidis  sin.  She  ran  away 
before  I  saw  her. 

*  Any  verb  immediately  following 
these  words  is  always  in  the  infinitive 
mood. 


A&,  or. 

Example :  Mi  devas  iri,  au 
mi  alvenos  malfrue,  I  must  go,  or 
I  shall  arrive  late. 

Car,  for,  because,  since. 
.    Example  :    Mi  devas  obei,  car 
vi  ordonas  min,   I  must  obey, 
since  you  order  me. 

Dum,  during,  while. 

Example :    Li     restis 
dum    la    pastro   parolis,  He  re- 

5087 


LANGUAGES-ESPERANTO 

mained  silent   while  the   priest 
spoke. 

'//.-•,  until,  up  to,  as  far  as. 

Example  :  Li  dafiris  kanti,  yis 
mi  foriris,  He  continued  to  sing 
until  I  went  away. 

Ke,  that. 

Example :  Li  kredas,  Tee  mi 
estas  rica,  He  believes  that  I 
ain  rich. 

Kvankam,  although. 

Example :  Mi  renkontos  vin, 
kvankam  mi  ne  deziras  vidi  vin, 
I  shall  meet  you,  although  I  do 
not  desire  to  see  you. 

Nek,  neither. 

Example  :  Mi  nek  movos,  nek 
parolos  umi  vorton,  I  shall  not 
stir,  or  speak  a  word. 

Se,  if. 

Example :  Li  dankos  vin,  se 
vi  donos  gin  al  li,  He  will  thank 
you  if  you  give  it  to  him. 

Sed,  but. 

Example;  Vi  trompis  min, 
ted  mi  vin  pardonas,  You 
deceived  me,  but  I  forgive  you. 

Tamen,  however,  nevertheless. 

Example:  Vi  parolas tre malk- 
Jare,  tamen  mi  vin  komprenas, 
You  speak  very  indistinctly ; 
nevertheless  I  understand 'you. 

From  many  of  the  root- words 
given  in  the  vocabularies,  adver- 
bial conjunctions  may  be  formed 
such  as  alie,  otherwise ;  cetere, 
for  the  rest ;  nome,  that  is  to  say  ; 
:md  for  this  reason  such  words  are 
not  included  in  the  above  list  of 
conjunctions. 

INTERROGATION 

To  form  an  interrogative 
sentence  in  Esperanto,  cu  is 
I  daced  at  the  beginning.  This 
word  performs  the  same  offices 
as  the  English  do,  does,  did  ; 
and  in  adding  cu  no  change 
takes  place  in  an  affirmative  or 
negative  Esperanto  sentence. 
Examples : 

I'm  frato  kantis,  Your  brother 
sang.  Cu  via  frato  kantis  ?  Did 
your  brother  sing  ?  La  viro  ne 
'kuris,  The  man  did  not  run. 
t'u  la  viro  tie  kuris?  Did  not 
the  man  run  ? 

G'u  is  also  used  to  form  indirect 
c  motions  ;  in  such  cases  repre- 
M-nting  "  whether." 

Example:  La  re<jo  scia*,  '-n 
It  rxfai  )iro  r/t  «ii  ynnlprava,  The 
king  knows  whether  he  is  right 
or  \\iunu,. 


In  this  connection,  careful  dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between 
English  "  if  "  and  "  whether,"  as 
the  former  is  often  applied  in 
phrases  containing  indirect  ques- 
tions. Se  (if)  is  purely  a  conjunc- 
tion of  supposition,  or  of  condition. 
Examples : 

Mi  iros  se  vi  konsentas,  I  will 
go  if  you  consent.  Mi  ne  scias 
cu  vi  konsentas,  I  do  not  know 
if  you  agree. 

A  sentence  may  contain  a 
direct  and  an  indirect  interro- 
gation, in  which  case  cu  is  used 
in  both  places.  Example: 

Cu  vi  scias  cu  li  venos  ?  Do 
you  know  whether  he  will  come  ? 

VOCABULARY 
argent',  silver      manier',  manner 
bot',  boot  mar',  sea 

daiir',  endure,     mez',  middle 

last  modest',  modest 

dir',  say,  tell       mon',  money 
donac',  (to)  pre-  mort',  die 

sent  mult',        much, 

esper',  hope  many 

flu',  flow  najbar',     neigh- 

fum',  smoke  bour 

humil',  humble   ncttur',  nature 
humor',  humour, nebul',  fog 

temper  neces',  necessary 

instru',  instruct  ney',  snow 
invit',  invite        nepr',  unfail- 
kalkul',    calcu-       ingly 

late,  count       nigr',  black 

kaiiz',  cause,     .   nov',   new 

reason  nul',  cloud 

kolor',  colour       okup',  occupy 

kompren',  under-  ond',  wave 

stand  or',  gold 

konklud'  con-      orel',  ear 

elude  parker',    tho- 

kontent',  content     roughly,  by 
konvink',  con-         heart 

vince  pen',    try,    en- 

korespond',   cor-     deavour 

respond  ricev',  receive 

kurafi',  courage  vann',  warm 
larg',  broad         vesper',  evening 
lecion',  lesson      veter',  weather 
long',  long 

EXERCISE  VII". 

During  the  foggy  weather  and 
the  cold  winter  days  I  remain  at 
home  and  learn  lessons  on  Es- 
peranto. I  can  reckon  from  one 
to  a  hundred  thousand  without 
difficulty.  As  time  is  short,  how- 
ever, and  I  have  much  to  do,  I 
will  endeavour  to  convince  you 
to-morrow  if  you  agree.  Do  you 
wish  to  correspond  with  me  ? 
Tin-  i-louds  are  very  Mack,  a  cold 

Continued 


wind  blows,  but  I  hope  that  we 
shall  not  see  snow  to-day.  We  hear 
by  our  ears  and  see  with  our  eyes. 
Although  he  received  many  gifts, 
he  was  very  discontented.  He  is 
very  rich,  but  he  is  nevertheless 
naturally  humble  and  modest. 
Our  neighbour  is  very  conceited 
and  cowardly.  The  lesson  was 
short,  and  the  boys  learned  it  by 
heart.  As  the  wind  blew  lightly, 
the  waves  on  the  sea  were  small, 
and  I  was  not  ill.  Did  he  not  tell 
you  that  he  intends  to  occupy 
himself  with  Esperanto  ?  Gold 
and  silver  are  very  necessary.  The 
soldiers'  boots  are  narrow,  but 
they  are  long.  The  river  flows 
through  broad  fields  to  the  sea. 
Our  new  neighbour  died  in  the 
middle  of  the  night.  His  manner 
was  very  strange,  but  before  dying 
he  tried  to  convince  me  that  he 
had  (has)  much  gold  and  silver. 
Did  he  not  tell  you  that  he  would 
(will)  pay  you  without  fail  to- 
morrow ? 

KEY  TO   EXERCISE  VI. 

En  frua  mateno  la  aero  estas 
tre  fresa.  La  glavo  estas  akra, 
kaj  facile  trancas.  Mi  havas  du 
manojn  kaj  dek  fingrojn.  Unue 
mi  deziras  diri  la  veron,  kaj  due 
mi  volas  esti  agrabla.  En  la 
kampo,  ce  la  dekstra  flanko, 
staras  dti  maljunaj  arboj. 
Morgau  ni  intencas  veturi  al 
Londono  en  la  kaleso.  Futo 
havas  dek  du  colojn.  Vi  ne 
devas  forgesi  lerni  Ekzercon 
sesan.  La  infano  dolce  donnas 
sub  la  hela  lumo  de  la  luno. 
Li  legis  la  dekan  volumon  unue. 
La  juna  soldato  estas  malsaga  kaj 
mallerta.  Mia  fidela  hundo 
atendos  min,  kaj  mi  ne  forgesos 
doni  viandon  al  gi.  Hi  faris 
grandan  eraron,  kaj  kasis  la 
belan  juvelon.  Viaj  junaj 

amikoj  estas  tre  kapablaj.  Mia 
eraro  ne  estas  tre  grava,  kaj  ml 
ne  volas  vin  trompi.  Tridek  ok 
kaj  dudek  sep  faras  sesdek  kvin. 
Semajno  havas  sep  tagojn.  La 
unua  estas  dimanco,  la  kvara 
estas  merkredo,  kaj  laste  vena* 
sabato.  Hi  restos  hejme  dum  la 
tago.  Morgau  matene  mi 

atendos  vian  alvenon  je  la  naiia 
horo.  La  lerta  kaj  kapabla, 
knabo  staras  en  la  unua  vico. 
Lia  celo  estis  trompi  la  re&on. 
forpeli  liajn  soldato jn,  kaj  kasi 


TYPES    OF    GAME    FOWL 

[see  AGBICTLTUKK] 


f.089 


44.    CAMT'l.NES 


45.    FAVEKOLLES 


46.     IKil  'DANS 


47.    CRKVECCEURS 


TYPES    OF    POULTRY 

[see  Acii:icr[/ri  RKJ 


5090 


REARING  &  FEEDING  POULTRY 

Selecting  Egg's  for  Sitting  Hens.     Care  of  the  Young  Chickens. 
Hencoops   and   Chicken-runs.        Rations   for   Chickens  and    Hens 

Group  1 

AGRICULTURE 
36 

POULTRY 

continued  from  page  4953 

By  Professor  JAMES   LONG 


Z 

thi 


"TO  obtain  healthy  and  strong  chickens  it  is 
necessary  to  set  the  largest  and  best  formed 
eggs  laid  by  the  healthiest  hens.  The  breeding 
year  begins  with  January,  when  adult  hens  lay 
but  few  eggs.  If  the  eggs  of  pullets  are  used, 
they  should  be  carefully  chosen  from  the  largest 
and  strongest  birds,  the  first  ten  eggs  laid  being 
set  aside.  As  more  trouble  is  involved  in  mid- 
winter, the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  of  the  hens,  as  well  as  of  the  eggs 
they  lay.  As  an  egg  is  produced,  it  should  be 
gathered  and  laid  in  bran  for  protection  against 
frost  and  damage.  As  sitting  hens  are  not  too 
common  at  this  early  period,  the  incubator  is 
often  employed,  but  in  its  absence  a  nest  may 
be  made  in  a  sheltered  shed  or  outhouse,  into 
which  vermin  cannot  enter,  and  where  the  hen 
will  remain  in  comfort,  and  be  able  to  feed  daily. 
The  nest-box  [48]  may  be  16  in.  by  18  in.  by  18  in., 
without  a  bottom,  and  with  a  lid  hinged  to  fall 
down  in  front.  If  necessary,  a  wire  run  which 
will  confine  the  bird,  may  be  placed  in  front, 
that  she  may  leave  her  nest  and  feed  and  drink 
at  will.  Such  a  box  and  run  will  be  suitable 
for  outside  work  in  milder  weather  [49].  If 
vermin  are  prevalent,  wire  netting  may  be  laid 
beneath  both  box  and  run. 

Making   the    Nest.     A   nest  is   made  by 
filling  the   bottom   of  the   box  with   fine   soil, 
especially   in   the    angles 
or  corners,  and  scooping 
t    the    centre.      Upon 
his    may    be    laid    oat- 
straw    cut    in     12    in. 
lengths,  the  corners  again 
being    filled     to   prevent 
the  hen  pushing  or  drag- 
ging the    eggs    from  the 
centre  and  leaving  them 
where  she  cannot    move   49.  VERMIN-PROOF  COOP 
them    back.       The     best 

sitters  are  those  containing  Dorking  or  Asiatic 
blood;     Orpingtons,    Rocks,    and    Wyandottes 
are  all  useful.     Before  a  hen  is  placed  upon  her 
eggs_and  a  few  dummies  [50]   should  be  used 
until  she  has  settled  in  her  new  quarters— a  little 
insect     powder     may    be 
dusted,  or   paraffin    rubbed 
under     the     thighs     and 
wings    to    prevent     vermin 
disturbing     her.        A     hen 
which     is      troubled     with 
insect    parasites    will    often 
forsake    her   eggs.       Before    50.  DUMMY  EGG 
sitting,  each  egg  should  be 
marked   in  ink  on  the  small  end  with  figures 
or    letters,    that    its    age    and   parentage  may 
be    recognised    for    subsequent    recording.     At 


the  end  of  three  or  four  days — earlier  in 
the  hands  of  an  expert — the  eggs  may  be 
examined  before  a  candle  or  the  sun,  that 
those  which  are  clear  or  unfertile  may  be 
removed,  and  used  for  the  chickens  or  in  the 
kitchen,  as  they  are  perfectly  good,  and  the  nest 
made  up,  if  necessary.  The  infertile  egg 
resembles  the  new-laid  egg  in  its  opacity,  while 
the  fertile,  like  the  addled  egg,  is  dark,  the  former 
growing  darker,  and  showing  a  sharper  line  below 
the  air  space  at  the  large  end.  If  two  or  more 
hens  are  set  together,  the  removal  of  the  clear 
eggs  will  enable  the  breeder  to  make  up  the 
sitting — thirteen  being  the  usual 
number  of  eggs  forming  the 
nest — so  that  one  or  more  hens 
may  be  supplied  with  fresh  lots. 
Success  in  hatching  chiefly  de- 
pends upon  heat,  which  the 
hen  supplies ;  moisture,  which 
prevents  the  membrane  within 
48  SITTING  adnering  to  the  shell  or  the 
NEST-BOX  embryo,  and  air. 

A  Special  Sitting-house. 
Where  large  numbers  of  chickens  are  hatched, 
a  special  sitting -house  [58]  may  be  employed, 
and  the  nest-boxes  constructed  in  rows,  one 
row  above  the  other.  If  the  house  is  large 
enough,  one  set  built  on  two  or  three  sides  of 
the  floor  of  the  apart- 
ment may  be  sufficient. 
In  such  a  case,  the  lids 
are  better  at  the  top, 
and  in  all  cases  there 
should  be  ventilating 
holes,  unless  the  lid  is 
slatted.  In  such  a  house, 
which  must  be  well  venti- 
lated, a  few  metal  show 


WITH  COVERED  RUN    cages  should  be  provided, 
in  which  water  and  food 

are  placed  each  morning.  As  each  hen  is  removed 
from  her  nest,  she  is  placed  in  a  cage  and  allowed 
to  feed  for  15  to  30  minutes  before  replacing. 
She  should  be  gently  lifted  under  the  wing*, 
both  flights  and  legs  being  grasped.  While 
feeding,  the  nests  should  be  examined,  either 
for  testing  the  eggs  or  for  removing  those  which 
are  cracke'd  or  broken,  if  any,  or  cleaning  those 
which  are  soiled,  and  at  the  same  time  removing 
the  soiled  straw.  At  night  the  house  may  be 
entered,  to  ascertain  by  listening  whether 
any  hens  are  uneasy  from  the  attacks  of 
insects.  Every  nest-box  should  be  well  lime- 
washed,  and  insect  powder  may  be  dusted 
over  the  straw.  Lime  should  follow  the 
removal  of  a  hen,  or  precede  the  introduction 
of  a  successor. 

5091 


AGRICULTURE 

How  to  Test  the  Eggs.  When  the 
hatching  day  arrives,  the  eggs  may  be  ex.; mined 
at  the  usual'  hour,  unless  the  chickens  have  left 
the  shell.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to 
remove  the  chick-en  from  the  shell  by  force. 
Such  practice  is  usually  fatal.  In  some 
caaea,  the  eggs  maybe  sprinkled  with  warm 
\\atei  the  day  before  hatching.  If  they 
.are  abnormally  dry,  the  steaming  which 
follows  on  the  return  of  the  hen  will 
assist,  the  chickens  to  emerge.  Eggs  which 
have  not  hatched,  if  examined  before  a 


raked,    but     the     apartment    must     bo    vermin- 

proof. 

It'  the  soil  be  wet  or  damp,  it  maybe  drained 

either  with  pipes,   bushes,  or  open  grips.     The 

best  soil  is  not  sand,  gravel  or  chalk,  but 
loam,  or  any  rich  soil  which  produces 
abundant  crops,  for  here  insect  life  and 
vegetable  food  will  be  most  plentiful. 
Early  broods  need  shelter  from  wind  and 
rain,  hence  the  importance  of  double 
coops,  or  small,  enclosed  miniature  houses 
with  substantial  wood  -  covered  runs 


light,    will  often  be  recognised,  by  the  dull    FOUNT  ux    attached  (53,  58,  60 J. 

i  -  j  i  -i  i _  ,1  Jl 1        „  /"» _ .  ^  /   <    .  . 


52.    HENCOOP 

WITH    SHUTTING- 

IJP   PLATFORM 


55.    HKM'OOP    WITH    S1IUTTING-UP  56.    SMALL    POULTRY 

RAIN  AND  SUN  GUARD  HOUSE  WITH  NEST-BOX 


line  below  the  air  chamber,  as  addled,  or 
that  the  chickens  within  are  dead.  If,  however, 
such  eggs  are  placed  in  a  bowl  of  warm  water, 
about  90° F.,  further  information  may  be  gained. 
Those  living  will  usually  float,  and  the  eggs  will 
move,  while  those  which  are  worthless  may  sink. 
Eggs  which 
are  not  chip- 
ped within  24 
hours  after 
hatching  i  s 
due  may  be 
broken  at  the 
large  end,  and 
examined, 
when  the 
chick  will 
usually  be 
found  dead. 
Death  in  the 
shell  may  be 
owing  to  want 
o  f  moisture, 
strength,  o  r 
-vitality. 

Removal 
to  the  Coop. 
The  hen  and 
her  chickens 
may  be  r  e  - 
moved,  when 
hatching  i  s 
complete,  to  a 
coop,  placed 
in  winter  in  a 
sheltered 
apartment,  or 
in  spring  and 
Mimmer  on  a  dry  path  or  plot  out  ol  doors, 
the  hen  being  then  well  fed.  Her  chickens, 
supplied  by  Nature  with  the  yolk  of  the  egg, 
n-ally  need  uo  food  for  18  to  24  hours.  It 
is  now  important  to  protect  the  young  birds, 
although  not  to  coddle  them,  and  to  keep  them 
dean  and  healthy.  They  must  be  kept  free 
from  insect  parasites,  and  never  allowed  to 
drink  or  feed  upon  tainted  food  or  water.  The 
coop  should  never  be  placed  where  either 
chit-kens  or  poultry  of  any  kind  have,  in  the  same 
or  the  previous  year,  been  running.  A  pure,  dry 
--..il  is  one  of  the  essentials.  In  winter,  an  out- 
house, open  to  the  sun  and  air,  the  iloor  l>eing 
uell  ;,n<l  thickly  sanded,  or  covered  with  dry 
earth,  is  one  of  the  best  places  for  the  coops. 
From  such  a  floor  the  droppings  may  be  daily 

5092 


53.    POULTRY  IKK  SK 


54.     HENCOOP 


57.     HKNCOOP         58.    MOVABLK  niHKKM  HOUSE     59.  HENCOOP  WJTI1 

SlDE-OPEMNi; 


Coops.  Coops  are  made  in  many  forms, 
with  and  without  bottoms,  with  doors  to  close 
up  in  front  at  night,  and  to  form  platforms  by 
day,  with  shelters  and  with  feeding  places. 
The  illustrations  [52,  51,  55,  57,  and  59j  explain 
this.  Coops  are  made  in  large  variety  at 

little  cost,  and 
should  always 
be  of  planed 
and  painted 
wood,  but  they 
should  be 
either  painted 
or  lime-washed 
within  each 
season.  Ability 
to  make  coops 
and  other  ap- 
pliances is  one 
of  the  qualifi- 
cations of  the 
successfu  1 
poultry  keeper. 
Where  wooden 
bottoms  are 
employed  i  n 
coops,  they 
should  be  daily 
cleansed  and 
sanded.  Coops, 
however,  are 
not  always 
needed.  As  the 
chickens  grow 
strong,  the 
hens  may  be 
turned  out 
where  there  is 
plenty  of  space  to  roam  at  large,  and  they  will 
rind  a  large  proportion  of  the  food  they  need. 
This  freedom,  however,  should  not  be  extended 
to  the  earliest  months,  or  to  land  where  the 
grass  is  long  and  wet. 

Feeding  the  Chickens.  There  are 
many  breeders  who  prefer  custard  made  of  egg 
and  milk  as  the  first  food  of  chickens  ;  others 
supply  chopped  egg  and  breadcrumbs  for  t\u> 
or  three  days,  subsequently  introducing  curd 
made  from  milk,  boiled  buckwheat,  rice  boiled 
in  milk,  crushed  maize,  wheat  or  barley;  pa.ste 
made;  with  barleymeal,  Sussex  ground  oats, 
toppings,  or  middlings,  house  scraps,  dari,  millet, 
whole  biickwheat,  and  later,  whole  grain  of 
other  kinds.  It  is  important,  however,  since 
ceivals  are  deficient  in  bone-making  matter,  that 


growing  chickens  should  obtain  meat,  bonemeal, 
which  may  be  mixed  with  the  cereal  meals,  or 
finely  crushed  bones.  Bone  not  only  contains 
the  materials  necessary  for  assisting  growth  and 
the  production  of  bone,  as  phosphate  of  lime, 
but  the  albuminous  matter  which  assists  in  the 
production  of  lean  flesh. 

Feeding  should  be  practised  on  the  principle 
of  little  and  often,  diminishing  the  number  of 
meals  with  the 
growth  of  the  birds 
until,  when  adult, 
they  require  only 
three  meals  daily. 
Paste  made  from 
oatmeal,  middlings, 
and  the  like,  may 
be  mixed  stiff,  and 
fixed  on  a  "  billot," 
a  common  practice 
in  France,  which 
may  be  made  by 
inserting  a  long 
wooden  skewer  into 
a  large  thread  reel. 
Milk  is  at  all  times 
most  valuable,  but, 
like  water,  it  should 
be  placed  in  a  vessel 
in  which  the  birds  can  only  insert  their  beaks  [51]. 
Tainted  water,  and  soft  food  thrown  on  the 
ground  are  common  causes  of  disease.  Where 
fine-ground  fresh  bone  or  bonemeal  is  used — 
and  but  little  is  needed — meat  is  not  essential. 
The  best  form  of  meat  is  the  prepared  granu- 
lated meat  meal,  or  the  intestines  of  the  sheep 
or  the  bullock  cleaned,  boiled  and  minced. 

Purchasing    Chickens    for     Rearing. 
If  it  is  inconvenient  to  breed    chickens,  they 
may  be  easily  pur- 
chased  at    from 
two     days    to     a 
month  old  at  very 
reasonable  prices. 
They    are     now 
packed,  and  sent 
long  distances 
with  great  success 
[61].    All  chickens 
need    protection 
against  insects, 
and  it  is  a  com-   } 
mon   practice    to  I 
anoint  the    head,  » 
which  is  the  most 
dangerous  seat  of 
attack,  with  mer- 
curial    ointment. 
1    oz.,     powdered 
sulphur  and  crude 
petroleum,     each 
A    oz.,    and    lard 


60.    BROODER   AND    RUN    FOR  VERY  YOUNG    CHICKS 


61.    EXHIBITION    CAGES    AND   TRAVELLING   BASKETS 


sufficient  for  mixing.  The 
breeder  must  use  his  own  common-sense 
to  protect  his  little  flock  against  rats,  stoats, 
foxes,  and  other  vermin.  As  with  hens,  so 
with  chickens,  variety  of  food  and  frequent 
change  are  most  advisable,  but  the  variety 
may  be  more  restricted  as  the  birds  grow. 


AGRICULTURE 

When  forsaken  by  or  removed  from  the  mother, 
the  young  birds  may  be  kept  in  larger  parties. 
If  the  weather  is  cold,  a  "  cold  mother  "— 
practically  a  non-heated  mother —may  be  em- 
ployed, and  here  they  will  keep  each  other  warm, 
while  they  may  be  protected-  by  wire  feeding 
runs  outside.  It  should  be  an  axiom  to  keep 
birds  in  lots  of  one  size,  but  as  they  grow,  and 
the  sexes  develop,  the  cockerels  should  be 
separated  from  the 
pullets,  each  sex  being 
placed  in  a  large,  dry, 
sheltered  grass  run  in 
which  is  a  warm,  dry, 
well- ventilated  house, 
fitted  with  broad 
perches,  not  placed 
too  high  for  the  heavy 
breeds. 

Feeding  Adult 
Hens.  The  feeding 
of  adult  hens  de- 
mands close  study 
and  attention.  The 
composition  of  the 
food  differs  from  that 
supplied  to  other 
domestic  stock  for 
two  reasons — first, 

because  the  composition  of  the  body  of  a  fowl 
consists  so  largely  of  protein,    the  nitrogenous 
constituent  of  food;  and  next  because  the  egg 
is  exceptionally  rich  in  the  same  material.     The 
body   of   an   unfattened   fowl   consists,  to    the 
extent  of  one-half  its  dry  matter,   of  protein 
and  no  less  than  8  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter, 
hence   the   importance   of  supplying   food  like 
bonemeal  or  ground  bone,  both  of  which  are  rich 
in  these  materials.  Analyses  of  the  entire  carcases 
of  birds  have  been 
made   at  the  ex- 
periment   station 
of    New    York 
State     with     the 
results  given 
below. 

In  these  in- 
stances, the 
figures  of  which 
were  supported 
by  other  analyses, 
the  entire  body 
is  r  e  p  r  e  sented, 
including  bones, 
feathers,  and  in- 
testines. Had  the 
fat  of  the  capon, 
which  was  a  fat- 
tened fowl,  been 
removed,  the  com- 
position of  its 
body  would  have  closely  resembled  that  of  the 


Breed,                       j    Water. 

Protein. 

17-0 
18-0 
33-3 

Ash. 

Leghorn  hen        .  .      .  .  1    55'8 
Leghorn  pullet    .  .      .  .  j    55-4 
Plymouth  Rock  capon    j     41-6 

21-6 
21-2 
19-4 

3-8 
3.4 
3-7 

5093 


AGRICULTURE 

Leghorns.  There  is,  too,  a  striking  resemblance 
between  the  composition  of  the  egg  and  of  the 
adult  fowl  as  regards  its  general  proportions 
["  The  Feeding  of  Animals,"  by  Professor  Jordan  ; 
\Iuemillan].  Whereas  the  dry  matter  of  the 
carcases  of  adult  hens  contained  48 '9  per  cent, 
of  protein,  38'5  per  cent,  of  fat,  and  8'6  per  cent, 
of  ash,  the  dry  matter  of  the  eggs  analysed 
contained  49'8  per  cent,  of  protein,  38'6  per  cent, 
of  fat,  and  3 -5  per  cent,  of  ash.  The  protein  of 
the  egg,  of  which  the  white  is  so  largely  com- 
posed, is  practically  sufficient  for  the  production 
of  the  chicken.  It  will,  however,  be  instructive 
to  quote  other  figures,  obtained  by  the  same 
experimenters,  showing  the  proportion  of  food 
to  carcase. 


Number 

Carcase  in 
per  cent. 

Per  cnnt.  of 
edible  dry 

edible  dry 



of  live 

matter  in 

matter  in 

weight 

carcase 

live  animal 

Fpwl,  large 
Fowl,  small 

12 

7 

80-8 
78-0 

27-0 
27-0 

21-8 
21-1 

Chickens 

107 

82-  la 

14-7 

12-1 

Eggs 

34 

88-86 

26-3 

23-3c 

a  Not  drawn     b  After  removing-  shells    c  Eg-gs  with  shells 


the  food  is  required  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  body  or  carcase.  The  food  consumed 
beyond  this  proportion  is  available  for  the 
production  of  the  egg  in  the  one,  or  for  the  in- 
crease of  the  weight  of  the  other.  The  weight 
and  composition  of  a  maintenance  ration  depends 
upon  the  size  of  the  bird.  Thus  the  Cochin 
requires  a  greater  weight  of  food  for  its  main- 
tenance than  the  Hamburgh,  but  the  smaller 
quantity  of  food  is  required  for  each  pound  of 
increase  as  between  the  smaller  and  the  larger 
breed.  Professor  Jordan  quotes  the  results  of 
the  feeding  of  52  capons  varying  from  9  Ib.  to 
12  Ib.  in  weight  which  were  fed  for  158  days, 
and  of  60  hens  varying  from  3  Ib.  to  7  Ib.  which 
were  fed  for  150  days.  The  digestible,  nutritious 
matter  required  per  day  for  each  100  Ib.  of  live 
weight  was  as  follows  : 


Mrd 

Total 
dry 

Ash 

Pro- 
tein 

If 

Fat 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Capons  of  9  to  12  Ib. 
Hens  of  5  to  7  Ib.  .  . 

Ib. 
2-30 
2-70 

•06 
•10 

Ib. 
•30 
•40 

Ib. 
1-74 
2-00 

Ib. 
•20 
•20 

1  :  7-5 
1  :  6-2 

Hens  of  3  to  5  Ib.  .  . 

3-90 

•15 

•50 

2-95 

•30 

1  :  7-4 

In  feeding  the  hen,  not  only  is  a  mixed  ration 
the  best,  but  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  obtain 
the  same  results  where  the  birds  are  regularly 
fed  upon  one  variety  of  food. 

The  Value  of  Phosphate  of  Lime. 
The  employment  of  a  food  containing  phos- 
phate of  lime  is  most  essential,  and  in 
practice  it  is  found  that  the  addition  of 
bonemeal  or  ground  fresh  bone  to  grain 
food  is  superior  to  that  of  feeding  vipon 
meat,  especially  red  meat,  which  is  much 
richer  in  mineral  matter  than  grain.  If  meat 
is  supplied  to  hens,  the  white,  cleaned, 
cooked  and  minced  intestines  of  animals 
should  be  preferred.  Although  fat  in  the  form 
ofcsuet  may  be  given  to  chickens  with  advantage, 
to  encourage  their  growth,  it  is  not  suitable  for 
hens,  except  when  added  in  small  quantities  to 
meal  for  the  purpose  of  fattening.  Green  or  dried 
clover  heads,  and  lucerne  are  useful  additions 
to  a  poultry  ration  ;  they  are  believed  to  inten- 
sify the  colour  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg,  but  while 
both  are  rich  in  protein,  that  from  animal  sources 
and  particularly  from  bone,  is  regarded  as  the 
most  economical.  In  feeding  poultry,  young 
or  adult,  grit  should  always  be  provided.  It 
is  essential  where  grain  food  is  used,  practically 
becoming  the  millstones  within  the  gizzard, 
the  great  duty  of  which  is  to  grind,  and  thus 
prepare  the  already  softened  corn  for  digestion 
and  absorption.  Coarse  sand  may  be  em- 
ployed in  the  same  way  for  chickens.  All 
poultry  benefit  by  the  occasional  use  of  salt. 
A  chicken  which  by  good  feeding  has  reached  the 
weight  of  2  Ib.  hi  ten  weeks,  has  increased  its 
weight  by  more  than  160  per  cent.,  while  a  duck- 
ling which  reaches  5  Ib.  in  a  similar  period  has 
made  a  gain  of  more  than  double  this  figure. 

The  Maintenance  Ration.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  in  feeding  either  the 
lien  or  the  i  liickon,  a  certain  proportion  of 

Continued 
5094 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  laying  hen 
apparently  requires  a  ration  richer  in  protein 
and  ash  than  the  non-laying  hen.  The  same 
authority  suggests  the  following  as  an  approxi- 
mate ration  for  laying  hen. 


liird 

Total 
dry 

Ash 

Pro- 
tein 

l! 

Fat 

Nutritive 
ratio 

*3 

Hens  of  5  to  8  Ib. 

3-30 

•20 

•65 

2-25 

•20 

1  :  4-2 

Hens  of  3  to  5  Ib. 

5-50 

•30 

1-00 

3-75 

•35 

1  :  4-6 

These  figures  form  a  basis  upon  which  the 
intelligent  poultry  keeper  can  work. 

Rations  for  the  Larger  Breed.  A  main- 
tenance ration  for  a  hen  of  the  larger  size  may 
lie  composed  of  a  mixture  of  1  part  each  of  maize 
and  maizemeal,  |  part  each  of  ground  oats, 
wheat  middlings,  and  clover  hay,  -|  part  of  fresh 
bone,  and  ^  part  of  meat  scraps.  For  laying  hens 
of  larger  size  the  following  is  suggested:  1  part 
of  maize,  |  part  each  of  wheat,  maizemeal,  and 
green  lucerne,  J  part  each  of  wheat  middlings, 
buckwheat  middlings,  and  wheatmeal,  and 
5  part  of  fresh  bone. 

Bone  and  peameal  may  be  added  to  cereal 
meals  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  protein 
value.  Linseed  meal  or  crushed  linseed  cake  may 
be  similarly  supplied  where,  in  addition  to  protein, 
oil  is  required.  In  feeding  chickens,  the  quan- 
tity of  dry  matter  in  food  which  has  been  shown 
to  be  necessary  for  100  Ib.  live  weight  during 
the  first  fortnight  is  10  Ib.  This  decreases  by  1  Ib. 
per  fortnight,  until,  at  the  age  of  12  weeks,  the 
bird  requires  only  5|  Ib.  of  dry  matter  per  100  Ib. 
live  weight^  The  protein  needed  at  the  former 
period  is  2  Ib.,  diminishing  to  1  Ib.  at  the  last 
period,  while  the  carbohydrates,  chiefly  starch 
and  sugar,  required  for  the  first  fortnight  are 
about  7  Ib.,  gradually  diminishing  to  3|  Ib.  at 
the  end  of  three  months. 


WAR,  THE  ENEMY  OF  MANKIND 

Militarism  Perverts  the  True  End  of  Labour.     The  Poets  and  Peace.     Did 
the  Boer  War   Save   England  ?    The  True   Battlefields  for  the  Nations 


Group  3 

SOCIOLOGY 
10 


Continued  from 
p.-lKe  4977 


By  Dr.  C.  W.  SALEEBY 


YJjYHEN  we  contemplate  war  as  a  fact  of 
history  and  not  merely  as  an  occasional 
possibility  of  to-day  we  shall  find  warrant  for 
studying  it  at  this  stage  and  not  regarding  it 
as  merely  one  of  the  lesser  subjects  of  sociology. 
Indeed,  the  relations  of  any  society  to  war  are 
amongst  its  most  vital  relations,  and  since  they 
actually  determine  the  very  form  and  destiny  of 
society,  and  have  played  a  leading  part  in  the 
past,  they  must  be  considered  as  all  but  funda- 
mental, even  though  their  present  significance 
has  so  vastly  diminished. 

The  Struggle  between  Societies.  In 
this  particular  subject  we  may  closely  follow  the 
teaching  of  Herbert  Spencer,  which  has  not 
needed  nearly  so  much  revision  in  later  years, 
as,  for  instance,  his  work  on  the  subject  of 
marriage.  If  there  is  any  part  of  sociology  of 
which  it  is  true,  as  we  have  said,  that  the 
sociologist  is  compelled  also  to  be  a  moralist, 
and,  unlike  those  who  deal  with  other  sciences, 
to  pass  judgments  upon  his  facts,  the  study  of 
war  must  be  that  part,  and  we  may  find  it 
necessary  to  recognise  here,  as  in  so  many  other 
instances,  a  soul  of  good  in  things  evil. 

Our  immediate  subject  is  war  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  that  term,  and  not  what  the  French  call 
"  les  luttes  sociales."  In  the  widest  sense,  the 
necessity  for  struggle  or  contest  is  one  of  the 
fundamental  facts  for  the  sociologist,  and  we 
shall  certainly  look  more  philosophically  upon 
war — that  is  to  say,  upon  military  war — if  we 
recognise  its  fundamental  identity  with  many 
other  kinds  of  social  struggle ;  with,  for  instance, 
industrial  competition,  and  with  even  "  les  luttes 
pour  le  travail,"  or  the  struggle  for  work.  War, 
indeed,  or  military  struggle  between  societies, 
is  evidently,  when  we  come  to  think  of  it,  only 
the  earliest,  the  most  primitive,  and  the  most 
brutal  form  of  the  "  struggle  for  existence " 
as  it  is  waged  between  societies. 

The  Workers  must  Destroy  War. 
Now  if  these  adjectives  are  warranted,  we  shall 
expect  to  find,  as  we  do  find,  that  in  early  times— 
though  not  perhaps  in  the  very  earliest  times, 
when  there  was  plenty  of  room  and  foftd  for  every- 
body— war  was  the  permanent,  chronic,  normal 
state  of  all  active  societies.  We  have,  indeed,  here 
what  we  may  recognise  as  the  military  stage  of 
society.  In  those  times  the  society  that  was  not 
military  would  be  immediately  subjugated,  and  its 
identity  would  rapidly  disappear.  At  this  stage 
there  could  not  persist  such  a  society  as  that  now 
represented  by  Switzerland.  Fighting  is  the 
necessary  and  permanent  business  of  all  able- 
bodied  men,  and  since  its  importance  is 
supreme  for  the  society,  it  follows  as  a  natural 
consequence  that  women  in  such  a  society  will 


occupy  a  humble  place.  The  only  worth  of 
woman  is  as  a  potential  mother  of  soldiers. 
There  are  many  superfluous  women,  since  fighting 
keeps  down  the  numbers  of  the  men.  Thus  we 
expect  to  find  polygamy  practised  by  the  most 
successful  men  ;  we  expect  family  life  to  suffer, 
as  it  always  does,  when  it  is  opposed  to  mili- 
tarism ;  we  expect  to  find  a  high  birth-rato 
but  a  very  high  infant  mortality  rate,  as  well  i\s 
a  very  high  general  death-rate  ;  we  are  not  sur- 
prised to  hear  that  the  aged  are  despised  or  even 
disposed  of  ;  we  find  it  a  consistent  action  of 
the  Spartans,  for  instance,  to  expose  to  the 
wolves  all  weakly  or  malformed  infants  ;  and 
we  can  at  once  understand  the  prevalence  of 
female  infanticide.  All  these  are  characters 
which  make  for  the  bestialisation  of  the  society  ; 
displayed  in  extreme  degrees,  as  they  were  by 
the  Spartans,  they  must  even  make  for  ita 
extinction.  Yet,  at  the  military  stage,  the 
military  interest  is  foremost,  and  whatever  not 
unduly  serves  it  makes  for  the  life  of  the  society 
in  its  struggle  with  its  neighbours. 

War  as  a  Social  Organiser.  Our  judg- 
ments in  the  main  are  adverse.  Neither  the  lover 
of  the  good  nor  the  lover  of  the  beautiful  can 
admire  such  a  military  society,  yet,  as  impartial 
students,  we  have  to  recognise  the  soul  of  good 
in  things  evil  even  whilst  we  regret  the  necessity 
for  the  evil.  We  have  even  to  recognise  that  the 
military  stage,  given  the  facts  of  nature  and 
human  nature,  was  actually  necessary,  inevit- 
able, and  ultimately  beneficial  in  the  develop- 
ment of  human  society.  It  was,  indeed,  the 
necessity  of  war  that  led  to  the  beginnings  of  social 
organisation.  In  the  first  stage  of  the  evolution 
of  the  social  organism  we  find — in  remarkable 
parallel  to  the  individual  organism,  as  Spencer 
pointed  out — "  the  masters,  who,  as  warriors, 
carry  on  the  offensive  and  defensive  activities 
and  thus  especially  stand  in  relation  to  the 
environment ;  and  the  slaves,  who  carry  on  inner 
activities  for  the  general  sustentation,  primarily 
of  their  masters,  and  secondarily  of  themselves." 
Indeed,  we  find  that  "everywhere  the  wars 
between  societies  originate  governmental  struc- 
tures, and  are  causes  of  all  such  improvements 
in  those  structures  as  increase  the  efficiency  of 
corporate  action  against  environing  societies. 
.  .  The  governmental  military  organisation 
of  a  society  is  initiated  by,  and  evolves  along 
with,  the  warfare  between  societies."  In  other 
words,  "  there  is  thus  evolved  that  part  of  its 
governmental  organisation  which  conduces  to 
efficient  co-operation'  against  other  societies." 
The  evil  is  undoubtedly  evil,  and  yet— so 
strange  is  human  life — it  may  be  the  parent 
of  the  good. 

5095 


SOCIOLOGY 

The  Military  Society.  What,  then, 
arc  the  characteristics  of  the  military  or  earliest 
important  stage  in  society  ?  As  Herbert 
Spencer  well  puts  it,  "  the  militant  type  is  one 
in  which  the  army  is  the  nation  mobilised  while 
the  nation  is  the  quiescent  army,  and  which 
therefore  acquires  a  structure  common  to  army 
and  nation.  The  trait  characterising  the  militant 
.structure  throughout  is  that  its  units  are  coerced 
into  their  various  combined  actions.  As  the 
soldier's  will  is  so  suspended  that  he  becomes 
in  everything  the  agent  of  his  officer's  will,  so 
is  the  will  of  the  citizen  in  all  transactions, 
private  and  public,  overruled  by  that  of  the 
Government.  The  co-operation  by  which  the 
life  of  the  militant  society  is  maintained  is  a 
compulsory  co-operation." 

These  are  facts  which  have  to  be  reckoned 
with  in  the  present  controversy  between  the  ideals 
of  individual  liberty,  on  the  one  hand,  and  collec- 
tive authority  on  the  other  hand.  The  earliest 
stage  of  societies,  which  is  the  military  stage  and 
the  lowest  stage,  is  also  the  most  completely 
collective  stage.  There  is  no  individual  liberty, 
there  is  scarcely  any  possibility  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  individual  life  ;  there  is  "  compulsory 
co-operation." 

In  passing  judgment  upon  this  stage  we  shall 
find  ourselves  influenced  by  our  beliefs  regarding 
heredity,  which  has  been  admirably  discussed 
in  another  course.  Herbert  Spencer  followed 
Lamarck  in  believing  that  acquired  characters 
are  inherited.  He  was  therefore  able  to  infer  that 
the  military  stage  of  society  has  been  of  great 
psychical  value  as  a  means  of  discipline.  Our 
present  capacity  for  self-restraint  and  self-control, 
such  as  it  is,  for  obedience  to  authority,  for  long- 
sustained  and  assiduous  labour — all  these  may 
be  supposed,  on  the  Lamarckian  theory,  to  have 
been  inherited  by  us  in  consequence  of  the 
military  education  of  our  forefathers.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  believe,  as  we  are  compelled  to 
believe,  that  Lamarck  and  Spencer  were  wrong, 
and  that  acquired  habits  of  discipline  cannot  be 
transmitted  to  children,  we  shall  be  unable  to 
thank  the  military  stage  of  society  for  having 
done  us  such  a  service.  This,  of  course,  is  by  no 
means  to  say  that  the  stage  was  not  necessary  on 
the  way  towards  the  evolution  of  higher  social 
forms. 

The  Industrial  Society.  There  is 
now  extant  no  society  which  is  purely  military. 
The  whole  conditions  of  life  have  profoundly 
changed.  Man  can  no  longer  live  by  war 
alone,  and  we  may  hope  and  believe  that 
that  stage  is  for  ever  past.  But  we  may  best 
recognise  the  present  relations  of  society  to  war 
if  we  consider  'the  next  sharply  marked  stage  of 
society.  We  shall  then  see  that  the  nations  of 
to-day,  in  general,  display  in  varying  degrees 
the  characters  of  both  these  stages,  and  we  shall 
f>cc  reason  to  believe  that  they  suffer  greatly 
from  their  present  incapacity  to  slough  off  the 
disabling  and  degrading  armour  of  war. 

The  next  great  stage  that  societies  display 
is  t  he  industrial  stage.  The  characteristic 
of  the  industrial  type  is  that  it  does  not  live 
by  war  alone.  Instead  of  stealing  the  means 

5096 


for  life  from  its  neighbours,  and  instead  at 
making  slaves  of  its  neighbours,  or  being 
enslaved  by  them — the  enslaved  people  then 
performing  the  necessary  industrial  work — the 
industrial  type  of  society  devotes  itself,  us  a 
whole,  to  industrial  activities,  just  as  the  military 
type  devoted  itself,  as  a  whole,  to  military 
activities.  There  is  still  co-operation  within  the 
society,  but  it  is  now  not  compulsory,  but 
voluntary.  Says  Spencer : 

"  All  trading  transactions,  whether  between 
masters  and  workmen,  buyers  and  sellers  of 
commodities,  or  professional  men  and  those  they 
aid,  are  effected  by  free  exchange.  This  relation, 
of  voluntary  co-operation,  in  which  the  mutual 
rendering  of  services  is  unforced  and  neither 
individual  subordinated,  becomes  the  predomi- 
nant relation  throughout  society  in  proportion 
as  the  industrial  activities  predominate.  Daily 
determining  the  thoughts  and  sentiments,  it 
produces  social  units  whose  mental  structures 
and  habits  mould  social  arrangements  into 
corresponding  forms." 

The  Interesting  Case  of  Germany. 
Reading  these  words,  we  must  pass  our  own 
judgment  upon  them,  not  accepting  the  authority 
of  even  this  mighty  thinker,  and  we  may  ask 
ourselves  whether  the  voluntary  co-operation  of 
industrial  society  may  not  sometimes  be  more 
apparent  than  real,  and  whether  the  present 
tendencies  do  not  show  that  individual  liberty 
may  be,  in  some  ways,  as  limited  in  practice  in 
an  industrial  society  as  in  a  military  one.  Of  the 
greatest  importance  are  the  changes  which  ensue 
Avhen  a  society  undergoes  a  metamorphosis — 
which  may  often  be  very  sudden — from  the 
military  to  the  industrial  type  ;  and  no  less 
interesting  are  the  possibilities  of  a  degeneration 
from  the  industrial  back  to  the  military  type. 
The  societies  which  we  ourselves  know  are  highly 
unstable  in  these  respects.  If  we  take,  for 
instance,  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  we  see 
that  while  neither  conforms  to  the  military  type, 
both  are  great  military  powers;  and  that  while 
neither  conforms  to  the  industrial  type,  both 
are  great  industrial  societies.  The  rise  of  indus- 
trial Germany  was  extremely  'sudden,  but  did 
not  involve  a  disappearance  of  militancy;  and 
Germany  in  general  very  well  shows,  not  onlj 
in  its  military,  but  also  in  its  industrial  aspects, 
those  features  of  compulsory  co-operation  and 
regulation  which  are  especially  characteristic  of 
the  military  type.  Again,  though  modern 
Germany  owes  its  success  to  its  industrial 
activity,  that  activity  is  subordinated  to  the 
military  end,  and  this  introduces  us  to  a  very 
interesting  consideration. 

The  Three  Ends  of  Labour.  We 
may  recognise  with  Spencer  three  distinct 
purposes,  real  or  ideal,  to  which  the  products  of 
industry  may  be  put.  Of  these  the  lowest,  the 
most  brutal,  and  the  most  unworthy,  is  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  a  militant  organisation. 
Het-e,  indeed,  the  people  labour  for  that  which  is 
not  bread.  The  advances  of  science  and  civilisa- 
tion are  prostituted  to  the  perpetuation,  on  a 
scale  unparalleled  in  the  past,  of  the  militarism 
which,  in  the  past,  was  a  necessary  condition  of 


tho  survival  of  any  society.  It  may  be  possible 
rudely  to  estimate  the  status  of  the  foremost 
nations  of  the  world  in  this  respect.  We  may 
leave  pitiable  Russia  out  of  the  account.  To  Ger- 
many must  be  allotted  the  bad  pre-eminience  of 
the  almost  complete  prostitution  of  industrialism 
to  militarism.  We  ourselves  groan  under  scarcely 
less  a  burden.  Of  course,  there  may  be  explana- 
tions and  excuses,  but  here  we  are  not  concerned 
with  them.  On  the  other  hand,  we  may  contrast 
the  United  States  of  America  and  France.  In 
the  first  instance,  owing  doubtless  mainly  to 
geographical  and  economic  considerations,  a  far 
higher  plane  has  been  reached — the  army  being 
not  the  master  of  the  nation,  as  in  Germany,  but 
its  servant.  In  wonderful  France,  the  home  of 
so  many  great  ideas,  and  also,  of  course,  the 
learner  of  a  recent  terrible  lesson,  we  find 
militarism  more  despised  on  principle  than  in 
any  other  great  nation  in  the  world.  France 
has  yet  to  recover  from  the  war  of  the  last 
generation,  and  even  more  from  her  service  of 
the  greatest  soldier  and  criminal  of  all  time. 
She  now  points  the  way  to  a  forthcoming  age 
when  the  names  of  all  soldiers  shall  be 
forgotten. 

An  Intolerable  Waste  of  Labour. 
Then  there  is  a  second  or  higher  purpose— vastly 
higher — to  wiiich  industrialism  may  be  put,  and 
amongst  the  less  military  of  the  great  nations,  as 
well  as  amongst  ourselves,  we  may  observe  this 
stage.  Industry  is  now  no  longer  prostituted  to 
the  maintenance  of  armies  and  navies.  Except 
for  purposes  of  defence — which  assume  the  possi- 
bility of  offence  on  the  part  of  neighbours — a 
military  organisation  does  not  serve  the  worker. 
He  is  not  allowed  to  enjoy  what  he  earns.  The 
labours  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men  during 
the  whole  year  are  largely  robbed  of  their 
personal  reAvard  in  order  that  a  battleship  may 
be  built.  It  is  one  of  the  fine  and  true  ideas  to  be 
found  in  modern  socialism  that  war  is  against 
the  interests  of  workers  of  all  countries,  and  that 
war  may  end  if  they  come  to  an  agreement  with 
one  another.  It  is  outrageous  that  the  labours 
of  thousands  in  France  should  do  absolutely 
nothing  more  than  serve  to  neutralise  the  labours 
of  thousands  in  England.  Why  should  they  not 
agree  that  it  is  not  worth  their  while  to  fight 
each  other,  and,  by  their  agreement,  obtain 
the  rewards  of  their  own  industry  ?  This 
great  idea  has  only  to  be  disseminated  amongst 
the  workers  of  all  countries  to  make  war  impos- 
sible, for  money  is  the  sinews  of  war,  and  they  are 
its  chief  creators.  If  we  take  a  non-military 
society,  such  as  Switzerland,  we  find  Spencer's 
second  stage  realised.  The-  products  of  industry 
are  now  employed  "  for  material  aggrandise- 
ment." Life  becomes  less  hard,  there  is  leisure, 
and  comfort,  and  prosperity  ;  the  life-blood  of 
the  people  is  not  drained. 

The  Highest  End  of  Industrialism. 
But  there  remains  a  yet  higher  stage,  and  already 
we  find  traces  of  it,  "industry  is  still  pursued,  but 
its  products  are  now  turned  neither  to  military 
purposes  nor  exclusively  to  "  material  aggran- 
disement." Such  a  society  devotes  them  "  to 
the  carrying  on  of  higher  activities.,"  This  opens 


SOCIOLOGY 

out  a  great  ideal,  which  it  is  worth  while  to 
consider  further. 

In  studying  war  we  find,  as  we  hinted  at  the 
beginning,  that  we  are  actually  studying  the 
types  of  society— the  two  studies  cannot  be  dis- 
sociated, for  its  relations  to  war  go  far  to  deter- 
mine the  type  of  any  society.  The  types  which 
we  have  already  recognised  are  the  military  and 
the  industrial.  We  have  further  observed  that, 
as  a  fact  of  to-day,  we  must  join  these  two  terms 
together,  and  describe  as  military-industrial  our 
greatest  societies.  But  our  consideration  of  the 
purposes  to  which  the  products  of  industry-  may 
be  put  will  allow  us  to  introduce  a  new  term. 

The  Spiritual  Type  of  Society.  The 
present  writer  looks  forward  to  a  type  of  society 
which,  in  contrast  to  the  past  military  type  and  the 
present  military-industrial  and  industrial  types,  he 
has  elsewhere  ventured  to  call  the  spiritual  type. 
In  it  we  may  hope  to  find  realised  the  dream  of 
Spencer  ;  the  products  of  industry  will  then  be 
devoted  to  the  carrying  on  of  higher  activities. 
Indeed,  we  are  already  entitled  to  anticipate  a 
time  when  the  products  of  industry  will  require 
for  their  production  only  a  quite  insignificant 
proportion  of  the  wrhole  sum  of  human  activities. 
It  is  not  merely  that  such  a  society  will  not  waste 
its  energies  upon  military  aggression  or  defence — 
not  desiring  the  one  and  not  needing  the  other. 
It  is  not  even  that  industrial  competition  with 
its  neighbours  may  become  as  relatively  un- 
common as  actual  war  is  nowadays.  It  is  that 
men's  material  wants  will  not  involve  the 
expenditure  of  any  large  part  of  their  social 
energy.  As  the  writer  has  said,  "  In  the 
spiritual  type  of  society,  where  material  wants 
are  easily  satisfied,  men  will  be  justified  in 
devoting  large  portions  of  their  time  to  those 
activities  with  which  most  of  us  are  now  justified 
in  filling  only  the  leisure  part  of  life.  Inter- 
national competition  will  remain  to  show  itself 
in  a  noble  patriotism,  which  rejoices — to  use  the 
illustration  suggested  by  Carlyle — more  in  our 
Shakespeare  than  our  India.  ...  To  the 
industrialism  of  the  present— \vhich  is  at  present 
a  legitimate  means  to  the  legitimate  end  of  the 
fulness  of  life — there  will  succeed,  in  the  spiritual 
type  of  society,  a  nobler  industry  concerned  with 
the  accumulation  of  riches  which  neither  moth 
nor  rust  can  corrupt,  stored  in  the  mansions  of 
the  mind,  where  thieves  cannot  break  through 
nor  steal." 

War  for  the  Best.  It  is  in  such  an  age 
that  art  and  thought  will  enter  into  their 
heritage,  and  above  the  champions  of  destruc- 
tive and  constructive  imperialism  will  be  ranked 
the  champions  of  constructive  beauty  and 
constructive  thought.  There  will  still  be  "les 
luttes  sociales "  ;  but  they  will  have  under- 
gone an  utter  transmutation.  Men  will  not 
fight  for  gold,  but  they  will  compete  for 
the  lowest  death-rate,  the  lowest  crime-rate, 
for  the  construction  of  the  best  conditions  of 
education,  for  the  making  of  the  noblest  music 
and  poetry,  and  for  the  discovery,  recognition, 
and  service  of  the  highest  truths.  We  are  pre- 
paring ourselves  for  the  study -of  a  subsequent 
subject  when  we  observe  that  in  Russia  there 

5097 


SOCIOLOGY 

ii  an  autocracy— if  not  in  a  very  real  sense — 
and  an  almost  'absolute  monarchy  in  Germany  ; 
whilst,  at  the  other  extreme,  in  the  United  States 
and  Fi am<  \\e  find  democracies.  We  must  ask 
ourselves  whether  there  is  not  a  fundamental 
connection  or  correlation  between  various  forms 
of  government  and  militarism;  but  before  we 
do  so,  and  before  we  contemplate  the  modern 
tendency  to  a  complete  transformation  in  the 
nature  of  the  weapons  by  which  societies  still 
fight  with  each  other,  let  us  broadly  contemplate 
war  as  a  fact. 

Physical    Courage    is    not    a    Virtue. 

There  are  those  who,  often  sincerely  and  disin- 
terestedly, often  under  the  influence  of  a  not 
ignoble  patriotism,  yet  more  frequently  in  self- 
interest  or  class-interest,  still  sing  the  praises  of 
war.  They  deify  brute  courage,  one  of  the  least 
admirable  traits  of  man  ;  they  are  adherents  of 
the  religion  of  enmity  six  days  in  the  week, 
though  on  the  seventh  they  profess  the  religion 
of  amity.  This  famous  phraseology  is  Spencer's, 
and  from  him  we  may  quote  a  stinging  paragraph 
of  irony  in  which  the  common  over-estimate  of 
physical  courage  is  disposed  of  : 

"  Worthy  of  highest  admiration  is  the  Tas- 
manian  devil,  which,  fighting  to  the  last  gasp, 
snarls  with  its  dying  breath.  Admirable,  too, 
though  less  admirable,  is  our  own  bulldog — 
a  creature  said  sometimes  to  retain  its  hold  even 
when  a  limb  is  cut  off.  To  be  admired  also  for 
their  'pluck,'  perhaps  nearly  in  as  great  a  degree, 
are  some  of  the  carnivora,  as  the  lion  and  the 
tiger,  since,  when  driven  to  bay  they  fight  against 
great  odds.  Nor  should  we  forget  the  gamecock, 
supplying  as  it  does  a  word  of  eulogy  to  the  mob 
of  roughs  who  witness  the  hanging  of  a  murderer, 
and  who  half  condone  his  crime  if  he  '  dies 
game.'  Below  these  animals  come  mankind, 
some  of  whom,  indeed,  as  the  American  Indians, 
bear  tortures  without  groaning.  And  then,  con- 
siderably lower  must  be  placed  the  civilised  man, 
who,  fighting  up  to  a  certain  point,  and  bearing 
considerable  injury,  ordinarily  yields  when 
further  fighting  is  useless." 

The  Battle  of  Dumdrudge.  And  here 
is  one  of  the  most  famous  passages  that  Carlyle 
ever  wrote,  from  "Sartor  Resartus"  : 

"  What,  speaking  in  quite  unofficial  language, 
is  the  net  purport  and  upshot  of  war  ?  To  my 
own  knowledge,  for  example,  there  dwell  and 
toil,  in  the  British  village  of  Dumdrudge,  usually 
some  five  hundred  souls.  From  these,  by  certain 
'  natural  enemies  '  of  the  French,  there  are  suc- 
cessively selected,  during  the  French  war,  say, 
thirty  able-bodied  men.  Dumdrudge,  at  her  own 
expense,  has  suckled  and  nursed  them  ;'  she  has, 
not  without  difficulty  and  sorrow,  fed  them  up  to 
manhood,  and  even  trained  them  to  crafts,  so  that 
one  can  weave,  another  build,  another  hammer, 
and  the  weakest  can  stand  under  thirty  stone 
avoirdupois.  Nevertheless,  amid  much  weeping 
and  swearing,  they  are  selected,  all  dressed  in 
red,  and  shipped  away,  at  the  public  charges, 
some  2,000  miles,  or,  say,  only  to  the  south  of 
Spain,  and  fed  there  till  wanted'  And  now  to  that 
same  spot  in  the  south  of  Spain,  are  thirty  similar 


French  artisans,  from  a  French  Dumdrudge, 
in  like  manner  wending  ;  till  at  length,  after 
infinite  effort,  the  two  parties  come  into  actual 
juxtaposition,  and  Thirty  stands  fronting  Thirty, 
each  with  a  gun  in  his  'hand.  Straightway  the 
word  '  Fire  !  '  is  given  and  they  blow  the  souls 
out  of  one  another,  and  in  place  of  sixty  brisk, 
useful  craftsmen,  the  world  has  sixty  dead  car- 
cases, which  it  must  bury,  and  anew  shed  tears 
for.  Had  thes*e  men  any  quarrel  ?  Busy  as 
the  devil  is,  not  the  smallest !  They  lived  far 
enough  apart ;  were  the  entirest  strangers  ;  nay, 
in  so  wide  a  universe,  there  was  even,  uncon- 
sciously, by  commerce,  some  mutual  helpfulness 
between  them.  How  then  ?  Simpleton  !  Their 
governors  had  fallen  out,  and,  instead  of  shooting 
one  another,  had  the  cunning  to  make  these  poor 
blockheads  shoot.  Alas  !  so  is  it  in  Deutschland. 
and  hitherto  in  all  other  lands  ;  still  as  of  old, 
what  devilry  soever  kings  do,  the  Greeks  must 
pay  the  piper  !  " 

But  there  are  other  grounds  ;  there  are  other 
opinions  which  the  lover  of  peace  must  meet 
before  he  is  entitled  to  pronounce  a  final  judg- 
ment upon  war.  We  have  just  painted  to  the 
best  of  our  imperfect  ability  the  picture  of  such 
a  society  as  may  be,  but  wre  have  to  answer  those 
who,  though  not  accepting  the  Lamarckian  theory 
of  heredity,  and  though  entirely  ignorant  of 
Spencer's  opinion  of  war  as  an  organising  agent 
in  the  early  stages  of  society,  yet  maintain  on 
various  grounds  that  any  society  which  abandons 
war  is  on  the  way  to  degeneration. 

The  Delusion  of  the  Poets.  War 
has  served  men  in  early  stages  by  leading  to 
the  extinction  of  wholly  unfit  races  ;  it  haa 
served  as  a  means  of  discipline  ;  it  has  had  a 
marked  effect  upon  the  development  of  the  arts  ; 
it  has  led  to  the  formation  of  large  societies  which 
are  able  occasionally  to  be  at  peace  and  in  which 
the  division  of  labour  can  be  effectually  carried 
out.  War,  indeed,  "  brings  about  a  social  aggre- 
gation which  furthers  that  industrial  state  at 
variance  with  war,  and  yet  nothing  but  war  could 
bring  about  this  social  aggregation."  Are  we 
warranted  in  adding  to  all  these  advantages  the 
opinion  that  peace  means  the  decay  of  men  ? 

Some  instances  of  this  opinion  may  be  quoted. 
In  a  sonnet  of  Wordsworth's  we  find  these  lines : 
"  When  I  have  borne  in  memory  what  has  tamed 

Great  Nations,  how  ennobling  thoughts  depart 

When  men  change  swords  for  ledgers  ..." 
The  same  idea  is  expressed  by  Gibbon  in  lan- 
guage   which    shows    that    the    possibility    of 
doubting  it  never  occurred  to  him  : 

"  It  was  scarcely  possible  that  the  eyes  of 
contemporaries  should  discover  in  the  public 
felicity  the  causes  of  decay  and  corruption.  The 
long  peace,  and  the  uniform  government  of  the 
Romans,  had  introduced  a  slow  and  secret 
poison  into  the  vitals  of  the  empire." 

This  evidently  is  a  vital  question  to  us  as 
sociologists,  because  it  appeals  to  what  we 
have  declared  to  be  our  only  valid  criterion. 
We  have  insisted  at  length  upon  the  proposition 
that  only  by  reference  to  its  effects  upon  human 
nature  can  we  pronounce  judgment  upon  any 
social  custom  or  practice. 


Is  Peace  a  Whited  Sepulchre  ?     If  it 

be  true  that  individual  character  is  raised  by 
war  and  degraded  by  peace,  as  is  the  belief  of 
poets  and  most  pre-scientific  historians,  then  we 
must  dismiss  as  mythical  our  picture,  or  any 
picture,  of  an  elevated  society  existing  without 
war.  We  must  regard  anti -militarism  as  a 
principle  making  for  national  degradation,  and 
peace  as  a  ivhited  sepulchre.  Unquestionably  our 
criterion  is  valid,  and  must  be  applied  here. 
However  reluctantly,  we  have  no  choice  but  to 
accept  the  fact,  if  indeed  it  be  a  fact,  that  this 
horrible  thing  is  a  necessary  condition  of  the 
virtue  of  mankind.  It  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  horrible  doctrines  ever  conceived  or  taught. 
Is  it  true  ?  Is  virtue  really  nothing  more  than 
rirlus  ?  Is  the  history  of  the  word  a  history  of 
degradation,  like  the  history  of  most  words,  or 
is  it  for  once  a  history  of  elevation  ?  Is  all  virtue 
founded  in  manliness,  all  goodness  in  strength  ? 
Is  forgiveness  weakness,  and  is  it  a  debasement 
of  language  to  speak  of  the  virtue  of  mercy  ? 
Or,  on  the  other  hand,  have  the  ages  gradually 
learnt  that  virtue  is  not  necessarily  manliness — 
by  which  is  often  meant  beastliness  ?  Is  peace 
necessarily  enervating,  as  the  historians  say, 
and  would  our  own  nation  have  sunk  into  moral 
atrophy  and  degradation  if  it  had  not  been  for 
the  Boer  War,  as  Mr.  Balfour  has  hinted  ? 

The  Absurdity  of  Half  a  Truth.  The 
present  writer  believes  that  the  conventional 
opinion  of  peace  is  based  upon  a  half  perception 
of  the  truth  that  man  must  strive — must  strive 
and  try  to  conquer.  What  is  not  true,  but 
abominably  false,  is  that  there  is  no  salutary 
striving  except  on  the  battlefield.  "  Peace  hath 
her  victories  no  less  than  war."  The  soldierly 
virtues  are  of  value  in  every  sphere.  There  is 
moral  as  well  as  physical  courage.  It  is  true 
that  the  nation  or  individual  which  ceases  to 
struggle,  ceases  to  progress  ;  in  that  sense  peace 
is  enervating.  We  may  quote  a  biological  illus- 
tration of  the  intestinal  parasites.  The  tape 
worm  has  practically  ceased  to  struggle  ;  it  needs 
nothing  more  than  arrangements  for  "  hanging 
on  "  ;  it  need  fear  no  enemies  ;  its  surroundings 
are  warm  and  cosy  ;  its  food  is  even  digested 
for  it  by  its  host,  but  the  measure  of  its  success 
is  the  measure  of  its  failure.  There  is  no  more 
despicable  creature. 

It  is  not  ledgers  that  have  destroyed  great 
nations.  Industrial  warfare  is  very  real  war- 
fare, and  we  may  admit  that  for  a  very  large 
number  of  men  it  serves  the  same  disciplinary 
purpose  as  military  warfare  served  for  their 
remote  ancestors.  For  such  men  and  such 
societies,  the  danger  arises  when  neither  military 
nor  industrial  warfare  is  any  longer  necessary. 
Just  as  the  individual  who  loafs,  does  not  need 
to  work,  and  has  no  higher  interests,  becomes  a 
"  Avaster,"  so  does  the  society  which,  liko  the 
Roman  populace,  shouts  for  "  panem  et  cir- 
censes " — bread  and  games.  Roman  society 
became  a  "  waster."  Average  human  nature 
will  always  find  some  mischief  still  for  idle  hands 
to  do,  and  this  mischief — it  is  common  experience 
— is  very  commonly  concerned  with  the  lower 
instincts  of  man.  Thus,  marriage  and  the  family 


SOCIOLOGY 

go  by  the  board,  and  thus  Rome  fell.  We 
would  very  earnestly  direct  the  reader's  attention 
to  the  foregoing  paragraphs,  for  it  is  our  opinion 
— a  biassed  one,  perhaps — that  they  represent 
a  really  serious  contribution  to  the  subject. 

The  Greatest  Evil  in  the  World.  But, 
as  the  reader  knows,  we  have  entered  the  era  of 
scientific  history,  and  it  is  not  fair  to  it  to  quote 
Gibbon  as  if  nothing  had  been  done  since  his 
time.  Against  his  opinion,  which  we  may  call 
the  common  literary  opinion — only  too  often 
expressed  by  the  author  of  "Sartor  Rcsartus" 
—let  us  place  the  opinion  of  that  great  writer, 
historian,  sociologist,  and  pioneer,  Henry  Thomas 
Buckle.  We  quote  from  the  fourth  chapter  of 
his  masterpiece,  already  ref erred  to,  and  the 
reader  will  see  where  he  places  war  amongst 
human  ills.  After  speaking  of  the  Spanish 
Inquisition,  and  defending  the  moral  character 
of  the  inquisitors,  whom  he  regards  not  as  knaves, 
but  fools — not  hypocrites,  but  enthusiasts,  he 
says : 

"It  is  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  to 
that  alone  that  we  owe  the  comparative  cessa- 
tion of  what  is  unquestionably  the  greatest  evil 
men  have  ever  inflicted  on  their  own  species. 
For  that  religious  persecution  is  a  greater  evil 
than  any  other  is  apparent,  not  so  much  from 
the  enormous  and  almost  incredible  number  of 
its  known  victims,  as  from  the  fact  that  the 
unknown  must  be  far  more  numerous,  and  that 
history  gives  no  account  of  those  who  have  been 
spared  in  the  body  in  order  that  they  might 
suffer  in  the  mind.  .  .  .  who,  thus  forced 
into  an  apostacy  the  heart  abhors,  have  passed 
the  remainder  of  their  life  in  the  practice  of  a 
constant  and  humiliating  hypocrisy.  It  is  this' 
which  is  the  real  curse  of  religious  persecution. 
For  in  this  way,  men  being  constrained  to  mask 
their  thoughts,  there  arises  a  habit  of  securing 
safety  by  falsehood,  and  of  purchasing  impunity 
with  deceit.  In  this  way,  fraud  becomes 
a  necessary  of  life  ;  insincerity  is  made  a  daily 
custom  ;  the  whole  tone  of  public  feeling  is 
vitiated,  and  the  gross  amount  of  vice  and  of 
error  fearfully  increased.  Surely,  then,  we  have 
reason  to  say  that,  compared  to  this,  all  other 
crimes  are  of  small  account,  and  we  may  well  be 
grateful  for  that  increase  of  intellectual  pursuits 
which  has  destoyed  an  evil  that  some  among  us 
would  even  now  willingly  restore." 

The  Second  Greatest  Evil.  "  The 
second  greatest  evil  known  to  mankind — the 
one  by  which,  with  the  exception  of  religious 
persecution,  most  suffering  has  been  caused — is- 
unquestionably  the  practice  of  war.  That  this 
barbarous  pursuit  is,  in  the  progress  of  society, 
steadily  declining  must  be  evident,  even  to  the 
most  hasty  reader  of  European  history.  If  we 
compare  one  century  with  another,  we  shall  find 
that  for  a  very  long  period  wars  have  been 
becoming  less  frequent.  ...  It  will  surely 
not  be  pretended  that  the  moderns  have  made 
any  discoveries  respecting  the  moral  evils  of 
war.  .  .  .  That  defensive  wars  are  just,  and 
that  offensive  wars  are  unjust,  are  the  only  two 
principles  which,  on  this  subject,  moralists  are 
able  to  teach."  9 

5009 


SOCIOLOGY 

The  Destruction  of  the  Military  Spirit. 

Buckle  goes  on  to  argue  with  tremendous  force 
that,  as  in  the  case  of  religious  persecution,  so 
in  the  case  of  war  it  is  the  human  intellect 
that  has  determined  progress,  "that  every 
great  increase  in  its  activity  has  been  a  heavy 
blow  to  the  warlike  spirit."  "  As  civilisation 
advances  .  .  .  military  ardour  is  balanced 
by  motives  which  none  but  a  cultivated  people 
can  feel."  "  By  an  increasing  love  of  Intel  1  actual 
pursuits  the  military  service  necessarily  declines 
not  only  in  reputation,  but  likewise  in  ability." 
He  goes  on  to  show  how,  in  consequence  of  these 
superior  attractions  of  other  professions  "  as 
society  advances,  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  and  the 
military  spirit  never  fail  to  decline.  .  .  .  The 
military  class,  taken  as  a  whole,  has  a  tendency 
to  degenerate,"  a  proposition  he  brilliantly 
proves. 

The  magnificent  chapter  from  which  we  have 
chosen  a  few  passages  was  published  in  1857, 
the  year  of  Comte's  death,  the  year  of  Spencer's 
introduction  of  the  term  "  evolution,"  and  two 
years  before  Darwin's  masterpiece  gave  history 
and  the  past  a  new  meaning.  We  earnestly 
commend  this  chapter  to  the  reader.  But  at 
the  least  let'  him  remember  the  opinion  of 
this  great  thinker — that  religious  persecution  is 
the  greatest  of  all  the  evils  of  mankind  and  that 
war  is  the  second.  Then  let  him  reflect,  as  Buckle 
might  have  reflected,  on  the  combination  of  these 
two  evils  which  transcends  them  both — the  wars 
of  religion.  These  have  bathed  Europe  in  blood 
for  nearly  two  thousand  years  ;  they  have 
"  made  a  goblin  of  the  sun,"  have  immeasurably 
delayed  progress,  have  again  and  again  sub- 
merged the  good  and  the  true,  and  they  have  been 
waged  in  the  name  of  Him  who  "  went  about  doing 
good,"  and  said  "  They  that  take  the  sword 
shall  perish  by  the  sword,"  and  "  Blessed  are 
the  peacemakers,  for  they  shall  be  called  the 
children  of  God." 

The  Falsest  Idea  in  Politics.  Looking 
now  upon  war  as  merely  the  oldest,  commonest 
and  most  brutal  form  of  the  selfish  struggle 
between  societies,  let  us  endeavour  to  grasp  a 
supreme  truth  which  is  emerging  slowly  into 
recognition,  and  which  will  guide  us  to  the  direc- 
tion in  which  we  may  expect  to  find  the  ultimate 
disappearance  of  war,  and  of  all  such  struggles. 

A  true  sociology,  like  a  true  morality,  utterly 
denies  the  truth  of  the  all  but  universal  assump- 
tion that  what  injures  one  nation  benefits  an- 
other. In  a  recent  economic  controversy  AVC 
have  seen  this  taken  for  granted— with  the 
single  exception  of  a  noble  quotation  from  a 
far-seeing  and  noble  woman,  Mrs.  Browning. 
The  sentiment  which  she  expressed  was  that  the 
truly  just  statesman  Would  hesitate  before 
adopting  a  policy  which  benefited,  say,  ten 
at  home  and  ruined  a  thousand  across  the 
frontier.  But  here  sociology  comes  in  and  shows 
that  there  is  no  antagonism  between  patriotism 
and  morality,  even  in  such  a  case.  It  seems 
to  be  thought  that  there  is  only  a  certain  finite 
amount  of  success  and  happiness  for  the  nations 
of  the  earth,  and  that  if  one,  having  so  much 


happiness  or  success,  obtains  more,  some  one 
else  must  necessarily  suffer  ;  and,  furthermore, 
that  if  any  member  suffers  some  of  the  others 
must  necessarily  gain.  Of  all  false  and  vicious 
political  ideas  this  is  perhaps  the  falsest,  the 
most  vicious,  and  the  most  utterly  disastrous. 

Man's  Brotherhood  to  Man.  The  truth 
of  that  great  organism  called  human  society  is  the 
same  truth  as  St.  Paul  expressed  of  the  Early 
Christian  Church  of  Corinth  by  analogy  from  the 
human  body.  "  Whether  one  member  suffer,  all 
the  members  suffer  Avith  it  ;  or  one  member  be 
honoured,  all  the  members  rejoice  with  it."  It  is 
hinted  at  again,  though  far  more  might  have  been 
made  of  it,  in  the  locus  classicus  which  we  have 
quoted  from  Carlyle.  Speaking  of  the  French 
and  English  artisans  who  blew  the  souls  out  of 
one  another,  he  says,  "  there  was  even  uncon- 
sciously, by  commerce,  some  mutual  helpfulness 
between  them."  We  admit,  of  course,  that 
temporary  benefit  will  ensue  to  the  manu- 
facturer of  a  particular  kind  of  cloth,  even  though 
a  foreign  industry  is  thereby  ruined  ;  but  in  the 
long  run  the  prosperity  of  one  nation  makes  for 
that  of  another,  even  if  only  because  it  makes 
it  a  better  customer.  Polities  and  governments 
lag  behind,  but  as  in  the  case  of  science  and 
music,  so  certainly  in  the  case  of  commerce, 
the  whole  of  civilised  society  is  now  one  huge 
organism,  and  an  earthquake  in  San  Francisco 
will  affect  the  price  of  steel  in  London,  a  flood 
in  India  may  throw  thousands  of  Lancashire 
operatives  out  of  work,  whilst  prosperity  and 
industry  and  success  in  Lancashire  will  lower 
the  price  of  cotton  goods  in  far  countries,  and  so 
benefit  their  inhabitants.  The  other — the  fact 
that  one  nation's  failure  may  be  another's 
success — is  the  temporary  and  the  accidental ; 
this  is  the  eternal  and  essential  truth. 

The  Human  Commonwealth.  This 
leads  us  on  to  the  culminating  stages  of  a  great 
conception,  the  earlier  stages  of  which  we  must 
soon  briefly  consider.  Herbert  Spencer's  argu- 
ment surely  might  have  been  carried  a  little 
further.  Military  warfare,  we  have  seen,  leads 
now  to  industrial  warfare,  and  what  is  that  effect- 
ing but  the  welding  of  the  nations  by  common 
interests  into  a  still  larger  society,  which  will  at 
the  last  embrace  the  whole  of  mankind  ?  This, 
of  course,  is  a  "poet's  dream."  But  if  we  look 
beneath  the  superficial  and  the  blatant  we  may 
suspect  that  there  is  more  in  it.  We  must  not 
judge  the  separateness  of  nations  by  the  separate- 
ness  of  their  governments.  The  Governmental 
forms  of  a  nation  are  conservative.  In  the  case 
of  nearly  all  the  European  nations,  they  are 
merely  survivals.  Even  in  the  case  of  separate 
republics,  their  separateness  misrepresents  the 
facts.  Political  frontiers  are  artificial,  but  the 
dependence  of  man  upon  man  is  natural,  and  is 
a  fact  which  they  cannot  destroy,  though  in  all 
ages  they  have  injured  him  by  interfering  with  it, 
Thus  we  begin  to  see  the  great  world-meaning 
of  the  famous  line  of  the  Roman  poet,  Terence : 
"Homo  sum  ;  humani  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto," 
"  I  am  a  man,  and  everything  human  is  my 
concern." 


Continued 


5100 


MINOR  RAILWAY  DEPARTMENTS 

The  Railway  Clearing-  House  and  Its  Work.      Science  in 
Modern  Railway  Work.     Legal  and  Sundry  Departments 


Group  29 

TRANSIT 
22 


continued  from 
page  .">07!l 


By    H.    G.    ARCHER 


(JNT1L  the  year  1842  the  working  of  through 
traffic — that  is,  traffic  originating  on  one  line 
and  passing  over  one  or  more  continuous  but  sepa- 
rate line  or  lines — was  cumbrous  and  vexatious, 
each  company  collec  i;ing  its  own  tolls,  and  keeping 
its  own  accounts.  In  that  year  Mr.  Kenneth 
Morison  propounded  and  successfully  inaugurated 
his  clearing  system,  by  which  the  foreign  or 
through  traffic  of  the  companies  is  accounted  for 
by  the  terminal  companies  interested  to  the 
Clearing  House,  the  companies  receiving  their 
relative  proportions  through  that  channel. 

The  Railway  Clearing  House.  The 
Clearing  House  performs  a  kind  of  work  which 
could  not  have  been  performed  by  the  com- 
panies, no  matter  how  amicably  disposed  they 
might  have  been.  It  maintains  perfect  accord 
among  all  manner  of  conflicting  interests.  Once 
a  party  to  the  Clearing  House  system,  a 
company  knows  it  must  abide  by  its  decisions. 
However,  any  company  may  withdraw  at  will 
by  giving  one  month's  notice  under  seal,  or  a 
company  may  be  expelled  by  the  votes  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  delegates  present  at  a  meeting 
specially  convened  for  the  purpose. 

The  travelling  public  seldom  realise  how  much 
they  owe  to  the  clearing  system,  for  by  means 
of  this  institution  they,  both  as  freighters  and 
passengers,  are  saved  much  trouble  and  annoy- 
ance. For  example,  a  passenger  can  book  for  a 
journey,  say,  from  Penzance  to  Wick,  and  one 
little  piece  of  pasteboard  franks  him  over  several 
separate  and  absolutely  distinct  railway  proper- 
ties. Without  the  system  he  would  be  burdened 
with  a  book  of  coupons,  to  vouch  him.  over  each 
railway  in  turn,  or  might  even  be  compelled  to 
take  a  fresh  ticket  at  every  junction  of  the 
different  companies'  lines. 

"  Like  most  great  institutions,"  writes  Sir 
George  Finlay,  "  the  Railway  Clearing  House  had 
a  very  humble  commencement,  for  it  began  its 
operations  with  a  staff  of  only  four  clerks,  and 
dealt  with  the  traffic  of  only  four  railways, 
controlling  an  aggregate  mileage  of  418  miles  ; 
but  its  growth  has  only  been  paralleled  by  the 
growth  of  the  railway  system  itself."  Every 
railway  of  importance  is  now  a  party  to  the 
Clearing  House,  the  clerical  staff  of  which 
numbers  upwards  of  2,500,  while  there  are,  in 
addition,  some  500  "number  takers"  em- 
ployed up  and  down  the  country,  whose  business 
it  is  to  examine  and  report  upon  the  vehicles 
of  trains  passing  through  important  junctions. 
The  original  home  of  the  Clearing  House  was  a 
small  house  in  Drummond  Street,  near  Euston 
Station,  but  before  many  years  had  elapsed  its 
operations  attained  such  magnitude  that  a  move 
was  made  to  its  present  home,  the  huge  building 


in  Seymour  Street,  N.W.  England  and  Scotland 
are  represented  in  the  institution  in  Seymour 
Street,  \vhile  Irish  business  is  transacted  in  the 
same  form  at  the  Irish  Railway  Clearing  House 
in  Kildare  Street,  Dublin,  which  was  established 
in  1848.  The  work  of  the  Railway  Clearing 
House  is  divided  into  departments,  of  which  the 
three  largest  and  most  important  are  as  follows : 
the  Merchandise,  the  Coaching,  and  the  Mileage 
Departments. 

The  Work  of  the  Merchandise  De- 
partment. The  Merchandise  Department  is 
charged  with  the  apportionment  month  by  month 
of  the  receipts  derived  from  the  carriage  of  all 
"  through "  goods,  cattle,  coal,  and  mineral 
traffic.  The  department  is  supplied  every  month 
with  returns  from  all  stations,  giving  full  par- 
ticulars of  all  such  traffic.  Every  station  sends 
in  two  distinct  forms,  one  concerning  the  "  out- 
wards," or  forwarded  traffic,  which  is  printed  in 
black,  and  the  other  relating  to  the  "  inwards," 
or  received  traffic,  printed  in  red.  These  abstracts 
state  the  character  of  the  goods,  their  weight, 
the  rate  per  ton,  the  charge,  and  whether  it  is 
"  paid,"  or  "  to  pay,"  the  number  of  the  waggon 
in  which  the  consignment  travels,  and  the  name 
of  the  owner  of  the  waggon.  The  two  abstracts 
are  carefully  compared,  and  steps  taken  to 
rectify  errors  or  discrepancies  between  them. 

The  monthly  settlement  is  arrived  at  as 
follows  :  first,  all  total  receipts  between  a  pair 
of  stations  which  amount  to  less  than  £1  are 
thrown  out  and  credited  to  the  "  light  traffic 
fund."  Next,  taking  the  remaining  receipts 
from  the  traffic  Avhich  h?*s  passed  between  each 
pair  of  stations,  the  terminal  allowances,  fixed 
tolls,  and  amounts  "  paid  on  " — that  is,  dis- 
bursed by  the  forwarding  company  for  any 
special  service  rendered,  are  deducted.  Thirdly, 
the  residue  is  divided  by  mileage  between  the 
different  companies  concerned,  so  that  each 
company  gets  a  due  proportion  according  to  the 
distance  it  has  carried  the  traffic.  Lastly,  to 
obviate  a  plethora  of  small  accounts,  the  amounts 
credited  to  the  "  light  traffic  fund  "  are  divided 
among  the  diffeimt  companies  in  the  ratio  of 
their  gross  receipts  from  the  heavier  traffic. 

"Clearing"  the  Coaching  Traffic. 
The  Coaching  Department  is  charged  with  the 
division  of  receipts  on  all  "  through "  traffic 
by  passenger  train — namely,  passengers  and 
their  luggage,  horses,  carriages,  dogs,  parcels, 
fresh  fish,  perishables,  etc. 

The  passenger  traffic  is  dealt  with  monthly. 
The  booking  clerks  render  every  month  to  the 
Clearing  House  a  return  specifying  the  through 
tickets  issued,  and  every  stationmaster  has  to 
forward  to  the  Clearing  House  all  tickets 

5101 


TRANSIT 

collected  at  his  station  during  the  month  and 
issued  by  any  company  other  than  his  own, 
save  that  the  tickets  in  which  two  companies 
alone  are  interested  are  not  checked  by  the 
Clearing  House  unless  they  are  issued  and 
collected  by  the  same  company. 

The  receipts  derived  from  "  through  "  tickets 
are  divided  by  mileage,  but  no  company  may 
receive  out  of  a  through  rate  more  than  its  local 
fare,  which  means  that  some  companies'  mileage 
proportions  have  to  be  reduced  to  their  local 
fares,  and  the  balance  divided  among  other 
companies  whose  proportions  do  not  come  up  to 
the  amount  of  their  local  fares.  The  remaining 
items  in  the  coaching  traffic  are  settled  half- 
yearly,  and  here,  again,  occurs  a  light  traffic 
fund,  this  time  limited  to  5s.  On  the  parcels, 
fish,  and  perishable  traffic,  terminal  charges  have 
to  be  taken  into  consideration,  whereas  no  terminal 
charge  is  levied  on  horses,  dogs,  and  carriages. 
Here  it  may  be  noted  that  it  was  only  by  the 
adhesion  of  the  Railway  Clearing  House  that  the 
Post  Office  was  able  to  establish  the  Parcels  Post 
under  the  Act  of  1882.  The  great  difficulty  that 
attends  this  phase  of  the  Clearing  House  settle- 
ment lies  in  tracing  the  route  by  which  parcels, 
etc.,  have  travelled.  Theoretically,  the  way- 
bills that  ought  to  accompany  all  parcels,  and 
which  are  supposed  to  be  stamped  at  each  junc- 
tion, should  explain  matters,  but  parcels  and 
way-bills  are  apt  to  get  separated,  and  the 
stamping  of  way-bills  is  frequently  omitted. 

The  Mileage  Department  and  its 
"Number  Takers"  The  Mileage  Depart- 
ment keeps  the  mileage  accounts  of  the  various 
companies  in  the  matter  of  rolling  stock  of 
one  company  passing  on  to  the  territory  of 
another,  and  attends  to  the  question  of  demur- 
rage for  detention  of  carriages,  waggons,  and 
tarpaulin  sheets. 

The  staff  of  "  number- takers,"  whose  members 
are  found  at  every  junction  of  two  railways, 
records  the  number  arid  description  of  every 
vehicle  and  sheet  that  passes  a  junction  going 
from  one  line  to  another.  In  addition,  every 
station  receiving  foreign  stock  makes  a  similar 
return,  which  shows  how  the  latter  got  there  and 
what  was  done  with  it.  Each  company's  stock 
is  shown  separately  under  three  headings— 
namely,  Carriages,  Waggons,  and  Sheets.  Fines 
are  levied  if  stock  be  not  returned  to  the 
owning  company  Avithin  a  legitimate  time,  as 
follows :  first-class  passenger  carriage,  10s.  a 
day  ;  second  or  third  class  carriage,  6s.  a  day  ; 
and  ordinary  low-capacity  waggon,  3s.  a  day  ; 
while  sheets  are  charged  fid.  for  the  first  day, 
and  Is.  for  every  succeeding  day  up  to  60,  when 
the  fine  stops,  as  it  is  considered  that  the  owner 
has  then  received  the  value  of  the  sheet.  The 
demurrage  settlement  takes  place  monthly. 

Organisation  and  Staff.  The  Clearing 
House  business  is  regulated  by  a  chairman, 
elected  annually,  and  by  committees  of  the 
traffic  officers  of  the  various  companies — the 
genera]  managers,  goods  managers,  and  super- 
intendents—who sit  once  a  quarter  in  the 
Clearing  House  premises.  The  two  last  classes 
of  officers  sit  in  the  same  week  on  separate  days, 
5102 


and  the  former  a  few  weeks  later,   to  revise 
and  approve  the  minutes  of  proceedings. 

The  working  expenses  of  this  vast  and  admir- 
ably managed  organisation,  which  makes  no 
profit  and  incurs  no  bad  debts,  are  borne  by  the 
companies  in  the  ratio  of  the  amount  of  business 
done  on  their  behalf. 

To  obtain  a  junior  or  apprentice-clerkship  in 
the  Railway  Clearing  House  application  must  be 
made  to  the  secretary,  and  approved  candidates 
have  to  pass  an  ordinary  clerkship  examination. 
The  Clearing  House  "number-takers"  join  the 
service  as  lads,  after  they  have  been  medically 
examined  as  to  sight  and  physical  soundness. 
Lad  "  number- takers  "  are  posted  to  one  or 
other  of  the  junctions  where  waggon  numbers 
are  recorded,  and  begin  to  learn  their  duties 
by  making  out  returns.  Subsequently  they  are 
put  to  work  in  the  yards  under  older  hands. 

The  Chemist  and  the  Railway.  The 
chemist  has  always  filled  an  important  role 
in  the  locomotive  department  of  a  railway, 
and  when  it  is  considered  that  this 
department — with  which,  as  a  rule,  is  incor- 
porated the  carriage  and  waggon  department — 
forms  the  great  spending  arm  of  a  railway 
company,  it  becomes  easy  to  understand  how- 
he  should  be  the  man  to  whom  the  locomotive 
engineer  looks  to  point  the  way  towards  effecting 
economies.  Every  day  the  scientific  side  of  the 
railway  profession  is  coming  more  to  the  front, 
since  an  increasing  number  of  solutions  to 
questions  capable  of  definite  scientific  treatment 
is  constantly  being  discovered.  Thus  there  are 
more  and  better  openings  for  railway  chemists, 
while  the  field  of  employment  is  no  longer  con- 
fined to  a  locomotive  department  laboratory, 
but  also  embraces  that  of  a  general  engineering 
chemical  laboratory.  The  two  laboratories 
are,  however,  kept  distinct,  for  although  many 
of  the  chemical  and  physical  investigations 
which  are  performed  therein  cover  the  same 
ground,  the  object  in  each  case  is  different, 
necessitating  a  different  kind  of  analysis. 
For  example,  there  is  the  scrutiny  of  water. 
In  the  locomotive  laboratory  the  chemist  is  con- 
cerned only  with  the  quality  of  the  water  for 
feeding  boilers.  He  has  to  examine  it  in  order 
to  see  that  it  does  not  contain  an  undue  pro- 
portion of  chalky  matter,  which  would  deposit 
scale  upon  the  tubes  and  firebox  plates,  and  so 
impair  their  efficiency  as  conductors  of  heat  from 
the  furnace  to  the  water.  Again,  he  analyses  it 
to  see  that  it  does  not  contain  any  corrosive 
salts,  such  as  magnesium  chloride,  which  would 
cause  the  structure  of  the  boiler  itself  to  corrode. 

Scope  of  the  Engineering  and  Loco- 
motive  Laboratories.  In  the  engineers' 
laboratory  the  chemist  has  to  concentrate  his 
attention  upon  the  suitability  of  the  water 
supply  for  domestic  purposes.  A  railway  com-  • 
pany  owns  hundreds  of  cottages  and  houses  up 
and  down  the  line  for  housing  its  employees, 
and  all  these  dwellings  must,  of  course,  be 
supplied  with  a  pure  water  supply  suitable 
for  both  human  consumption  and  domestic 
purposes.  And  the  same  rule  holds  good  in  the 
case  of  stations. 


Tie  examination  of  the  different  kinds  of  oil 
tor  the  lubrication  of  the  locomotive  is  a  most 
important  featura  of  the  locomotive  chemist's 
duty;  and  the  other  sorts  of  oil  which  are 
employed  in  the  paint-shop  for  mixing  the  paints 
and  varnishes  used  to  protect  and  decorate  the 
outer  surface  of  engines  and  rolling  stock  like- 
wise demand  his  attention.  The  engineers' 
chemist  also  deals  with  oils — those  for  the  paints 
used  to  cover  all  woodwork.  Then  photometric 
work  is  common  to  both  establishments.  The 
locomotive  chemist  tests  the  oil  for  the  signal 
lamps,  together  with  the  gas-burners  and  incan- 
descent mantles  for  the  lighting  of  the  carriages, 
while  the  engineers'  chemist  investigates  the 
qualities  of  every  means  of  illuminating  stations 
and  offices.  The  efficient  lighting  of  station 
premises  is  a  subject  on  which  advertisers  have 
a  say. 

Things  which  concern  the  locomotive  chemist 
alone  are  the  steel  analysis  and  metallurgical 
work  generally,  in  the  case  of  those  railway 
companies  which  have  their  own  steel  works  ; 
the  analysis  of  pig  iron,  coke,  and  various 
other  materials  for  the  ironfoundry  ;  the  analysis 
of  copper-plate  for  fireboxes,  copper  tubes  for  the 
locomotive  boiler,  and  bronze  bars  for  firebox 
stays  ;  the  analysis  of  the  materials  for  bearing 
brasses  and  bronzes,  and  the  examination  by 
combustion  in  a  calorimeter  of  the  coal  by  means 
of  which  water  is  to  be  converted  into  steam 
to  propel  the  trains.  The  coal  for  the  loco- 
motives must  not  contain  much  fusible  ash, 
otherwise  it  is  liable  to  choke  the  tube  ends  in 
the  firebox  and  prevent  the  boiler  from  steaming 
properly.  The  composition  and  quality  of  its 
ash,  together  with  its  heat-giving  qualities,  can 
be  determined  only  by  an  exhaustive  calori- 
metric  test. 

The  engineers'  chemist  has  his  own  peculiar 
field  in  analysing  the  creosote  for  sleepers  and 
the  cement  for  buildings,  while  some  com- 
panies ask  him  to  conduct  the  most  searching 
investigation  in  regard  to  broken  rails. 

The  Inquest  on  Fractured  Rails.  The 
London  and  North -Western  is  the  only  railway 
that  rolls  its  own  rails.  The  plant  at  Crewe 
has  a  capacity  for  turning  out  45,000  tons  of 
rails  annually,  the  mill  being  driven  by  a  700- 
horse  power  engine.  In  the  purchase  of  rails 
from  private  manufacturers,  a  company's 
inspector  has  the  lot  laid  out  on  a  bank,  in  order 
to  scrutinise  each  rail.  Quite  30  per  cent, 
are  rejected  or  sent  back  to  be  straightened  ; 
but  of  course  the  inspector  cannot  detect  inherent 
flaws.  To  get  at  the  truth  of  the  latter,  the 
following  procedure  has  been  adopted.  The 
fractured  rail  is  sent  to  the  engineers'  laboratory 
accompanied  by  a  report  from  the  district 
engineer,  stating  the  date  when  discovered 
(a  ganger  finding  a  broken  rail  is  suitably 
rewarded),  and  the  locality ;  whether  the  rail 
belongs  to  an  "  up,"  "  clown,"  or  a  single 
line;  particulars  of  the  fracture,  accom- 
panied by  drawings;  the  distance  of  the 
fracture  from  the  nearest  bearings  on  each 
side,  and  the  distance  from  the  nearest  joint ; 
if  in  the  double  line ;  whether  on  the  leading 


TRANSIT 

or  trailing  side  of  the  nearest  side ;  if  the  rail 
was  on  curve,  the  radius  of  the  curve,  and 
whether  on  the  inside  or  outside  of  the  curve ; 
the  period  the  rail  had  been  in  use  ;  the  averapx; 
number  of  trains  passing  over  it  per  day ;  tlie 
section ;  the  weight  per  yard  when  new,  the  actual 
Aveight  per  yard  at  date  of  fracture ;  the  loss  of 
weight  per  yard,  and  whether  the  rail  had  been 
turned  or  not.  The  chemist  cuts  two  slices  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  fracture,  and  if  it  is  a  long  split 
the  slices  come  right  across  it.  One  slice  he 
polishes,  and  then  etches  with  20  per  cent,  of 
sulphuric  acid  for  two  hours  at  60°  C.  The  slice 
is  next  photographed,  and  from  its  appearance 
he  selects  portions  of  the  other  slice  for  micro- 
scopic examination,  taking  a  piece  from  the  centre 
of  the  head,  a  piece  from  the  web,  a  piece  from 
the  side  of  the  head,  and  a  piece  from  near 
the  running  edge.  These  pieces  are  polished, 
etched  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  photographed 
under  the  microscope.  The  rail  is  also  analysed 
chemically,  drillings  for  analysis  being  taken 
either  from  close  to  the  fracture  or  from  one  or 
other  of  the  slices.  Finally,  a  detailed  report, 
illustrated  with  microscopic  photographs,  is 
forwarded  to  the  chief  engineer. 

The  Evils  of  Hard  Water.  There  is  now 
no  feature  of  locomotive  operation  and  construc- 
tion which  constitutes  so  great  a  problem  as  the 
maintenance  of  boilers,  and  this  is  intimately 
associated  with  and  affected  by  the  character  of 
the  feed  water.  When  hard  water  is  evaporated 
in  a  boiler,  the  incrusting  impurities  are  deposited 
inside  the  boiler,  or  on  the  boiler  tubes  in 
the  form  of  scale.  The  accumulation  of  this 
scale  not  only  increases  the  cost  of  fuel,  but,  by 
placing  insulation  between  the  boiler  and  the 
water,  allows  the  sheets  and  flues  to  become 
overheated,  subjecting  them  to  extremes  of 
expansion  and  contraction.  Then,  too,  it  is 
necessary  to  shut  down  the  boiler  once  or  twice 
a  week  to  remove  the  scale  by  "  washing  out," 
which  operation  is  referred  to  in  the  section  deal 
ing  with  the  work  of  the  enginemen.  Again, 
corrosive  salts,  such  as  magnesium  chloride, 
in  hard  water  cause  the  structure  of  the  boiler 
itself  to  corrode,  thus  shortening  its  life. 

Water  Softening  for  Railway  Pur- 
poses.  Of  necessity,  railways  have  located  their 
watering  stations  where  there  is  an  abundance 
of  water,  without  regard  to  its  quality.  More 
recently,  however,  the  keen  competition  of 
new  industrial  conditions  has  led  progressive 
managers  to  appreciate  the  immense  saving  that 
can  be  effected  by  having  a  soft  water  for  use  in 
boilers.  To  secure  the  best  and  most  economical 
results  from  water  to  be  transformed  into  steam, 
it  must  be  softened— that  is,  freed  from  scale- 
forming  impurities.  Considerable  attention  has 
been  lately  devoted  to  the  subject,  and  different 
systems  of  water  softening  are  now  being 
adopted.  Many  large  plants  have  already  been 
established  at  important  locomotive  centres  in 
this  country— notably,  on  the  North  London 
Railway,  outside  Broad  Street  Station,  where  it 
is  stated  that  no  less  than  70  tons  of  deposit  are 
collected  annually  ;  on  the  Great  Western 
Railway,  at  Goring,  where  the  water  for  the  track 

5103 


TRANSIT 

troughs  is  pumped  from  the  adjacent  river,  and 
at  Aldcnnaston,  near  Heading  ;  and  on  the  North 
Ka-tern  Railway,  at  Hesse!,  near  Hull.  In  one 
quite  eommon  type  of  water-softening  machine 
the  water  is  mixed  with  the  proper  quantity 
of  chemicals,  common  slaked  lime  and  soda  ash 
tiv<|uently  being  used,  and  the  mixture  is  per- 
mitted to  stand  in  large  tanks  by  the  side  of 
the  track  until  the  solid  hardening  matter 
thrown  out  of  the  solution  by  the  chemicals 
s'-ttlos.  The  clear,  softened  water  is  then  drawn 
off  through  a  suction  pipe  attached, to  a  float, 
;i.nd  stored  in  a  supply  tank.  After  weeks  of  use 
it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  the  precipitate 
solid  matter  from  the  reservoirs,  and  this  is 
accomplished  by  diluting  it  with  hard  water,  and 
permitting  the  mixture  to  run  off  through  a 
M  astepipe  in  the  bottom.  The  cost  of  operating 
the  plants  depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of 
chemicals  necessary,  which  in  turn  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  impurities  in  the  water. 
Kven  where  the  water  does  not  contain  scale- 
forming  or  corrosive  impurities,  it  has  been  found 
conducive  to  longevity  and  good  work  in  a  loco- 
motive to  subject  the  water  to  chemical  treat- 
ment. 

The  Kennicott  Water  Softener.  The 
accompanying  photograph  [67]  shows  the  Kennir 
eott  water-softening  plant  at  Severn  Tunnel 
Junction  on  the  Great  Western  Railway,  which 
treats  30,000  gallons  per  hour.  One  man  in  half  a 
day  can  give  all  the  attention  that  is  needed  for  a 
perfect  operation  of  a  softener  with  a  capacity 
of  10,000 -gallons  per  hour.  The  chemical  re- 
agents are  hoisted  automatically  to  the  top  of 
the  machine,  where  are  found  the 
necessary  receptacles  for  dissolv- 
ing them  and  the  apparatus  for 
automatically  varying  them  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
water  entering  the  apparatus. 
Surmounting  the  cylindrical 
steel  tank  is  the  water-wheel, 
over  which  the  hard  water  is 
first  pumped  on  its  way  into 
the  softener.  The  possibilities 
tor  economies  that  exist  in  the  use 
of  the  water-softening  system  for 
removing  the  scale  -  forming 
impurities  from  the  boiler-feed 
water  are  almost  beyond  compre- 
hension. The  time  for  imperfect 
and  incomplete  methods,  such  as 
by  using  "  boiler  compounds  " 
in  any  form,  or  by  employ- 
ing any  treatment  when 'in 
the  precipitation  of  the  scale- 
iorming  solids  is  not  accom- 
plished arid  the  material  re- 
moved from  the  water  before 
the  water  is  delivered  to  the 
lender,  has  passed. 

Dynamometer  Car  Tests. 
ascertain     the    tractive     force 
locomotive,       several       railway 


locomotive 


In  order  to 
exerted      by     a 
companies  — 
iiamelv.  the  London  and  North- Western,   Great. 
\\V, i ei  M.  and  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire — employ 
a  dynamometer   car  [68J,  which  is  a  long  saloon 
5104 


coach  replete  with  a  number  of  complex  and 
ingenious  recording  apparatus. 

The  indicated  horse-power  of  a  steam  loco- 
motive signifies  the  work  done  in  the  cylinders 
or  the  maximum  effort  in  propelling  the  loco- 
motive itself  and  overcoming  friction.  But  by 
means  of  a  dynamometer  car  the  engineer  is 
informed  what  amount  of  power  is  available  for 
hauling  a  given  load,  inasmuch  as  the  actual 
work  being  accomplished  by  the  locomotive  is 
then  indicated  by  the  pull  on  the  drawbar, 
coupled  with  the  rate  of  speed.  Thus  valuable 
comparative  data  for  testing  the  relative  effici- 
ency of  locomotives  are  arrived  at. 

Dynamometer  Apparatus.  In  the 
centre  of  the  car  is  a  specially  constructed 
spring,  free  from  friction.  To  this  spring  the 
drawbar  of  the  car  is  attached,  and  in  making 
a  test  the  car  is  placed  immediately  behind 
the  locomotive,  where  the  stronger  the  force 
of  the  pull  exerted  by  the  locomotive  the  more 
the  spring  of  the  drawbar  is  deflected.  The 
centre  of  the  spring  is  coupled  to  a  bracket,  to 
which  a  sliding  rod  carrying  a  stylographic  pen 
is  attached.  A  similar  pen  is  fastened  to  a  small 
fixed  bracket.  When  there  is  no  pull  on  the 
drawbar,  the  two  pens  are  in  alignment,  but  when 
the  locomotive  is  exerting  a  pull,  the  former 
pen  is  drawn  away  from  the  latter.  The  pens 
make  contact  with  paper,  after  the  manner  of 
those  fitted  to  self-recording  barometers.  The 
paper  to  furnish  the  impression  of  a  chart  rotates 
on  drums,  and  so  is  wound  across  a  table,  accord- 
ing to  one  or  other  of  two  scales— namely,  1  ft.  of 
paper  to  1  mile  on  the  line,  or  2  ft.  of  paper  to 
1  mile  on  the  line.  An  addi- 
tional flangeless  wheel,  which  can 
be  raised  or  lowered  at  will  so  as 
to  engage  with  the  rail,  drives 
the  foregoing,  together  with  all 
other  rotating  machinery  in  the 
car.  Accordingly,  while  a  test 
is  in  progress,  the  paper  is 
recording  the  impression  of  two 
inked  lines.  The  line  drawn  by 
the  pen  attached  to  the  fixed 
bracket  is  perfectly  straight,  and 
is  known  as  the  datum  line,  while 
that  drawn  bj  the  pen  in  con- 
nection with  the  drawbar  spring  is 
wave-like.  The  constantly  vary- 
ing distance  between  these  two 
parallel  lines  is  measured  with  a 
special  rule,  which  gives  the  force 
of  the  pull  on  the  drawbar  itself 
in  tons  and  decimal  parts  of  a 
ton. 

It  is  next  necessary  to  ascertain 
the  rate  of  speed  at  which  the 
tractive  effort  is  being  accom- 
plished. This  can  be  given  approximately.  Toy 
a  dial  speed  indicator,  driven  off  one  of  the  car 
axles  ;  but  to  obtain  accurate  data  the  apparatus 
employed  is  a  clock  which  is  in  electrical  com- 
munication with  an  electromagnet  to  which 
another  pen  is  attached.  This  pen  is  deflected, 
and  makes  serrations  in  the  line  that  it  dra\\> 
across  the  paper  eyery  two  seconds.  Every 


SOFTENER   AT 
JUNCTION 


TRANSIT 


.    INTERIOR   OF   DYNAMOMETER    CAR 


tenth  serration  is  shorter  than  the  others,  so 
that  it  can  be  easily  identified.  By  measuring 
with  a  suitable  scale  the  distance  travelled 
by  the  paper  between  each  tenth  serration, 
the  exact  speed  in  miles  per  hour  can  be  read 
off  at  once. 

The  registration  on  the  chart  of  the  locality 
of  the  test  train  is  also  very  necessary.  This  is 
effected  by  means  of  an  electric  push  connected 
with  another  pen.  An  operator  takes  up  a  posi- 
tion at  a  window,  and  manipulates  the  push 
according  to  a  prearranged  code.  Thus,  one  push, 
which  records  one  tick  of  the  pen  on  the  paper, 
signifies  a  quarter-mile  post  ;  two  pushes,  a  mile 
post ;  three,  a  station  ;  and  four,  a  tunnel. 
Again,  the  working  of  the  locomotive  itself  is 
recorded  back  to  the  dynamometer  car  by  a 
similar  push  in  electrical  contact  with  another 
pen,  this  push,  of  course,  being  operated  by  an 
official  on  the  footplate. 

Another  apparatus,  known  as,  an  integrator, 
registers  the  work  done  by  the"  locomotive  in 
feet-pounds.  By  dividing  the  feet-pounds  of 
work  performed  per  minute  by  33,000  (33,000 
feet-pounds  per  minute  are  equivalent  to  one- 
horse  power),  the  horse-power  given  out  by  tho 
locomotive  is  at  once  obtained. 

Dynamometer  cars  are  also  used  for  testing 
the  efficiency  of  brakes.  An  electrical  apparatus 
is  connected  up  with  the  last  or  any  coach  of  the 
train,  and  records  the  exact  interval  of  time  that 
elapses  between  the  application  of  the  brake  and 
its  taking  effect  on  the  wheels  of  the  vehicle 
in  question.  Lastly,  some  dynamometer  cars 


are  equipped  with  an  apparatus  whereby  the 
running  stability  of  a  coach  is  ascertained.  In  the 
coach  to  be  tested  is  placed  an  instrument  which 
may  be  described  as  a  cast-iron  spherical  shell 
containing  a  cast-iron  ball.  Rubber  tubes  con- 
nect the  shell  with  an  extremely  sensitive 
diaphragm  in  the  dynamometer  car,  when  every 
movement  of  the  coach,  as  recorded  by  the  oscil- 
lation of  the  ball  within  the  sphere,  is  reflected 
by  the  impressions  of  a  pen  attached  to  the 
diaphragm. 

Locomotive  Stationary  Testing  Plant. 
However,  even  with  the  employment  of  a 
dynamometer  car,  the  practical  carrying  out 
of  a  locomotive  test  under  actual  working 
conditions  is  beset  with  difficulties  of  various 
kinds,  especially  the  practical  impossibility  of 
securing  similar  conditions  on  any  two  occasions. 
In  order  to  obviate  these  disadvantages,  a  very 
elaborate  and  costly  plant  has  been  devised  for 
testing  locomotives  in  the  shop.  Very  few 
specimens  of  this  plant  are  in  use,  and  the  Great 
Western  is  as  yet  the  only  British  railway  to 
possess  one.  The  latter  is  located  at  the  Swindon 
works,  where  the  employees  have  nicknamed 
it  the  "Home  Trainer,"  in  allusion  to  its  func- 
tions being  cast  in  the  same  lines  as  those  of 
the  machine  of  the  name  on  which  professional 
cyclists  practise.  The  locomotive  is  run  upon 
the  machine,  where  its  driving  wheels  rest 
upon  rollers  of  about  4  ft.  in  diameter  which  the 
rotation  of  the  wheels  causes  to  revolve,  instead 
of  propelling  the  engine.  The  axles  upon  which 
these  rollers  are  mounted  run  in  bearings  which 

5105 


TRANSIT 

an-  capable  of  adjustment  longitudinally,  to  suit 
the  different  wheel  bases  of  the  various  classes 
of  locomotives ;  and  the  smoke  cowl,  into  which 
the  funnel  is  inserted,  is  likewise  adjustable.  At 
one  end  of  the  machine  is  a  traction  dynamo- 
meter for  measuring  the  drawbar  pull,  to  which 
the  engine  is  connected,  while  the  load  is  put 
upon  the  locomotives  by  means  of  brakes,  which 
are  applied  to  pulleys  upon  the  axles  of  the 
rollers.  A  locomotive  is  tested  minus  its  tender, 
but  the  plant  comprises  a  kind  of  dummy  tender, 
over  the  traction  dynamometer,  from  which  the 
locomotive  is  fired,  while  the  feed  pipes  are 
coupled  up  to  a  system  of  water  supply,  fitted 
with  measuring  apparatus. 

Placed  on  the  machine,  a  locomotive  may  be 
run  at  a  constant  load  and  speed  for  as  long  or 
short  a  time  as  may  be  desired.  By  measuring 
the  speed,  which  can  be  ascertained  by  counting 
the  revolutions  of  the  wheels,  and  the  pull  exerted 
at  the  drawbar,  the  power  given  out  by  the 
locomotive  can  be  determined  at  once.  The 
measurement  of  coal,  water,  oil,  etc.,  is  an  easy 
matter,  and  as  a  completely  equipped  laboratory 
forms  part  of  the  outfit,  all  manner  of  practical 
and  exhaustive  tests  can  be  applied  at  the  same 
time  .to  a  locomotive  submitted  for  trial.  On 


fired  locomotives  engaged  in  the  suburban,  main 
line,  and  goods  traffic.  The  system  [69]  is  the 
invention  of  Mr.  James  Holden,  the  locomotive 
superintendent  of  the  company,  and  its  novel 
advantages  have  secured  for  it  preference  even  in 
those  districts  where  oil  burning  has  been  the 
practice  for  years.  It  may  be  said  that  three 
elements  constitute  combustion  in  the  furnace  of 
this  class  of  engine — namely,  oil,  steam,  and  hot 
air.  The  firebox  is  provided  with  the  usual  brick 
arch,  while  almost  level  with  the  firebars  are  fixed 
two  burners  which  inject  the  liquid  fuel,  through 
apertures,  into  the  firebox.  The  injecting  pro- 
cess is,  however,  accomplished  by  means  of  dry 
steam  from  the  dome.  The  two  burners  receive 
their  steam  uniformly,  and  the  liquid  fuel  fed 
through  them  is  injected  by  the  force  of  the  steam 
jet  into  the  firebox,  and  broken  up  into  very  fine 
spray,  which  ignites  immediately.  The  use  of 
hot  air  is  to  provide  air  for  combustion,  in  addi- 
tion to  what  is  admitted  through  the  ordinary 
dampers.  The  supply  of  atmospheric  air  is 
drawn  from  the  smoke-box,  into  which  it  is 
admitted  through  a  series  of  small  apertures  or 
one  large  one,  termed  air-inducing  rings.  In  the 
smoke-box  the  air  is  first  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  400°  F.  by  tlie  waste  gases  found  therein,  and 


LONGITUDINAL   SECTION   OF   LIQUID  FUEL    LOCOMOTIVE,    G.E.R. 


the  Swindon  machine,  engines  have  been  run  at  a 
speed  of  70  miles  per  hour.  Nothing  of  the  energy 
which  a  locomotive  exerts  in  propelling  the 
road  backwards,  so  to  speak,  is  wasted,  as  the 
rollers  are  connected  by  driving  bands  to  the 
shafting  of  an  air-compressing  installation. 

Oil  =  fired  Engines  on  the  Great 
Eastern  Railway.  Owing  to  the  rapid 
development  of  newly-found  petroleum  fields, 
and  to  the  increasing  importation  of  the 
product,  rendering  possible  a  supply  of  oil 
fuel  at  a  price  which  competes  with  that  of 
steam  coal  in  London  and  district,  the  question 
of  the  employment  of  petroleum  as  locomotive 
fuel  on  a  large  scale  in  the  South  of  England  has 
of  late  come  much  to  the  fore.  The  Great 
Ka-trrn  Railway,  the  pioneer  line  in  this  country 
as  regards  oil  fuel,  has  had  for  many  years  a 
number  of  locomotives  [70]  burning  a  liquid  fuel 
composed  of  the  waste  tar  from  the  compressed  oil 
gas  utilised  for  lighting  the  passenger  carriages. 
The  first  experiment  with  an  oil-fuel  locomotive 
was  made  by  the  company  in  1886,  and.  proving 
successful,  improvements  have  continued  to  be 
«-nVrted  in  the  special  apparatus  employed,  so 
that  at  the  present  day  there  are  about  1<>0  oil- 

6106 


then  brought  to  the  furnace  through  air  passages 
provided  down  the  centre  of  the  steam  jets.  All 
the  pipes  conveying  the  oil,  steam,  and  hot  air 
converge  beneath  the  footplate.  The  fuel 
tanks,  of  course,  are  in  the  tender,  and  for  the 
better  adjustment  of  the  supply  to  the  burners, 
an  ingenious  arrangement  of  cocks  and  valves  has 
been  introduced,  in  order  to  cut  off  the  oil  feed 
simultaneously  with  the  closing  of  the  regulator, 
otherwise  too  rapid  generation  of  steam  might 
ensue.  A  steam  warming  coil  is  placed  in  each 
oil  tank,  so  that  the  liquid  fuel  may  not  become 
frozen  in  cold  weather.  Every  oil-fired  express 
and  goods  locomotive  carries  a  few  hundred- 
weights of  coal,  both  in  order  to  start  a  fire  on  a 
bed  of  incandescent  fuel  and  chalk,  or  broken 
bricks  in  the  first  instance,  and  to  augment  the 
strength  of  the  fire  when  the  train  comes  to  a  steep 
incline  or  when  the  engine  is  called  on  to  make 
a  special  effort.  The  suburban  oil-fired  engines,  on 
account  of  the  constant  stopping  and  starting, 
are  worked  on  a  system  of  combined  fuels — that 
is,  with  a  coal  fire  on  the  grate  and  an  oil  fire 
burning  on  a  bed  of  incandescent  fuel  above  it. 
The  relative  consumption  of  the  fuels  per  train 
mile  is  in  the  proportion,  approximately,  of  1  oil 


to  •_;  coal.  With  an  oil-burning  locomotive,  not 
a  pound  of  fuel  need  ever  be  burned  to  waste, 
the  firing  appliances  being  exactly  adjustable  to 
requirements,  whereas  with  ordinary  engines  many 
tons  of  fuel  are  consumed  in  heating  air  uselessly- 
drawn  in  while  firing  is  being  performed,  raising 
the  i^yly  fed  fuel  to  ignition  temperature,  and 
generating  steam  to  be  blown  from  the  safety 
valves.  An  oil-fired  locomotive  need  never  make 
a  black  smoke  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  almost  as  free  from 
dirt,  sparks,  and  smoke  as  an  electric  locomotive. 
Another  important  advantage  is  the  increased 
life  assured  to  the  firebox  and  tubes,  owing  to 
their  not  being  exposed  to  the  wearing  influence  of 
small  cinders  and  ash,  and  the  destructive  effects 
of  sulphurous  fumes.  Lastly,  there  is  saving  of 
labour  to  the  men  in  charge.  The  fireman  has  no 
shovelling,  no  raking  the  fire  ;  both  driver  and 
fireman  can  .remain  seated  while  they  manipulate 
the  controlling  gear  .of  the  engine,  together  with 
its  fire  and 
boiler  feed. 

For  the 
storage  of 
t  h  e  liquid 
fuel  a  large 
depot  has 
been  estab- 
lished  at 
Strat- 
ford, t  o  - 
getlier  with 
auxiliary 
ones  at 
Ipswich  and 
Xor  wich . 
It  should  be 

added  that  all  the  Great  Eastern  liquid-fuel 
engines  can  be  immediately  converted  into 
ordinary  coal-burning  ones. 

Necessity  for  a  Legal  Establishment. 
As  railway  companies  owe  their  existence  to, 
and  conduct  the  whole  of  their  business  under, 
the  provisions  of  special  Acts  of  Parliament,  it 
stands  to  reason  that  they  are  bound  down  at 
every  turn  by  legal  restrictions  and  obliga- 
tion-;, any  transgression  of  which  renders 
them  liable  to  suffer  pains  and  penalties. 
Accordingly,  they  have  constantly  to  invoke 
legal  assistance  to  define  their  rights  and 
protect  their  interests.  Most  railway  companies 
have  special  legal  departments  of  their  own, 
which  conduct  operations  from  headquarters. 
The  directors  appoint  a  duly  qualified  legal 
practitioner  of  high  standing  in  the  profession 
to  take  charge  of  the  department,  and  provide 
him  with  a  staff  of  duly  qualified  assistants,  a 
managing  clerk,  and  as  many  ordinary  clerks 
and  messengers  as  may  be  required.  The 
salaried  legal  staff,  of  course,  resign  their 
general  practices,  and  devote  themselves  entirely 
to  the  company's  interests. 

The  smaller  railway  companies  employ  out- 
side firms  of  solicitors,  and  at  least  one  great 
English  company  does  likewise. 

The  legal  department  of  a  railway  company 
is  divided  into  departments.  First,  there  is 
the  department  for  Parliamentary  work,  which 


TRANSIT 

carries  the  Bills  promoted  by  the  company  for 
new  lines  and  other  works  through  Parliament 
[See  page  1237.] 

Conveyancing  and  Common  Law. 
Secondly,  there  is  the  conveyancing  department. 
An  enormous  number  of  deeds  pass  through  tin* 
hands  of  this  office,  which  examines  all  titles 
with  the  greatest  care.  The  number  of  title  deed-. 
etc.,  possessed  by  any  railway  company  is  ao 
great  that  the  general  offices  are  equipped  with  a 
fireproof  muniment  room  for  their  safe  custody. 
Thirdly,  there  is  the  common  law  or  "writ 
and  process  "  department,  which  covers  wide 
ground.  It  deals  with  innumerable  trifling 
matters  in  connection  with  claims,  outstanding 
accounts,  demurrage,  rates  and  taxes,  clan 
to  luggage,  animals,  and  crops ;  prosecute.-: 
fraudulent  travellers,  luggage  thieves,  and  tres- 
passers ;  defends  actions  brought  against  the 
company  in  connection  with  personal  injuries 

to  passen- 
gers ;  deals 
with  cases 
of  injuries 
to  servants 
under  t  h  e 
"  W  o  r  k  - 
men's  Com- 
pensation 
Act"  of 
1897;  and 
is  repre- 
sented in 
the  highest 
courts,  con- 
testing some 
such  c  e  1  e  - 

brated  suit  as  that  of  the  Taff  Vale  Railway- 
Company  versus  the  Amalgamated  Society  of 
Railway  Servants. 

Liability  of  Railway  Companies. 
Under  Lord  Campbell's  Act  of  1846,  railway 
companies  are  liable  for  the  negligence  of  their 
servants  resulting  in  death  or  personal  injury  to 
any  person.  An  action  can  be  brought  for  the 
benefit  of  the  husband  or  wife,  parents,  grand- 
parents, children,  grandchildren,  or  stepchildren 
of  the  deceased  person  (but  not  on  behalf  of  any 
other  relative  or  person),  provided  the  action  be 
brought  within  twelve  months  of  the  death  of 
the  deceased.  In  any  such  action,  however, 
actual  pecuniary  loss  must  be  shown  to  have 
been  sustained  by  the  persons  for  whose 
benefit  the  action  is  brought.  In  an  action 
for  personal  injury  the  plaintiff  is  entitled  to 
recover,  not  only  the  pecuniary  loss  sustained 
by  him  by  reason  of  the  accident,  such  as  In-- 
of  salary  or  business  profits,  and  any  expenses 
incurred  for  medical  attendance,  nursing, 
etc.,  but  also  compensation  for  losses  to  be  in- 
curred before  the  plaintiff  may  have  completely 
recovered,  or  for  any  permanent  injury  he  may 
have  sustained.  A  railway  company  is  respon 
sible,  however,  only  for  the  negligence  or 
default  of  its  servants  within  the  scope  of  their 
legitimate  employment.  Thus,  if  a  signalman 
causes  an  accident  by  giving  a  wrong  signal 
the  company  is  liable  •  but  if  a  porter  or 

5107 


.E.R.    LIQUID-FUEL  LOCOMOTIVE 


TRANSIT 

telegraph  boy  were  to  mischievously  or  with- 
<>: it  authority  interfere  with  the  signals  and 
cause  an  accident,  the  company  would  not  l>e 
liable.  Lastly,  some  accidents  are  judged  to 
have  been  "  acts  of  God,"  and  the  sufferers  have 
no  legal  redress. 

Qualifications  of  a  Railway  Solicitor. 
The  ideal  railway  solicitor  is  essentially  a  rail- 
way officer  possessing  an  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  policy  and  aims  of  his  company.  He  must 
be  an  experienced  conveyancer,  for  enormous 
landed  interests  are  entrusted  to  his  keeping, 
and  he  must  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
parliamentary  procedure,  together  with  procedure 
in  the  various  courts  of  law  and  in  arbitration 


The  chief  solicitor  or  his  qualified  assistants  are 
at  all  times  accessible  to  officers  of  every  depart- 
ment who  may  wish  advice  in  relation  to 
their  duties,  while  in  all  legal  questions  that 
crop  up  in  the  department,  the  solicitor  has  to 
acknowledge  the  zealous  assistance  of  officers  of 
other  departments. 

Every  railway  company  has  its  own  detec- 
tive and  police  staff,  the  uniformed  members 
of  which,  as  a  rule,  are  far  from  being  merely 
ornamental  accessories  of  the  company's  service 
for  the  purpose  of  frightening  evil-doers  and 
possessing  no  power  to  act  summarily  in  the 
event  of  detecting  an  offender.  Under  their  Acts 
of  Incorporation  the  railway  companies  were 
empowered  to  swear  in  so  many  policemen  for 
each  station,  and  some  companies — the  Great 
Northern,  for  example — have  obtained  later 
}tf)wers  which  sanction  them  to  swear  in  as  many 
of  their  staff  as  they  think  fit.  The  "  sworn  " 
men  can  arrest  any  person  not  only  on  the 
company's  premises,  but  within  a  distance  of 
:>00  yards  of  the  same. 

The  Railway  "  Scotland  Yard."  The 
officers  of  a  railway  company's  detective 
and  police  department  include  a  chief  super- 
intendent, a  chief  clerk,  and  a  chief  detective 
inspector,  while  the  staff  is  composed  of 
detective  inspectors,  detective  sergeants,  and 
uniformed  constables.  The  companies  favour 
recruiting  for  the  department  from  inside  the 
service.  It  is  essential  that  even  the  con- 
stables should  have  some  experience  of  the 
internal  working  of  a  railway,  inasmuch  as  the 
general  work  of  a  railway  constable  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  of  his  civil  contemporary, 
for  the  former  must  always  be  a  bit  of  a  detective 
as  well.  As  to  railway  detectives,  an  authority 
on  railway  management  has  laid  it  down  that 
"  a  civil  detective  is  of  little  use  in  a  similar 
position  on  the  line  until  he  has  acquired  con- 
siderable experience  of  railway  working."  The 
majority  of  the  men  composing  the  "  force," 
tlc.Tcfore,  have  been  originally  in  the  company's 
service  in  some  other  capacity,  while  the  re- 
mainder may  have  been  either  selected  candi- 
dates from  the  Metropolitan,  City,  or  local 
police,  or  ordinary  private  individuals  who 
applied  for  this  kind  of  employment  and  were 
accepted  as  suitable. 

The  duties  of  railway  detectives  embrace  a 
\\  'ule  scope.  There  is  the  "shadowing''  of  persons 

5108 


suspected  of  making  bogus  claims  on  the  com- 
pany for  personal  injuries  and  loss  of  luggage, 
etc.,  and  a  most  interesting  volume  could  be 
compiled  setting  forth  the  cunning  frauds  which 
have  been  perpetrated,  and  attempted  to  be 
perpetrated,  on  railway  companies  on  these 
grounds.  Then,  the  most  barefaced  spuri- 
ous claims  for  loss  of  luggage  are  constantly 
being  detected,  as,  for  example,  the  case 
of  a  woman  whose  alleged  lost  boxes  were 
discovered  to  be  held  by  her  land  lady  for  unpaid 
rent.  The  breaking  up  of  thieving  conspiracies 
hatched  by  the  companies'  servants  themselves, 
and  the  tracking  down  of  well-dressed  rascals  who 
frequent  the  terminal  stations  for  the  purpose  of 
snatching  jewel-cases,  dressing-bags,  and  other 
small  articles  which  passengers  have  left  un- 
guarded in  the  carriages,  keep  the  detective 
staff  busily  employed  ;  but,  when  all  is  said 
and  done,  the  detection  of  ticket  frauds  forms 
by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  their  duties. 
Minor  offences  perpetrated  against  railway  com- 
panies are  stone-throwing  at  trains,  trespass, 
and  the  malicious  mutilation  of  carriage  cushions, 
window  straps,  blinds,  etc. 

In  all  cases  of  loss  or  pilferage  of  luggage, 
parcels,  or  goods,  the  matter  is  at  once  referred 
to  the  railway  police  department,  which  is 
always  in  close  touch  with  the  civil  police. 
Railway  detectives  are  not,  however,  privileged 
to  inspect  prisoners  awaiting  trial.  Therefore, 
the  chiefs  of  the  departments  have  a  system  of 
exchanging  information  in  regard  to  the  history 
of  suspected  persons  in  custody  and  of  sending 
their  own  men  to  attend  trials. 

Free  Luggage  Allowance  and  some 
Anomalies.  A  railway  company  is  bound  to 
carry  free  with  each  passenger  his  personal 
luggage  to  an  amount  fixed  by  the  Acts  of 
Incorporation  of  the  several  railway  companies, 
according  to  the  class  of  carriage  in  which  the 
passenger  travels.  This  amount  varies  in  different 
Acts,  but,  in  practice,  the  railway  companies 
carry  free  150  lb.,  120  lb.,  and  100  Ib.  for  first, 
second,  and  third  class  passengers  respectively, 
and  the  company's  liability  with  respect  to 
passengers'  luggage  is  the  same  as  that  with 
respect  to  goods  entrusted  to  it  for  conveyance, 
so  long  as  the  passengers'  luggage  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  company.  If,  however,  the 
passenger  takes  the  luggage  under  his  own 
control,  the  company's  liability  is  diminished, 
and  arises  only  where  negligence  is  shown  on 
the  part  of  its  servants.  The  question  of  what 
constitutes  personal  luggage  has  been  the  subject 
of  many  judicial  decisions  ;  but,  broadly  speak- 
ing, personal  luggage  may  be  defined  as  consist- 
ing of  such  articles  as  the  passenger  requires  for 
his  own  or  personal  convenience  upon  or  in  con- 
nection with  his  journey.  Personal  luggage  docs 
not  include  merchandise  and  materials,  such  as 
travellers'  samples  intended  for  trade  purposes: 
neither  are  perambulators,  sewing  machines, 
bicycles.  bathchairs,  children.' s  mailcarts, 
hawkers'  handcarts,  harps,  and  street  pianos 
admitted  to  be  personal  luggage.  All  this,  of 
course,  is  fair  enough,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  see 
why  certain  small  articles  in  every  day  use,  such 


as  typewriting  machines  and  phonographs  should 
be  compelled  to  pay  parcels  rates. 

The  charges  for  excess  luggage  are  not  by 
any  means  strictly  enforced  by  British  railway 
companies  taken  as  a  \vhole  ;  and  at  com- 
paratively few  stations  is  it  a  nile  to  weigh 
luggage  before  it  is  labelled. 

The  Baggage  =  checking  Problem. 
Strictures  are  often  passed  upon  British  railway 
companies  for  their  failure  to  adopt  the 
American  and  Continental  system  of  the  regis- 
tration of  passengers'  luggage,  meaning  that  a 
passenger  receives  a  voucher  for  his  luggage  at 
the  departure  stations  and  cannot  claim  any 
luggage  at  his  destination  station  unless  he 
produces  that  voucher.  The  registration  system 
has  much  to  recommend  it  on  the  score  of  being 
a  prevention  against  the  loss  of  luggage  by 
theft  or  by  passengers'  mistakenly  claiming 
what  is  not  theirs,  but  it  is  wrong  to  suppose 
that  its  non-existence  in  this  country  is  due  to 
any  lack  of  enterprise  on  the  part  of  the  railway 
companies.  The  truth  is  that  the  British 
railway  traveller  will  have  none  of  it,  for  he 
prefers  running  the  risk  of  losing  his  luggage  to 
incurring  the  slight  delay  which  the  system 
imposes  upon  him.  In  the  past,  the  registra- 
tion system  was  given  a  fair  trial  by  several  com- 
panies, who  abandoned  it  only  on  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  passengers  themselves. 

Luggage  in  Advance.  Again,  American 
visitors  regard  it  as  a  backward  state  of 
affairs  that  the  collection  and  delivery  of 
passengers'  luggage  does  not  find  widespread 
favour  in  this  country.  This,  too,  is  due  to  the 
idiosyncrasies  of  British  travellers,  who  prefer 
that  their  luggage  should  accompany  them 
wherever  they  go,  and  have  little  faith  in  its 
being  delivered  by  the  company  in  time  for 
their  purposes.  However,  all  companies  now 
furnish  facilities  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers' 
personal  luggage  in  advance — that  is,  collecting 
at  hotel  or  residence  in  the  principal  towns,  and 
forwarding  in  advance  of  the  owner's  journey, 
and  delivery  at  hotel  or  residence  in  the  town 
of  destination  at  a  uniform  charge  of  one 
shilling  per  package  prepaid.  Further,  the  lug- 
gage brought  by  passengers  to  any  of  the  stations 
owned  by  some  companies  can  be  forwarded 
and  delivered  within  the  free  cartage  boundary 
at.  the  owner's  residence  or  hotel  in  the  principal 
towns  served  by  the  despatching  and  also  other 
railways,  the  charge  being  6d.  per  package. 

Lost  Property  and  Left  Luggage. 
The  system  of  dealing  with  lost  property  and 
"  left  luggage  "  in  a  company's  cloak-room  is. 
as  a  rule,  the  charge  of  one  special  department 
as  regards  control  of  staff  and  general  Avorking, 
although  the  two  transactions  are  conducted  in 
distinct  offices.  The  companies'  servants  are 
not  allowed  to  take  charge  of  luggage  or  other 
articles  left  at  the  station  for  the  convenience  of 
passengers.  All  such  luggage  or  articles  must  be 
deposited  in  the  left-luggage  office  in  the  regular 
manner.  Articles  of  merchandise  will  not, 
however,  be  received  at  the  cloak-rooms,  and 
such  packages  can  be  deposited  only  at  the 


TRANSIT 

parcels  or  goods  offices.  The  system  observed 
in  a  cloak-room  is  to  stack  the 'art  ides  in  lots 
of  "  singles "  (which  are  generally  placed  in 
racks),  twos,  threes,  fours,  etc.  This  renders 
the  work  of  identification  easier  when  a 
traveller  claims  his  property. 

All  unclaimed  or  lost  luggage  and  other  pro- 
perty found  in  the  carriages  at  or  on  the  plat- 
forms of  the  stations,  or  upon  the  line,  must 
be  immediately  delivered  to  the  person  in  charge 
of  the  station  at  or  nearest  to  the  place  win  TO 
the  article  has  been  found.  At  the  expiration 
of  three  days  all  unclaimed  or  lost  propertv  i-i 
sent  to  the  headquarters  of  the  company,  where 
it  is  described  and  registered,  and  a  copy  of  the 
register  is  sent  to  the  Railway  Clearing  House 
daily.  The  Clearing  House,  in  turn,  furnish 
the  information  to  the  different  stations,  and 
anything  found  on  hand  at  a  station  which 
answers  to  the  description  of  an  article  lost  is 
sent  up  to  the  Clearing  House  for  identifica- 
tion. 

General  Triviality  of  Unclaimed 
Articles.  The  extraordinary  conglomeration 
of  articles  that  find  their  way  into  the  lost 
property  office  and  are  never  claimed  has 
inspired  many  writers  with  material  for  articles 
on  the  freaks  of  human  forgetfulness.  The 
machinery  employed  for  tracing  the  rightful 
owners  has  now,  however,  attained  such  a  pitch 
of  perfection  that  the  companies  are  burdened 
with  a  far  less  number  of  articles  than  formerly, 
while  the  articles  themselves  are  mainly  of  a 
most  humdrum  and  worthless  description.  No 
matter  how  small  or  worthless  an  article,  it 
has  a  label  attached,  on  which  is  inscribed  the 
registered  number  that  gives  the  clue  to  when, 
where,  and  in  what  circumstances  it  was  found. 
Nevertheless,  there  are  generally  to  be  seen 
one  or  two  odd  items  of  lost  property.  Fevr 
lost  property  offices  cannot  always  boast 
the  possession  of  several  pairs  of  crutches, 
which  one  would  think  would  be  the  last 
thing  a  lame  person  would  be  likely  to 
forget. 

Every  year  the  unclaimed  property  of  the  pre- 
ceding twelve  months  is  sold  by  auction.  A 
story  that  testifies  to  the  rubbishy  character  of 
unclaimed  property  at  the  present  day.  is  told 
of  an  old  lady  who  attended  one  of  these  annual 
sales,  imagining  that  all  manner  of  strange 
and  valuable  articles  were  to  be  picked  up.  At 
the  end  of  the  sale  she  inquired  : 

"When  arc  they  going  to  sell^the  things  left 
in  the  first-class  compartments  ?  " 

The  staff  of  the  cloak-rooms  and  lost  property 
offices  is  recruited  from  the  higher  grade  porters, 
the  men  being  specially  selected  for  their  in- 
telligence and  steadiness,  while  they  must  also 
be  good  penmen,  as  there  is  much  filling  in  of 
forms. 

The  chief  of  the  left  luggage  and  lost  proporty 
departmcnt  is  subordinate  to  the  stationmaster. 
The  line  is  divided  into  districts,  each  of  which 
has  a  sub-department  of  the  kind,  but  the  sub- 
chiefs  are  only  responsible  to  their  respective 
stationmasters. 


RAILWAY  MANAGEMENT  concluded ;  followed  ID  SHIPBUILDING 


5100 


Group  15 

HISTORY 
36 

Continued  from 
page  4!»02 


THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

France  Before  the  Revolution.      The  Times  of  Richelieu. 
The  Awakening  of  the  People  and  the  Fate  of  Monarchy 


By  JUSTIN  MCCARTHY 


W] 


rE  must  now  pause  for  a  time  to  consider 
what  has,  in  the  meantime,  been  taking 
place  in  Europe. 

In  France,  Henry  IV.  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Louis  XIII.,  who  was  born  on  September  27th, 
1601,  and  being  only  a  child,  in  1610  his  mother, 
Marie  de  Medici,  was  appointed  Regent.  Marie 
made  an  alliance  with  Spain,  and  also  with  the 
Pope,  and  betrothed  the  young  King  to  Anne  of 
Austria,  daughter  of  Philip  of  Spain,  an  arrange- 
ment which  led  the  Huguenots  to  rise  up  in 
arms  against  the  new  policy.  A  peace,  however, 
was  concluded  in  1614.  The  King  was  subse- 
quently declared  of  age,  and  he  confirmed  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  and  called  together  the  States- 
general,  which  were  not  summoned  again  until 
the  reign  of  Louis  XVI. 

In  1624  the  famous  Cardinal  Richelieu  became 
Minister  of  State  to  King  Louis.  His  first  im- 
portant measure  was  an  alliance  with  England 
against  Spain,  an  alliance  which  was  further 
strengthened  by  the  marriage  of  the  King's 
sister  Henrietta^  to  Charles  I.  of  England.  Riche- 
lieu endeavoured  to  suppress  the  political  power 
of  the  Huguenots,  and  his  armies  crushed  many 
of  their  strongholds.  He  entered  into  many 
alliances  with  foreign  Powers  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  on  a  war  against  Spain,  and  his  religious 
principles  did  not  always  prevent  him  from 
making  alliances  with  the  Protestants  at  home 
and  abroad  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  his 
political  enterprises. 

The  Rule  of  Richelieu.  The  reign  of 
Louis  XIII.  might  well  be  called  the  reign  of 
Richelieu.  He  unquestionably  succeeded  in 
weakening  and  disorganising  the  power  of  Spain, 
and  in  strengthening  and  consolidating  the  power 
of  France,  while  at  the  same  time  he  made  her 
merely  a  powerful  despotism,  and  deprived  her 
of  anything  like  a  constitutional  system  at  home. 
His  ambition,  however,  seems  to  have  been  for 
his  State  rather  than  for  himself— an  ambition 
^o  give  his  country  a  predominant  place  in 
Kin-ope. 

There  were  several  conspiracies  against  him 
by  the  great  French  nobles,  the  last  being 
that  of  Cinq-Mars,  who  joined  with  the  King's 
brother,  Duke  Gaston  of  Orleans,  for  the  murder 
of  the  Cardinal.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and 
<  inq-Mars  was  executed.  Richelieu  died  on 
December  4th,  1642,  and  Louis  survived  his 
great  minister  only  by  a  few  months.  He  died 
on  May  14th,  1643.  His  reign  Mas  marked 
by  many  great  wars,  principally  of  Richelieu's 
making,  and  he  took  part  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  giving  his  support  to  Gustavus  Adolphus 
<>t  Sweden  and  the  Dutch  against  the  Spaniards 
and  Austrians. 

5110 


Louis  XIV.  Louis  XIV.  was  born  on 
September  16th,  1638,  and  succeeded  his  father 
in  1643,  his  mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  becoming 
Regent  during  his  minority.  Anne  had  for  her 
Minister  of  State  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Mazarin. 
who  was  born  in  Italy,  studied  at  Rome  and  in 
Spain,  and  became  Papal  Nuncio  at  the  Court  of 
France,  having  already  been  naturalised  as  a 
Frenchman.  Mazarin  had  a  powerful  influence 
over  the  Queen  Regenf,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
privately  married  to  him,  and  through  her 
became  a  supreme  power  in  the  State.  When 
Parliament  resisted  some  of  his  edicts,  he  had  the 
leaders  of  the  Opposition  arrested,  a  move  which 
caused  the  celebrated  disturbances  of  the  Fronde, 
which  began  in  1648.  The  Fronde,  which  took 
its  name  from  "  frondeur,"  a  slinger,  caused  a 
civil  war,  and  for  a  time  seemed  likely  to  triumph ; 
but  in  the  end  it  was  suppressed,  and  Mazarin 
obtained  all  his  former  power  over  France.  He 
died  in  1661,  and  then  the  King  became  absolute 
ruler  of  the  State.  His  theory  of  government 
he  himself  expressed  in  his  famous  saying,  "  L'etat 
c'est  moi." 

Louis  was  born  to  be  a  despot ;  he  had  brains, 
courage,  and  temper;  was  dignified  and  graceful 
in  manners,  had  unbounded  faith  in  himself, 
and  untiring  perseverance.  He  had  capable 
Ministers,  among  them  Colbert,  a  great  financier, 
who  restored  order  to  the  whole  financial 
system  of  France,  which  had  been  coming  to 
ruin  under  the  mismanagement  of  previous 
days ;  and  in  the  many  wars  which  his  reign 
brought  about  he  had  some  great  comman- 
ders— Conde,  Turenne,  Vauban,  Luxembourg, 
Vendonie,  and  others.  Louis,  who  had  a  passion 
for  conquest  and  for  extending  his  dominions, 
was  victorious  in  several  parts  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  even  Germany.  He  was  becoming,  in 
fact,  a  terror  to  Europe,  and  in  his  own  country 
he  effaced  all  remains  of  political  independence. 

The  Queen's  Influence.  In  1685  he 
married  his  mistress,  Madame  de  Maintenon,  a 
woman  who  with  many  defects  combined  many 
good  qualities.  Under  her  influence  Louis  began 
a  ruthless  persecution  of  the  French  Protestants, 
which  compelled  some  of  the  most  intelligent  of 
the  French  people  to  seek  refuge  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  position  which  he  took  in  the  War 
of  the  Spanish  Succession  brought  France  to 
the  verge  of  ruin. 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  was  adorned  by  such 
men  as  Corneille,  Racine,  and  Moliere,  and  by 
Fenelon,  Bossuet,  Boileau,  and  many  others. 

Louis  XIV.  was  succeeded  on  September  1st, 
1715,  by  his  great-grandson,  Louis  XV.  The 
new  King  was  born  at  Versailles  on  February 
15th,  1710,  and  the  kingdom  fell,  during  his 
minority,  under  the  government  of  the  Duke  of 


Orleans,  the  first  Prince  of  the  blood,  and  his 
Prime  Minister,  the  infamous  Cardinal  Dubois. 
The  education  of  the  young  King  was  entrusted 
to  Marshal  Villeroi  and  Cardinal  Fleury.  The 
Duke  of  Orleans  had  many  intellectual  gifts, 
which  were  marred  in  private  life  by  his  vices, 
and  marred  for  the  public  service  by  his  passion 
for  speculation.  He  was  greatly  taken  by  the 
schemes  of  John  Law,  the  Scotch  financier,  who 
succeeded  in  persuading  the  Duke  to  promote 
his  financial  projects.  He  brought  out,  in  1719, 
his  famous  Mississippi  Scheme  for  reclaiming  and 
settling  lands  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  by  means 
of  a  joint  stock  company  whose  members  were 
to  make  immense  sums  of  money  through  the 
success  of  the  enterprise.  The  project  proved  a 
mere  bubble,  causing  widespread  ruin  in  France. 

Cardinal  Fleury.  After  the  death  of 
the  Regent  of  Orleans  and  Cardinal  Dubois 
Louis  conducted  the  government  for  himself, 
and  put  at  the  head  of  affairs  of  State  Cardinal 
Fleury,  who  did  much  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  country  and  to  repair  the  disasters  caused 
by  the  policy  of  his  predecessors.  He  exerted 
his  influence  to  promote  peace,  but  France 
nevertheless  became  engaged  in  many  wars. 
Louis  had  married,  when  he  was  only  fifteen. 
Maria  Lesczynski,  daughter  of  the  dethroned 
King  of  Poland,  and  through  this  marriage 
Louis  became  involved  in  the  war  of  the  Polish 
Succession.  Many  wars  also  were  carried  on 
against  England,  and  also  Prussia,  although  at 
an  earlier  date  France  had  been  in  alliance 
with  that  country.  During  the  alliance,  while 
Frederick  the  Great  was  ruler  of  Prussia,  France 
had  won  victories  over  the  Austrians  and  the 
Dutch,  and  one  victory  over  England  at  Fon- 
tenoy  in  1745.  England,  however,  declared 
war  "against  Louis  concerning  the  boundaries 
of  Nova  Scotia,  the  New  World  having  then 
become  a  familiar  battleground  between  rival 
European  Powers  anxious  for  conquest.  In  this 
war  the  English  were  wholly  successful,  and 
became  complete  masters  of  Canada,  with  the 
result  that  the  Peace  of  Paris  was  arranged  in 
1763.  In  the  next  year  the  banishment  of  the 
Jesuits  showed  that  the  philosophical  party  was 
more  powerful  in  France  than  the  religious  one. 

Louis  XV.  was  one  of  the  most  profligate 
sovereigns  in  a  profligate  age.  He  Avas  ever 
under  the  control  of  some  ruling  mistress — 
Madame  de  Pompadour  at  one  time,  and,  later, 
Madame  du  Barry,  both  of  whom  amassed  large 
fortunes  through  their  Royal  lover.  Under  such 
rale  the  Parliament  was  kept  in  absolute  sub- 
jection. 

Louis  XVI.  Louis  XV.  had  exhausted  his 
physical  strength  by  his  reckless  life,  and  he 
died  of  an  attack  of  smallpox  in  1774.  He  was 
succeeded  bv  his  grandson,  the  unfortunate 
Louis  XVL."  bora  August  23rd,  1754.  He  was 
known  as  Due  du  Berri  until  the  death  of  his 
father  and  elder  brothers,  when  he  became  the 
Dauphin.  He  was  fond  of  hunting  and  of  most 
exercises,  and  remained  honest  and  moral  in 
the  most  corrupt  surroundings.  He  married, 
on  May  10th,  1770.  Marie  Antoinette,  daughter 
of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria. 


HISTORY 

France  at  this  time  was  like  a  huge  pyramid 
with  the  monarch  for  apex  resting  on  successive 
layers  of  nobility  and  clergy,  who  alone  had  any 
voice  in  the  direction  of  affairs,  the  vast  bulk 
of  the  pyramid  being  represented  by  the  people, 
amazingly  poor,  patient  and  pathetic,  who  had 
no  act  or  part  in  the  governing.  All  that  was 
required  of  them  was  to  work  hard  in  order  to 
pay  intolerable  taxes.  Their  misery  inspired 
painful  reflections  in  the  minds  of  thinking  men 
in  other  countries.  Lord  Chesterfield  predict.'.! 
revolution  long  before  Arthur  Young,  travelling  in 
France,  saw  and  described  a  condition  of  misei  \ 
which  justified  revolution  and  made  it  inevitable. 

The  Spirit  of  Unrest.  Revolution  \\as 
in  the  air  ;  ardent  spirits  had  long  been  stirred 
by  the  injustice  of  the  existing  order  of  things, 
and  the  American  Revolution  of  1776  gave  a 
purpose  to  vague  impulses  with  startlingly  rapid 
results.  The  real  France  that  had  lain  through 
the  ages  in  a  feudal  sleep  began  to  stir  un- 
easily and  to  stretch  for  waking.  Even  the 
governors  saw  that  the  condition  of  the  governed 
was  intolerable,  and  that  they  must  listen  to,  if 
not  redress,  the  grievances  of  the  people. 
Pressure  was  brought  to  bear  on  the  French 
Government,  harassed  by  lack  of  funds,  to 
summon  a  States  General,  an«f  at  length  the 
Monarch  and  his  supporters  were  compelled  to 
yield.  It  was  so  long  since  it  had  been  held 
that  no  one  could  say  confidently  what  would 
result  from  its  meeting.  Public  opinion  was 
divided  into  the  known  and  the  unknown 
quantity.  The  known  quantity  was  itself 
divided  into  those  who  held  by  the  old 
order  of  things — the  Divine  right  of  kings,  and 
the  scarcely  less  Divine  right  of  nobles  and 
prelates  to  govern  France  in  their  own  way ;  and 
the  men  and  women  who  had  sucked  the  milk 
of  liberal  ideas  from  the  teachings  of  the  Encyclo- 
paedists and  believed  the  regeneration  of  the 
world  was  foreshadowed  by  the  American 
Revolution,  and  was  to  be  accomplished  hy 
an  imitation  of  English  parliamentary  govern- 
ment. The  unknown  quantity  consisted  of 
the  millions  whose  views  on  political  and  social 
questions  it  had  seemed  unnecessary  to  consider. 

The  Voice  of  the  People.  For  the  first 
time  the  French  people  found  they  were  allowed 
to  voice  their  grievances  and  to  choose  delegates 
to  represent  them.  When  the  unfamiliar  elections 
ended  a  parliamentary  body  was  in  existence 
of  three  estates — the  first  two  formed  of  the 
nobility  and  clergy,  and  the  third  representing 
the  people  in  general.  These  members  of  the 
Third  Estate  came  from  all  parts  of  France  to 
Versailles,  where  the  States  General  was  held, 
themselves  inexperienced,  bearing  with  them 
the  instructions  of  their  constituents  new  to  any 
form  of  parliamentary  government.  Having  a 
vague  belief  that  the  States  General  would 
redress  all  their  wrongs,  they  formulated  their 
griefs  very  simply  and  pathetically  in  papers 
which  still  exist,  and  give  the  most  tragic  and 
truthful  picture  of  France  in  that  day.  Their 
representatives  were  men  of  many  kinds. 
Some  belonged  to  the  noble  order  and  chose  to 
represent  the  people's  cause.  Of  these  the 

5111 


HISTORY 


\v;vs  Mirabeau—  •  a  man  of  genius  and  a 
In  vrr  of  liberty  who  had  sinned  and  suffered 
much.  A  large  proportion  of  the  Third  Estate 
\\<  it-  ambitious  provincial  lawyers,  pushing  their 
way  to  Paris  and  Versailles  with  great  con- 
fidence in  their  eloquence  and  legislative  gifts. 
Among  these  was  a  young  lawyer,  Maximilien 
Kobespierre,  of  whom  few  outside  his  neigh- 
bourhood had  heard,  who  moved  inconspicuous 
among  his  fellows,  a  lean  and  livid  nonentity, 
watching  all  things  with  short-sighted  eyes. 

The  National  Assembly.  The  States 
General  began  its  meetings,  and  from  the  first  it 
was  obvious  that  they  were  to  prove  momentous. 
The  noble  and  clerical  Estates  had  hoped  to 
have  everything  their  own  way,  to  mould  a 
submissive  Third  Estate  to  their  purpose,  and 
get  the  terms  which  would  fill  the  empty  ex- 
chequers of  the  State  and  bolster  up  the  Mon- 
archy; then  dissolve  the  States  General,  send 
the  members  of  the  Third  Estates  back  to  their 
obscurity,  and  resume  the  old  order  of  things 
with  money  in  their  purse.  This  States  General 
met  on  May  25th,  1789.  They  soon  formed 
themselves  into  a  National  Assembly.  Thus  the 
Revolution  began.  The  National  Assembly  began 
to  make  a  new  constitution,  and  called  themselves 
the  Constituent  Assembly.  The  nobility  of 
the  ancient  regime  were  so  many  that  they 
made  a  large  amount  of  the  whole  population, 
and  yet  everyone  belonging  to  any  grade  of 
nobility  was  exempt  from  payment  of  the  Land 
Tax,  or  Taille  ;  from  the  Corve,  or  maintenance 
of  the  public  roads,  from  military  conscription 
and  the  billeting  of  soldiers,  and  from  other 
taxes.  They  had  to  pay  the  Capitation  Tax, 
but  even  in  that  they  were  unequally  taxed  in 
proportion  to  the  lower  classes.  Neckar,  the 
famous  financier,  estimated  that  the  aggregate 
revenues  of  the  clergy  and  nobles  amounted 
to  130,000,000  livres.  The  most  oppressive  of 
all  the  taxes  was  the  Gabelle,  or  tax  on  salt, 
while  many  others  unjustly  oppressed  the  Tiers 
Etat  and  the  people.  Louis  XVI.  and  his  ad- 
visors resisted  the  reasonable  demands  of  the 
deputies,  and  the  result  was  their  declaration  of 
inviolability,  to  which  the  King  retaliated  by 
ordering  a  large  body  of  troops  under  arms, 
dissolving  his  Ministry,  and  banishing  Neckar, 
whom  he  had  been  compelled  by  public  opinion 
to  recall  not  long  before. 

A  Nation's  Frenzy.  An  insurrec- 
tion broke  out  in  Paris  on  July  12th,  accom- 
panied by  bloodshed,  and  on  the  1  3th  the  National 
Guard  of  Paris,  a  new  civic  militia  under  the 
command  of  the  municipal  authorities,  was 
convoked.  On  the  14th  occurred  the  first  great 
event  of  the  Revolution  —  the  storming  and  cap- 
(n  ic.  by  the  people,  of  the  Bastille  Prison.  The 
Revolution  rapidly  spread  to  the  provinces,  where 
National  Guards  and  municipal  councils  were 
promptly  summoned.  On  August  4th,  feudal 
and  manorial  rights  were  abrogated  in  a  frenzy 
of  renunciation  by  the  Assembly,  which  solemnly 
proclaimed  the  equality  of  human  rights.  All 
the  Royal  Princes,  and  a.s  many  of  the  nobility 
as  \\ere  able  to  escape  fled  from  France.  The 
Royal  Family  also  wished  to  escape,  but  having 


failed  in  all  their  elforts  they  professed  sympathy 
with  the  Republican  sentiments  of  the  people  in 
the  hope  of  conciliating  them.  It  was  a  vain  hope ; 
the  people  were  not  to  be  thus  placated,  and  on 
October  5th  of  the  same  year  a  mob,  composed 
principally  of  women,  marched  from  Paris  to 
Versailles,  and  roused  the  forces  of  insurrection. 
The  palace  was  attacked,  and  the  King  and  the 
Royal  Family,  rescued  with  difficulty  from  the 
insurgents,  had  to  move  to  Paris.  The  National 
Assembly  also  shifted  its  seat  to  Paris,  and  during 
the  next  two  years  it  busied  itself,  somewhat 
pedantically,  with  many  different  constitutional 
schemes.  The  Royal  Princes  and  the  nobles 
tried  to  take  arms  against  this  sea  of  troubles, 
but  the  waves  of  Republican  feeling  were  too 
strong  to  be  arrested.  The  King  reluctantly 
made  concessions  to  the  Republican  party — so 
many  sops  to  the  monster  from  which  he  still 
hoped  to  escape,but  his  situation  only  grew  worse. 

The  Fate  of  the  King.  With  the  death 
of  Mirabeau,  who  had  been  trying  to  advise 
the  Court,  all  hope  for  the  Monarchy  died.  The 
Legislative  Assembly,  which  in  1791  succeeded 
the  Constituent  Assembly,  suffered  from  an 
unwise  self-denying  ordinance  which  forbade  any 
member  of  the  former  to  belong  to  the  latter 
body.  The  King  was  held  responsible  for  the 
early  failures  of  the  war  with  Austria,  which  he 
had  been  compelled  to  declare  by  the  Girondist 
party,  and  he  and  his  family  were  in  August 
confined  in  the  Temple.  The  ineffective  Legisla- 
lative  Assembly  was  dissolved  in  September,  and 
was  followed  by  the  Convention,  which  included 
the  stronger  spirits  of  the  Constituent  Assembly. 
The  Convention  proclaimed  the  Republic. 
In  the  December  of  the  same  year  the  King  was 
brought  to  trial  for  treason  against  the  Republic  ; 
he  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  death  on 
January  20th,  1792,  and  on  the  next  day  he  \\as 
guillotined. 

The  Reign  of  Terror.  Revolts  took 
place  all  over  the  country,  and  England,  Holland, 
Spain,  Naples,  and  the  German  States  became 
allied  against  the  Republic.  The  reign  of  terror 
now  began.  Queen  Marie  Antoinette  was 
guillotined  not  long  after  the  King.  The 
Dauphin  is  believed  to  have  died  in  prison, 
though  there  is  some  historical  doubt  on  the 
subject.  Marat,  one  of  the  most  prominent  of 
the  "  Montagnards,"  was  killed  by  Charlotte 
Corday  in  1793. 

Now  the  Revolution,  like  Saturn,  began  to 
devour  its  own  children.  The  Girondists 
fell  before  the  Dantonists ;  Danton,  Camille 
Desmoulins,  and  Hebert  were  guillotined  by 
Robespierre.  Then  Robespierre,  St.  Just,  and 
the  other  Terrorists  were  themselves  overthrown, 
and  guillotined  on  July  2nd,  1794.  After  their 
deaths  came  a  reaction  against  bloodshed  in 
favour  of  peace  and  order.  The  insurrections 
in  La  Vendee  on  behalf  of  the  White  Flag 
occurred  in  1793  and  1795,  and  later  on  were 
crushed  with  great  bloodshed.  In  1795  a 
general  amnesty  was  proclaimed :  peace  was 
made  with  Austria-Spain,  but  the  war  with 
Austria  was  continued.  A  Directory  was  now 
formed  to  restore  peace  and  order. 


5112 


Continued 


HYDRAULICS 


The    Importance    of    Rainfall    and    Floods    in    Hydraulic    Works. 
Methods  of  Calculating  River  Discharges  and  Flow.     Current  Meters 


Group  11 

CIVIL 
ENGINEERING 

36 

HYDRAULICS 

following  SKWKRAGK  from 
page  3026 


By  Professor  HENRY  ROBINSON 

TN  dealing  with  this  important  branch  of 
civil  engineering  we  shall  first  consider  the 
application  of  hydraulics  to  rivers.  As  rivers 
convey  the  rainfall  of  districts  to  the  sea  some 
part  of  them  necessarily  come  under  the  influence 
of  tidal  action.  They  may,  therefore,  be  divided 
into  two  classes — namely,  tidal  rivers  and  non- 
tidal  rivers.  Stevenson  (who  devoted  so  much 
attention  to  the  subject)  has  stated  that  all 
rivers  affected  by  tidal  influences  may  be 
regarded  under  three  heads — namely  : 

(1)  The  sea  proper  ; 

(2)  The  tidal  compartment  of  the  river  ; 

(3)  The  river  proper. 

These  three  divisions  possess  very  different 
physical   characteristics— the    presence    of    un- 
impaired tidal   phenomena   in   the   lowest,  the 
modified   flow   of    the   tide    produced   by   the 
inclination  of  the  river  bed  in  the  intermediate, 
and  the  absence  of  all  tidal  influence  in  the 
highest.     In  the  lowest  reaches  of  a  tidal  river 
the  tides  resemble  those  of  the  sea  proper  with 
regard  to  range  of  tide  and  shortness  of  time 
between    the    ebb   and    the   beginning    of    the 
fl  o  w ,      and 
various    other 
factors.     As 
we  ascend  into 
the    middle 
division,      the 
range    of    the 
tide     is     less, 
and   the   time 
of     ebb      and 
the  duration  of 

low  water  is  longer,  until  we  get  to  the  upper 
division,  when  the  flow  is  always  seawards, 
and  the  difference  of  water  level  is  only  that 
due  to  the  rainfall. 

Rainfall.  The  discharge  of  rivers  depends 
on  the  rainfall,  evaporation,  and  the  nature  of 
the  gathering  ground.  The  fluctuations  in  dis- 
charge depend  chiefly  on  the  geology  and  contour 
of  the  ground.  The  question  of  rainfall  and 
evaporation  have  been  discussed  on  page  4024. 
On  impervious  gathering  grounds  with  steep 
gradients  the  fluctuations  in  discharge  are 
much  greater  than  on  pervious  ground  with 
moderate  gradients;  floods  are  more  violent 
and  draughts  are  more  severe  in  the  former  case 
because,  the  strata  being  impermeable,  the  ram 

rapidly  carried  to  the  river,  causing  floods. 

e  rise  of  the  river  is  more  rapid  than  the  fall, 
^cause  some  of  the  rain  is  absorbed  by  the 
strata,  and  is  returned  to  the  river  later.  When 
the  strata  is  permeable  the  rise  is  not  so  rapid, 


1.    WASTE   WEIR  AND    FLOOD-WATER   CHANNEL 


the  flood  discharge  generally  has  a  higher  ratio 
to  the  ordinary  discharge  than  in  large  rivers. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  rainfall  is  generally 
more  or  less  local,  and  is  therefore  more  likely 
to  affect  the  feeders  of  a  small  river  than  those 
of  a  large  one,  which  receives  the  rainfall  from 
a  very  wide  area. 

Floods.  In  our  consideration  ^  of  water 
supply,  the  question  of  floods  from  gathering 
grounds  was  not  touched  on,  as  it  was 
thought  better  to  include  it  under  the  head 
of  the  treatment  of  rivers,  etc..  although  it  has 
an  important  bearing  on  the  subject  of  the 
construction  of  works  for  water  supply.  Floods 
are  capable  of  being  mitigated  by  the  various 
forms  of  river  improvement.  Data  with  refer- 
ence to  flood  discharge  are  important  for  the 
following  among  other  purposes  : 

(1)  Calculating  the  lengths  of  reservoir  waste 
weirs  and  the  sizes  of  water  channels. 

(2)  Calculating  the  areas  of  waterways  that 
are  necessary  to  convey  rivers  under  bridges. 

(3)  Calculating  the  areas  of  waterways,  and 
the  heights  of  floods  when   "  training  walls " 

are  to  be  con- 
structed in 
rivers. 

(4)  Calcu- 
lating the 
sizes  of  sluices 
and  the  lengths 
of  weirs  on 
c  a  n  a  1  i  s  e  d 
rivers. 

Waste   weirs 


IS 

The  rise 


are  of  the  first  importance  with  regard  to 
impounding  reservoirs,  as  they  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  the  flood  water  away  from 
the  reservoir"  and  so  prevent  the  water  level 
being  raised  above  the  required  height. 

It  is  advisable  not  to  let  the  depth  of  the 
water  over  these  weirs  exceed  2  ft.     The  follow- 
ing allowances  per  lineal  foot  of  weir  are  si 
for  this  purpose : 

31  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  head 
above  weir.  , 

5|  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  head. 
6  in.  above  weir. 

8f  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  head 
above  weir. 

Methods  of  Calculation.      Ihe  illustra 
tion    [1]  shows    the    design    adopted    by 
writer  for  a  waste  weir  and  channel    in  con- 
nection with  a  large  reservoir.      The •  evapora- 


from 


2. 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING 

river  is  fed  very  largely  from  springs  that 
derive  their  supply  from  large  areas  of  pervious 
ground,  through  which  the  water  has  to  travel 
long  distances.  Volumes  of  water  are  usually 
reckoned  in  gallons  for  water  supply  purposes 
and  in  cubic  feet  for  river  discharge.  Velocities 
are  calculated  in  feet  per  second.  It  is  useful, 
therefore,  to  have  memoranda  for  converting 
these  several  factors  into  those  that  are  necessary 
for  the  various  calculations  that  have  to  be 
made. 

Memoranda    re     discharge 
grounds : 

1  acre  =  43,560  sq.  feet. 

1  sq.  mile  =  640  acres. 

1  inch  of  rain  on  1  acre  = 
3,630  cubic  ft.  =22,687  gallons. 

1  inch  of  rain  on  1  sq.  mile  = 
2,323,200  cubic  ft.  =  14,500,000 
gallons  (nearly). 

1  cubic  foot  =  6£  gallons. 

.".  cubic  feet  x  —  =  gallons. 
8 

1  in.  per  annum  on  1,000 
acres  =  62,155  gallons  per  day. 

1  in.  per  annum  on  1  sq. 
mile  =  39,660  gallons  per  day. 

1  in.  per  annum  on  1  acre  =  10  cubic  ft.  per 
day  (nearly). 

1  cubic  'ft.  per  second  =  86,400  cubic  ft.  per 
day. 

1  cubic  ft.  per  second  =  540,000  gallons  per 
day. 

1  cubic  ft,  per  second  =  197,100,000  gallons  per 
annum. 

1  in.  of  rain  per  day  =  26 -889  cubic  ft.  per 
second  per  sq.  mile. 

1  in.  of  rain  per  day  =  0*042014  cubic  ft.  per 
second  per  acre. 

1  in.  of  rain  per  day  =4*2014  cubic  ft.  per 
second  per  100  acres. 

1  in.  of  rain  per  hour  =  645*3  cubic  ft.  per 
second  per  sq.  mile. 

1  in.  of  rain  per  hour  =  1  *008  cubic  ft.  per 
second  per  acre. 

Flood     Discharges.  ; — 

Some  attempts  have  been 
made  to  construct  formula? 
for  flood  discharge,  but  it 
is  impossible  to  make  one 
of   general    accuracy.      A 
fairly  good    formula  may 
be  arrived  at  for  a  parti- 
cular district  or  watershed, 
but  it  requires  to  be  modi- 
fied to  meet    the    circumstances  of   a  totally 
different  district.     The  table  on  next  page  but 
one  records  the  floods  that  have  occurred  on 
some  gathering  grounds. 

The  following  formulae  will  enable  the  student 
to  see  the  way  in  which  a  formula  for  flood 
discharge  can  be  constructed.  The  first  is 
that  adopted  by  Fanning  to  apply  to  the 
Eastern  States  of  America,  and  is  as  follows : 


The  next  is  I'o.-^enti'.s  Formula  (modified  by 
Baccarini) : 


NOTCH  FOR  GAUGINGSTBBAMS 


DETAIL   OF 


\vhere 


5114 


Q  =  200  (M)  « 

M  =  area  in  sq.  miles, 

Q  =  volume  in  cubic  ft.  per  second. 


where     Q  =  volume  in  cubic  metres  per  second, 
in  =  area  in  sq.  kilometres  of  mountain 

portion  of  basin, 
P  =  area  of  plains  in  basin, 
a  =  maximum  rainfall  in  24  hours  in 

metres, 

S  =  total    length    of    watercourse    in 
kilometres. 

This  formula  is  intended 
for  Italian  rivers. 

Data  of  River  Dis= 
charges.  In  dealing  with 
the  discharge  of  rivers,  cer- 
tain data  have  to  be  ob- 
tained and  the  following 
terms  are  employed : 

(1)  The  slope  ia  the  fall 
on     the      surface     of     the 
water,    and     is     generally 
expressed  in  feet  or  inches 
per  mile,  and  is  ascertained 
by  careful  levelling. 

(2)  The     sectional     area 
(A)   is   the  area   of   the  cross  section  taken  at 
right  angles  to  the  current,  usually  expressed  in 
square  feet. 

(3)  The      hydraulic     mean     depth      (R),     or 
hydraulic    radius,  is    the    result    obtained     by 
dividing  the  sectional  area  of  the  channel  below 
the  water  level  (in  square  feet)  by  the  wetted 
border  or  perimeter  (P)  in  lineal  feet,  the  measure- 
ments being  obtained  from  the  section,  and  is 

expressed  by—. 

(4)  The    mean    velocity    (V).   which    may    be 
either   deduced    from    the    surface    velocity    by 
formula  or  ascertained  directly  by  measurement, 
is  used  in  determining  the  "  discharge." 

(5)  The    discharge    (Q)    is    the  .quantity    of 

water  yielded  by  the  river 
•— *;  in  a  given   time,  generally 

stated  in  cubic  feet  per 
minute  or  second,  and  is 
obtained  by  multiplying 
the  mean  velocity  in  feet 
per  minute  or  second  by 
the  sectional  area  in 
square  feet,  and  is  ex- 
pressed thus  :  Q  =  V  x  A. 
Bridges  and  Piers. 

When  designing  bridges  to  span  rivers,  as 
much  width  should  be  allowed  between  the 
piers  as  possible,  to  keep  the  channel  compara- 
tively shallow.  Velocities  exceeding  5  ft.  per 
second  are  liable  to  cause  damage  to  the  foun- 
dations of  piers,  etc.,  by  scour.  Some  Indian 
railways  are  carried  on  viaducts  for  miles  in 
crossing  large  rivers,  to  provide  ample  waterway 
for  floods  and  to  allow  for  deviations  in  the 
course  of  the  river  through  shifting  sandbanks. 
In  designing  piers  care  must  be  taken  to  obstruct 
the  waterway  as  little  as  possible  and  not  to 
cause  avoidable  eddies. 


NOTCH 


4 


The  rate  of  fall  of  rivers  has  an  important 
influence  on  the  maximum  floods,  as  steep  slopes 
carry  the  water  off  rapidly  and  do  not  spread  the 
flood  over  much  longer  periods  than  the  heavy 
rainfall. 

Gauging    Rivers.      In     determining     the 
volume  of  water  discharged  by  a  river  or  stream 
great  care  must  be  taken  in  order  to  obtain 
reliable   data.     With    small   streams   dams   are 
constructed  ;  these  head   back  the  water,  and 
cause  it  to  flow  over  a  specially  prepared  weir 
or  notch.     The  amount  passing  can  then  by  for- 
mula be  accurately  ascertained. 
There     are     several     forms     of 
notches,    but    the    "  V "    notch 
is  more  generally  used    (on  ac- 
count   of    the  greater   accuracy 
obtained),  and  will  be  taken  for 
the  purpose  of  this  course. 

The  "V"  Notch.  The 
construction  of  a  "V "  notch 
for  gauging  streams  is  shown 
by  the  illustration  [2],  of  which 
the  following  is  a  description. 

Having    settled    on    the    best 
spot    to    erect    the  dam,    drive 
stakes  firmly  into   or   near   the 
banks  on  each  side  of  the  stream, 
and   fix  planks  across   so  as  to 
obstruct  the  flow  of  the  water. 
On   this  dam   a  metal    plate,  having  a  right- 
angled,  or  "V"  notch   [2  and  3]  cut  in  it,  is 
fixed    on    the    up-stream    face,    and    covers    a 
similar    but   larger   notch    cut   in    the    timber. 
The  notch   in   the   metal  plate  forms  a  sharp 
edge  (the  edges  of  the  notch  in  the  wood  being 
chamfered),   over  which  the  smallest  quantity 
of  water   can   pass    in    an    unbroken   stream. 
The  height  of  the  bottom  of  the  notch  from 
the  water   level    on   the    down-stream   side    of 
the  dam  must  be  at  least  1|  times  that  of  the 
head  above  the  notch,  in  order  to  allow  a  per- 
fectly free  fall  for  the  water,  as  shown  by  4. 

The  dam  must  be  absolutely  vertical,  and  of 
sufficient  height  to  head  back  the  stream  until 
a  pond  is  formed,  the  velocity  of  flow  through 
which  is  as  near  zero  as  possible.  The  size  of  the 
notch  is  therefore  dependent  on  the  above 
conditions.  The  height  of  water  passing  must 
be  measured  froni  a  scale 
[2P]  placed  for  this  pur- 
pose in  still  water,  which 
is  generally  some  few  feet 
from  the  dam.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  the  level  of 
the  water  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  notch  is  lower  than  the  true  head, 
as  show7n  by  4.  Therefore,  under  no  cir- 
cumstances must  the  head  be  measured  from 
the  notch  itself.  If,  however,  the  width  of  the 
dam  is  considerable,  "  still  :'  water  may  be  found 
near  the  bank,  then  the  scale  P  [2]  can  be 
placed  near  the  dam,  and  yet  be  away  from  the 
influence  of  the  notch. 

Calculation  of  Water  Flow.  The 
formula  to  be  employed  in  calculating  the 
amount  of  water  passing  over  a  "  V  "'  notch  is 
as  follows. 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 

When  running  at  any  other  depth  but  full, 
B  and  H  become  6  and  h  in  the  formula.  The 
discharge 


in  right-angled  notches. 

B  =  2H  and  Q  =  CT8,  v  2gH$  (1  )  ; 

if  B  =  4H  then  Q  =  CJg  V2gH*  (2). 
In    right-angled    notches   with   sharp   edges 
B  =  2H  and  C  =  0-59.     When  B  =  4H,  then 


C  =  0-62. 


Taking  these  coefficients  the  dis- 
charge (Q)  in  cubic  feet  per 
second  in  Equation  (1)  becomes 

Q  =  2-54H*  ;    Equation    (2)    be- 
comes  Q  =  5'30Hs. 

Larger  volumes  of  water  flow- 
ing in  open  channels  can  be 
gauged  by  employing  a  sharp- 
edged  weir.  The  following 
formula  must  then  be  used: 


where  Q  =  discharge  in  cubic  ft. 

per  second, 

I  =  length  (in  feet)  of  weir, 
H  =  head  of  water  in  feet, 
C  =  coefficient      allowing 
NOTCH  IN  SECTION  f°r  contraction. 

The  coefficient  C  has  been 
found  by  experiment  to  be  between  -59  and  '62. 
This  variation  depends  on  the  length  and  head 
of  the  weir  as  well  as  of  the  channel  of  approach. 
If  the  depth  of  water  behind  the  weir  is  at 
least  4H,  as  shown  in  4,  and  if  the  channel 
extends  at  least  3H  beyond  the  ends  of  the 
weir  at  the  level  of  the  sill,  the  velocity  of 
approach  will  be  insignificant. 

Calculating  Flow  in  Large  Rivers.  In 
dealing  with  large  rivers,  cross-sections  of  the  bed 
have  to  be  obtained  in  order  to  determine  the 
"  wetted  perimeter  "  and  "  the  hydraulic  mean 
depth."  Cross-sections  can  be  obtained  by 
stretching  a  line  (at  a  known  reduced  level) 
across  the  river.  From  this  line  soundings  are 
taken  at  regular  intervals,  and  from  these  the 
section  of  the  river  bed  can  be  plotted.  The 
section  having  been  obtained,  equalising  lines 
are  drawn  to  ascertain  the  wetted  perimeter, 
as  shown  by  5. 

The  slopes  A  B  and 
C  D  are  found  to  be 
1J  to  1,  so  that^A  B  and 
C"D  =  v/97-  +"6*  =  10-8', 
and  the  wetted  perimeter 
=  20'  +  2(10' -8)  -  41-6'. 
The  water  surface  will  be 

=  20  +  2  (6'  x  1£  to  1)  =  38'. 
The  area,  therefore,  of  this  section  will  be 


and  the  hydraulic  mean  depth  will  be 


174 

41-8 


=  4-18'. 


Another  method  is  to  take  out  the  area  by  means 
of  a  planimeter. 

5115 


CIVIL     ENGINEERING 

Ascertaining  Velocity  of  Flow.  Having 
explained  how  to  obtain  the  sectional  area  of 
the  river,  we  proceed  to  the  determination  of 
its  velocity  ii.  order  to  obtain  the  "discharge." 

While  gauging  forms  the  most  accurate 
method  of  determining  the  discharge  of  rivers, 
it  is  necessary  for  their  improvements,  or 
in  connection  with  irrigation  canals  (in  which 
there  is  flow),  to  have  some  formula  which 
will  give  an  idea  as  to  what  velocity  may  be 
expected.  The  formula  of  Heir  Kutter.  which 
is  generally  adopted,  is  as  follows,  expressed  in 
English  terms  : 


where  V  =  mean  velocity  in  feet  per  second, 
R  =--  hydraulic  mean  depth. 
S  =  sine  of  the  slope  or  the  fall  divided 

by  the  length, 

N  =  coefficient     of     roughness,    varying 

between    '025   and    '035.     Rivers 

with  banks    in   good  order    and 

regular,   -025  ;  when  in  moderate 

order,  -030  ;  when  in  bad  order  '035. 

The   velocity  of  streams   varies   at  different 

points  on  the  cross-section,  being  at  a  maxi- 

mum   near    the    surface    at    the    centre    and 

at   a    minimum  at  the  bottom  and  sides.     It 

thus  becomes  necessary    to    obtain    the  mean 

velocity  for  any  cross-section  in  order  to    de- 

termine the   discharge.      Formula;   have    been 

devised  for  obtaining  this.     One  of  the  best  has 

been  given,  which  takes  into  account  the  varying 

roughness  of  the  river  bed.      Dubuat    arrived 

at    the    following    formula   for    deducing    the 

mean  velocity  from  that  of  the  surface  velocity. 

If 

s  =  surface  velocity  "j 
b   —  bottom  velocity  r  in  inches. 
m  —  mean  velocity    J 
then 


4-  b 
, 


Wheeler  gives  the  following  formula  as  the  best 
for  tidal  rivers,  and  it  is  simpler  than  the  one 
previously  given. 

V=Cx/2RF 
where   F  =  the  fall  in  feet  per  milt-. 

R  =  the  hydraulic  mean  depth  in  teet, 
V  =  the  mean  velocity  in  feet  per  second, 
C  =  a  constant. 

Approximately,  the  constants  may  be  taken 
as  follows:  For  small  streams  discharging 


about  50  cubic  ft.  a  second.  O'Go  :  for 
larger  streams  of  from  200  to  300  cubic  ft. 
a  second,  0'75  ;  for  tidal  rivers  1.000  cubic  ft., 
0-85  ;  for  tidal  rivers  10.000  cubic  ft..  0'93  ; 
for  tidal  rivers  100,000,  TOO;  for  1.000.000. 
1-50. 

Current  Meters.  A  better  method  of 
arriving  at  the  mean  velocity  is  by  means  ot 
current  meters.  The  cross-section'  should  be 
divided  up,  and  readings  taken  at  various  points, 
and  at  different  depths,  the  number  depending 
on  the  total  depth.  The  line  used  for  obtaining 
the  lengths  for  the  cross-section  -will  also  serve 
the  purpose  of  fixing  the  position  of  the  current 
meters  while  readings  are  being  taken.  One  of 
the  points  should,  of  course,  be  that  for  ascer- 
taining the  surface  velocity. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  form  of  current  meter.  The 
velocity  of  the  current  revolves  the  vanes,  con- 
nected by  an  endless  screw,  working  in  a  wheel, 
which  registers  the  number  of  revolutions  in  a 
given  time  on  a  wheel.  The  motion  of  water  in 

large  channels 
is  so  very  un- 
steady that  it  is 
not  sufficient  to 
take  the  velocity 
over  only  a  few 
seconds,  there- 
fore a  period 
of  at  least  one 
minute  should  be 
adopted. 


r\ 


6.    CURRENT    METER 


Another  method  of  obtaining  the  velocity  is 
by  means  of  floats,  sufficiently  submerged  as 
not  to  be  affected  by  wind.  The  float  is  dropped 
into  the  river,  and  the  time  it  takes  to  travel 
between  known  points  is  noted.  This*Wthod  is 
useful  in  sluggish  streams  where  the  current 
meter  would  not  work  satisfactorily. 

For  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  subject  ot 
hydraulics  as  applied  to  rivers,  the  works  of 
Mr.  Stevenson  on  "  River  Engineering."  and 
Mr.  Wheeler  on  "  Tidal  Rivers,"  may  be  recom- 
mended. 


Continued 


STATISTICS    OF    FLOODS 

Ar.M   ii: 

CnMcfeel  pe 

-— 

seqoudner 

si|.  mile. 

Belfast    (Trap    rock,    chalk   and 

1'56 

34 

greensand).       Mean     rainfall, 

38-42  in. 

Manchester     (Pennine       Chain]. 

_ 

160  to  250 

Millstone  grit,  etc. 

(over  g  in. 

Xetr  York  (Croton  waterworks)  .  . 
\(i!t/>nr  (Central  India)    .  . 
Ceylon  (various  irrigation  reser- 

20-37 
6'6 

per  hour; 
48 
170 
640  (1  in. 

voirs) 
Algeria  (irrigation) 
Loch    Katrine    (Glasgow   water- 

312 

per  hour;  - 
560 

80 

works) 

Hiver  Clyde          

fi  t 

Derwent  (above  Denventwater)  .  . 

— 

About  500 

PRODUCTS  OF  LAND  &  SEA 

Cotton  and  Other  Fibre  Plants.     The  Meat  and  Dairy  In- 
dustries.    Animal  Products.     Fisheries.    Sponges  and  Coral 


Group  13 

COMMERCIAL 

GEOGRAPHY 

6 

Continue. I  trom 
page  4M-2 


By  Dr.  A.  J.  HERBERTSON,  M.A.,  and  F.  D.  HERBERTSON,  B.A. 


The  Fibre  Plants.  The  temperate  fibre 
plants  are  flax  and  hemp  [see  TEXTILES],  with 
I'sparto  grass,  or  halfa,  in  the  drier,  warmer 
regions.  The  warm,  temperate,  and  tropical 
lands  produce  cotton,  the  most  important  com- 
mercial fibre,  jute,  henequen  and  the  so-called 
Manila  and  New  Zealand  hemps,  and  China 
grass  or  ramie.  All  these  can  be  spun  into 
threads  and  woven  into  cloth  of  varying  degrees 
of  fineness. 

Flax.  Flax,  the  oldest  of  cultivated  fibres, 
is  obtained  from  the  bast  or  inner  bark  of  the 
flax  or  linen  plant.  The  seeds  (linseed)  contain 
a  useful  oil,  and  the  plant  is  cultivated  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  either  for  the  fibre  or  the  seed, 
but  seldom  for  both.  Its  range  is  great,  includ- 
ing both  cool,  temperate  and  tropical  lands, 
and  both  moist  and  dry  regions.  When  grown 
for  fibre,  flax  requires  much  preliminary  labour 
before  it  is  fit  for  market,  which  sufficiently 
explains  why  other  crops  are  grown  in  preference. 
Flax  is  grown  for  linseed  in  the  United  States  and 
India,  and  might  be  grown  with  advantage  for 
this  purpose  in  this  country.  Belgium  produces 
the  finest  fibre,  possibly  owing  to  special  qualities 
of  the  river  water.  Much  foreign  flax  is  there- 
fore sent  to  Belgium  to  be  retted.  Russia  is  the 
largest  producer,  followed  by  Central  Europe, 
Northern  Italy,  and  Northern  Ireland.  Linen 
is  chiefly  used  for  bed  and  table  linen,  and  for 
shirts,  cuffs,  and  collars.  It  is  also  made  into 
fine  lawns  and  cambrics,  the  latter  named  from 
Cambrai  on  the  Franco -Belgian  coalfield,  long  a 
centre  of  the  linen  industry.  Linen  is  also 
manufactured  in  Ireland,  Westphalia,  Bohemia, 
and  France.  Britain  and  the  United  States  are 
the  chief  consumers. 

Hemp  and  Esparto.  Hemp  is  a  coarser 
fibre  furnished  by  the  bast  of  a  species  of 
nettle.  It  is  prepared  similarly  to  flax.  The 
largest  quantity  is  produced  in  Russia ;  the 
finest  quality  in  Italy.  Hemp  is  made  into 
twine,  cordage,  and  canvas,  or  sailcloth.  Great 
Britain  is  the  chief  buyer  and  manufacturer. 
[See  TEXTILES.]  Esparto  grass,  or  halfa,  grows  . 
in  Spain  and  North  Africa.  It  is  used  in  Spain 
for  making  baskets,  ropes  and  matting,  and  in 
this  country  for  paper.  For  the  latter  purpose 
it  is  now  largely  superseded  by  wood-pulp. 

Cotton.  Cotton,  the  cheapest  and  most 
widely-used  textile,  is  obtained  from  the  white 
woolly  fibre  which  surrounds  the  cotton  plant,  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties,  or  possibly 
species.  The  plant  is  raised  from  seed,  which, 
in  the  United  States,  is  planted  in  April  and  May, 
flowers  in  June,  and  ripens  \n  August,  when  pick- 
ing begins.  When  ripe,  xne  seed  vessel  opens, 
and  the  cotton  tufts  expand  to  about  the  size  of  an 


apple.  The  picking  is  not  in  itself  laborious,  but, 
being  performed  under  a  hot  sun  in  sub-tropical 
latitudes,  it  is  exhausting  for  white  men. 

Cotton  is  rather  a  sub-tropical  than  a  tropical 
plant.  It  is  grown  in  India,  and  other  tropical 
lands,  but  generally  at  a  considerable  height 
above  the  sea.  In  the  United  States  it  is  grown 
as  far  north  as  38°  N.,  and  in  Russian  Central 
Asia  (Khiva)  up  to  43°  N.  It  is  very  sensi- 
tive to  frost,  and  requires  a  high  and  fairly 
uniform  temperature  (over  70°  in  Egypt)  from 
April  to  September,  and  abundant  though  not 
excessive  rain.  The  presence  of  lime  in  the  soil 
seems  to  be  an  advantage,  and  some  varieties 
prefer  sea  air. 

The  Sources  of  Cotton.  At  the  present 
day  the  United  States  leads  in  the  production 
of  cotton,  Texas  being  the  chief  state.  The 
cotton  exporting  ports  are  Galveston,  which 
handles  the  crop  of  Texas,  where  the  season  is 
early,  New  Orleans,  Mobile,  Charleston,  Savan- 
nah, and  others,  into  whose  wharves  thousands 
of  bales  pour  daily  as  the  season  advances. 
Egypt  will  soon  rank  next.  In  India  cotton  is 
grown  in  the  Punjab  and  Bengal,  in  Gujerat,  on 
the  Deccan  tableland,  in  South  India,  and  in 
parts  of  Burma  and  in  the  north  of  Ceylon. 
China  and  Japan  both  grow  cotton  and  import  it 
to  a  considerable  extent.  Cotton  is  also  grown 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Borneo,  the  Philippines, 
New  Guinea,  and  tropical  Australia.  In  Africa 
it  is  grown  along  the  east  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  in  British  East  Africa,  British 
Central  Africa,  Madagascar,  and  along  the  west 
coast  of  Africa.  In  the  New  World,  outside 
the  United  States,  it  is  grown  in  Mexico,  Central 
America,  the  West  Indies,  and  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  South  America  north  of  30°  S., 
though  not  on  a  great  scale. 

The  History  of  Cotton  Manufacture. 
In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  cotton 
was  manufactured  by  hand  on  a  great  scale  in 
India,  and  on  a  small  scale  in  Europe.  At  the 
end  of  that  century  the  mechanical  inventions  and 
the  application  of  steam  placed  Britain  at  the 
head  of  the  manufacturing  nations  of  the  world 
and  ruined  the  Indian  industry.  Seven-tenths 
of  the  Lancashire  cotton  then  came  from  the 
West  Indies,  two-tenths  from  the  Mediterranean 
lands,  and  nearly  all  the  rest  from  Brazil.  As 
late  as  1792  the  United  States  agreed  to  export 
none  to  this  country.  The  American  Civil 
War,  however,  led  to  the  shrinkage  of  the 
world's  supply  of  raw  cotton  and  manufactured 
cotton  goods,  and  to  the  rapid  development  of 
cotton  cultivation  in  India  and  Egypt.  New 
changes  are  imminent.  The  southern  United 
States  now  manufacture  cotton  as  well  as  the 

5117 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

north  and  much  of  the  lessened  surplus  is  sent 
to  the  Far  East.  In  India  the  cotton  manu- 
facture is  also  encroaching  on  the  margin  for 
export.  Hence  the  needs  of  Lancashire  must 
be  supplied  elsewhere  and  a  recently  formed 
British  Cotton  Growing  Association  aims  at 
developing  the  resources  of  Nigeria,  the  Egyptian 
Sudan,  etc. 

Qualities  of  Fibre  Cotton.  The  quality 
of  cotton  varies  with  soil  and  locality.  The 
ordinary  American,  or  upland  cotton,  has  a 
short  fibre,  about  1  in.  long,  used  for  all 
the  familiar  cotton  goods.  The  low  islands 
off  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina 
grow  sea  island  cotton,  with  a  strong  fine  fibre 
'2  in.  long  or  more.  This  sells  at  a  high  price, 
and  is  used  for  thread,  lace,  and  fine  stuffs. 
Peruvian  cotton  is  also  long,  and  is  used  in 
hosiery  and  underwear,  in  combination  with 
wool.  An  exceptionally  long  fibre,  grown  in  the 
Piura  Valley  (Peru),  fetches  a  very  high  price, 
and  is  use:l  for  hosiery,  and  for  lining  rubber 
tyres.  Indian  cotton,  even  when  grown  from 
American  seed,  is  short,  and  does  not  spin  a  fine 
yarn.  Egyptian  cotton  is  long,  fine,  and  very 
prolific,  the  yield  per  acre  exceeding  that  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  used  in  making  thread  and 
fine  underwear. 

In  the  cotton  manufacture  Britain  still  leads 
the  world  with  47,900,000  spindles  in  1903, 
against  33,000,000  in  1870.  The  Continent  of 
Europe  has  33,000,000,  Germany  and  Russia 
having  8,000,000  spindles  in  1903,  against 
3,000,000  and  2,000,000  respectively  in  1870. 
The  United  States  had  over  22,000,000  spindles 
against  7,000,000  in  1870,  and  19,000,000  in 
1900,  the  rapid  increase  being  largely  in  the 
Southern  States. 

The  following  table  shows  the  quantity  of  raw 
cotton  imported  by  the  leading  countries  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twentieth  century : 


Country 

1,000  cwts. 

Value  in  £1,000 

United  Kingdom       . 

13,849 

36,457 

(Jermany 

4,393 

13,520 

France 

3,489 

8,477 

Russia 

3,319 

6,319 

Japan 

2,86o 

6,668 

Austria-IIunuarv 

2,693 

6,028 

Italy 

2,554 

6,017 

Spain    .  . 

1,500 

2.933 

Belgium 

739 

1,634 

(.'an  ad  a 

508 

880 

Switzerland  .  . 

468 

1,270 

Other  Fibres.  Manila  hemp  is  a  long, 
strong  fibre,  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  a  plant 
of  the  banana  family.  The  longest  fibres  arc 
made  into  ropes,  the  shorter  into  carpets,  sail- 
cloth, etc.  Practically  the  whole  supply  comes 
from  the  Philippines,  and  is  imported  through 
Manila.  Jute  is  grown  in  the  delta  of  the  Ganges, 
and  yields  a  strong,  coarse  fibre,  which  became 
an  import  article  of  commerce  when  the  Crimean 
War  (1854-1856)  cut  off  the  Russian  supplies  of 
flax  and  hemp.  Jute  takes  brilliant  but  not 
lasting  dyes,  and  is  largely  used  in  Dundee  and 
elsewhere  as  a  substitute  for  wool  in  carpets, 
rugs,  tapestries,  and  other  fabrics.  Round 
Calcutta  it  is  extensively  made  into  gunny  cloth 
-for  packing  bales  and  gunny  sacks,  imported  into 

5118 


the  United  States,  Brazil,  Argentina,  etc. 
numbers  of  jute  sacks  are  also  made  !>y  Chinese 
labour  in  California  for  the  Pacific  wheat  harvest. 
N/V//  hemp,  or  henequen,  is  used  for  cordage, 
sacking,  etc.  It  is  obtained  from  a  species  of 
agave  largely  cultivated  in  Yucatan  and  also 
in  British  Honduras  and  the  West  Indies. 
Ramie  rliea,  or  China  grass,  obtained  from  a 
species  of  nettle  grown  chiefly  in  China,  India, 
and  Japan,  is  a  fibre  much  stronger  than  hemp, 
and  almost  as  lustrous  as  silk.  It  is  increasingly 
used  in  France,  not  only  for  cordage  and  ammuni- 
tion bags,  but  for  fine  fabrics,  table  linen,  rugs, 
upholstery,  etc.  The  Bank  of  France  uses  it  for 
making  banknotes.  Phormium,  or  New  Zealand 
hemp,  is  used  for  cordage.  Coir',  the  husk  h'biv 
of  the  coco-nut,  is  exported  from  India  and 
tropical  America  for  making  coco-nut  matting. 
Piassava,  obtained  from  the  stem  of  a  species  of 
palm,  comes  from  Brazil,  and  is  made  into 
brushes  and  brooms.  The  midrib  of  the  sheaves 
of  the  screw  pine,  grown  in  tropical  America,  is 
made  into  Panama  hats  in  Ecuador,  Venezuela, 
and  Colombia,  but  many  inferior  fibres  are  used 
as  substitutes.  Plaiting  straw,  the  stern  of 
spring  wheat,  very  thickly  sewn  in  a  limy  soil, 
which  bleaches  it,  is  made  into  hats  in  Italy  and 
Belgium. 

Paper.  Most  of  these  fibres  are  more  or  less 
fit  for  making  paper  [see  APPLIED  CHEMISTRY]. 
Linen  and  cotton  rags  have  long  been  pulped  for 
this  purpose.  Worn  ropes  are  pulped  for  making 
brown  paper.  To  meet  the  enormous  demand, 
esparto  has  been  largely  used,  as  well  as  others 
of  the  fibres  named.  In  recent  years,  however, 
the  cheap  qualities  of  printing  paper  are  chiefly 
made  from  wood-pulp.  The  fine  papers  of  China 
and  Japan  are  made  from  the  bark  of  the  paper 
mulberry.  Besides  its  ordinary  uses,  paper  is 
used  as  a  material  for  making  boxes,  bowls,  etc. 

Oil  Seeds.  Some  of  the  fibre  plants  are 
also  grown  for  their  seeds,  from  which  oil  is 
expressed.  Linseed  oil,  expressed  from  flax  seed, 
is  used  as  a  drying  medium  in  paints  and 
varnishes,  and  in  printers'  ink,  etc.  Treated  with 
sulphur  and  applied  to  canvas,  it  is  used  in 
making  oilcloth.  Linoleum  is  made  by  a  similar 
process,  with  the  addition  of  finely  powdered 
cork.  Linseed  is  chiefly  exported  from  India. 
Russia,  Argentina,  and  the  United  States. 
Cotton-seed  oil.  sometimes  called  cottolene,  is  used 
as  a  substitute  for  butter  or  lard  as  well  as  in 
making  soap.  The  residuum  both  of  linseed  and 
cotton  seed,  forms  oil  cake,  used  for  fattening 
stock.  Other  oil  seeds  are  rape,  largely  grown  in 
India  and  yielding  colza  oil,  still  used  as  an 
illuminant  and  as  a  lubricator,  though  largely 
replaced  by  petroleum.  Sesame  is  grown  in 
India  and  Asia  Minor,  the  oil  being  used  both 
for  the  table  and  for  lighting.  Poppy-seed  oil, 
besides  its  use  for  food,  is  imported  from  India, 
chiefly  to  France,  for  making  paints  and  soap. 

No  exhaustive  list  of  cultivated  plants  can 
be  given.  In  India  alone,  for  a  single  purpose 
(tanning  and  dyeing),  300  species  are  used. 
Vegetables  dyes  are  elsewhere  less  used  than 
formerly.  Indigo,  a  blue  dye,  is  exported  from 
Bengal  and  Madras.  Madder  is  grown  for  yellow 


and  red  dyes  in  the  Levant,  France,  Germany, 
and  Holland,  as  well  as  in  India  and  the  United 
States.  Medicinal  plants  are  very  numerous 
Rhubarb,  one  of  the  commonest,  is  grown  on  a 
large  scale  in  China. 

Products  of  the  Pastoral  Lands.  The 
pastoral  lands  have  had  an  enormous  influence 
on  human  destiny.  The  Old  World  steppes  were 
the  home  of  the  horse,  ox,  camel,  sheep,  and 
goat,  which  man  has  domesticated,  supplying 
himself  with  a  permanent  food  supply,  the  means 
Df  transport,  and  valuable  raw  materials— wool, 
hair,  hides,  tallow,  etc. 

To  rear  animals  profitably,  pasturage  must  be 
abundant  and  land  cheap.  "  Animals  are  bred  on 
a  large  scale  for  food  or  other  uses  on  the  thinly- 
peopled  grasslands  of  the  world.  In  more 
thickly  peopled  regions,  dairy  farming  is  more 
profitable.  The  United  States  breeds  animals 
chiefly  for  food  (cattle  and  hogs),  as  do  Canada, 
Argentina,  New  Zealand,  and  Australia.  Dairy 
farming  is  highly  developed  in  Eastern  Canada, 
the  Eastern  United  States,  Denmark,  Holland, 
and  Switzerland.  Animals  are  bred  chiefly  for 
their  hides  and  tallow  in  India,  Venezuela, 
Argentina,  Russia,  and  South  Africa,  and  sheep 
for  their  wool  in  Australia,  South  Africa,  Argen- 
tina, Western  and  Central  Europe,  etc. 

The  Meat  Industry.  The  western  part 
of  the  Central  Plain  of  North  America  is  too  dry 
for  agriculture.  Where  there  is  sufficient  buffalo- 
grass,  or  other  pasture,  large  ranches,  or  cattle 
runs,  are  formed.  The  ranching  states  are 
Alberta  in  Canada,  and  Montana,  Wyoming, 
Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas  in  the  United 
States.  Cattle  are  also  bred  in  great  numbers 
in  the  maize  belt,  where  live  cattle  are  fattened 
for  export,  as  well  as  in  the  eastern  states. 
Dressed  beef,  as  it  is  called,  comes  chiefly  from 
the  ranching  states.  The  animals  are  slaughtered 
at  one  of  the  meat  cities,  of  which  Chicago, 
Kansas  City,  and  Omaha  are  the  largest,  and 
forwarded  in  refrigerating  cars  to  the  eastern 
markets,  a  large  proportion  being  for  export. 
Beef  canning,  formerly  very  important,  has 
declined,  as  the  trade  in  live  and  dressed  beef 
developed.  The  great  meat  packing  industry, 
carried  on  at  Chicago,  etc.,  chiefly  handles  hogs, 
which  are  fattened  in  enormous  numbers  in  the 
maize  belt.  Every  part  of  the  hog  has  its  uses. 
The  flesh  forms  ham  or  bacon,  and  is  salted, 
smoked,  or  canned.  Lard,  the  rendered  fat, 
which  forms  an  ingredient  in  margarine,  candles, 
etc.,  is  prepared  in  enormous  quantities  at 
Chicago  and  Cincinnati.  The  bones  are  car- 
bonised for  use  in  sugar  refining,  or  made  into 
fertilisers,  the  smaller  bones  being  used  for 
handles,  buttons,  etc.  The  intestines  are  made 
into  sausage  casings,  and  the  tendons,  etc.,  into 
glue.  The  hair  is  used  in  mixing  mortar. 

In  Canada  the  dressed  beef  trade  is  of  little 
importance,  but  live  cattle  are  sent  to  British 
Columbia  and  also  exported.  The  meat  trade 
is  increasingly  important  in  Argentina.  Beef 
extract  is  made  in  large  quantities,  and  Paysandu 
tinned  tongues  have  a  high  reputation.  Frozen 
mutton  is  an  important  export  from  Argentina, 
Buenos  Aires  having  the  largest  freezing  plant 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

in  the  world.  The  industry  is  important  in  the 
South  Island  of  New  Zealand,  and  in  Australia 
The  Dairy  Industries.  The  chief  dairy 
products  are  butter— which  is  now  made  in 
mechanical  separators— cheese,  condensed  milk 
etc.  Canada  is  the  largest  cheese  exporter  in 
the  world.  The  dairy  produce  of  the  United 
States  is  chiefly  for  home  consumption  Re- 
frigeration is  applied  to  the  trade  in  butter 
which  is  now  exported  from  Siberia  and  Aus- 
tralia. Denmark  and  Holland  are  the  chief 
exporters  in  Europe.  Excellent  cheeses  are 
made  in  Switzerland,  Northern  Italy,  France, 
and  Holland,  all  exporting  countries.  Con- 
densed milk  is  chiefly  made  in  Switzerland. 
Margarine,  made  of  lard  or  other  animal  fats, 
mixed  with  butter,  milk,  etc.,  is  made  in  Ger- 
many, Holland,  and  the  United  States. 
Koumiss,  or  fermented  mares'  milk,  is  an  im- 
portant food  among  the  nomadic  peoples  of 
the  Old  World  steppes,  and  is  now  recommended 
as  a  remedy  for  consumption.  Eggs  and 
poultry  may  be  included  with  dairy  produce. 
Canada  fattens  turkeys  in  large  numbers. 
Much  poultry  is  imported  into  this  country 
from  the  Continent.  Eggs  are  imported  from 
France,  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  and  Russia. 

Tallow,  the  rendered  fat  of  sheep  and  oxen,  is 
exported  from  the  United  States,  Argentina, 
Russia,  and  Australia.  It  is  used  in  making 
soap,  candles,  lubricants,  etc.  These  manufac- 
tures are  important  in  the  large  towns  of  the 
pastoral  steppes  of  Russia. 

Hides  and  Leather.  Raw  hides  are 
imported  into  this  country  from  India,  South 
Africa,  Argentina,  Uruguay,  Brazil,  etc. ;  tanned 
hides  chiefly  from  India  and  the  United  States 
[see  LEATHER].  The  skins  are  freed  from 
grease,  hair,  etc.,  and  rendered  firm  and  durable 
by  treatment  with  astringent  substances,  gene- 
rally the  bark  of  some  tree,  after  which  it  is 
treated  with  tallow  or  other  oil  to  make  it 
supple.  Russia  leather  owes  its  characteristic 
odour  to  the  birch  bark  with  which  it  is  tanned. 
Morocco  is  a  goatskin  leather.  Chamois  leather 
is  made  by  working  oil  into  the  cleaned  skin. 
Tawing  is  a  method  of  treatment  with  alum  to 
soften  leather  for  the  uppers  of  ladies'  b«ots,  and 
for  gloves.  The  latter  industry  is  brought  to 
perfection  in  France,  Belgium,  and  Vienna. 
Kid  skin  is  used  for  the  finest,  sheep  or  lamb 
skin  for  the  cheaper  makes,  and  calf  or  dog  skin 
for  the  stoutest  qualities.  Leather  is  also  used  for 
saddlery,  bookbinding,  furniture  covering,  etc. 

Hair,  The  hide  is  not  the  only  portion  of 
the  skin  in  use.  Horsehair  is  exported  from 
Russia,  Siberia,  and  Argentina  for  upholstery. 
Pigs'  bristles  are  made  into  brushes.  Leipzig  is 
the  chief  European  market,  most  of  the  supply 
coming  from  Russia.  The  distinction  between 
wool  and  hair  is  difficult  to  draw.  Wool  felts, 
but  so  do  (1)  mohair,  the  silky  hair  of  the  Angora 

§oat,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  (market, 
myrna),  now  introduced  into  Cape  Colony  and 
California,  (2)  the  hair  of  the  Kashmir  goat,  whose 
scanty  yield  is  extremely  costly  and  is  made  into 
the  famous  Kashmir  shawls,  and  (3)  camel's  hair, 
which  is  exported  from  China  and  Russia,  and 

5119 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

is  used  for  soft  paint-brushes,  and  for  making 
shawls,  etc.  Mohair,  and  the  -wool  or  hair  of  the 
alpaca,  vicuna,  and  llama,  all  natives  of  the 
Andes,  are  largely  mixed  with  ordinary  wool. 

Wool.  The  finest  and  softest  .wool  is  pro- 
duced in  dry  high  pastures.  The  merino  sheep, 
a  native  of  Northern  Africa,  was  early  intro- 
duced into  Spain.  Saxony,  Silesia,  and  France 
effected  great  improvement  in  the  breed,  and 
the  magnificent  flocks  of  Australia  are  chiefly 
descended  from  the  improved  German  breed. 
Australia  (Victoria,  New  South  Wales),  pro- 
ducts the  finest  wool  in  the  world.  The 
mutton  of  the  merino  sheep  is  poor,  and  the 
growth  of  the  frozen  meat  trade  is  inducing 
Australian  farmers  to  try  various  crosses  to 
improve  it.  The  best  English  breeds  are  the 
Lincoln.  Cheviot,  Leicester,  and  Southdown. 
About  80  per  cent,  of  the  world's  wool  is  obtained 
from  the  merino,  from  the  heavy  English  sheep, 
and  from  crosses  between  the  two. 

Qualities  of  Wool.  Wool  may  be  either 
long  or  short  in  staple,  and  either  coarse  or 
fine.  The  finest  and  softest  wools  are  generally 
grown  in  arid  regions,  as  in  Australia  and 
Southern  California.  That  grown  in  wet 
lowlands  is  often  coarse  and  harsh.  Worsted 
yarns  are  used  for  merinos,  serges,  hosiery, 
carpets,  etc.  Cloth  yarns  are  made  into  a 
great  variety  of  cloths  and  dress  materials. 
Carpets  are  everywhere  an  important .  product 
of  the  pastoral  lands.  Those  of  Persia  and 
Turkey  have  long  been  famous.  They  are 
made  of  a  wool  which  does  not  easily  felt,  so 
that  the  pile  remains  erect.  Sheep  do  well  on 
high  hill  pastures,  and  the  wool  manufacture, 
utilising  the  abundant  water  power,  often  grew 
up  in  the  neighbouring  valleys.  In  this  country 
it  is  still  located  in  the  valleys  of  the  Aire  and 
Calder  (Leeds,  Bradford),  of  the  Tweed  (Ha wick, 
Galashiels),  and  of  the  Cotswolds  (Stroud). 
The  same  thing  occurred  in  Saxony  and  the 
Ardennes.  The  manufacture  is  now  important 
in  all  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  Canada. 

The  World's  Wool  Supply.  The 
world's  supply  of  wool  in  1904  was  esti- 
mated »t  2,129,000,000  lb.,  of  which  Australia 
supplied  over  24  per  cent.  ;  South  America  over 
22  per  cent.  ;  Europe  over  27  per  cent,  (the 
United  Kingdom  contributing  over  6  per  cent.)  ; 
North  America  over  14  per  cent.  ;  and  South 
Africa  over  3  per  cent.  Britain  imports  over 
600,000,000  lb.  of  wool,  principally  from  her 
Colonies.  Australia  supplies  two-fifths,  London 
being  the  great  market  for  Australian  wool. 
though  it  is  increasingly  sent  to  Marseilles. 
Antwerp,  Hamburg,  and  New  York.  New 
Zealand  sends  a  quarter.  Cape  Colony  one-tenth, 
and  British  India  one-twentieth,  in  all  four- 
fifths.  The  following  are  the  figures  for  1905 : 

1  in| M>rtt-<l  wool            654,000,000  Hi. 

Imported  «heepskine          ..        ..  •_'!.( KM»,O( HI  .. 

Borne  production l3l,oon,(Nto  . 

W,".||,-n  n,u>  ini].orted        ..         ..  92,000,000,, 

901,000,000  lb. 

The  last-named  are  torn  into  fibres,  respun  and 
woven  into  shoddy  and  mungo. 
6120 


Of  this  total  import  279,000,000  lb.  of  foreign 
and  35.000,000  lb.  of  home-grown  wool  were 
exported,  leaving  a  surplus  of  587,000,000  lb. 
In  addition  woollen  manufactured  goods,  valued 
at  £12,600,000  were  imported,  and  woollen  goods 
and  yarn  to  the  value  of  £26,000,000  were 
exported.  The  imported  wool  in  1905  was: 

Sli.-f|.  and  lamb          613,700,00011.. 

Alpaca  and  vicuna i:n,r,m,ooi)  ,, 

Mohair  .  .          . .       ...          .  .  25,300.000  .. 

.  770,500,000  lb. 

Silk.  Silk  is  produced  by  the  caterpillar 
of  a  species  of  moth,  which  lays  several  hundred 
eggs  so  minute  that  one  ounce  of  them  will 
produce  40.000  silkworms,  which  are  hatched. 
From  the  good  cocoons  raw  silk  is  formed  ; 
from  damaged  cocoons,  broken  threads,  etc., 
silk  waste  is.  obtained. 

The  food  of  silkworms  being  the  mulberry, 
lime,  and  other  leaves,  they  cannot  be  kept 
outside  the  area  where  these  will  grow,  nor 
can  they  be  kept  all  over  that  area.  Cold 
springs  are  very  injurious.  In  China,  the 
silkworms  are  hatched  in  April,  and  if  the 
temperature  fall  below  60°,  .the  yield  of  silk 
is  much  reduced.  A  second  restriction  is  im- 
posed by  the  cost  of  labour.  In  Italy,  girls 
are  employed  at  a  nominal  wage  to  wind  the 
silks  off  the  cocoons,  but  where  labour  is  highly 
paid,  it  is  cheaper  to  import  the  raw  silk  than  to 
grow  it.  For  these  reasons  silk  is  still  chiefly 
produced  in  the  Old  World,  especially  in  China, 
Japan,  India,  Persia,  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  Italy, 
the  Rhone  valley  in  France,  the  Adige  valley, 
and  the  Mediterranean  provinces  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  to  a  small  degree  in  Greece  and 
Spain.  The  silk  manufactures  of  the  East  have 
long  been  famous  In  Europe,  France  (Lyons), 
Germany  (Krefeld),  Italy  (Milan),  and  Switzer- 
land (Zurich.  Basel),  are  the  chief  manufacturing 
countries.  In  the  United  States,  Paterson,  New 
Jersey,  is  the  "  Lyons  of  the  United  States." 

In  China.  India,  and  Mongolia,  wild  or  tussore 
silk  is  obtained  from  other  caterpillars  or  from 
the  mulberry  moth  in  a  natural  state.  Artificial 
silk  is  made  of  cellulose,  chiefly  from  wood  pulp. 

Other  Animal  Products.  Other  impor- 
tant animal  products  are  furs,  ivory,  feathers, 
wax.  and  such  commodities  as  cochineal  and  lac. 

Furs  are  chiefly  produced  by  the  animals  of 
the  temperate  forest.  The  chief  sources  of 
supply  are  the  forests  of  Siberia,  Canada,  and 
Alaska.  Of  South  American  furs,  chinchilla  is 
one  of  the  most  popular.  Australia  exports 
kangaroo  and  opossum  furs,  and  large  numbers  of 
rabbit  skins.  Cats  are  bred  for  their  skins  in 
parts  of  Central  Europe.  New  York  and  London 
are  the  chief  markets  for  North  American  furs, 
and  Nizhni  Novgorod  for  Siberian  furs.  The 
greatest  fur  market  in  the  world  is  Leipzig. 

Feathers  are  used  both  for  ornamental  and 
domestic  purposes.  The  former  come  chiefly 
from  France,  the  East  Indies,  and  South  Africa, 
famous  for  ostrich  feathers.  The  principal 
domestic  feathers  are  those  of  ordinary  poultry, 
used  for  bed  and  pillows,  and  of  the  eider  duck, 
obtained  from  the  Polar  regions. 

Beeswax  and  honey  are  the  product  of  the 
honey  bee.  Both  are  largely  used  on  the 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

t  product,  used  for  lacquer,  dyeing,  etc 
The  best  comes  from  the  valleys  of  the  Ganges 
and  Irawadi.  Ivory  is  obtained  from  the  tusks  of 
the  elephant,  hippopotamus,  walrus,  etc.  Ele- 


«.•  Seal»  and  Dugong  Fisheries. 

I.  he   whale    is    hunted    for   its    whalebone,    the 
horny   fringe    of   the    upper   jaw,   and   for  the 


phant  ivory  is  chiefly  obtained  from  Africa  and  blubber  under  the  skin,  which  yields  train  oil, 

the  East  Indies.    Hippopotamus  ivory  is  smaller,  "sed  in  soap-boiling,  and  as  a  lubricant.     The 

but  is  much  in  demand  for  the  handles  of  surgical  nshery  is  declining.   Whales  have  become  scarce, 

instruments.  petroleum   has   lanwlv   ronln^/l    tv^»   *„„;      ™i 


instruments 

Products  of  the  Sea.  The  most  valuable 
products  of  the  sea  are  the  food-fishes.  [See 
Fisheries  in  FOOD  SUPPLY  and  NATURAL 
HISTORY.]  The  best  fishing  grounds  are  the 
shallow  seas,  which  cover  the  Continental  shelf 
in  the  cooler  parts  of  the  temperate  ocean,  and 
especially  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
North  America,  the  Grand  Banks  cf  Newfound- 
land, and  the  North  Sea.  The  Japanese  waters 
are  also  rich  fishing  grounds. 


petroleum  has  largely  replaced  the  train  oil, 
and  celluloid,  steel,  and  other  substitutes  are 
used  instead  of  whalebone  for  many  purposes. 
The  whale  is  hunted  in  Arctic  waters,  and  train 
oil  comes  chiefly  from  Norway  and  British 
North  America.  Peterhead  and  Dundee  are  the 
chief  whaling  ports  in  this  country.  New  Zea- 
land is  the  centre  of  the  whale  fishery  of  the 
southern  hemisphere.  The  right,  or  Greenland 
whale,  found  near  Greenland,  and  in  the  seas 
north  of  Norway  and  Iceland,  supplies  both 


The  cod,  the  most  valuable  fish  of  temperate      whalebone    and  blubber;   the   bottle-nose  whale 

t4-.n-Mn      4«    n.    ,,~l,j-    "U, 1 1    1*  •  ^"fmm     tTio     r*rvr»-fV»    s\f\c*4~     ^.-f    T^^l««.rl\     »^^U~     l~l__l-i_ 


waters,  is  caught  by  hand  lines  in  vast  numbers 
on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  chiefly  by 
fishermen  from  this  country,  France,  Canada, 
and  the  United  States.  A  great  part  of  the 
catch  is  salted  and  dried  for  export  to  Latin 
Europe  and  South  America.  The  fishery  is  also 


(from  the  north-east  of  Iceland)  yields  blubber 
only.  The  sperm  whale  (hunted  near  the 
United  States,  New  Zealand,  and  in  the  warmer 
seas)  has  no  whalebone,  but  has  spermaceti  in 
the  head  cavity,  which  is  used  in  making  salves 
and  candles.  It  also  yields  a  morbid  product 


important  in  Canadian  waters,  on  the  Dogger  known  as  'ambergris,  which  commands  a  high 
Banks  of  the  North  Sea,  and  round  Norway,  Price  for  use  in  perfumery.  It  is  chiefly  obtained 
especially  in  the  Lofoden  Isles.  Cod-liver  oil,'  Jrom  the  Bahamas.  The  dugong  is  caught  in  the 


extracted  from  the  liver,  is  largely  exported  from 
Newfoundland  and  Norway. 

The  herring  is  caught  in  the  same  waters,  but 
nearer  the  coast.  In  North  America  the  Maine 
fisheries  are  very,  important,  and  the  small  fry 
are  largely  canned  as  sardines,  the  American 
output  competing  successfully  with  that  of 
genuine  sardines.  Dried,  salted,  or  smoked 
herrings  figure  largely  in  commerce. 

The  haddock,  whiting,  mackerel,  the  flat  fishes 
(turbot,  sole,  halibut),  and  many  others  are 
important  in  the  same  waters.  The  tunny 
fisheries  are  confined  to  the  Mediterranean,  where 
sardines  are  also  important.  The  best  anchovies 
are  those  of  Leghorn. 

The  salmon  is  abundant  in  the  rivers  of  Alaska, 
British  Columbia,  Norway,  Scotland,  etc.  The 
canneries  of  Alaska  are  now  more  important 
than  those  of  either  the  Columbia  or  the 
Fraser  rivers. 

The  sturgeon  is  a  large  fish,  chiefly  valued  for 
its  roe,  which  is  made  into  caviar.  It  is  abundant 
in  the  rivers  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  in 
the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America,  and  in  the 
Delaware  and  other  rivers.  Much  so-called 
Russian  caviar  is  made  in  Maine,  and  much  from 
the  Delaware  is  exported  to. Germany. 

The  estuaries  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North 
America  produce  excellent  shellfish.  The  lobster 
is  abundant  from  Labrador  to  Delaware  Bay, 


Indian  Ocean,  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and 
the  Australian  waters.  Dugong  oil  is  made  in 
Queensland  as  a  substitute  for  cod-liver  oil. 
Dugong  bacon  is  a  preserved  meat  exported  from 
Queensland. 

The  seal,  an  amphibious,  fur-bearing  animal, 
is"  principally  captured  on  the  breeding  grounds 
of  the  Pribylof  Islands  in  Behring  Sea.  The 
pelts  are  shipped  to  San  Francisco,  and  thence  to 
London,  which  is  the  principal  market.  Blubber 
seals  are  captured  off  Labrador  and  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence. 

Miscellaneous  Sea  Products.  The 
sponge  comes  from  the  Adriatic  and  the  Eastern 
Mediterranean.  Inferior  sponges  are  obtained 
from  Florida  and  the  Bahamas.  [See  NATURAL 
HISTORY.]  Coral,  the  skeleton  of  the  coral  polyp, 
is  largely  manufactured  into  ornaments  round 
Naples.  Most  coral  comes  from  the  Western 
Mediterranean,  Cape  Verde,  etc.  Pearl  oysters 
are  obtained  by  divers  from  the  Persian  Gulf, 
Ceylon,  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  Torres  Strait, 
North-West  Australia,  Tahiti,  California,  and 
the  northern  coast  of  Venezuela. 

Trepang,  or  sea  cucumber,  also  known  as 
beche  de  mer,  a  kind  of  sea  slug,  is  obtained 
round  the  coasts  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
New  Guinea,  Northern  Australia,  and  parts  of 
the  Pacific.  It  is  in  great  demand  in  China  and 
Chinese  settlements  as  a  flavouring  for  soups. 


Continued 


5121 


Group  28 

TEXTILES 


FLOORCLOTH  &  LINOLEUM 

Materials    and    Processes   in    the    Manufacture 
of   Floorcloth  and  Linoleum.      Inlaid  Linoleum 


By  W.   S.  MURPHY 


IN  our  survey  of  the  various  branches  of  the 
textile  industry  we  have  glanced  over  the 
history  and  processes  of  floorcloth  and  linoleum 
manufacture.  Necessarily  brief,  the  summary  of 
facts  most  pertinent  to  our  subject  given  on 
pages  1026-27  is  quite  sufficient  as  an  intro- 
duction to  our  subject.  Dealing  now  with  the 
practical  work,  we  take  up  the  making  of  floor- 
cloth which  is  the  oldest,  simplest,  and  cheapest 
of  textile  floor  coverings. 

Sizing.  In  one  sense,  the  making  of  floor- 
cloth is  a  finishing  process — the  covering  of  a 
woven  canvas  with  a  certain  amount  of  oil  paint. 
The  jute  canvas  which  forms  the  basis  of  floor- 
cloth is  rough  and  open  in  texture,  and  to  save 
paint,  as  well  as  to  afford  the  pigment  a  firm 
grip  on  the  fibre,  we  coat  the  canvas  over  with 
a  thin  size.  First  the  canvas  is  nailed  at  full 
stretch  upon  large  wooden  frames  provided  with 
screws  to  regulate  the  tension  in  a  chamber  or 
stove  fitted  up  with  steam  heating  pipes.  Between 
each  frame  is  a  scaffolding  upon  which  the  worker 
ascends  to  work  on  the  high  parts  of  the  canvas. 
The  size  is  laid  on  with  a  brush,  the  object  being 
to  make  the  cloth  as  smooth  as  possible,  filling 
the  grain  of  the  rough  texture.  When  fairly  dry, 
but  not  hard,  the  surface  should  be  rubbed  over 
with  pumicestone  and  made  smooth. 

Coating.  Before  proceeding  to  lay  on  the 
paint  we  should  go  over  the  canvas  with  the 
shears,  cutting  away  all  the  loose  fibres  and  flying 
threads.  The  canvas  is  then  ready  to  receive 
its  first  coat  of  paint  on  each  side.  The  paint 
is  not  the  pigment  used  for  coating  wood,  or 
other  plane  surfaces  ;  it  is  very  thick,  generally 
composed  of  yellow  ochre  or  red  oxide  of  iron, 
made  into  a  thick  paste  with  drying  oil.  Lifted 
on  long  steel  trowels,  such  as  plasterers  use,  the 
pigment  is  laid  smoothly  on  both  sides  of  the 
sized  canvas.  A  second  coat,  as  soon  as  the  first 
has  dried,  is  laid  on  the  side  to  be  made  the  back, 
while  the  surface  of  the  other  side  is  smoothed 
with  an  application  of  pumicestone.  A  second 
coat  is  then  applied,  and  after  it  has  dried,  the 
rubbing  with  pumicestone  is  repeated.  The 
number  of  times  this  is  done  depends  wholly  on 
the  quality  or  thickness  of  floorcloth  desired. 
After  each  coating  the  heating  steam  is  turned 
on  and  the  doors  of  the  stove  shut  down. 
Before  applying  the  surface  coat,  it  should  be 
made  certain  that  all  the  under  coats  have 
thoroughly  settled  and  hardened.  Because  the 
surface  is  to  be  smooth,  the  last  coat  is  put  on 
with  the  brush.  The  paint  is  usually  of  a  higher 
quality  than  that  used  for  the  former  coats. 

The  system  of  coating  described  is  that 
employed  for  high-grade,  hand-made  floorcloths. 
The  lower  erado  article  more  in  demand  in  these 

5122 


days  of  cheapness  is  all  coated  by  machine. 
The  rolls  of  canvas,  usually  2  yd.  or  4  yd.  wide 
(in  the  hand-made  series  we  have  the  advantage 
of  getting  goods  as  wide  as  8  yd.,  thus  avoiding 
cutting  and  joining  in  laying  large  apartments), 
are  passed  through  a  coating  machine  fitted 
with  colour  trough  and  steel  knife,  or  doctor, 
which  regulates  the  thickness  of  the  coating, 
much  thinner,  of  course,  than  in  the  case  of  the 
hand-made  goods.  The  finishing  process  of 
varnishing  is  also  done  on  a  special  brushing 
machine. 

Finishing.  If  the  floorcloth  is  destined 
for  the  market  in  a  plain  state,  it  is  varnished, 
seasoned  in  the  dry  ing -room  heated  up  to  a 
temperature  from  110°  F.  to  130°  F.  Hardened 
sufficiently,  the  cloth  is  trimmed,  and  wound  on 
to  rollers  for  the  warehouse.  But  if  a  pattern 
is  to  be  printed  on  it  the  cloth  passes  unvarnished 
through  another  operation,  in  which  it  is  treated 
in  a  way  similar  to  the  linoleum.  We  shall 
observe  both  being  printed  in  due  course. 

Linoleum.  Though  accepted  as  a  hygienic 
floor-covering,  floorcloth  was  objected  to  because 
of  its  hardness,  coldness,  lack  of  elasticity  and 
deadening  property.  In  order  to  meet  these  objec- 
tions those  engaged  in  the  floorcloth  business, 
and  others,  sought  to  make  another  substance, 
which,  possessing  all  the  properties  which  made 
floorcloth  valuable,  would  have  fewer  defects. 
Linoleum  is  the  most  popular  result  of  these 
efforts.  Like  the  older  fabric,  linoleum  has  for 
its  skeleton  a  layer  of  jute  canvas.  The  vegetable 
fibre,  however,  plays  a  very  small  part  in  the 
construction  of  linoleum.  Four  other  kinds  of 
materials  make  up  the  bulk  of  this  heavy  fabric — 
linseed  oil,  cork,  kauri  gum,  and  pigments.  The 
linoleum  manufacturer  has  to  prepare  these 
materials  for  his  purpose. 

CorK.  The  chief  sources  of  the  cork  supply 
of  Europe  are  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Algeria*; 
but,  it  must  be  admitted,  linoleum  manufac- 
turers depend  mostly  on  -the  cork-cutters  for 
the  supply  of  their  needs.  Refuse  from  the 
great  cork-cutting  factories  is  collected  and  sold 
to  the  linoleum  trade. 

CorK=grinder.  To  cut  cork  is  rather 
difficult.  It  is  very  tough  and  elastic.  After 
having  been  sieved,  and  thus  separated  from  the 
rubbish  too  plentifully  mixed  with  it,  the  cork 
is  taken  to  the  grinder  [231].  Bolted  firmly  to  a 
driven  shaft  in  the  middle  of  the  breaker  we 
find  a  series  of  heavy  circular  saws,  one  large  and 
one  small  alternating.  Opposed  to  these  are 
bars  of  steel,  with  toothed  ends,  grooved  con- 
trary to  the  teeth  of  the  saws,  and  alternating 
long  and  short  to  suit  the  large  and  small 
diameters  of  their  opposites.  From  a  hopper 


on  the  head  of  the  machine,  the  cork  comes  down 
in  between  the  teeth  of  saws  and  bars,  which 
speedily  reduce  it  to  mingled  dust  and  little 
pieces. 

Milling  and  Mixing.  Though  fairly  broken 
the  cork  is  not  yet  fine  enough  for  our  purpose, 
and  it  passes  on  to  be  ground.  This  is  done  in  a 
mill  exactly  similar  to  the  roller  form  of  flour 
mill.  Between  the  upper  and  nether  millstones 
the  cork  is  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  As  it  passes 
through  the  stones  the  cork  is  carried  up  by  a 
screw  elevator  to  a  sieve,  through  which  that 
which  has  been  properly  ground  drops  into  bags 
while  the  residue  goes  back  to  be  ground  over 
again.  The  sacks  which  receive  the  ground 
cork  are  designed  to  contain  exactly  56  Ib. 
When  full  they  are  taken  away  to  the  store,  and 
the  cork  allowed  to  dry  for  a  day  or  two. 

Linseed  Oil.  This  is  the  most  important 
constituent  of 
linoleum.  As 
a  rule,  new 
oil  is  allowed 
to  stand  in 
the  tanks  and 
the  impuri- 
ties settle  at 
the  bottom. 

Boiling. 
The  best  and 
newest  me- 
thod of  oil 
boil  ing  is  with 
j  a  c  k  e  t  e  d 
pans.  The 
pan  is  of 
copper,  circu- 
lar in  shape, 
and  s  u  r  - 
rounded  with 
an  iron  steam- 
jacket  up  to 
about  half 
its  depth. 
Both  pan  and  jacket  must  be  able  to  withstand 
a  pressure  of  from  36  Ib.  to  40  Ib.  per  sq.  in. 
In  the  dome  of  the  pan  i«  a  funnel  which  carries 
away  the  vapours  of  the  oil.  Within  the  dome 
a  couple  of  fans  rotate,  their  wings  intersecting 
each  other.  A  pipe  in  the  lower  half  of  the  pan 
is  fitted  to  admit  the  air-blast.  In  the  feed  tank 
the  oil  has  been  heated  by  a  waste  pipe  from  the 
steam  jacket,  and  runs  into  the  pan  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  95°  F.  When  the  steam 
pressure  has  reached  32  Ib.  per  sq.  in.,  the  driers 
and  the  air-blast  should  be  let  in.  Driers  vary, 
but  about  2  per  cent,  weight  of  litharge  is  about 
the  average  amount.  Keeping  a  regular  pres- 
sure of  about  32  Ib.  for  four  hours,  we  allow  the 
heat  to  go  down.  When  cool  the  oil  is  pumped 
into  the  settling  tanks. 

First  Process  of  Oxidising.  After  that 
part  of  the  drier  not  absorbed  by  the  oil 
has  settled,  the  oil  is  pumped  up  into  tanks 
on  the  top  floor  of  the  oxidising  shed,  which 
is  usually  placed  by  itself,  and  is  no  higher 
than  is  needed  for  the  work.  Besides  the  main 
tank  in  the  top  floor  we  have  little  running 


231.    BATTERY   OF   CORK-GRINDING   MACHINES 


TEXTILES 

troughs,  with  a  curious  tilt,  which  makes  them 
give  off  the  oil  when  it  reaches  a  certain  level. 
These  oil  distributors  run  to  and  fro  along  the 
length  of  the  building.  Underneath,  and  stretch- 
ing up  to  the  rails  of  the  upper  floor  from  the  floor 
beneath,  are  long  webs  of  thin  cotton,  called  scrim. 
Supported  by  frames  at  the  top  and  bottom,  these 
webs  receive  the  oil  as  it  trickles  down.  Once 
every  twenty-four  hours,  or  oftener  in  hot 
weather,  the  scrim  is  flooded  with  oil  during  a 
period  of  from  seventy  to  ninety  days.  As  each 
layer  of  oil  runs  upon  the  scrim,  it  is  held  and 
solidified.  Layer  upon  layer  is  piled  up  in  this 
way  till  about  the  thickness  of  an  inch  has  been 
obtained,  and  then  the  scrim  is  cut  down,  afford- 
ing, perhaps,  a  skin  about  25  ft.  long  by  6  ft, 
broad. 

Rapid    Process   of  Oxidising.     Twelve 
to  fourteen  weeks  is  a  long  time  to  wait  on  a 

inanu  f  ac  - 
turing  pro- 
cess, and  lino- 
leum manu- 
facturers 
naturally 
sought  to  re- 
duce the  time 
occupied  in 
oxidising.  We 
can  hardly 
pause  to  de- 
tail all  the  ex- 
periments 
which  were 
tried,  for  they 
were  many 
but  the  pro- 
cess we  are 
to  study  is 
generally  ad- 
mitted  to 
have  been 
successful. 
The  jacketed 

pan  is  once  more  resorted  to  ;  but  this  time  with 
additions.  Within  the  pan  are  revolving  arms  that 
lift  up  the  oil ;  at  the  same  time  a  strong  blast  of 
air  is  blown  through  the  pan,  acting  vigorously 
on  the  heated  oil.  Up  to  a  certain  degree,  the 
steam  heat  is  slowly  increased,  and  then,  as  the 
oxidising  process  sets  in,  the  heat  is  diminished, 
and  the  jacket  even  cooled,  by  the  introduction 
of  water.  This  process  does  not  give  such  good 
results  as  the  older  method,  though  a  solidified 
oil  is  produced  by  it  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Grinding  and  Mixing.  Whether  oxidised 
by  the  old  method  or  the  new,  the  oil,  now  a 
solid  mass,  is  ground  between  rollers  into  a 
form  resembling  damp  earth,  and  let  cool  by 
spreading  on  a  stone  floor.  This  material  is 
put  into  a  jacketed  pan,  along  with  resin  and 
kauri  gum,  in  the  proportion  of  3|  cwt.  ground  oil 
to  1  cwt.  resin  and  1  cwt.  kauri  gum.  Within  the 
pan  is  a  set  of  vertical  stirrers  capable  of  being 
driven  at  considerable  speed.  When  the  steam 
has  been  put  on,  the  resin  is  laid  in  and  melted, 
then  the  oil  and  kauri  gum  are  added  in  small 
quantities  alternately.  After  the  whole  of  the 

5123 


TEXTILES 

ingredients  have  been  put  into  the  pan,  the  lid 
is  screwed  down  and  the  stirrors  kept  going  for 
from  two  to  four  hours.  Sufficiently  mixed  and 
heated,  the  mixture  is  passed  through  cold 
grinding  rollers  into  moulding  pans,  white- 
washed inside  to  keep  the  stuff 
from  sticking  to  them.  These 
pans  contain  46  Ib.  of  cement, 
this  being  the  quantity  which  is 
needed  to  mix  with  the  56-lb. 
bags  of  cork. 

First       Mixing.        Slightly 
softened  by  heat,  the  cakes  are 
cut  up  into  pieces  and  fed  into 
the  mixing  rolls.     These  are  two 
steam-heated  rollers  fixed  above 
a  third  which  runs  underneath. 
Into  the  hopper  above  the  rollers 
a  sack  of  cork  is  poured,  while  a  cake  of  cement 
is   fed  in  between   the   rollers.     Thus   roughly 
mixed  the  cork  and  cement  pass  on  elevators 
into  the  next  machine. 

Second  Mixing  and  Addition  of 
Colour.  This  mixing  machine  is  a  horizontal 
drum,  hung  on  a  spindle  equipped  with  beater 
arms.  On  the  head  of  the  drum  a  hopper  sits, 
and  into  this  the  mixed  cork  and  cement  and 
the  required  amount  of  colouring  matter  are 
placed.  Given  a  thousand  revolutions  or  so,  the 
dram  is  opened  by  a  slide  and  the  material  slips 
down  into  the  next  machine. 

Third  Mixing.  With  the  exception  that 
it  is  steam  heated  below,  the  principle  of  this 
machine  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  cork-cutter. 
On  a  horizontal  spindle  heavy  knife-blades  are 
strongly  built,  and  from  the  sides  of  the 
machine  come  fixed  blades,  which  insert  them- 
selves between  the  revolving  knives.  From 
the  hopper  which  communicates  with  the  slide 
above  mentioned,  the  mixture  comes  down 
among  the  revolving  knives.  When  it  emerges 
from  this  machine  [232]  the  material  bears  a 
strong  resemblance  to  German  sausage,  and 
hence  the  machine  is  named  the  sausage  machine. 


sheets,  which  are  taken  off  the  lower  roller  with 
a  knife,  named  the  doctor. 

Scratcher.  Resembling  the  above  machine 
in  main  structure,  the  scratcher  has,  instead 
of  the  doctor  knife,  a  kind  of  rude  carding 


233.    FOUR-ROLLER   CALENDER 

Fourth  Mixer.  Composed  of  two  rollers, 
llie  upper  one  steam  heated  within  and  the  lower 
"!,•  kept  cool  by  a  stream  of  water,  this  machine 
takes  in  the  sausage,  and  converts  it  into  thin 

5124 


232.    LINOLEUM   MIXER 

cylinder,  which  scratches  the  sheeted  cement 
off  the  cold  roller  and  converts  it  into  the  form 
of  little  pellets. 

MaKing  Plain  Linoleum.  Though  simple 
in  construction  the  machine  upon  which  linoleum 
is  made  exhibits  high  ingenuity.  Under  a 
hopper  we  find  an  endless  web  of  wire  gauze, 
made  to  run  in  the  manner  of  a  feed  lattice 
towards  a  pair  of  large  rollers,  which  are  heated 
to  a  temperature  of  250°  F.  Only  one  of  these 
rollers  is  heated,  the  one  coming  in  direct  contact 
with  the  granulated  linoleum.  The  one  over  which 
the  canvas  passes  is  not  heated,  but,  of  course, 
contracts  a  certain  temperature  from  contact  with 
the  hot  material  and  the  heated  roller  in  front. 
From  a  web  behind  those  rollers  comes  the  jute 
canvas  which  is  to  form  the  fabric  of  the  linoleum. 
Poured  through  a  hopper  over  the  wire  conveyor, 
the  granulated  linoleum  descends,  and  meets 
the  canvas  in  between  the  two  steam-heated 
rollers  [233],  which  are  revolving  set  to  the 
required  distance  apart  from  each  other.  By 
the  heat  and  pressure  of  the  rollers  the  canvas 
and  linoleum  are  joined.  Passing  on,  the  fabric 
comes  into  contact  with  two  cold  rollers,  kept 
cool  by  a  constant  flow  of  water  through  them, 
-~L~. .  ^-  and  is  wound  on  to  a 

beam  at  the  end  of  the 
machine. 

The  contact  witli  the 
cold  rollers  has  the  effect 
of  hardening  and  polish- 
ing the  surface  of  the 
plain  linoleum. 

Backing.  We  have 
now  made  linoleum ; 
but  it  usually  goes 
through  yet  another 
process.  To  render  the 
back  impervious  to 
damp  it  is  necessary  to 
cover  it  with  some  sub- 
stance. A  backing  of 
strong  size  was  at  one 
time  considered  suffi- 
cient ;  but  now  the 

best  classes  of  the  cloth  are  treated  in  a 
machine  with  a  strong  mixture,  which  may  be 
applied  either  by  hand  or  machine.  When  the 
machine  is  preferred  the  linoleum  is  brought 


from  the  roller  press  and  hung 
on  to  one  end  of  the  machine, 
which  is  equipped  with  back- 
ing trough  and  spreaders.  As 
the  linoleum  passes  through,  it 
receives  a  coating  of  the  mix- 
ture, evenly  distributed,  and  is 
passed  directly  into  a  drying 
stove  opposite  the  machine. 

Seasoning.  The  seasoning 
stoves  are  rooms  about  30  ft. 
from  floor  to  ceiling,  heated  to 
a  temperature  of  110°  F.  to 
130°  F.,  and  filled  with  ranges 
of  hanging  battens,  upon  which 
the  cloths  are  all  suspended  in 
bights  or  loops. 

The  batten  frames  mostly 
used  are  like  hurdles,  with 
battens  slightly  convex  in  shape. 
Another  form  noAV  adopted  is  a  » 
horizontal  frame  of  iron,  upon 
which  the  cloth  is  drawn  along 
flat  by  means  of  ropes  and 
windlasses.  The  latter  form  has 
been  considered  the  superior 
for  plain  linoleums  and  for 
seasoning  cheap  printed  lino- 
leums, as  it  is  found  to  prevent 
the  colours  from  running,  but 
it  is  not  greatly  favoured  by 
manufacturers  of  the  higher 
classes  of  cloths.  The  period 
of  seasoning  depends  wholly  on 
the  quality  and  thickness  of  the 
fabric. 

Printing  Linoleums.  The 
printing  of  floorcloths  and  lino- 
leums differs  in  many  details 
from  the  printing  of  other  fabrics. 
The  pigment  must  be  laid  thickly 
on  the  surfaces  of  the  cloths 
with  which  we  are  dealing, 
whereas  the  pigment  should  not 
be  seen  on  common  textiles. 
This  calls  for  considerable 
differences  in  both  blocks  and 
methods  of  printing. 

Blocks.  Built  up  of  pieces 
of  heavy  pine  and  faced  with 
pear  wood,  the  blocks  are  either 
cut  out  in  relief,  or  studded 
Avith  copper  plates  the  shape  of  , 
the  pattern.  After  the  shape  of  '• 
the  pattern  has  been  cut  on  the 
block,  it  must  be  lined  to  take  on 
a  large  supply  of  pigment.  If 
a  thick  surface  is  desired,  the 
centre  of  each  part  of  the  pattern 
is  hollowed,  so  as  to  carry  a  thick 
layer  of  paint.  For  Taxi-coloured 
patterns  as  many  blocks  as  there 
are  colours  must  be  made  in 
addition  to  the  outline  and 
''smash"  block.  The  blocks  for 
hand  printing  should  be  made 
of  a  size  which  can  be  easily 
handled. 


I  I  3 


TEXTILES 

Hand    Printing.     The 

linoleum  printer  uses  a  kind  of 
die  press  resembling  a  primitive 
printing  machine.  Strong  wooden 
framing  holds  the  printing  table 
and  the  pressing  appliance^ 
From  a  block  of  wood  held 
firmly  between  the  supporting 
standards,  the  rod  which  is 
headed  by  the  spring  press  blocks 
comes  down.  At  the  head  of  t lu- 
red is  the  screw  ;  on  the  foot  of 
the  rod  is  the  handle,  and  below 
is  the  pressing  block.  By  a  turn 
of  the  handle  the  screw  is  brought 
round  and  the  block  is  pressed 
down.  Beside  the  printing  table 
the  roll  of  linoleum  to  be  printed 
is  hung,  and  it  is  drawn  across 
to  the  required  position.  The 
block  has  been  charged  with 
colour,  and  it  is  laid  under  the 
press.  The  printer  gives  the 
handle  a  turn,  and  down  comes 
the  heavy  head  on  the  back  of 
the  block,  firmly  impressing  the 
pattern  on  to  the  surface  of  the 
fabric.  By  means  of  gauges  in 
the  press  the  printer  is  enabled 
to  place  his  blocks  in  position 
with  exact  accuracy.  First  the 
different  colours  are  imprinted, 
then  the  smash  block  is  put  in 
to  give  a  level  surface  and  even 
distribution  of  pigment ;  last,  the 
outline  block  gives  clearness  of 
outline  to  the  whole. 

Machine  Printing.  Being 
such  a  heavy  fabric,  linoleum 
cannot  be  printed  satisfactorily 
on  a  cylinder  machine,  though 
some  attempts  have  been  made  ; 
but  there  was  nothing  to  hinder 
an  ingenious  inventor  from  mak- 
ing the  hand  press  mechanical, 
and  this  has  been  done  [234]. 
Over  a  long  bed,  supported  on 
strong  framing,  the  blocks  are 
poised  on  shafts  headed  by  cam 
wheels  driven  by  pulleys  from 
the  engine.  Just  above  the  bed, 
the  colour  pads  move  to  and 
fro,  coming  forward  to  paint  the 
blocks  as  they  descend,  and  re- 
treating in  time  to  let  them  pass 
on  to  the  cloth  below.  Actuated 
by  proper  mechanism,  and  gauged 
by  punches,  the  cloth  comes  over 
the  bed  and  stops  at  the  right 
moment  under  each  block.  The 
framing  and  blocks  are  counter- 
poised by  heavy  weights.  Con- 
structed on  principles  so  simple, 
it  is  obvious  that  this  machine 
may  be  extended  to  any  length 
and  take  in  any  number  of 
colours.  By  the  action  of  the 
cams  the  blocks  arc  driven  down 
5125 


TEXTILES 

on  the  colour  pads  and  then  on  the  cloth, 
the  balance  being  regained  by  the  counter 
weights. 

Inlaid  Linoleums.  For  the  present  we 
do  not  pursue  the  printed  fabrics  to  the  finishing 
rooms,  because  processes  of  more  importance 
claim  attention.  Linoleum  is  by  nature  a  hard 
substance  ;  patterns  printed  on  its  surface 
cannot  enter  into  the  body  of  the  material ; 
therefore  the  printing  rapidly  wears  away,  and 
gives  sound  cloth  the  appearance  of  being  worn. 
A  remedy  for  this  defect  early  claimed  the  close 
attention  of  linoleum  makers,  and  various 
expedients  were  adopted.  Reflecting  on  the 
course  of  operations,  one  can  see  that  a  variation 
of  colour  might  be  obtained  in  the  substance 
of  the  fabric  if  the  product  of  different  scratchers 
producing  different  colours  were  taken.  Those 
little  pellets  have  no  shape  and  may  be  placed 
so  as  to  make  up  the  body  of  the  fabric  with 
linoleums  of  different  colours.  Obvious  as  the 
idea  seems,  it  is  not  easy  of  execution. 
Mr.  Walton  caught  the  notion  and  tried  to 
work  it  out ;  but  the  best  he  could  achieve  at 
first  was  the  production  of  a  kind  of  granite 
inlaid  linoleum.  Mixing  pellets  of  different 
colours,  and  putting  them  through  the  press, 
he  secured,  naturally,  a  fabric  of  varied  colour, 
buf  without  pattern.  The  idea  proved  of  value, 
though  the  stubborn  character  of  the  material 
gave  more  trouble  in  the  working  out  than 
anyone  might  expect. 

Black  and  White.  The  first  successful 
attempt  to  make  a  patterned  inlaid  linoleum  v,  as 
in  the  production  of  black  and  white  stripes  and 
squares.  Stripes  of  linoleum,  black  and  white, 
were  formed  in  a  partitioned  frame  placed  in  the 
position  of  the  wire  gauze  lattice  on  the  rolling 
machine,  and  thence  run  on  to  canvas  in  the 
usual  way.  The  results  were  good,  and  diffe- 
rent colours  were  experimented  with  ;  but  the 
character  of  the  pattern  could  hardly  be  de- 
scribed as  artistic.  For  staircases  and  narrow 
passages  this  form  of  inlaid  linoleum  suited 
very  well  ;  but  for  larger  spaces  it  was  quite 
unsuitable. 

Methods  of  Inlaying.  Messrs.  Godfrey, 
Leake,  &  Lucas  invented  two  methods  of 
forming  inlaid  linoleum,  one  being  called  the 
stencil  method,  and  the  other  the  grid.  In 
the  first  method  a  thin  layer  of  linoleum  is 
first  pressed  on  the  canvas,  and  the  fabric 
brought  round  again  on  to  a  table.  Stencils  the 


form  of  the  pattern  are  laid  over  the  canvas. 
Granulated  linoleum  of  the  different  colours 
is  poured  over  the  openings  and  pressed  in  with 
•A  scraper.  When  a  sufficient  thickness  has  been 
laid  in,  the  stencils  are  removed,  and  the  cloth  is 
passed  into  the  press.  The  heat  and  pressure 
join  the  whole  together. 

"  Grid."  Within  a  frame  or  grid,  the 
granulated  linoleum  is  placed.  With  plunger 
dies  the  divisions  of  the  pattern  are  formed. 
When  the  grid  is  lifted,  only  those  parts  which 
have  been  moulded  by  the  dies  remain  in 
position.  The  lines  thus  left  open  must  be  filled 
up,  and  this  is  done  by  another  appliance.  Iron 
plates  the  shapes  of  the  cut  patterns  are  fixed  on 
a  wire  netting,  with  the  outline  spaces  between. 
The  netting  is  placed  upon  the  moulded  patterns, 
and  granulated  linoleum,  driven  through  the 
netting,  fills  up  the  outlines.  The  whole  is  con- 
firmed by  heat  and  pressure. 

Sheet  Inlaid.  Granulated  linoleum  fails 
to  produce  the  solid  effects  desired  for  many 
patterns.  To  retain  the  artistic  freedom  which 
the  process  gives,  and  at  the  same  time  to  obtain 
a  solid  pattern,  has  been  the  aim  of  inventors. 
Mr.  Walton  and  his  coadjutors  kept  to  the  idea 
of  forming  the  patterns  from  the  rolled  sheet, 
and  advanced  along  that  line  by  tentative  steps. 
The  first  advance  was  simply  an  improvement  of 
the  partitioned  frame  we  have  already  seen.  A 
cylinder  with  knives  was  substituted  for  the  frame, 
the  knives  being  dies  to  cut  out  the  shapes  of 
the  patterns.  Within  the  cylinder  revolved  a 
concentric  roller,  which,  by  its  motion,  ejected 
the  cut  patterns  from  the  surface  of  the  roller. 
The  parts  thus  formed  were  pressed  on  to  the 
canvas  on  a  roller  press. 

Combined  Styles.  The  latest  develop- 
ments of  the  linoleum  trade  have  taken  the  form 
which  may  be  described  as  a  combination  of 
styles.  By  adopting  the  thin  under-layer  of 
linoleum  we  obtain  the  soft  effect  of  the  velvet 
pile.  By  putting  the  stencils  on  cylinders,  and 
working  them  on  the  rotary  principle,  we  can 
use  the  granulated  material  and  get  a  flat  effect. 
By  reducing  the  size  of  the  rolled  materials  to 
sizes  approximating  to  the  size  of  the  granules, 
the  carpet  effects  desired  in  high-class  linoleums? 
are  obtained. 

The  inlaid  linoleums  are  finished  in  the  same 
way  as  floorcloths.  Seasoned  for  the  proper- 
period  in  the  seasoning  stove,  the  fabric  is  rolled 
on  beams  suitable  for  the  use  of  the  merchant. 


Continued 


5126 


FUEL  &  OTHER  POWER  PRODUCERS 


Group  24 

POWER 


Continued  from 
pa*e  001-J 


By  F.   L.   RAWSON 


D  Y  far  the  most  common  source  of  power  is  fuel 
of  one  kind  or  another,  most  frequently  coal, 
which  is  used  for  producing  steam  in  a  boiler  and 
thus  driving  steam  engines.  Under  favourable 
conditions  power  can  be  generated  in  this  way  as 
cheaply  as  from  water  power.  Coal  can  also  be 
used  in  gas  producers,  the  gas  being  supplied  to  gas 
engines,  which  in  recent  years  have  rivalled  steam 
engines  in  point  of  size,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  the  producing  plant,  have  beaten  steam  in 
economy  of  consumption  of  coal.  Unfortunately 
the  cost  of  gas-power  plant,  at  any  rate  in  the 
larger  sizes,  is  greater  than  that  of  steam  plant  of 
equal  power,  while  its  reliability  is  less. 

In  countries  Avhere  wood  is  plentiful  and  coal 
scarce,  the  former  is  used  as  fuel  for  raising 
steam,  the  boilers  being  provided  with  specially 
large  furnaces  for  the  purpose.  Other  com- 
bustible vegetable  products,  such  as  bagasse 
(crushed  sugar  cane  from  which  the  syrup  has 
been  extracted),  are  also  used  as  fuel,  and  in 
recent  years  the  household  and  trade  refuse  of 
cities  has  been  utilised  for  power  production, 
being  first  thoroughly  cremated  at  a  temperature 
of  2,000°  F.  in  "  destructors  "  in  order  to  destroy 
all  organic  and  noxious  substances,  and  the  hot 
gases  being  afterwards  passed  through  steam 
boilers.  [See  page  5020.] 

Gas  and  Oil  as  Fuel.  In  many  districts 
combustible  gas  is  derived  from  deep  bore-holes 
driven  into  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  this  can 
be  utilised  for  raising  steam  in  boilers,  or  to  much 
better  advantage  by  direct  combustion  in  gas 
engines.  Mineral  oils  are  also  obtained  in  the 
same  way,  and  are  a  valuable  source  of  power, 
the  oil  being  conveniently  transported  and  readily 
utilised  in  internal  combustion  engines  very 
similar  to  gas  engines.  As  a  rule,  the  oil  is  either 
sprayed  into  the  cylinder  of  the  engine,  or  is  first 
gasified  and  used  as  gas.  Some  engines  are 
adapted  for  the  use  of  crude  or  unrefined  oil ; 
others  for  petroleum  spirit  or  "  petrol,"  and  the 
latter  are  of  the  type  which  has  come  so  widely 
into  use  for  the  propulsion  of  vehicles,  launches, 
etc.,  of  late  years.  The  Diesel  engine  uses  crude 
oil,  not  exploded,  but  burnt  in  the  cylinder  in 
conjunction  with  a  jet  of  air  compressed  to  a 
pressure  of  800  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  ;  the  oil  consump- 
tion amounts  to  about  0'4  Ib.  (crude  petroleum) 
per  horse-power  hour,  and  the  cost  inclusive  of 
annual  charges  on  capital  to  0'32d.  per  horse- 
power hour  in  an  engine-  of  160-horse  power,  a 
very  low  figure.  Oil  has  also  been  used  for 
raising  gteam  in  boilers,  and  presents  some 
advantages  for  this  purpose,  owing  to  its  small 
bulk  and  weight ;  but  if  it  were  generally  used 
in  this  way  its  cost  would  undoubtedly  rise 
considerably  on  account  of  the  limited  supply. 


The  foregoing  sources  of  power  include  practi- 
cally all  the  agencies  generally  in  use  for  power 
production,  but  there  are  several  others  which 
though  not  as  yet  availed  of  to  any  material 
extent,  are  nevertheless  within  the  range  of 
practical  availability,  and  which  in  the  future 
may  be  utilised  to  an  extent  at  present  un- 
dreamed of.  Water  power  and  wind  power  will 
endure  for  ever;  but  coal,  gas,  and  oil,  it  is 
believed,  will  sooner  or  later.be  exhausted,  or  be 
so  difficult  of  access  as  to  become  too  costly  for 
use  in  industry.  Then  it  will  be  nfecessary  to 
turn  to  account  those  vast  and  inexhaustible 
sources  of  energy  represented  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun  and  of  the  deeper  regions  of  the 
earth,  the  tides,  the  waves  of  the  sea,  and 
even  the  power  that  there  is  in  the  ether. 
These  at  present  can  be  utilised  only  at  pro- 
hibitive cost. 

The  Heat  of  the  Sun.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  temperature  of  the  sun's  surface  is  no  less 
than  10,000°  C.,  a  temperature  of  which  we  can 
form  no  adequate  conception,  the  highest  tempera- 
ture with  Avhich  we  are  acquainted— that  of  the 
electric  arc— being  only  3,500°  C.  Of  the  total 
amount  of  heat  radiated  from  the  sun,  only  a 
minute  fraction  reaches  the  earth,  and  much 
of  this  is  arrested  in  its  passage  through  the 
atmosphere.  Observations  show  that  the  aver- 
age amount  of  heat  received  from  the  sun  per 
square  foot  of  the  earth's  surface  per  annum  would 
suffice  to  raise  more  than  two  tons  of  water  from 
the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point ;  obviously, 
however,  the  bulk  of  this  is  received  in  the 
equatorial  regions,  and  it  is  only  in  places  where 
the  sun  is  nearly  overhead,  and  shines  almost 
uninterruptedly  during  the  daylight  hours,  that 
there  is  much  chance  of  utilising  its  rays. 
Assuming  thesevconditions  fulfilled,  and  that  the 
heat  received  per  square  foot  is  double  the 
average  for  the  whole  earth,  a  rough  calculation 
shows  that  to  produce  1,000-horse  power  during, 
say,  eight  hours  a  day,  the  heat  received  over  an 
area  of  no  less  than  200,000  sq.  ft.  must  be 
collected.  This  can  be  accomplished  only  by 
means  of  large  mirrors,  the  cost  of  which  would 
be  enormous.  Successful  results  have  been  ob- 
tained on  a  small  scale  in  America. 

As  regards  terrestrial  heat,  it  is  well  known  that 
the  temperature  increases  with  the  depth  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  being  about  boiling  point 
at  3,000  yards.  It  is  conceivable  that  the  huge 
store  of  terrestrial  heat  could  be  tapped,  but  the 
cost  and  the  difficulties  wrould  be  enormous.  The 
subject  was  very  fully  discussed  by  the  Hon. 
C.  A.  Parsons  in  a  paper  read  before  the  British 
Association  in  1904.  The  matter  is,  however, 
at  present  beyond  the  range  of  practicability. 

5127 


POWER 

The  Power  of  the  Tides.  Turning  to  tidal 
pmvrr,  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  a  vast  and  np  ver- 

i'a.iling  fund  of  energy  upon  which  to  draw.  There 
is,  indeed,  no  doubt  that  the  problem  eould  be 
solved  at  a  cost  not  unduly  inflated,  though 
present  conditions  do  not  favour  the  execution 
of  the  extensive  works  which  would  be  necessary 
in  the  first  instance.  The  tides  are  due  to  the 
combined  gravitational  attraction  of  the  sun  and 
moon — sometimes  assisting,  sometimes  opposing, 
one  another  upon  the  waters  of  the  sea — and 
the  rotational  motion  of  the  earth,  and  vary  in 
range  according  to  the  locality  under  considera- 
tion. Thus,  in  the  Bristol  Channel  the  mean 
range  reaches  36  ft.,  whereas  at  Wexford,  not 
far  away,  the  range  is  less  than  4%  ft.  The  funda- 
mental difficulty  in  utilising  the  power  of  the 
tides  lies  in  obtaining  a  sufficiently  high  and 
constant  fall  of  water.  On  the  average,  only 
half  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  can  be  utilised, 
and  that  only  by  the  aid  of  separate  high  and 
low  water-  reservoirs,  the  water  being  taken 
either  from  the  outer  side  or  from  the  high -water 
reservoirs,  and  allowed  to  flow  through  turbines 
into  either  the  sea  or  the  low-water  reservoirs, 
according  to  the  state  of  the  tide,  so  as  to  give 
the  greatest  possible  head.  Even  then,  the  head 
would  necessarily  fluctuate  between  one  tide 
and  the  next ;  moreover,  the  maximum  regular 
output  that  could  be  depended  upon  would  be 
that  obtainable  at  neap  tide.  Much  greater 
power  could  be  developed  during  the  spring 
tides,  but  it  is  the  steady  output  that  is  of 
importance  in  industry.  If  an  efficient  and  not 
too  costly  means  of  storing  energy  were  in 
existence,  this  difficulty  could  be  overcome. 

The  Great  Possibilities  of  Tidal 
Power.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the  drawbacks 
pointed  out,  there  are  great  possibilities  in  tidal 
power;  it  has  been  estimated  that  a  constant 
output  of  6,800  electrical  horse-power  could  be 
obtained,  for  example,  from  Chichester  Harbour 
by  damming  up  the  entrance  and  dividing  the 
large  basin  thus  formed  into  two  parts  ;  again, 
there  is  -a  powerful  tidal  flow  through  the  Menai 
Straits,  and  by  damming  the  latter  at  both  ends 
and  in  the  middle  no  less  than  13,500-horse 
power  would,  it  has  been  said,  become  available. 
But  the  most  fruitful  project  of  all  would  be  that 
of  damming  the  waters  of  the  Severn  in  the 
Bristol  Channel,  rendering  the  enormous  amount 
of  240,000  electrical  horse  power  available.  The 


buoys  anchored  on  dangerous  shoals,  etc.,  the 
rising  and  falling  of  the  buoy  actuating  an  air 
compressor  within  it. 

•  Secondary  Sources  of  Power.  The 
sources  of  power  mentioned  above  include 
practically  all  which  can  be^  called  natural 
sources.  Various  secondary  sources  are  in  use, 
of  which  we  may  select  two  as  being  of  special 
interest — namely,  alcohol  and  zinc.  The  former 
is  obtained  in  great  quantities  by  the  distillation 
of  the  products  of  fermentation  of  vegetable  or 
other  organic  substances,  especially  potatoes, 
which  are  grown  largely  for  this  purpose  on  the 
Continent.  The  manufacture  of  alcohol  requires 
the  use  of  heat,  but  as  this  may  be  obtained — at 
any  rate,  in  theory — from  a  portion  of  the  alcohol 
produced,  we  may  fairly  regard  the  Litter  as  a 
secondary  natural  source  of  power.  The  utilisa- 
tion of  alcohol  is  effected  more  efficiently  in 
engines  of  the  internal  combustion  type,  such 
as  those  used  with  petrol,  than  in  any  other  way, 
and  attempts  are  being  made  to  extend  the  use 
of  alcohol  for  driving  such  engines  in  order  to 
further  the  agricultural  industries  on  the 
Continent.  Alcohol  is  inferior  to  petrol  for  this 
purpose,  but  not  so  much  as  to  put  it  out  of 
court,  and  it  may  eventually  be  widely  adopted. 

Zinc  as  a  Power  Producer.  Zinc 
introduces  us  to  a  new  mode  of  utilisation— 
namely,  that  of  chemical  combination  (equiva- 
lent to  combustion)  without  the  evolution  of 
heat.  This  process  may  be  carried  out  so  as  to 
produce  combustible  gases,  particularly  hydro- 
gen ;  the  only  use  of  this  gas,  however,  as  a 
power-producing  agent,  is  in  filling  balloons, 
and  thus  enabling  them,  by  virtue  of  the  low 
density  of  the  gas,  to  rise  hi  the  air,  lifting  a 
considerable  weight.  But  the  use  wrhich  we  have 
more  particularly  in  mind  is  that  of  generating 
electricity  in  voltaic  batteries.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  zinc  is  an  exceedingly  expensive 
fuel.  Like  alcohol,  it  requires  the  expenditure 
of  a  large  quantity  of  heat  for  its  preparation 
from  natural  sources,  and  in  this  case  the  heat 
expended  is  far  greater  than  the  energy  contained 
in  the  zinc  produced.  Thus,  if  economical 
power  production  were  in  question,  it  would  be 
preferable  to  utilise  the  heat  for  this  purpose  at 
once,  instead  of  first  producing  zinc. 

But  the  convenience  gained  by  using  /inc  to 
generate  electrical  currents  far  outweighs  the  con- 
sideration of  cost,  and  as  no  other  metal  meet s  t  he 


cost  of  the  hydraulic  works  would  of  course  be   .  requirements  of  the  case  to  anything  like  the  same 


very  heavy,  but  the  sale  of  the  power  developed 
would  suffice  to  cover  the  interest  and  other 
charges  upon  the  investment.  The  foregoing  are 
not  the  only  places  round  our  coasts,  to  say 
nothing  of  those  in  foreign  countries,  where  the 
tidal  flow  could  be  conveniently  entrapped  and 
utilised.  But  such  projects  must  be  looked  upon 
only  as  resources  in  reserve. 

Apart  from  the  regular  motions  of  the  tides, 
it  is  poasible  to  make  use  of  the  less  regular 
motion  of  the  waves  of  the  sea,  but  not  on  a 
scale  sufficiently  great  to  be  of  use  for  industrial 
purposes.  This  source  of  power  has,  in  fact, 
been  utilised  for  the  purpose  of  blowing  sirens  on 


extent  practically  all  primary  batteries,  such  as 
those  used  for  ringing  bells,  operating  telephones 
and  telegraphs  on  a  small  scale,  and  performing 
many  other  useful  functions,  depend  upon  zinc 
for  their  activity.  These  functions  too  require 
but  little  power  for  their  performance,  so 
that,  although  the  power  has  really  to  be 
paid  for  at  a  relatively  high  price,  its  cost  is 
negligible,  as  a  rule,  in  comparison  with  other 
items  of  expense  associated  therewith.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  use  primary 
batteries  for  electric  lighting  and  power,  but 
they  have  proved  commercial  failures,  though 
sometimes  successful  technically. 


Continued 


5128 


SARRUSOPHONES    &    SAXHORNS 

Construction  and  Parts  of  the  Instruments.    Open  and  Closed  Notes. 
Player's     Attitude.        Tuning.        Scales.        Nuances.        Exercises 


Group  22 

MUSIC 
36 

Continue*!  from 
page  5064 


By    ALGERNON     ROSE 


THE    SARRUSOPHONE 

Although,  like  the  hautboy  or  bassoon,  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  sarrusophone  is  furnished 
with  a  double  reed,  its  timbre,  or  character  of 
tone,  is  quite  different.  The  dissimilarity 
cannot  be  described  in  words,  but  the  sarruso- 
phone, with  its  body  of  metal  instead  of  wood, 
possesses  greater  sonorousness  than  the  more 
familiar  "  wood-wind  "  instruments. 

The  instruments,  of  different  sizes  and  shapes, 
which  constitute  the  sarrusophone  family  are 
chromatic.  Beginning  at  the  highest  and 
smallest  member,  we  have  the  sopranino  in 
EP,  with  two-and-a-half  octaves  compass. 
The  next  in  size  is  the  soprano  BI7  sarruso- 
phone. No.  3  is  the  alto  in  E  P  ;  No.  4  is  the 
tenor  in  B  1?  ;  No.  5  is  the  baritone  hi  E  V  ; 
No.  6  is  the  bass  in  C  ;  No.  7  is 
the  bass  in  Bt?  ;  No.  8  the  contra- 
bass in  E^  ;  No.  9  the  contra- 

bass in  C,  and  No.  10  the  contra- 

bass in  B!7.     [See  illustration.] 
Attitude.     To  begin  with,  the 

student  had  better  take  the  B  7 

soprano.      The  pose  of  the  body 

of   the  player  should  be  natural. 

Rest  the  weight  on  the  left  foot. 

Turn  the  right  foot  out  slightly, 

and  keep  it  somewhat  apart  from 

the   left.      Hold   the  head  erect. 

The     left    hand    negotiates    the 

upper   joint    of    the    instrument, 

and    the    right   hand   the   lower, 

the  right  thumb  supporting  most 

of   the  weight  by  hooking  itself 

under  a   crook    provided    for    it. 

Bring    the    reeds    to    the    mouth   / 

rather  than  the  mouth  to  the  reeds,    k 
As    far    as    the    embouchure    is 

concerned,  the  B  !?  and  E  P  soprano 

sarrusophones  resemble  the  haut- 

boy, whilst  the  other  members  of 

the  'family  are  like  the  bassoon. 

On  the  choice  of  good  reeds  greatly 

depends  the  quality  of  the  tone 

which    can    be    produced.     Rest 

the  reed  on  the  lower  lip.     Try  to 

pronounce  the  syllable  "  too  "  by 

striking   the    tongue   against  the  gopl.anino     Contrabass 

nd  withdrawin      (E  flat)  SARRUSOPHONES 


tips  of  the  reeds  and  withdrawing 


n.  Try  to  cultivate* 
':  singing  tone."  Do  not  puff  out  the  cheeks, 
and  carefully  avoid  making  a  hissing  sound. 
Avhich  may  come  from  an  escape  of  the  breath 
at  the  corners  of  the  mouth  through  the  lips 
being  too  slack.  No  two  players  being  exactly 
alike  the  reeds  that  will  suit  one  player  may 


not  adapt  themselves  to  the  mouth  of  another, 
although  sometimes  all  they  require  is  a  pinch 
to  put  them  right  [Ex.  1]. 

The  composer  of  "Faust"  recognised  the 
peculiar  cantabile  qualities  of  the  sarrusophone 
in  writing  a  sextet  for  such  instruments  entitled 
"  Choral  et  Musette,"  hi  which  many  astonishing 
and  delightful  effects  are  introduced.  But  to 
acquire  the  singing  tone,  the  first  endeavour 
of  the  student  must  be  to  obtain  correctness  in 
articulation.  For  this  purpose,  begin  with 
slow  pieces,  and  practise  particularly  sl<>\\ 
scales  [Ex.  2]. 

Rapidity    of    execution    will    come    hi    due 
course.     In    fingering    the    instrument,    it     is 
waste  of  effort  to  raise  the  digits  unduly.     The 
fingers    should   glide    on   the   keys    instead   of 
tapping   them.     As    the    fingering    is 
alike  for  all  kinds  of  sarrusophones, 
from  the  smallest  to  the  largest,   it 
is  unnecessary  to  deal  separately  with 
all    members    of    this    family.       An 
authority     has    declared     that     the 
contrabass  sarrusophone  is  of  special 
value     for    orchestral    colouring    on 
account   of    its   rapid  enunciation   of 
deep  notes.     But,  confining  our  atten- 
tion to  the  Bi?  soprano,  it  will 
be   found    that   the    four   chief 
kinds   of  tone  to  be  produced 
are    notes    which    are    slurred, 
detached,   staccato    and    porta- 
mento.    Their  methods 
s^^        of    articulation  are  de- 
==:=:"a=>  termined  by  the  manner 
of      "  tonguing "      em- 
ployed,    easily    understood    by 
the     student      who     has     some 
knowledge  of  hautboy,  clarionet, 
or  bassoon  playing  [Ex.  4]. 

One   of   the   chief   charms  of 
the  sarrusophone  is  the  control 
which  a  good  player  has  over 
the  light  and  shade,  or  nuances, 
of  tone,  as  in  the  crescendo   or 
the  diminuendo.     But  a  matter 
which    requires   special    care    is 
the  artistic  management  of  the 
breath.     In  daily'  practice  this 
(Sat)   should  be    carefully   cultivated. 
After  each   phrase  the  student 
A    refill   his    lungs,   otherwise   his    breath 
may  give  out  prematurely  and  spoil  the  nexi 
Dassa^e.     [Ex.  5j. 

P  Ensemble  Playing.  From  the  sopramno 
to  the  B!7  contrabass  sarrusophone,  an  ex- 
tensive compass,  chromatic  throughout,  is 
furnished  by  this  remarkable  musical  family. 

5129 


should 


1 

£2. 

etc 

' 

t  —  • 

r 

1  

Ex.  3 


?-    =it^4pt  ^        -*d-    ^-     -^?- 


Ex.  4.  Slurred. 


Staccato. 


In  other  words,  we  have  some  six  octaves,  rising 
from  A!?,  third  ledger  line  below  bass  staff,  to 
Et>,  third  ledger  line  above  treble  staff.  A 
complete  band,  therefore,  confined  to  instru- 
ments of  this  style  can  easily  be  constituted. 
The  student  who  begins  with  a  high  sarruso- 
phone  and  takes  to  a  lower  one  later  on  is  not 
confused  by  either  the  tenor  or  the  bass  clef, 
the  music  for  all  sarrusophones  being  written 
in  the  treble  clef.  Thus,  it  is  possible  to  render 
ten  distinct  parts  with  sarrusophones  through- 
out. Owing  to  the  facility  of  utterance,  and 
the  reedy,  organ-like  quality  of  tone  of  such 
instruments,  a  body  of  serious  young  musicians 
might  well  study  together  a  number  of  con- 
trapuntal pieces  by  Bach,  Handel,  or  Mozart. 

SAXHORNS 

The  saxhorn  family  is  composed  of  six 
or  more  instruments  of  different  sizes,  two 
of  the  models — namely,  the  soprano  in  F, 
Et>,  or  D,  and  the  alto,  or  contralto,  in  C 
or  B  t? — being  held  horizontally.  The  others 
are  held  vertically,  and  include  the  tenor 
in  F  or  E!?,  also  known  as  the  althorn  ;  the 
baritone  in  C  or  Bf  ;  the  larger  baritone, 
called  euphonium,  in  C  or  Bt?  ;  the  bass,  or 
bombardon,  in  F  or  Et>  ;  and,  finally,  the 
large  contrabass  in  B  t? ,  which  plays  the  lowest 
part.  The  illustrations  on  the  next  page  show 
their  general  appearance,  although  details  of 
mechanism  vary  in  different  makes. 

In  all  these  instruments  there  are  usually 
three  valves  and  pistons.  Moreover,  whether 
for  treble  or  bass,  music  for  saxhorn  bands  is 
usually  printed  uniformly  in  the  treble  clef. 
So  the  beginner,  unlike  the  trombone  player. 

5130 


-t- 

has  not  the  trouble  of  learning  the  tenor  and 
bass  clefs  as  well.  But  perhaps  the  greatest 
convenience  in  teaching  such  a  band  is  that  the 
fingering  of  each  instrument  is  almost  identical. 

Proportions  of  Different  Models. 
In  the  formation  of  purely  saxhorn  bands, 
their  numerical  relations  are  made  up  so  as  to 
get  a  fair  balance  of  tone.  If  we  take  a  band  of 
twenty-two  performers,  one  soprano  in  E  t? 
will  suffice.  No  matter  how  big  the  band,  the 
penetrating  tone  of  this  instrument  does  not 
need  to  be  doubled.  But  the  main  melody 
parts  will  be  taken  by  three  first  sopranos  in 
D?,  these  being  supported  by  two  seconds  in 
the  same  key.  The  soprano  is  the  smallest 
saxhorn,  and,  although  played  horizontally, 
the  coiling  of  its  tubing  differs  from  the  cornet. 
Next  there  will  be  two  altos,  or  contraltos, 
called  also  flugelhorns.  Then  we  come  to  the 
vertical  models  with  the  bell  pointing  upwards. 
There  will  probably  be  four  of  the  smallest 
model,  called  the  tenor,  or  althorn,  in  E  ^ 

The  richness  of  tone  will  then  be  increased  by 
tAvo  baritones  in  Bt?,  a  somewhat  larger  type 
of  instrument.  These,  again,  will  be  supported 
by  the  euphonium,  or  baritone,  with  extra 
large  bore,  in  Bt>.  Then  there  will  be  two 
basses  in  Eb,  one  bombardon  in  B!7,  and  one 
contrabass  in  B !? ,  playing  an  octave  lower. 

Compass.  The  compass  of  the  smallest 
instrument  is  two  and  a  half  octaves,  from  F$, 
third  ledger  line  below  treble  staff,  to  C,  second 
ledger  line  above  it.  The  Dt?  model  goes  a  tone 
deeper,  although  this  note,  if  used,  should  be 
indicated  in  the  music  as  C,  below  five  ledger 
lines,  that  being  the  lowest  note  possible.  The 
flugelhorn  in  B?,  with  its  three  pistons  down, 
gives  actually  E,  third  space  bass  clef,  although 
this  is  indicated  as  F$,  third  ledger  line  below 
staff.  The  tenor  in  Eb  has  a  compass  from  AJT» 
second  space  bass  clef,  written  in  the  music  as 
F£,  third  ledger  line  below  treble  clef.  The 
baritone  in  B  I?  goes  down  to  E,  first  ledger  line 
below  bass  staff,  written  Fjj,  three  ledger  lines 
below  treble  staff. 

The  euphonium  in  Bfr  descends  actually  to 
B?,  second  ledger  line  below  bass  clef,  and 
ascends  to  three  octaves  above.  The  bombardon 
in  E 1?  goes  down  to  E  7  below  fourth  ledger  line, 
bass  clef.  Reckoning  by  the  length  of  organ 
pipes,  it  will  thus  be  seen  that,  to  get  the  notes 
named,  the  length  of  tubing  in  the  different 
models  ranges  from  a  little  over  3  ft.  to  nearly 
16  ft.  in  length,  and  when  the  contrabass,  giving 
still  deeper  tones,  is  considered,  further  coiling 
of  tubing  is  necessary. 

Position.  The  soprano,  alto,  or  flugelhorns 
must  be  held  horizontally,  whilst  the  vertical 


models,  especially  the  largest  patterns,  are  canted 
somewhat  to  the  right  for  the  convenience  of  the 
player.  Grasp  the  instrument  firmly  with  the 
left  hand ;  the  right  hand  must  be  kept  free 
for  the  use  of  the  pistons.  Sometimes  the  little 
finger  is  placed  in  the  hook  provided  to  keep  the 
saxhorn  steady ;  but  this  is  not  recommended  by 
all  teachers.  Holding  the  instrument  firmly  with 
the  left  hand,  place  the  first,  second,  and  third 
fingers  respectively  a  quarter  of  an  inch  above 
the  buttons  of  the  three  pistons.  Rest  the 
thumb  under  the  main  tube  between  the  first 
and  second  valves.  The  action  of  the  right 
fingers  must  be  from  the  knuckle-joint  only. 
Avoid  curving  them,  but  let  the  fingers  move 
flexibly,  quickly,  and  firmly. 

Without  blowing,  try  the  f  ollowing  finger  exer- 
cise, beginning  at  metronome  time  M.M  =  120, 
and  working  up  to  208,  thus— 1  2  3,  3  2  1,  2  1  3, 
2  3  1,  1  and  2,  2  and  3,  1  and  3,  1  2  and  3. 
These  are  the  chief  depressions  and  liftings 
necessary,  and  should  be  done  cleanly,  without 
pausing  or  hurrying.  By  such  movements  the 
fingers  and  lips  of  a  fairly  accomplished  eupho- 
nium player  can  control 
every  interval  in  the  com- 
pass of  five  octaves,  even 
when  mounted  in  the 
saddle. 

As  in  a  pianoforte 
string  for  the  high  notes 
the  metal  is  shorter, 
thinner,  and  lighter, 
and  for  the  low  bass 
strings,  where  im- 
mense length  is 
impossible,  this  is 
compensated  for  by 
extra  weight;  so, 
whilst  the  smallest 
saxhornis  very  port- 
able, the  big  con- 
trabombardon,  by 
haying  an  increase 
of  bore,  is  not  so 
long  in  the  tube 
as,  scientifically,  it 
ought  to  be.  Never- 
theless, it  needs  a 
strong  man  to  play 
the  monster  effec- 
tively- on  parade, 
and  when  this  is 
very  grand. 

The  Helicon.  These  deep-toned  instru- 
ments are  sometimes  made  circular  fashion,  to 
throw  the  chief  weight  on  to  the  left  shoulder.  The 
player  then  passes  his  head  through  the  centre  of 
the  coil,  and  the  bell  advances  over  the  left.  This 
model  is  known  as  the  Helicon.  The  shape  is  mar- 
tial, but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  vibration  is  as 
free  as  in  the  upright  model,  so  much  surface  being 
damped  by  pressure  on  the  shoulder  of  the  player. 
The  effect  on  the  performer  himself  is  no  more 
deafening  than  it  is  when  the  foot  of  an  organist 
depresses  the  lowest  pedal  notes  in  church.  He, 
therefore,  is  not  the  best  judge  of  the  disturbance 
he  occasions  when  he  plays  a  wrong  note. 


Bombardon  (E  flat) 
done,   the    deep 


notes    are 


MUSIC 

Cleaning      the      Instrument.       If     a 

piston-button  sticks,  unscrew  the  cap,  take  out 
the  pump,  and  clean  it  carefully  with  soft  silk. 
Unscrew  the  cap  at  the  bottom  of  the  valve  and 
pass  the  silk  through  it.  Rescrew  the  valve- 
cap,  and  sprinkle  a  few  drops  of  water — very 
fine  paraffin  will  last  longer — on  the  pump 
before  replacing  it.  This  should  now  be  found 
to  work  freely.  If  not,  a  new  spring  may  be 
required.  They  cost  afcout  Is.  6d.  a  dozen.  For 
lubrication  of  the  pumps,  never  use  ordinary  oil. 
Many  players  polish  carefully  the  outside  of  an 
instrument  and  never  attend  to  its  inside.  The 
result  is  that  dirt,  allowed  to  accumulate,  deposits 
itself  unequally  at  the  bends.  In  course  of  time 
it  perceptibly  flattens  and  throws  the  instrument 
out  of  tune.  Once  a  month  a  careful  player, 
however,  will  drive  a  sponge,  dipped  in  milk, 
through  the  tubing.  Squeeze  it  into  the  end  ot 
the  mouthpiece,  then  blow  sharply.  If  the 
sponge  sticks  owing  to  dirt,  a  leaden  bullet,  or 
bullets,  will  soon  force  it  through.  An  unclean 
brass  instrument  can  easily  become  a  bacterial 
incubator.  To  a  performer  who  is  careless  in 
taking  breath,  a 
foul  instrument  is 
particularly  danger- 
ous. It  is  a  fallacy 
to  believe  that 
keeping  one's  in- 
strument clean  in- 
ternally will  in  any 
way  upset  its 
"bearings"  or 
intonation. 

Detach  the 
mouthpiece. 
This  the  begin - 
ner  should 
carry  in  his  pocket 
to  practise  upon 
whenever  he  is  able. 
The  first  thing  for 
a  student  to  under- 
stand when  he  takes 
up  any  member  of 
the  saxhorn  family 
is  the  correct 
manner  and  the 
principles  of  blow- 
ing. Unlike  the 
reed  of  a  hautboy, 
the  small  end  of  a  saxhorn  is  not  put  into  the 
mouth.  It  is  placed  against  the  outside  of 
the  lips.  Here,  instead  of  being  beak-shaped, 
as  in  the  clarionets,  the  mouthpiece  is  a  small 
metal  cup,  ending  with  a  short  tube  and  faced 
by  a  flat  margin. 

Although  the  biggest  saxhorns  naturally  need 
a  big  cup,  the  manner  of  blowing  is  the  same 
for  the  smallest  as  for  the  largest.  The  internal 
shape  of  this  bowl  has  an  immense  influence  over 
the  quality  of  the  tone  produced,  because  the 
initial  vibration  of  the  instrument  is  generated 
within  the  mouthpiece.  Even  as  the  funnel- 
shaped  cavity  belonging  to  the  French  horn 
produces  a  peculiar  softness  of  timbre,  so  a  very 
shallow  cup,  as  in  a  cavalry  trumpet,  will  give 

5131 


Tenor  (F  flat  and  E  flat) 
SAXHORNS 


MUSIC 

a  hard,  brassy  effect.  For  general  purposes,  a  cup 
of  medium  depth  for  each  member  of  the  family 
is  best,  as  it  is  less  tiring  to  play.  If  there  is 
much  brilliant  staccato  work  in  a  solo,  how- 
ever, the  bandsman  will  often  slip  on  a  shallow- 
cupped  mouthpiece.  There  being  considerable 
difference  in  the  lips  of  players,  mouthpieces  are 
sold  in  three  sizes.  A  band  of  negroes,  organised 
at  Mafeking,  nevertheless,  required  a  special 
No.  4  size  to  fit  abnormally  large  lips.  A  boy, 
on  the  other  hand,  who  takes  up  a  small  saxhorn 
should  choose  No.  1  size,  or  he  will  find  difficulty 
in  articulation.  To  obviate  delay  in  changing 
this  part  of  the  instrument,  adjustable  mouth- 
pieces can  be  purchased.  By  screwing  in  the  rim 
the  cup  becomes  shallower,  and  on  screwing  it 
out  the  bowl  is  deepened.  Oval  mouthpieces 
have  been  tried,  but  unless  adjusted  to  the  lips 
with  great  care*  they  spoil  the  best  performance. 
It  is  well  to  have  one  with  a  rim  of  silver,  or,  at 
any  rate,  electro-plated.  According  to  the  size 
of  the  instrument,  silver  mouthpieces  cost  from 
3s.  to.  6s.  ;  electro-plated,  the  price  is  from 
Is.  lOd.  to  5s.  In  brass,  the  cost  is  from  lid.  to 
2s.  6d.  ;  but  this  metal,  if  not  kept  very  clean, 
is  poisonous.  In  cold  weather,  if  the  player's 
lips  are  cracked,  verdigris  will  cause  ulceration, 
and  sometimes  serious  trouble. 

Place  the  mouthpiece  against  the  centre  of 
the  mouth.  Two-thirds  of  the  circumference 
of  the  rim  should  cover  the  upper  lip,  and  the 
remaining  third  the  lower  lip.  Hold  the  stem 
of  the  mouthpiece  horizontally.  The  production 
of  tone  from  any  tubular  instrument  is  the  result 
of  a  series  of  minute  explosions.  These,  being 
echoed  or  reflected  within  the  air  passage,  are 
magnified  according  to  its  length,  so  that  the 
longer  the  tubing  the  deeper  will  be  the  harmonics. 
It  is  important,  therefore,  in  the  first  instance, 
to  set  the  vibration  going  correctly.  Inflate 
the  lungs  moderately.  If  too  large  or  too  small 
a  breath  is  taken  the  tone  cannot  be  produced 
and  sustained  with  ease.  At  first  the  student 
will  find  that  his  lip-muscles  lack  power.  By 
constant  practice  it  is  possible  to  develop  them 
so  that  eventually  he  may  be  able  to  crack  a 
Brazil  nut  by  his  lips  without  using  the  teeth. 

The  Facial  Muscles  Exercised. 
Every  brass  instrument  player  employs, 
unconsciously,  five  sets  of  facial  muscles,  and 
it  is  well  for 'him  to  appreciate  that  fact.  First, 
his  playing  depends,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the 
responsiveness  of  the  circular  muscle  which  goes 
round  the  opening  of  the  mouth  like  a  broad 
elastic  band,  and  is  known  as  the  sphincter. 
Secondly,  he  brings  into  play  the  elevator  of  the 
upper  lip,  which  extends  towards  the  eye.  This 
raises  the  angle  of  the  mouth  and  bulges  out  the 
cheek  below  the  eye.  Thirdly,  he  uses  the  de- 
pressors of  the  lower  lips,  which  extend  from 
the  mouth  downward  over  the  chin,  as  well  as 
the  elevator  of  the  lower  lip.  Fourthly,  he 
Bxercises  the  small  muscles  which  act  on  the 
corners  of  the  mouth.  Lastly,  his  playing  de- 
|x'ii<U.  to  a  great  extent,  on  the  strength  of  the 
buccinator,  or  "  trumpeter's  muscle."  This  lies 
inside  the  rhcrk,  and  occupies  the  interval 
between  th*  jaws,  rising  behind  the  wisdom 

5182 


teeth  and  extending  to  each  corner  of  the 
mouth. 

In  expelling  air  from  the  mouth,  as  in  blowing 
a  -saxhorn,  the  buccinator  muscles  must  be 
contracted  to  prevent  bulging  of  the  cheeks. 
Therefore,  without  inflating  the  cheeks,  press 
the  mouthpiece  gently  upon  the  lips,  force  the 
breath  through  them,  articulating  the  syllable 
"  doo."  This  action  causes  a  quick  withdrawal 
of  the  tongue-tip,  so  that  the  breath  is  expelled 
in  a  thin  nattering  sheet,  and  produces,  by  the 
whirling  vibration  within  the  cup,  a  distinct 
tone. 

Tighten  the  lips  still  more.  Press  the  mouth- 
piece harder  and  articulate  the  syllable  "  tee." 
This,  with  a  little  practice,  will  give  an  octave 
sound  above  the  "  doo  "  made  with  the  relaxed 
lip.  The  constant  varying  action  of  the  muscles 
of  the  mouth,  contracting  and  expanding  at  the 
will  of  the  player,  is  analogous  to  that  which 
takes  place  in  the  vocal  cords  when  singing. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  assisted  in  a  marvellous 
manner  by  the  excretory  ducts,  at  the  root  of 
the  tongue  inside  the  cheeks,  giving  forth  the 
necessary  lubrication  for  the  muscles,  so  that  the 
player  is  not  unduly  fatigued. 

What  is  called  tonguing  a  note  is  done  by 
articulating  either  of  the  syllables  mentioned 
with  extra  emphasis.  The  stroke  need  not  be 
hard  or  the  tone  will  be  harsh. 

The  First  Tone.  The  first  tone  to  obtain 
is  that  which  the  instrument  gives  most  easily 
without  touching  any  of  the  pistons  or  buttons. 
This,  in  notation,  is  designated  G,  second  line 
treble  clef.  Now,  it  should  be  understood  that 
in  saxhorn  music,  where  the  treble  clef  is  used 
for  all  printed  parts,  exercises  for  one  instrument 
can  be  performed  with  almost  equal  ease  on  any 
other.  Thus,  C,  written  third  space  treble  clef, 
when  played  on  the  El?  saxhorn,  sounds  auto- 
matically not  C,  but  E !?  below,  or  a  sixth  lower 
than  the  notation.  The  same  C  on  a  Bb 
baritone  sounds  Bb  below,  or  a  ninth  lower  than 
the  written  music. 

So,  whatever  key  the  instrument  is  known  by, 
that  key  gives  its  root  note  when  the  C  in  the 
music  is  played.  This  simplifies  matters  for 
the  beginner,  although  it  complicates  the  task 
of  the  composer,  since  it  is  he,  and  not  the 
performer,  who  does  the  work  of  transposition. 
But  if  the  student  wishes  to  check  the  first 
written  note,  G,  by  the  piano,  he  must  do 
the  transposition  for  himself.  Thus,  in  an  F 
instrument  the  G  must  be  checked  by  C  on  the 
piano  ;  in  an  E  b  instrument  the  G  will  agree 
with  B !?  ;  on  a  D  instrument  the  G  will  be  A  ; 
on  a  B  7  saxhorn  the  G  will  be  F  ;  and  on  a  C 
instrument  only  will  the  G  be  G.  To  obtain 
the  written  G,  then,  close  the  lips  naturally. 

Use  very  little  pressure  against  the  mouth- 
piece. Blow  moderately,  pronouncing  mentally 
"  doo,"  withdrawing  the  tongue  quickly  so  as 
to  sustain  the  breath  and  set  the  long  column 
of  air  within  the  tubing  into  vibration.  Although 
this  first  attempt  may  seem  a  serious  operation, 
the  student  must  not  look  solemn,  for  the  correct 
appearance  of  his  lips  should  be  that  of  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  slightly  drawn  up,  as  in 


smiling.  He  must,  therefore,  bring  into  play  what 
is  known  as  the  ristorial,  or  laughter,  muscle, 
a  narrow  bundle  of  fibres  running  horizontally 
from  the  corner  of  the  mouth  to  the  angle  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

Counting  slowly,  mentally,  try  Ex.  1.  Having 
played  these  ten  bars  softly,  repeat  them 
quicker,  with  more  force,  and  then  with  different 
shades  of  tone — very  soft,  soft,  moderately  loud, 
loud,  and  very  loud.  Practise  next  increasing 
the  sound,  or  getting  a  crescendo  in  each  bar. 
Afterwards  begin  as  loudly  as  possible,  and 
diminish  the  sound  in  each  bar.  By  such  means 
the  first  note  will  be  played  with  confidence  and 
effect. 

Harmonic  Tones.  The  saxhorn  student 
will  understand  that,  by  the  laws  of  acoustics, 
every  tube  of  which  the  vibration  is  controlled 
Ex.  1.  Slow. 


MUSIC 

We  now  get  the  real  open  tones,  no  portion  of 
the  entire  tubing  being  closed.  The  result  is  low 
Pjf  (or  G?),Cft  (or  Dt>),  Fit  (or  Gt>),  Alt  (or 
Bt7),  Oj  (or  D!7),  and  F#  (or  Gt>).  By 
tabulating  these  notes,  the  student  will  be  able 
to  identify  the  fingering  for  any  sound  in  the 
chromatic  scale,  from  the  low  G  upwards  to 
top  C  in  semitones,  by  inserting,  in  ascending 
the  scale,  sharps  between  the  whole  notes  and 
flats  between  the  same  in  descending.  The 
numerals  1,  2,  3  always  indicate  the  pistons 
manipulated  by  the  first,  second,  and  third  right 
fingers,  and  a  zero  is  the  sign  used  when  no  pistons 
are  depressed.  Thus  we  have  the  entire  fingering 
for  every  usual  size  of  saxhorn. 

The  Key  of  C.  Before  attempting  to  play 
the  entire  scale,  the  student,  except  on  the 
bombardon,  must  accustom  himself  to  blowing 


1234 


by  lip  pressure  and  force  of  the  player's  breath 
gives  forth  aperies  of  independent  tones.  In  the 
saxhorn,  whether  small  or  large,  when  none  of 
the  valves  are  depressed,  six  so-called  open 
notes  are  articulated,  according  to  the  slackness 
or  tightness  of  the  lips  and  pressure  of  blowing. 
These  harmonics,  which  the  student  should  write 
out  in  notation,  are  C,  first  ledger  line  below 
staff,  G,  C,  E,  G,  and  C,  ascending  from  the 
bottom  note,  together  with  their  enharmonic 
equivalents  B$,  Fx,  Bjf,  Dx,  Fx,  and  Bjf. 
With  the  first  valve  down,  thereby  opening  'a 
further  length  of  tubing,  the  series  becomes  a 
tone  lower,  so  that  we  have  the  EX.  2. 
harmonics  Bb,  F,  Bt?,  D,  F,  and 
Bb,  with  their  enharmonics  as 
before. 

Releasing  the  Jirst  valve  and 
putting  down  the  second,   the     Ex.  3.     Very  slowly. 
column     of      air     is     slightly 
shortened,  with  the  result  that 
the    harmonics    now    are 
FS,    B£,    Djt,    FjJ,    and    B£, 
with  their  chromatic  synonyms. 
Depressing    the    third    valve    alone,    the    air- 
column   is   extended,    and    the   series    becomes 
A,  second  ledger  line  below  treble  clef,  followed 
by  E,  A,  C£,  and  A  above,  with  their  musical 
doubles.     The   same    results    are    obtained    by 
releasing  the  third  valve  and  putting  down  the 
first  and  second  pistons  together.     If  the  second 
is   raised,  and   the   first   and   third   valves    are 
depressed,  the  harmonics  given  are  low  G,  with 
the  D,  G,  B,  D,  and  G  above,  together  with  their 
nominal  alternatives.     Release  the  first  piston 
and  put  down  the  second  and  third  together. 
The  result  mil  be  Ab,  El?,  At?,  Cft,  E!7,  and  AP. 
with   the  identical  sounds   marked   by  sharps. 
Finally,  open  the  maximum  length  of  the  air- 
column  by  depressing  all  three  pistons. 


the  low  notes.  Get  these  slowly  at  first,  until,  by 
repeated  practice,  the  lip  gradually  strengthens 
itself.  In  ascending  a  scale,  the  pressure  of 
the  mouthpiece  must  be  gradually  increased, 
and  the  lip,  at  the  same  time,  more  and  more 
tightened.  In  descending  the  scale,  on  the 
contrary,  the  pressure  of  the  mouthpiece  must 
be  gradually  lessened,  while  the  muscles  of  the 
lips  relax  themselves  in  like  manner.  Apart 
from  the  attack  of  a  note  by  the  use  of  the 
syllable  "  doo "  or  "tee,"  with  more  or  less 
emphasis,  the  sustaining  of  the  sound  by  steady 
blowing  to  produce  a  satisfactory  tone  is  of 


equal  importance.  This  is  only  acquired  by  the 
slow  practice  of  scales,  especially,  in  most  models, 
in  the  lower  register. 

Breathing.  Another  matter  for  the  student 
to  note  is  the  art  of  taking  a  fresh  breath 
correctly.  This  must  be  done  noiselessly,  without 
perceptible  movement  of  the  body,  and  never, 
if  avoidable,  in  the  middle  of  a  slurred  phrase. 
Some  players,  with  abnormal  lung  capacity,  can 
keep  the  vibration  going  much  longer  than  others. 
Such  men  are  most  useful  for  the  big  bass  tubas. 
Yet,  with  exercise,  even  the  narrow-chested 
student  will  be  able  to  develop  his  skill  in  this 
respect.  Inhaling,  when  taking  a  fresh  breath, 
should  be  done  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth 
or  through  the  nostrils,  and  never  from  the 

5133 


MUSIC 

instrument  itself.  Endeavour  to  get  the  notes 
in  Exercise  2,  from  the  low  C  to  the  C  above,  in 
good  tune. 

Descend  the  octave  in  the  same  way.  Then 
construct  exercises  out  of  the  scale.  Play  them 
in  correct  time,  so  as  to  accustom  the  fingers  to 
depressing  and  releasing  the  pistons  cleanly. 
Having  articulated  each  note  with  a  separate 
breath,  bind  them  together  in  threes,  so  that  only 
one  tongue-stroke  is  applied  for  each  group. 
Do  not  hurry  over  this.  Take  a  fresh  breath 
quietly  before  each  triplet,  without  interfering 
with  the  time  [Ex.  3]. 

There  are  endless  ways  in  which,  by  trans- 
position, the  scale  of  C  major,  and  other  scales, 
can  be  practised.  Thus,  link  the  first  two  notes 
together  by  articulating  on  the  C  and  D  the 
dissyllable  "  too-ee."  Then  sound  the  four 
notes  above  staccato,  articulating  "  tee "  for 
each  one.  In  descending  from  the  B  to  the  A, 
link  those  notes  by  pronouncing  mentally  "  tee- 
oo."  Then  let  the  tongue  'strike  "  tee  "  for  the 
remaining  notes,  giving  a  long  "  doo  "  for  the 
final  C  [Ex.  4.] 

Nuances.  An  easy  key,  after  C,  on  the  sax- 
horn is  F  major,  with  one  flat,  B.  But  what  is 
known  as  light  and  shade  in  music  requires  much 
practice.  The  student,  therefore,  cannot  begin 
,too  early  his  exercises  in  what  are  known  as 
nuances.  Try  to  get  distinctly  the  octave  of 
sounds  in  the  key  of  F,  from  the  first  space  to 
the  F  on  the  fifth  line,  making  a  crescendo,  and 
then  a  decrescendo  in  one  breath  on  each  note, 
whilst  counting  mentally  two  very  slow  beats 
[Ex.  5]. 

When  the  scale  of  F  has  been  mastered  in  this 
manner,  ascending  and  descending,  the  student 
•will  find  no  difficulty  in  playing  the  "  National 
Anthem  "  [Ex.  6]. 

Another  key  which  brings  out  many  beautiful 
qualities  in  the  various  members  of  the  saxhorn 
family  is  Bt?.  In  the  natural  scale  of  C,  the 
seventh  degree  is  marked  by  B,  which,  hi  German, 
Ex.  4. 


is  designated  H,  pronounced  "  Ha,"  following 
their  A,  spoken  "  Ah."  This  is  equivalent  to  an 
Englishman  calling  the  semitone  above  A  "  Hay." 
But  this  H  in  the  German  scale  gave  one  of 
their  greatest  musicians  an  opportunity  to 
compose  a  beautiful  fugue  on  his  own 
name,  "  Bach."  For  this  reason  alone,  the 
Germans  are  justified  in  keeping  the  letter  H 
in  their  musical  alphabet.  So  they  have  no 
B!?,  our  Bi?  being  known  as  their  B.  In  the 
military  band,  B|?  is  the  key  in  which  most 
of  the  clarionets,  as  well  as  the  larger  brass 
instruments,  are  pitched.  Here  we  are  treating, 
however,  of  music  written  in  B!?  rather  than 
the  actual  notes  that  are  played  by  transposition. 
Incidentally,  it  will  be  well  for  the  student  now 
to  acquaint  himself  with  the  abbreviations  and 
rests  used  frequently  by  copyists  of  music  parts 
in  brass  bands. 

Music  Copying.  Bandsmen  frequently  fill 
hi  their  spare  time  by  part-copying.  The  pay 
is  twopence  or  threepence  psr  folio,  and  when 
speed  in  penmanship  has  been  acquired,  such 
work  is  not  to  be  despised.  In  France,  many 
years  ago,  the  great  poet  Rousseau  kept  the 
"  wolf  from  the  door  "  by  such  means,  and  his 
"  Musical  Dictionary "  has  a  long  article  on 
the  subject  of  music  copying.  The  intelligent 
student,  therefore,  when  his  lips  get  tired  in 
practising,  may  find  profitable  recreation  in 
writing  out  the  exercises  for  his  instrument  on 
music-paper,  so  that  musical  caligraphy  may, 
by-and-by,  come  to  him  as  readily  as  that  used 
for  ordinary  correspondence.  To  avoid  the 
labour  of  writing  the  same  notes  or  passages 
many  times,  a  minim  crossed  by  a  single  thick 
line  represents  four  quavers,  and  a  crotchet 
crossed  by  two  lines  equals  four  semiquavers, 
and  so  on  ;  whilst  an  oblique  stroke  with  a  dot 
on  either  side  of  it  implies  a  repetition  of  the 
previous  bar.  In  those  saxhorns  used  chiefly  for 
filling  in  harmonies  rather  than  playing  melody 
parts,  the  performer  may  expect  to  come  across 
a  couple  of  vertical  strokes  in  a  bar  with,  perhaps, 
the  figure  6  over  them,  or  a  long  horizontal 
stroke  with  a  10  above  it.  Such  signs  indicate 
that  he  must  cease  playing  for  as  many  bars  as 
are  specified  by  the  numbers. 

Try  the  scale  of  BI7  major,  tonguing  each  note 
four  times,  and  observing  the  abbreviated  signs 
[Ex.  7].  Now  link  each  note  of  the  scale  with 
the  first  B!?,  so  as  to  get  distinctly  the  succes- 
sive intervals.  Allusion  has  been  made  to  the 


Ex.  7. 


5134 


MUSIC 


Ex.8. 


t3=j=t^??*  **±^: 

Ex.  10. 


012 


^^ 


Ex.  11. 


Ex.  12. 


tetc. 


muscles  of  the  mouth  which  influence  the  pro- 
duction of  the  sound  on  the  saxhorn  ;  but  unless  a 
careful  appreciation  of  such  sounds  is  cultivated 
by  the  nerves  of  the  ear,  although  the  force  of  the 
blowing  may  be  correct,  the  pitch  sounded  by  the 
instrument  will  leave  much  to  be  desired.  It  is 
the  ear  of  the  player  which  must  guide  him  to  the 
relative  distances  of  height  and  depth  of  the 
tones,  so  that  the  sounds  may  be  in  good  tune. 
After  getting  the  first  Bt>  properly,  slur  the 
C  and  D  together  with  a  "  tee-oo,"  as  already 
explained. 

A  whole  tone  above  the  C  comes  the  D.  Link 
that  with  the  Bt?  by  another  mental  "  tee-oo." 
But  the  Eb  is  only  half  a  tone  higher  than 
the  D,  because  the  first  semitone  in  a  major 
scale  comes  between  the  third  and  fourth  degree, 
whilst  the  second  semitone  occurs  between  the 
seventh  and  eight,  and  the  same  in  descending. 
In  whatever  major  key  the  student  is  practising, 
the  places  of  these  half-notes  must  always  be 
borne  in  mind  [Ex.  8]. 

G  Minor.  The  minor  scale  which  has  the 
same  signature  as  B£  major  begins  a  minor 
third  loAver  than  the  B  7  just  played.  It  is  there- 
fore G  minor.  Try  this  scale  through  two 
octaves.  Remember  that,  in  the  melodic  minor 
form,  the  half-tones  occur  between  the  second 
and  third  and  seventh  and  eighth  degrees  going 
Up,  and  the  sixth  and  fifth  and  third  and  second 
coming  down  [Ex.  9.] 

To  familiarise  his  fingers  with  correct  piston 
manipulation,  the  student  can  construct  many 
exercises  on  this  scale.  Then,  by  varying  the 
time,  writing  the  same  exercise  out  in  three-tour 
instead  of  four-four  tempo,  his  playing  will 
improved  profitably.  In  an  illustration  we  here 
give,  one  stroke  of  the  tongue  must  suffice 
for  every  two  notes  linked  together  by  a  slur 
In  each  case,  slightly  relax  the  lips  for  the  second 
note.  In  violin  playing  all  notes  placed  under  a 


slur  are  performed  with  one  bow  ;  likewise,  on 
the  saxhorn,  all  notes  constituting  a  similar 
phrase  should  be  articulated  by  one  breath. 
Yet  the  student  should  be  careful  not  to  exag- 
gerate the  glissando  effect  [Ex.  10]. 

Bt?  Minor.  Having  essayed  the  relative 
minor  of  Bt>  major",  try  the  key  of  Bt7  minor  in 
its  melodic  form.  This,  being  the  relative  minor 
to  Db  major,  has  five  flats,  B,  E,  A,  D,  G.  By 
this  time  the  embouchure  of  the  student  should 
be  fairly  under  control— by  embouchure  is 
meant,  not  merely  the  mouthpiece  of  the  sax- 
horn, but  the  condition  of  the  lip-muscles  and 
facility  in  blowing.  Without  difficulty  he  should 
be  able,  therefore,  to  obtain,  by  increased  lip- 
pressure,  the  higher  notes  of  the  second  octave. 
If  they  demand  special  exertion  it  is  better  not 
to  force  them,  but  to  confine  practice  to  the 
lower  octave  until  this  can  be  played  with 
facility  in  quick  time  and  in  all  the  different 
exercises  by  transposition  [Ex.  11.] 

Having  proceeded  from  BP  major  to  G  minor, 
and  thence  to  B|?  minor,  with  five  flats,  try  G 
major,  with  six  flats,  which  are  as  many  as  the 
student  need  trouble  about  in  saxhorn  playing. 
This  scale  is  confined  to  one  octave,  from  G  on 
the  second  line  to  G  above  the  staff,  low  fiddle 
G,  so  far  as  concerns  written  music,  not  being 
within  the  ordinary  saxhorn  compass.  Here 
all  the  notes  are  flats,  excepting  F,  which 
natural.  In  this  key,  however,  double  flats 
are  likely  to  present  themselves.  In  that  case 
the  note  so  marked  is  depressed  a  whole  tone. 
Thus,  Bt?t?  is  played  with  the  same  fingering ;  ai 
4fi,  E!?b  in  the  same  manner  as  D£,  At?"  like 
Gil  and  so  on.  Exercise  12  gives  the  scale. 

Sharp  Keys.  As  much  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  sharp  as  to  the  flat  keys.  Although 
Gb  major  has  six  flats,  the  key  of  G£  has  one 
sharp,  F.  Then  come  in  succession  the  keys  ot 
D  with  C  as  its  second  sharp  ;  A,  with  G  as 
third  sharp;  E,  with  D  as  the  fourth  sharp ; 
B  with  A  as  the  fifth  ;  and  F^,  with  Ef  as  the 
sixth.  These  are  no  more  difficult  to  tear 
than  flat  keys,  thanks  to  the  different  length* 
of  tubing—opened  up  on  depression  of  the  pis- 
tons-being arranged  equally  to  admit  of  the 

5135 


MUSIC 

temperament  in  tuning  adopted  for  the  piano- 
forte. The  various  saxhorns,  indeed,  are  no 
ni'.iiv  difficult  to  blow  and  learn  than  the  cornet, 
and  are  equally  applicable  as  regards  the  fingering, 
execution  of  rapid  passages,  and  double  or  even 
triple  tonguing.  To  acquire  a  brilliant  and 
spirited  articulation  of  staccato  notes,  try  the 
scale  of  G  major  with  double  -tonguing.  The 
action  of  the  tongue  is  that  of  pronouncing  the 
dissyllable  "  too-tle."  Different  particles  of 
speech  are  recommended  by  foreign  teachers. 
For  triple-tonguing  the  usual  trisyllable  is 
"  too-tle-too."  Hence  the  expression  in  our 
language  of  "  tootling  "  on  a  wind  instrument. 
Fingering.  In  music,  the  note  G,  from 
which  G  major  begins,  has  always  had  much 
significance,  for  it  furnished  the  "  lichanos  " 
of  the  Greeks,  the  first  note  of  the  ?eolian,  or 
church  mode,  the  lowest  note  of  the  grave 
hexachord  as  of  the  violin,  and  gave  the  letter- 
name  to  our  treble  clef.  Consequently  many 
old  melodies  are  written  in  this  key,  and,  coming 
to  the  saxhorn,  the  student  will  remember  that 
the  first  sound  elicited  was  G  on  the  second  line. 
Now  get  the  G,  octave  below,  with  the  first  and 
third  pistons  down  and  a  slack  lip.  With  the 
first  and  second  pistons  down,  get  the  A  above. 
With  the  second  down,  get  the  B.  Now  sound 

C,  half  a  tone  higher,  without  depressing  the 
fingers.    Putting  down  the  first  and  third,  play 

D.  Employ  the  first  and  second  for  E.    For  the 
F  ~  use  the  second  only.    Then  sound  the  open  G 
with  the  pistons  up.     Get  A  with  the  first  and 
second  valves  down.     Sound  B  by  putting  down 
the  second  finger   only.     The   open   C,   half  a 
tone  higher,  should  be  easy.    Put  down  the  first 
finger  for  D.  Release  this  piston  for  E.  Put  down 
the  second  finger  for  F  jt.    Finally,  sound  the  open 
G,  tightening  the  lips.    Return  to  bottom  Gin  the 
same  manner. 

D  Major.  Next  try  D  major,  within  a 
compass  of  one  instead  of  two  octaves.  Begin 
with  the  D  below  the  staff.  For  this,  put 
down  the  first  and  third  pistons.  For  E, 
depress  the  first  and  second  buttons.  Put  down 
the  second  finger  for  F$,  and  then  sound  the 
open  G  above.  For  A,  put  down  the  first  and 
second  fingers  ;  for  B,  the  second  finger  only  ; 
and  the  same  for  Ctf  above.  The  first  finger 
depressed  will  give  the  octave  D.  Return  in 
the  same  manner.  Still  double-tonguing  each 
note,  take  the  scale  of  A  major,  with  three 
sharps,  through  two  octaves.  For  bottom  A, 
put  down  the  first  and  second  fingers.  Depress 
tin  second  finger  only  for  B.  For  Cjf  put  down 
all  three  pistons.  Depress  the  first  and  third 
only  for  D,  and  the  first  and  second  for  E.  F£ 
is  produced  by  loAvering  the  second  piston,  and 
G3  by  putting  down  the  second  and  third  fingers 
together,  whilst  the  octave  A  is  sounded  by 
mc.ins  of  the  first  and  second. 

With  increased  pressure  of  the  lip,  get  the  B 
by  the  second  piston,  the  CjJ  by  the  first  and 
second,  and  D  with  the  first.  E  above  is  an  open 
note.  Thru  comes  F  J,  produced  with  the  second 
piston,  G~  by  the  second  and  third  fingers,  and 
A  by  putting  down  the  first  and  second. 
the  scale  in  the  same  wa. 


E  Major.  Proceed  to  E  major,  with  four 
sharps  in  its  signature,  through  one  octave. 
Sound  E  on  the  first  line  by  lowering  the  first 
and  second  fingers,  F  Jj  by  depressing  the  second, 
G£  with  the  second  and  third,  A  by  the  first 
and  second,  B  by  the  second  only,  Cjt  by  the 
first  and  second,  and  D  ^  by  the  second  only. 
Top  E  is  an  open  note.  Return  in  similar  fashion. 
Try  B  major,  with  five  sharps,  through  two 
octaves,  beginning  with  B  below  first  ledger  line, 
putting  down  the  second  piston.  Triple-tongue 
each  note. 

Having  executed  a  "  too-tle-too  ''  on  B,  get  the 
same  articulation  on  C  JT,  putting  down  all  three 
pistons.  Release  the  first  finger  for  D  J.  Depress 
the  first  and  second  pistons  for  E,  the  second  only 
for  FjJ,  the  second  and  third  for  G  Jf,  the  first  for 
A£,  the  second  for  B,  first  and  second  for  Cjf, 
and  the  second  only  for  D£.  Release  all  pistons 
for  E.  Put  down  the  second  for  F|j,  gradually 
tightening  the  lips.  Depress  the  second  and 
third  pistons  for  Gfc  using  the  first  only  for 
A  if,  and  get  top  B  by  putting  down  the 
second  finger  only.  Descend  the  scale  in  the 
same  way.  In  saxhorn  music  the  scale  of  Fj 
with  six  raising  signs,  is  seldom  used,  its  synonym^ 
G7,  with  six  flats,  sounding  the  same  and  being 
easier  to  play.  Should  the  sharp  key,  however, 
be  employed,  remember  that  when  an  Fx 
occurs  it  must  be  fingered  like  Gr,  Cx  being 
played  like  D  H,  G  x  like  A,  and  so  on.  The 
minor  scales  related  to  the  foregoing  sharp  keys 
present  no  more  difficulty  than  those  identified 
with  flat  keys. 

Take,  for  instance,  E  minor,  the  relative  to 
G  major.  Sound  E,  first  line  treble  clef,  by 
putting  down  the  first  and  second  fingers. 
Produce  the  next  note,  Fit,  by  depressing 
the  second  piston  only.  Then  comes  G  t},  an 
open  note,  a  half-tone  above.  Put  down  the 
second  finger  for  A,  and  the  same  for  B,  a  tone 
above.  For  C  Jj!  put  down  the  first  and  second 
pistons,  and  the  second  only  for  DJi.  The  E, 
a  semitone  higher,  is  open.  Returning,  put 
down  the  first  piston  for  D  £.  C  jj  is  an  open 
note.  The  second  piston  gives  B.  For  A, 
use  the  first  and  second.  G  is  an  open 
note.  F  ij  is  produced  by  the  second  piston 
only,  and  E  with  the  first  and  second  as  before. 
Thus,  in  the  melodic  minor,  F,  C,  and  D  are 
sharpened  in  ascending,  but  the  D  and  C  are 
made  natural  in  descending,  and  only  the  F  is 
sharp.  So  as  to  impress  all  the  major  and  minor 
scales  on  the  memory,  the  student  is  advised  to 
write  them  out  on  music-paper  in  their  proper 
order,  placing  the  fingering  above  each  note. 
Presently,  no  matter  what  key  a  piece  is  in, 
familiarity  with  its  scale,  both  in  the  major 
and  minor  modes,  will  enable  numerals  over  the 
notes  to  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  fingering 
will  apparently  come  of-  its  own  accord. 

Appoggiatura.  We  have  seen  that  the 
correct  performance  of  saxhorn  music  greatly 
depends  on  familiarity  with  the  different  gradu- 
ated series  of  sounds  applicable  to  every  key. 
Unless,  therefore,  each  scale  is  studied  inde- 
pendently, and  the  fingers  as  well  as  the  lips  be 
exercised  together,  so  that,  no  matter  what  the 


5136 


signature  is,  the  performance  will  be  rendered 
with  facility,  the  saxhorn  player  cannot  expect 
to  excel  on  his  instrument.  So  the  scales  are 
those  ladders  of  sound  which  have  to  be  climbed 
if  the  top  of  the  musical  building  is  to  be  reached ; 
and  the  sooner  their  various  rungs  are  mounted 
the  better.  But  these  more  important  exercises 
can  be  pleasantly  alternated  with  study  of  the 
embellishments  or  graces  which  frequently 
occur  in  written  music.  The  simplest  of  these 
ornaments  is  the  appoggiatura.  It  is  merely  a 
little  note  which  leans  upon  a  big  one  when 
playing.  Although  smaller  to  the  eye  than  the 
principal  note,  in  performance  it  is  given  one  half 
the  value  of  the  latter ;  but  when  crossed  by  a 
small  line,  the  little  note  should  last  only  a 
fourth  of  that  which  follows  [Ex.  13]. 

The  Turn.  The  turn  consists  of  three 
grace  notes  played  between,  or  after,  a  principal 
note.  It  is  sometimes  termed  gruppetto,  an 
Italian  name  for  a  series  of  notes  grouped 
together.  Such  embellishments,  in  former  times, 
were  introduced  at  the  discretion  of  a  player, 
and  it  was  considered  clever  to  insert  what  was 
called  in  our  country  a  "  double  relish."  Such 
improvisations  to-day  are  bad  form,  as  they 
are  contrary  to  the  intentions  of  the  composer. 
The  turn  is  marked  by  a  horizontal  ^.  A  small 
sharp  beneath  this  sign  indicates  that  the  lowest 
of  the  three  extra  notes  must  be  raised  a  semi- 
tone, whereas,  if  the  sharp  is  above  the  sign,  the 
upper  grace  note  has  to  be  treated  in  that 
manner.  When  a  sharp  occurs  both  above  and 
below  the  sign,  both  the  upper  and  lower  grace 
notes  are  raised  a  semitone  by  the  player,  the 
same  rule  applying  as  regards  flats,  the  per- 
former then  depressing  both  the  lowest  and 
highest  grace  notes  in  similar  fashion  [Ex,  14]. 

The  Shake.  What  is  known  as  the 
passing  shake  is  the  same  note  twice  repeated 
with  the  semitone  above  it,  without  interfering 
with  the  time  in  which  the  other  notes  of  a  bar 
are  performed.  But  the  trill,  or  longer  shake, 
necessitates  a  rapid  alternation  of  the  note 
marked  with  that  which  is  the  next  degree  above 
it.  On  an  instrument  with  pistons,  playing  a 
trill  neatly  and  rapidly  can  only  be  effected  by 
constant  practice,  and  by  keeping  the  valves  hi 
good  order.  Try  the  shake  on  C  in  third  space. 
Couple  this  with  the  semitone  below  by  putting 
clown  the  second  piston  for  £.  Begin  very 
slowly,  playing  B,  C,  B,  C  on  four  beats.  Then 
sound  B,  C,  B,  and  C,  B,  C,  as  two  triplets,  each 
on  one  beat.  Next,  play  B,  C,  B,  C  as  four 
quavers  on  one  beat.  Still  increasing  the  speed, 
execute  the  two  triplets  as  before,  making  six 
quavers  to  one  beat.  Then  double  the  speed, 
and  play  a  group  of  eight  semiquavers  to  one 
beat,  finally  getting  four  triplets  of  semiquavers, 
or  twelve  notes,  to  one  beat. 

Try  the  next  note  of  the  scale,  but  an  octave 
lower,  by  putting  down  the  first  and  third  piston 
for  D,  and  alternate  that  with  the  open  low  C. 
To  move  two  fingers  instead  of  one  evenly  and 
rapidly  is,  of  course,  more  difficult.  Proceeding 
to  the  next  note,  E,  a  further  difficulty  confronts 
the  student,  for,  whilst  the  first  finger  is  kept 
down  for  both  notes,  the  shake  is  executed  by  the 


MUSIC 

third  and  second  pistons,  and  the  third  finger  is 
the  weakest  of  the  hand.  It  therefore  demands 
an  extra  amount  of  practice.  At  first  the  shake 
may  appear  almost  impossible,  and  it  is  no  good 
tiring  the  lips  or  fingers  by  continuing  too  long 
with  any  one  exercise.  The  best  way  is  to  attack 
it  persistently  at  short  intervals  day  by  day. 

Continuing  the  chain  of  shakes,  go  to  the  F 
This  is  easier.  For  both  the  E  and  F  the  first 
piston  is  down,  but  for  the  E  the  second  is  als<  > 
required,  so  the  shake  is  made  by  a  rapid  de- 
pression and  release  of  the  second  piston.  To 
get  the  shake  on  the  G  requires  rapid  manipu- 
lation merely  of  the  first  finger  for  F,  G  being 
an  open  note. 

The  shake  on  A  is  more  difficult,  as  it  requires 
the  first  and  second  fingers  to  be  moved  with 
great  precision  for  A,  and  then  released  cleanly 
so  that  the  open  G  is  heard.  The  shake  on  B  is 
simple,  because  the  second  piston  is  down  all 
the  time  for  B.  and  the  first  is  depressed  quickly 
for  A.  Finally,  to  complete  the  octave,  "  open  " 
C  changes  rapidly  with  the  B,  so  that  the  second 
finger  and  the  lip  only  do  the  work.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  ports  asinorum  of  a  chain  of 
shakes  in  the  scale  of  C  major  is  presented  by  the 
trill  on  E  in  the  lower  octave,  where  the  first  and 
second  and  the  first  and  third  fingers  have  to 
move  neatly  and  rapidly.  But  in  the  octave 
above  the  E  is  an  open  note,  and  the  D  below 
needs  only  the  depression  of  the  first  finger, 
so  that  what  is  difficult  in  the  graver  notes 
becomes  easy  with  a  tighter  lip.  It  is  useless, 
therefore,  to  attempt  a  maximum  sp?ed  towards 
the  bottom  of  the  compass. 

We  only  give  particulars  of  trilling  in  C  major, 
but  the  student  is  advised  to  study  other  scales 
in  the  same  way,  making  a  chain  of  shakes  on 
every  note  by  coupling  with  each  one  the  semi- 
tone below  it.  From  skilful  use  of  this  ornament, 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  effects  in  music  have 
been  derived,  as,  for  instance,  Beethoven's 
imitation  of  the  nightingale  in  the  "  Pastoral 
Symphony,"  or  in  his  setting  of  "  Herders  Song." 
This  forms  an  admirable  exercise,  as,  being  based 
on  Nature,  it  shows  the  truly  artistic  way  of 
beginning  a  trill.  It  is  on  the  top  A,  coupled 
with  the  G  below.  Now,  the  A  requires  depres- 
sion of  the  first  and  second  pistons  and  a  tight 


Ex.  13. 


Ex.  14. 


513- 


MUSIC 

Ex.  15. 


Ex.  16. 


Written 


Played 


lip.  But  the  G  in  the  upper  octave  is  an  open 
note.  The  bird,  before  it  pitches  on  to  the  A, 
accustoms  itself  slowly  to  sounding  the  preceding 
G.  First  we  have  three  slow  G's  in  one  bar. 
Then  the  crotchets  are  syncopated,  which  means 
that  the  rhythm  is  altered  by  driving  the  accent 
to  that  part  of  the  bar  not  usually  accented.  So 
the  bird  begins  the  second  bar  with  a  short  note, 
followed  by  two  long  ones,  and  then  succeeded 
by  another  short  note.  The  third  bar  doubles 
the  speed,  so  we  have  six  quavers  instead  of 
three  crotchets  ;  but,  as  the  nightingale*  is 
thinking  of  the  speed  of  the  trill,  it  again  begins 
and  ends  the  bar  with  a  quick  note,  as  in  the 
preceding  instance.  Then,  in  the  fourth  bar,  it 
executes  its  shake  on  the  A,  singing  four  A's  and 
four  G's  on  each  of  the  three  beats,  or  twenty* 
four  notes  altogether  in  one  bar.  This  is  Nature's 
own  method  of  trilling,  and  the  student  who 
copies  such  a  model  cannot  go  far  wrong  [Ex.  15]. 
Portamento.  In  singing  this  term  implies 
"lifting"  the  voice  from  one  note  to  another. 
On  the  saxhorn  it  means  a  tightening  or  slacken- 
ing of  the  lips  in  a  flexible  way,  so  that  the  sound 
is  increased  to  a  higher  or  decreased  to  a  lower 
pitch.  As  a  valve  instrument,  unlike  a  slide- 
trombone,  cannot  make  a  true  glissando,  the 
idea  of  the  portamento  is  merely  to  get  the 
transition  from  one  note  to  another  as  smoothly 
as  possible.  If  the  "  carrying  "  is  exaggerated,  it 
becomes  objectionable.  But  in  legato  music  it 
should  be  the  endeavour  of  the  player  to  make  his 
instrument  sing.  Some  performers  have  a  natural 
gift  in  this  respect.  Between  mere  blowing  and 
artistic  performance  there  is  therefore  a  marked 
difference.  Since  every  musical  instrument  has 
a  voice,  a  family  of  saxhorns  of  different  sizes 
may  be  regarded  as  a  vocal  choir  representing 
bass,  baritone,  tenor,  alto,  or  contralto,  mezzo- 
soprano,  and  soprano  parts.  If  a  combination 
of  singers  "  bark  "  out  their  notes,  the  effect 
is  not  considered  happy.  Yet  many  saxhorn 
players  unconsciously  cultivate  a  harsh,  brassy 
manner  of  tone -production  analogous  to  barking. 
Thus  it  is  not  alone  correct  finger  manipulation 
which  should  be  studied,  but  the  student  should 
always  imagine  that  he  has  a  critic  listening  to 
the  quality  of  his  tone,  whether  it  be  elicited 
from  the  lower  or  higher  octave.  Only  by 
independent  practice  of  this  character  can  the 
player  make  his  performance  most  useful  for 
enriching  the  tone  of  a  band  artistically. 

To  do  this  requires  persevering  practice,  and 
not   exceptional   ability.      Patient   self-training 
5138 


and  taking  care  never  to  force  the  lips  unduly 
by  exercises  for  which  they  are  unfitted  will 
enable  the  student  gradually  to  improve  himself. 
Self-tuition  in  saxhorn  playing,  therefore,  in 
the  absence  of  a  master  to  check  impetuosity, 
demands  special  restraint.  One's  studies,  when 
practising  alone,  must  be  systematised.  There- 
fore, draw  up  a  practice  table  as  recommended 
in  the  course  for  the  violin  [page  2314].  There 
it  will  be  seen  that  if  forty  minutes  can  be 
devoted  to  practice  daily,  five  of  them  are  given 
to  a  major  scale,  five  to  a  minor,  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  being  occupied  by  practising  intervals,  and 
the  remaining  quarter  of  an  hour  by  the  study 
of  arpeggios.  If  in  earnest,  the  saxhorn  student 
who  wishes  to  economise  his  leisure  will  make 
more  progress  if  he  familiarises  himself  in  the 
same  manner  gradually  with  the  different  major 
and  minor  scales,  makes  exercises  upon  them, 
and  practises  the  shake  and  portamento  effects, 
than  in  playing  unprofitable  popular  tunes. 

Having  mastered  preliminary  studies,  he  has 
only  to  develop  carefully  such  rudimentary 
ability  to  become  recognised  by-and-by  as  a 
talented  player. 

Specially  adapted  for  portamento  phrasing  are 
certain  slurs,  as  in  preceding  the  E  on  the  fourth 
space  (played  with  a  tight  lip  and  first  and  second 
pistons  down)  by  open  G  below,  or  the  same 
G  preceded  by  the  open  C  above,  the  difference 
from  the  high  to  the  low  note  being  due  to 
"  humouring  "  the  tone  by  the  lip.  The  rule  is 
to  make  a  crescendo  when  going  from  a  low  to  a 
higher  note,  and  a  decrescendo  when  coining 
from  a  high  to  a  low  pitch.  The  long  note,  to 
which  the  tone  is  "  carried/'  is  slightly  antici- 
pated, whilst  the  shorter  note  is  slightly  cur- 
tailed [Ex.  16.] 

Time  Beats.  Tone  quality  or  vocal  effects 
in  saxhorn  playing,  however,  must  be  subser- 
vient to  the  measure  in  which  any  study  is 
written.  Avoid  slackening  the  speed  over  diffi- 
cult short  notes,  and  do  not  hurry  over  long, 
easy  sounds.  Emotional  qualities  in  music  are 
invariably  governed  by  tempo.  It  is  this  control 
Avhich  constitutes  "  form  "  in  music.  Unfortu- 
nately, players  who  are  the  best  timists  have 
often  a  harsh  lip,  whilst  those  who  produce  the 
best  tone-quality  frequently  neglect  a  strict 
observance  of  the  beats  in  each  bar.  The  easiest 
way  to  correct  shortcomings  in  this  respect  is 
to  practise  with  a  metronome. 

If  a  melody  is  written  as  a  march,  it  should 
be  performed  as  if  the  left  foot  of  every  soldier 
was  brought  to  the  ground  on  the  first  beat  of 
each  bar.  Equally,  if  the  piece  is  a  dance,  unless 
the  rhythm  is  correctly  kept  the  steps  of  the 
dancers  would  be  thrown  out.  To  add  interest 
to  a  melody,  the  time  within  each  bar,  neverthe- 
less, is  often  interrupted  by  the  composer,  who 
robs  the  length  of  one  note  by  giving  it  to  another. 
Thus,  a  dotted  note,  if  there  are  two  crotchets 
in  a  bar,  borrows  half  the  length  of  that  time 


from  the  crotchet  which  follows,  so  that  the 
second  note  becomes  a  quaver.  When  two  dots, 
however,  follow  a  note,  the  second  sound  is  still 
more  abbreviated.  Thus,  Rossini's  "  Cujus 
An  imam  "  starts  with  a  dotted  minim,  followed 
by  a  dotted  quaver,  in  four-four  time,  so  that 
only  a  semiquaver  is  needed  to  complete  the 
bar.  The  six  succeeding  bars  preserve  this 
rhythm  by  having  notes  of  similar  length  to 
those  in  the  first  bar.  Yet,  although  the  measure 
is  marked  "  allegretto,"  or  tolerably  quick,  these 
dotted  notes  do  not  imply  that  the  movement  is 
to  be  played  jerkily,  as  the  music,  being  sacred, 
should  be  rendered  seriously. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  take  Irish  jigs  or 
Scottish  reels  in  quick  time,  the  dotted  notes, 
performed  in  spirited  fashion,  give  to  the  piece 
its  sAving  or  "  lilt."  To  accustom  the  student  to 
the  playing  of  dotted  notes,  a  good  exercise  is 
the  well-known  "  Keel  Row  "  [Ex.  17]. 

Here,  in  the  contraction  to  a  semiquaver  of 
each  second  quaver,  the  accents  fall  on  the  first 
and  second  beats  in  each  bar,  so  that  there  is  no 
displacement  of  the  rhythm  of  the  melody. 
But,  whilst  emphasis  is  regular  so  far  as  the 
tune  is  concerned,  it  may  be  irregular  in  the  part 
written  for  an  accompanying  instrument.  The 
student  should  give  careful  attention  to  any  such 
unusual  accentuation.  Although  the  emphasis 


MUSIC 

impnl.se,  which  exhausts  the  prime  note  and 
lower  harmonics.  Thereby  prominence  is  given 
to  the  smaller  pulsating  segments,  or  aliquot 
divisions  of  the  tube,  although  these  are  al*o 
brought  into  requisition  when  the  fundamental 
sound  is  produced. 

It  is  only  by  increasing  the  velocity  of  the 
vibration  that  these  minuter  segments  can  l»e 
detached.  If,  by  a  slack  lip,  the  whole  tube  i- 
thus  induced  to  sound  its  fundamental  note, 
increase  of  breath-pressure  first  divides  the 
vibrating  segment  in  half,  next  into  a  third,  a 
fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  of  the  whole, 
each  proportion  yielding  its  distinct  harmonic 
sounds.  Because  of  their  cupped  mouthpieces, 
this  takes  place  uniformly  in  all  saxhorns  when 
no  pistons  are  depressed.  When  first  introduced 
the  valve-action  was  somewhat  different  to  what 
it  is  now.  Pressure  of  the  first  piston  lowered  the 
pitch  half  a  tone,  of  the  second  a  whole  tone,  and 
of  the  third  a  tone,  and  a  half.  The  arrangement 
now  is  that  the  first  depresses  the  pitch  a  whole 
tone,  the  second  a  semitone,  and  the  third  a  tone 
and  a  half.  This  system  distributes,  as  equally 
as  possible,  the  weight  of  the  longer  tubes  attached 
to  the  valves.  The  harmonic  series  obtained 
through  the  medium  of  each  piston  is  therefore" 
a  mere  transposition  in  pitch  of  the  so-called 
open  sounds  when  no  valves  are  used.  In- 


may  fall  generally  on  the  first  tone  in  each  bar, 
considerable  effect  is  often  gained  by  misplacing 
the  accent  in  minor  parts. 

Syncopation,  As  an  example  of  this,  play 
four  C's  third  space,  in  a  bar,  in  four-four  time. 
But  begin  the  second  bar  with  a  quaver  rest, 
following  this  rest  by  blowing  three  crotchets 
and  one  semiquaver  in  strict  time.  To  do  ttns, 
count  mentally  "  one-and,"  "  two-and, 
and,"  "  four-and,"  giving  emphasis  to  the  and 
in  each  case.  This  is  syncopation.  The  effect  is  as 
if  the  player,  instead  of  blowing  simultaneously 
with  a  conductor's  beat,  echoed  it.  Practising 
alone,  syncopated  passages  may  not  appear 
interesting,  and  for  that  reason  are  apt  to  be 
passed  over,  yet  they  need  special  attentio 

Tuning.  When  any  instrument  of  the 
saxhorn  family  is  blown  without  touching  the 
pistons,  the  student  is  aware  that  not  one  but 
different  sounds  result  according  to  the  degree  o 
lip-pressure  on  the  mouthpiece.  The  lowest  or 
fiuidamental,  sound  is  obtainable  by  a  very  slack 
Up  As  its  quality  is  bad,  this  note  is  seldom  usecl. 
The  musical  tones  are  the  harmonics,  or  partial*, 
elicited  above  the  deepest  sound.  These,  we  have 
seen,  ascend  in  a  regular  series,  becoming  higher 
in  pitch  according  to  the  increase  of  vibratory 


creased   depth   depends  on  the  extra  length  of 
airT.passage  opened. 

If  the  tubing  attached  to  the  valves  is 
examined,  it  will  be  noticed  that  each  lower  bend 
is  furnished  with  a  tuning  slide.  A  little  grease 
will  make  these  slides  work  freely.  Without 
using  the  pistons,  sound  D  above  first  ledger 
line  bass  clef.  Compare  that  note  with  the  same 
obtained  on  pressing  down  the  third  piston. 
Regulate  the  slide  of  the  latter  until  the  two  are 
in  tune.  Sound  B>  above  bass  clef  without 
touching  the  pistons.  Then  press  clown  the  secc 
with  the  third,  sounding  the  same  note.  Regu- 
late the  slide  of  the  second  till  the  unisons  un- 
true Without  touching  the  pistons,  sound  the 
first  D  again,  and  then  the  same  note,  patting 
down  the  first  and  second  pistons.  Adjust 
slide  of  the  first  till  the  unisons  are  m  tune. 

THE     EUPHONIUM 

On  account  of  its  singing  quality,  power,  and 
flexibility  of  tone  amongst  the  various  saxhorns, 
this  instrument,  apart  from  its  use  m  filling  ir 
harmonies,  is  often  allotted  prominent  solo 
work  The  name  "euphonium,  coming  from 
the  same  Greek  root  as  euphony,  means  "  smooth- 
sounding."  It  is  pitched  in  C  B?  or  At?,  the 
C  behw  least  used.  In  brass  bands  the  A "» 

5K50 


MUSIC 

occasionally  employed,  but  the  B?  is  usually 
preferred,  'in  common  with  the  other  saxhorns, 
euphonium  band  parts  can  be  had  in  the  treble 
elef,  but  the  student  is  advised  to  make  himself 
acquainted  with  the  bass  clef,  solos  being  gener- 
ally written  in  that  manner.  The  method  of 
blowing  the  euphonium  is  akin  to  the  smaller 
-ax  horns.  Choose,  however,  a  mouthpiece  an  inch 
in  diameter  at  the  cup  surface,  and  even  larger 
if  the  instrument  has  four  valves. 

In  a  big  instrument  a  mouthpiece  with  a  large 
cup  gives  a  better  tone-quality  than  a  small  one. 
The  latter  is  often  chosen  because  it  is  thought 
that  high  notes,  usually  less  important  than  the 
low  ones,  can  be  more  easily  articulated.  A  point 
for  the  student  to  cultivate  specially  is  to  pro- 
duce every  note  on  the  euphonium  without 
beginning  it  with  what  is  known  as  a  "  crash." 

From  very  soft  to  very  loud  the  quality  should 
always  be  mellow  and  liquid.  Owing  to  the 
extensi  ve  compass  of  this  instrument,  it  takes  the 
same  position  in  a  brass  band  as  the  violoncello 
does  in  a  string  orchestra.  Recognising  its  re- 
sources, composers  make  more  and  more  use  of 
the  euphonium. 

Attitude.  In  this  and  the  larger  bom- 
bardon, owing  to  the  weight  of  the  instrument, 
many  students  get  into  a  bad  habit  of  bringing 
the  mouth  to  the  euphonium  instead  of  the  latter 
to  the  lip.  Stand  erect  and  keep  the  body 
motionless  when  playing.  To  incline  the  neck 
forward  is  wrong  ;  it  interferes  with  the  proper 
method  of  breathing.  Guard  against  contracting 
a  bad  habit  of  jerking  the  breath  to  complete 
a  note,  whilst  at  the  same  moment  lessening  the 
pressure  on  the  lips  of  the  mouthpiece.  This 
immediately  lowers  the  tone.  Endeavour  to 
stand  in  a  military  attitude  when  practising. 
Hold  the  instrument  with  the  left  hand,  firmly 
but  not  stiffly.  If  grasped  loosely,  the  instru- 
ment will  shake  on  manipulation  of  the  pistons, 
and  the  embouchure  will  be  upset. 

THE  BOMBARDON 
It  is  a  mistake  to  use  the  euphonium  for 
bombardon  work.  The  former,  in  spite  of  its 
good  qualities,  has  neither  the  depth  nor  fulness 
of  tone  for  such  an  important  part.  The  bom- 
bardon student  should  endeavour  to  produce 
a  good  full  tone,  and  sustain  it  without  effort, 
rather  than  strive  to  acquire  facility  in  rapid 
passages.  To  get  the  necessary  dexterity  of 
finger  and  suppleness  of  lip  for  playing  the 
Flugelhorn,  boys  in  France  are  put  to  that  instru- 
ment at  the  age  of  ten,  and  are  considered 
incapable  of  excelling  on  it  if  they  take  it  up 
after  eighteen.  But,  with  the  bombardon, 
although  small  models  are  made  for  use  in  boys' 
bands,  the  instrument  can  only  be  heard  at  its 
best  when  played  with  the  rt. serve  lung-power 
of  a  physically  strong  man. 

The  player  should  always  seek  to  emulate  the 
best  effects  of  the  stringed  double-bass. 

Bombardons  are  made  in  models  of  three 
different  pitches,  E(7,  F  and  BB?.  The  price 
ranges  from  £7  to  £20. 

The  Fourth  Valve.  In  the  smaller  sax- 
horns, to  get  correct  intonation,  when  certain 

Sc&rusophones  and 
8140 


combinations  are  made  with  the  three  valves, 
the  lip  has  sometimes  to  "humour"  the  notes. 
In  bombardons,  similar  coaxing  of  tone  is  not 
always  feasible.  A  fourth  valve  is,  therefore, 
almost  essential.  When  used  alone  it  adds  the 
length  of  two  and  a  half  tones  to  the  "  open  " 
pitch.  This  series  of  harmonics  then  sounds  : 
F  (below  bass  staff),  with  C,  F,  A,  C,  and  F  above. 
These  sounds  are  all  too  sh^rp  in  the  lower 
register  if  the  same  notes  are  obtained  with  the 
first  and  third  pistons.  The  tubing  opened  up 
is  then  too  short  proportionately  to  the  whole 
length.  With  the  fourth  valve  the  series  is 
accurate.  But  if  this  piston  is  valuable  as 
regards  the  harmonics  it  gives  by  itself,  it  is  of 
greater  utility  when  combined  with  the  other 
pistons.  The  student  should  therefore  acquaint 
himself  with  the  principles  of  the  quadruple 
fingering.  The  fourth  valve  in  combination  with 
the  second  gives  A  (third  ledger  line  below  staff), 
with  E,  A,  C£,  E  and  A  above.  The  fourth  and 
first  valves  together  sound  Ab,Et>,A?,C£|,  Et?, 
and  A  i?,  lowering  the  first  series  a  semitone.  By 
the  fourth  and  third  valves  being  depressed,  we 
get  a  wThole  tone  lower,  thus:  G  (below  third 
ledger  line  bass  clef),  D,  G,  B,  D,  and  G  above. 
Putting  down  the  fourth  and  second  valve, 
there  is  another  depression  of  a  semitone,  the 
sounds  being  Gi?,Dt?,G!?,Bi?,D>?,  and  Gt>.  By 
lowering  the  fourth,  third  and  first  together, 
there  is  a  transposition  of  three  whole  tones 
in  the  first  series,  and  we  get  F  (fourth  ledger 
line  below  staff),  with  C,  F,  A,  C,  and  F  above. 
Finally,  pressing  down  all  four  valves,  the  open 
series  is  lowered  an  interval  of  a  fourth,  the 
harmonics  being  low  E  (below  fourth  ledger 
line),  with  B,  E,  G  f ,  B,  and  i-]  above.  - 

Taking  an  E7  instrument,  the  compass  will 
be  found  to  consist  of  three  octaves,  the  upper 
notes  of  the  first  octave  and  the  lower  sounds  of 
the  second  being  easiest  for  the  beginner  to 
obtain.  On  these  notes  preparatory  studies  are 
usually  constructed.  It  is  only  for  the  lowest 
octave  that  the  fourth  valve  is  needed. 
Nevertheless,  this  is  the  most  important  part 
of  the  compass,  since  it  gives  the  pedal  notes  on 
which  the  harmonies  in  a  brass  band  are  con- 
structed. These  sounds,  in  consequence,  may 
have  to  be  loud  and  sustained.  If  their  intona- 
tion is  wrong,  the  effect  of  the  other  instrument? 
will  be  spoilt.  To  master  the  blowing  of  the 
bottom  octave,  begin  with  the  open  E?  (first 
ledger  line  below  staff).  Lower  the  second 
valve  and  sound  D.  With  the  first  valve,  get 
D!?.  With  the  first  and  second  together  sound 
C.  With  the  second  and  third  together  get  B. 
With  the  first  and  third  together  get  B  (?.  With 
the  first,  second,  and  third  sound  A. 

Now,  for  the  next  five  semitones  the  fourth 
piston  must  be  employed  or  the  intonation  will 
be  too  sharp.  Alv  ays  using  this  piston,  put  dowu 
as  well  the  first  for  A1?,  the  third  for  G,  the  second 
and  third  for  G  5,  the  first  and  third  for  F,  and 
the  first,  second  and  third  for  E.  Finally,  the 
octave  fundamental  below  the  E  !?  from  which 
the  start  was  made  can  be  obtained  with  a  very 
slaek  lip. 

court H flfd 


PAINTS   AND    POLISHES 


Grinding-  Mineral  Colours. 
Oil  and  other  Mediums. 


Artificial  Pigment?.    Tests  for  Colours.     Linseed 
Resins.      Varnishes.     Metal  and  Boot  Polishes 


By  CLAYTON  BEADLE  and  HENRY  P.  STEVENS 


Croup  5 

APPLIED 

CHEMISTRY 

7 

Con  tinned  from 


The  first  object  for  which  a  coating  is  applied 
to  the  surface  of  a  substance,  whether  it  be  painted, 
varnished,  or  polished,  is  the  preservation  of  the 
surface.  It  does  not  matter  whether  you  are  painting 
an  iron  girder,  tarring  a  fence,  varnishing  a  table,  or 
polishing  a  pair  of  boots,  the  object  is  always  the 
same — namely,  to  protect  the  surface  of  the  material, 
whether  iron,  wood,  or  leather.  All  substances 
when  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  are 
gradually  destroyed  and  disintegrated,  whether  the 
material  rusts,  moulds,  rots,  or  undergoes  any  other 
change.  All  these  transformations  are  of  a  chemical 
nature  and  are  usually  caused  by  the  oxidising 
effect  of  the  earth's  atmosphere.  These  destroying 
influences  are  much  accelerated  by  the  presence 
of  moisture,  and  in  lands  with  a  very  dry  climate, 
such  as  Egypt,  the  atmosphere  has  little  or  no 
destructive  effect.  However,  in  our  own  and  most 
other  countries,  it  is  generally  necessary  to  coat 
or  paint  materials  with  a  more  resistant  substance 
to  preserve  and  lengthen  their  life.  The  sort  of  coat- 
ing to  be  applied  will  depend  on  the  circumstances. 
Thus,  a  light  polish  will  do  for  a  table  away  from 
the  air  and  damp,  but  a  very  strong  and  resistant 
paint  is  required  for  an  iron  girder  exposed  to  sun, 
storm,  wind,  and  rain. 

Esthetic  Considerations.  We  have, 
up  to  now,  considered  paints  and  polishes  purely 
in  respect  to  their  utility,  but  in  most  cases  there  is 
also  an  esthetic  side  to  the  question,  and  we  have 
to  combine  beauty  with  utility.  The  former,  how- 
ever, can  never  replace  or  make  amends  for  any 
deficiency  of  the  latter.  Even  when  painting  easel 
pictures,  although  the  artist's  aims  are  purely 
aesthetic,  he  must,  nevertheless,  choose  such  pig- 
ments as  are  durable  and  permanent,  and  must 
discard  those,  no  matter  how  brilliant  of  hue,  which 
have  not  the  necessary  permanence.  We  have  only 
to  study  the  paintings  of  some  of  the  great  masters, 
even  the  more  modern,  such  as  Turner's,  to  realise 
how  insufficient  attention  to  the  permanence  of  the 
colours  has  impaired  many  otherwise  excellent 
achievements. 

Without,  however,  attempting  to  follow  the 
purely  aesthetic  side,  it  is  necessary  that  a  paint 
should  be  effective  in  appearance  and  pleasing 
to  the  eye.  This  has  brought  about  a  demand  for 
paints  of  brilliant  hue,  and  for  varnishes  and  polishes 
of  the  brightest  gloss,  which  has  sometimes  resulted 
iu  the  substitution  of  the  cheap  and  gaudy  for 
the  sombre  but  more  permanent  colours.  Bright 
colours,  such  as  aniline  lakes,  have  replaced  the 
more  permanent  mineral  colours.  Those  engaged 
in  constructive  work  should  make  sure  that  they 
are  getting  the  genuine  mineral  colour  when  they 
order  it,  and  not  a  mixture  of  inferior  mineral 
with  aniline  lake  or  other  fugitive  colours  added  to 
produce  the  same  effect,  and  this  can  be  accomplished 
only  by  a  chemical  analysis.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  cannot  expect  to  get  a  genuine  mineral  colour, 
say,  for  instance,  vermilion  (sulphide  of  mercury), 
when  we  are  willing  to  pay  only  the  price  of  an 
inferior  article,  such  as  vermilionette  (barytes 
or  red  lead,  coloured  with  aniline  lake).  Such 


pigments    bear    much    the    same    relation    to    one 
(rotten)   aS  ^    (W°0l)    does    *°    flann('lot?" 

Pigment  and  Medium.  A  paint  con-M- 
ot  a  mixture  ofa  solid  pigment  or  coloured  matter 
ground  in  with  a  vehicle  or  medium  such  as  oil 
Ihe  pigment  is  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder,  and  i> 
applied  to  the  surface  to  be  coated  in  intimate 
admixture  with  oil.  As  the  latter  gradually  dries. 
it  hardens  to  a  tough  elastic  mass,  adhering  firmlv 
to  the  surface  and  binding  together  the  particle's 
ot  pigment.  Only  some  of  the  many  vegetable  oils 
with  which  we  are  acquainted  can  be  used  for 
this  purpose,  as  only  a  few  of  them  possess  the 
property  of  drying,  hence,  called  drying  oils. 
The  best  example  of  such  oils,  and  the  one  most 
commonly  used,  is  linseed  oil. 

Natural  and  Artificial  Pigments. 
We  may  separate  the  pigments  into  two  classes  : 
(a)  those  which  we  find  naturally  occurring,  such 
as  ochres,  barytes,  and  china  clay  ;  (b)  the  larger 
class  of  artificially  prepared  pigments.  A  few 
colours,  such  as  iron  oxide  reds,  both  occur  naturally 
and  are  prepared  artificially. 

But  even  though  the  pigment  may  be  found 
ready  made  in  Nature,  it  requires  considerable  treat- 
ment to  get  it  into  a  suitable  form  for  grinding 
with  oil.  The  mineral  is  found  in  lumps  or  powder 
of  various-sized  particles  mixed  up  with  impurities 
of  one  sort  and  another.  The  cheapest  and  most 
commonly  adopted  process  for  purification  is  known 
as  "  levigation." 

How  the  Process  is  Operated.  If  we 
stir  up  in  water  a  powder  of  different-sized  par- 
ticles, and  then  allow  them  to  settle,  the  larger  and 
heavier  sink  first,  the  smaller  and  lighter  remain 
longer  suspended  in  the  liquid.  If  we  leave  the 
mixture  sufficient  time  for  the  whole  of  the  powder 
to  deposit,  we  shall  find  the  larger  particles  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  smaller  at  the  top,  so  that  a  sort  of 
separation  has  been  effected;  but  if,  instead  of  allow- 
ing the  water  to  remain  still,  it  is  made  to  move  slowly 
forwards,  say,  through  a  tank,  entering  at  one  end 
and  leaving  at  the  other,  we  shall  find  the  coarsest 
particles  deposited  at  the  nearest  end  and  the  finest 
particles  at  the  further  end,  so  that  on  draining 
off  the  water  the  sludge  of  coarse  particles  can  be 
dug  out  and  kept  separately  from  the  finer  ones. 
Better  still,  we  may  use  a  series  of  tanks  and  allow 
the  water  and  mineral  matter  to  pass  through  one 
to  the  other  [1  j.  In  the  first  tank  we  shall  have  the 
coarsest  particles,  in  the  second  tank  the  medium - 
sized  particles,  the  third  tank  will  contain  the  fine 
particles,  and  the  last  tank  the  very  fine  ones.  As 
the  suspended  matter  takes  an  increasingly  long 
time  to  settle,  it  is  better  to  make  the  tanks  in- 
creasingly larger,  so  as  to  give  time  for  the  deposit 
to  form.  Each  tank  should  be  built  a  little  lower 
than  the  previous  one,  so  that  the  water  may  flow  by 
gravitation  from  one  to  the  next.  After  allowing 
full  time  to  settle,  the  water  is  drawn  off  from 
each  tank  and  the  sludge  dug  out  from  the  bottom. 
It  will  be  seen  that  we  are  thus  possessed  of  an 
excellent  and  cheap  method  of  treating  earth 

5141 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

colours  which  is  so  economical  and  rflicient  that 
it  is  applied  not  only  to  earth  colours  but  also  to 
artificial  colours,  such  as  ujtramarine,  where  a 
uniformly  finely  divided  pigment  is  not  obtained 
straight  away. 

A  Practical  Test.  A  rough  examination 
..f  ;ho  material  taken  from  the  different  tanks 
will  demonstrate  the  separation  which  has  been 
effected.  Supposing  we  have  been  working  with 
-hin a  clay,  the  first  tank  will  contain  a  product 
.•i-n.-isting  of  tiny  particles  of  rock,  known  as  mica- 
ceo**  day.  A  pinch  of  this  product  dropped  into 
a  tumblerful  of  water  will  present  a  very  different 
appearance  to  a  pinch  of  the  fine  material  from  one 
of  the  later  tanks. 

Grinding  under  Water.  In  most  cases 
previous  grinding  is  necessary,  whether  we  are  going 


MIKING. 

TANK 

*»—  >• 

COARSE 

J»    > 
MEDIUM 

»  V- 
FINE 

V£fiY    FINE 

\.    LEVIGATING  TANKS 

to  levigate  natural  or  artificial  colour.  For  this 
purpose  a  wet  grinding  mill  [2]  is  used,-  which  con- 
sists of  a  strong  circular  iron  tank,  AA,  containing 
water  into  which  the  material  to  be  ground  is  put. 
A  strong  vertical  shaft,  D,  driven  by  the  pulleys,  B, 
and  the  gearing,  C,  revolves  in  this  tank,  and  to  it 
is  attached  the  horizontal  shaft,  HH,  on  which 
the  rollers,  EE,  are  free  to  revolve.  Those  portions 
of  the  mechanism  immersed  in  water  in  the  tank 
are  represented  by  dotted  lines.  When  the  machine 
is  set  going,  the  rollers  or  runners,  EE,  move  in  a 
circular  path,  resting  on  the  bed  or  bottom  of  the 
tank,  AA.  The  lumps  of  colour  are  crushed  and 
ground  between  the  rollers  of  the  bed-plate,  and  the 
coarse  particles  rapidly  settle  again  to  the  bottom, 
where  they  undergo  further  grinding  and  crushing 
while  the  finer  particles  remain  suspended  in  the 
water  and  are  drawn  off  with  it  -in  -a  regular" 
stream  through  cocks  in  the  side  of  the  tank.  The 
construction  of  this  grinding  mill  as  built  by 
Follows  &  Bate  may  perhaps  be  better  understood 
by  reference  to  7,  where  we  have  a  similar  plant, 
but  suitable  for  grinding  in  the  dry  instead  of 
the  wet.  There  is  a  gate,  K  [2],  at*  the  bottom 
of  the  tank  for  taking  out  coarse  ungrourid  lumps. 
Attached  to  the  shaft,  D,  are  scrapers, which  revolve, 
touching  or  nearly  touching  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 
These  are  not  shown  in  the  illustration,  but  serve 
to  gather  up  the  ground  lumps  and  distribute  them 
over  the  surface  to  ensure  even  and  uniform  grinding. 
Pressing  and  Drying.  Our  colour  is  now 
in  the  form  of  sludge,  and  the  water  has  to  be  got 
rid  of.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  dried  directly  in 
some  suitable  form  of  oven.  Whatever  type  of 
oven  is  used,  it  is  essential  that  there  should  be 
a  thorough  circulation  of  air  through  it,  fresh  air 
}>e ing  admitted  while  the  air  laden  with  moisture  is . 
drawn  off.  Very  often  it  is  more  economical  to 
remove  most  of  the  water  by  filtration,  and  even 
to  apply  considerable  pressure  to  squeeze  the 
iiia^s  as  dry  as  possible,  as,  quite  apart  from  the 

•  •\pcnse  of  evaporating  large  quantities  of  water, 
such   water   may   also   contain   soluble   impurities 
which  can  be  removed  only  by  filtration.      The 
moist   colour   can   be   thrown   on   a   simple    filter 
i  loth  stretched  over  a  frame,  but  it  is  usually  more 

•  •••mnmical  to  use  a  filter  press.     Fig.  3  represents 
thf  latest  type  of  machine,  which  iVmade  up  of  a 


number  of  square  frames  |4j.  These  frames  have  a 
circular  hole,  A,  in  the  middle,  and  the  edge  projects 
all  the  way  round,  so  that  when  put  side  by  side, 
as  in  3,  they  form  a  number  of  enclosed  cells.  The 
filter  cloths  are  cut  the  same  size  as  the  frames  with 
the  hole  in  the  middle  made  slightly  smaller.  They 
are  sewn  together  in  pairs,  by  joining  the  edges, 
where  the  holes  are  cut,  and  each  frame  is  fitted  with 
a  pair  of  cloths,  by  pushing  one  of  the  cloths 
through  the  hole  A,  in  the  centre  of  the  frame,  so 
that  each  side  of  the  frame  is  covered  with  a  cloth. 
The  frames  are  then  placed  side  by  side,  and  held 
firmly  together,  as  shown  in  3.  The  sludge,  or  liquid 
mass  of  material  to  be  filtered,  is  forced  in  by  the 
pumps  shown  at  the  near  end  of  the  machine 
and  the  liquid  finds  its  way  through  the  filter 
cloth  into  the  space  between  the  filter  cloth 
and  frame.  The  surface  of  the  frame  is  usually 
corrugated,  as  shown  by  the  cross  lines  [4],  to 
the  liquid  to  run  off  and  find  its  way  out 
through  a  hole  at  B,  near  the  bottom  of 
^  each  frame.  The  frames  are  also  provided 
with  arms,  CC,  to  support  them,  and  are 
screwed  up  together  as  tightly  as  pos- 
sible. When  sufficient  stuff  has  been  forced  into 
the  machine,  the  material  can  be  washed  by  sub- 
sequently forcing  water  through.  Finally,  on 
taking  the  machine  to  pieces,  a.  solid  cake  of 
colour  can  be  removed  from  between  each  pair  of 
frames. 

Grinding  Machines.  The  solid  material  is 
now  ground.  This  can  be  effected  in  the  edge-runner 
mill  [_7],  shown  in  section  in  6,  the  action  of  which 
is  exactly  similar  to  the  wet  grinding  mill  [2] 
already  described.  It  will  be  noticed  that  it  is  under- 
driven,  the  gearing,  C,  being  under  the  pan,  AA.  The 
axle,  HH,  is  not  rigidly  fixed  on  the  frame,  D,  but 
there  is  a  certain  amount  of  "  give  "  allowed  by  the 
springs,  M,  so  that,  should  the  runner  pass  over  a 
hard  lump  of  material  which  it  cannot  crush,  it 
just  lifts  the  axle,  HH,  a  little,  instead  of  possibly 
breaking  some  part  of  the  machine. 

Flat  Stone  Mills.  In  another  form  of  grind- 
ing mill  the  powder  is  crushed  between  the  flat 
sides  of  two  circular  stones  instead  of  between  the 
edge  of  the  stone  and  a  bed-plate.  Fig.  5  will  give 
an  idea  of  what  is  intended.  The  material  is  fed  in 

through   a.   hole. 


2.    WET  GRINDING   MILL 
shown    in 


A,  in  the  upper 
stone,  and  finds 
its  way  out  at 
the  edges,  BB. 
Sometimes  it  is 
the  upper  stone, 
sometimes  the 
under  that  is  made 
to  revolve.  In  either 
case  one  of  them  re- 
volves while  the  other 
or  bedstone  remains 
stationary. 

Cone  Mill.  As  a 
recent  type  of  another 
form  of  mill  we  may 
take  the  cone  mill  or 
8,  a  section  of  which 
fed  in  to  the 
means  of  the 


disintegrator,  as 

is  shown  in  10.       The    material   is 

hopper,   A.      The   pulleys,    B,    by 

gearing,  C,  drive  the  conical-shaped  block,  E,  with 

the  corrugated  surface.     This  block,  shown  black 

in  10,  revolves  close  to  the  outer  grinding  surface, 

HH,  and    the  material   passing  down  between  the 

two    is    rapidly   reduced    to    a    fine   powder,    and 

collects     in     a    groove     round    the     base     of    the 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 


^*^Wl»,^fcSS|   vSCS  D"l(,"  •±K,-*3* "-  - 

soft  materials,  and  it  is  also  used  for  wet  colours    *  modem  methods,  nrn,!,,™  «,„  i™f 

Mixing  Machines.    At  a  certain  stage,  the 

ground  colour  is  incorporated  with  the  medium— 

usually   oil— to   make   the   paint,  after  which   the 

mixed  colour  and  oil  undergo  a  further  grindin^  in       a 

a  special  form  of  mill  termed  a  rotter  mill,  which 

we  shall  come  to  shortly.      Figs.  9  and  11  show  a 

vertical  mixer,  which  consists  of  a  pan,  AA,  to  take 

the  oil  and  colour.    The  pulley,  B,  by  means  of  the 

gearing,  C,  causes  the  vertical  shaft|  D,  to  revolve. 

This  shaft  carries  horizontal  beaters  or  agitators, 

HH,  which  revolve,  ensuring  thorough  incorpora- 
tion of  the  dry  colour  with  the  oil.  When  sufficiently 

mixed,  the  mass  of  paint  is  run  out  by  means  of  the 

gate,  K,  worked  by  the  handle,  L,  at' the  bottom  of 

the  pan. 
Roller    Mill.     This  form  of  mill  [14]  is  used 

for  the  finishing  process;  the  paint,  going  through 

the  mixer  of  pug  mill,  is  ground  to  an  im palpably  fine 
mass  with  the  oil.  Fig.  13  shows  longitudinal  section, 
and  12  a  vertical  section  and  the  more  important 

parts  of  a  roller  mill.    It  will  be  seen  that  it  consists 

of  three  rollers,  A,  B,  and  C,  touching,  or  almost 

touching,  one  another.     They  are  held  together  in 

the  frame,  KK.  and  are  adjusted  by  the  handles 

projecting    from    the    ends    of   these 

frames.     The  driving  gear  is  left  out 

in  the  illustration  for  simplicity,  but 

the   gearing    is    shown   by 

which   the   motion   of    the 

roller  B  is    transmitted  to 

the  rollers  A  and  C.      As 

the  wheel  D  is  larger  than 

E,   and  F  than  G",  it  "will 

be  seen  that  the  rollers  will 

revolve  at  different  rates. 

The  speeds,  shown   in  13, 

are  not  always  adhered  to 

but   adjusted   to   siiit    the 

work.    The  mixed  paint,  as 


it  comes  from  the  pug  mill, 

passes  on  to  the  roller  A, 

and   is  kept  from  off  the 

edges    by    the     blocks    of 

wood,  LL.     Owing  to  the 

fact  that  the  rollers  revolve 

at      different     rates,     the 

material    is     subjected    to 

a    smearing   and    grinding 

action,  which  reduces  it  to 

a  fine  state  of  subdivision. 

From  the  roller  A  it  passes  to  the  roller  B,   and 

from  B  to  C.    A  scraper,  M,  is  adjusted  against  the 

roller  C,  which  collects  the  ground  paint,  which  is 

now  ready  for  use. 

Manufacture  of  Pigments.  We  shall 
consider  in  turn  first  the  pigments,  or  colouring 
matters,  then  the  vehicles  or  mediums. 

Pigments  and  colouring  matters  are  either  of 
mineral  or  organic  origin.  Speaking  generally,  the 
mineral  colours  are  far  more  permanent  than  the 
vegetable  and  animal  colouring  matters  or  the 
aniline  dyes  which  are  also  used.  We  shall  consider 
first  the  more  important  mineral  colours,  describing 
shortly  their  methods  of  manufacture  and  properties. 

White  Lead.  This  substance  is  a  basic  car- 
bonate of  lead,  having  the  chemical  coinposition 
approximated  represented  by : 

2PbC03.Pb(OH), 
(Lead  carbonate)  (Lead  hydroxide). 

The  use  of  this  colour  can  be  traced  a  long  way 
back  in  history,  and  the  old  method  of  preparation 


3.    FILTER  PRESS   (S.  H.  Johnson  &  Co.,  Ltd.) 


ni  methods,  produces  the  best 

quality  of  material.     The  Dutch  process  is  shortly 
as  follows. 

A  small  quantity  of  vinegar  or  acetic  acid  is  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  an  earthenware  pot,  provided  with 
a  shoulder  about  halfway  up  the  side.      On  this 
shoulder  rests  pieces  of  lead,  roughly  cast  in  the 
form  of  a  grating.  A  large  number  of  these  pots  un- 
placed together  on  a  layer  of  spent  tan,  the  whole  is 
covered  with  another  layer  of  spent    tan.   and  a 
further  layer  of  pots  upon  this  until  the  whole  forms 
a    large   stack.      The  decomposition  of  the  spent 
tan  raises   the   temperature   of   the    whole   mass, 
causing  the  acetic  acid  to  volatilise,  and  act  on  tin- 
lead  plates  forming  basic  lead  acetate.   Carbonic  acid, 
which  is  evolved  at  the  same  time  from  si>ent  tan 
partly  decomposes  the  basic  acetate,  forming  basic 
carbonate,  and    the   acetic   acid  liberated  acts  on 
a  further  quantity  of  lead.     The  white  lead  so  pro- 
duced is  collected  by  crush- 
ing    and      separating      the 
powdery  pigment  from  un- 
changed metal. 

In  a  more  modern 
method,  litharge  is  ground 
up  with  common  salt  and 
water,  with  (h-  formation 
of  a  solution  of  the  oxy- 
chloride,  from  which  white 
lead  is  precipitated  by  a 
current  of  carbon  dioxide 
gas.  White  lead  forms  ;iii 
excellent  paint  on  account 
of  its  body  or  covering 
power;  that  is  to  say,  when 
ground  up  with  oil  and 
spread  over  a  surface  a 
very  small  quantity  of  the 
material  produces  an  opaque 
layer.  It  also  reacts  chemi- 
cally in  some  way  with  the 
linseed  oil  with  which  it  is 
ground,  producing  a  hard 
(hying  layer.  Its  chief  clis- 
adVantage  is  the  discolor- 
isation  it  undergoes  when 
exposed  to  a  sulphurous 
atmosphere,  black  sulphide 
of  lead  being  formed. 

Zinc  white  is  an  excellent 
white  paint,  consisting  of 
oxide  of  zinc,  but  it  is  too 
expensive  for  most  purposes.  There  are,  however, 
a  number  of  white  paints,  known  as  zinc  whites, 
which  contain  a  small  proportion  of  a  zinc  com- 
pound in  admixture  or  combination  with  cheaper 
materials. 

Lithopone  belongs  to  this  class  of  zinc  whites, 
and  contains  zinc  as  a  sulphide.  The  zinc  is  often 
precipitated  together  with  barium  sulphate,  which 
forms  the  larger  part  of  the  pigment,  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  put,  the  zinc  is  "  struck  "  on  barytes. 

Barytes,  or  permanent  icliitc,  consists  of  the  mineral 
barytes  finely  ground.  It  is  extremely  permanent, 
but  has  little  covering  power.  It  is  used  in  enor- 
mous quantities  for  cheapening  pigments.  We  shall 
come  across  it  again  later  on.  An  artificial  form  of 
barytes  known  as  Wane  fixe,  is  made  by  precipita- 
tion. 

Paris  White,  or  Whiting.  This  sub 
stance  is  identical  in  composition  with  chalk — that 
is  to  say,  it  consists  of  calcium  carbonate.  It  is 
essentially  a  cheapening  agent  or  an  adulterant  of 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

other  pigments.  It  is  frequently  used  in  admixture 
with  two  or  throe  parts  of  barvtes.  Those  cheaper 
whites  are  not  always  as  economical  as  they  appear, 
as  a  larger  proportion  of  oil  is  required  for  grinding 
t  hem.  Thus,  white  lead  and  the  very  best  perma- 
nent white  takes  about  7  per  cent,  of  oil  for  grinding, 
whereas  whiting  will  take  as  much  as  23  per  cent. 
White  lead  or  the  cheaper  zinc  whites,  such  as 
lithopone,  form  the  basis  of  most 
paints,  especially  light  coloured  ones.  <_  > 

We    shall    consider    the    coloured      /^ 
pigments  in  order.  (__r. 

Ochres  and  Siennas.  Ochres 
tire  Bo-called  earth  colours — that  is.  to 
say,  they  are  natural  earths  that  have 
been  subjected  to  a  refining  process, 
consisting  of  grinding,  the  plant  re- 
quired varying  with  the  hardness  of 
the  material,  then  levigating — that  is 
to  say,  grinding  up  with  water  [2]  and 
allowing  the  small  particles  to  settle, 
draining  off  the  supernatant  liquor  containing  the 
fine  particles,  and  allowing  these  to  settle  in 
separate  tanks  [1].  Finally,  the  water  is  drained 
off,  leaving  the  finely  divided  pigment  as  a 
deposit. 

Ochres,  speaking  broadly,  are  compounds  of.  oxide 
of  iron  and  clay — that  is  to  say,  when  analysed  the 
main  constituents,  in  addition  to  moisture  and 
oxide  of  iron,  are  alumina  and  silica. 

These  colours  are  very  permanent,  both  under 
light  and   atmospheric  influences.      The   natural 
ochres    are    found    in     Oxfordshire, 
Derbyshire,  and  on  the  Continent. 

Chromes.  These  are  brighter 
than  the  ochres,  not  quite  so  per- 
manent, but  sufficiently  so  for  most 
purposes.  They  consist  generally  of 
chromates  of  lead  prepared  by  pre- 
cipitating a  solution  of  lead  salt  with 
sium  bichromate.  Each  of  the 


4.   FILTER   PRESS   FRAME 


5.  DIAGRAM  OF  FLA1 
STONE    MILL 


components  is  dissolved  in  separate  receptacles — 
wooden  tubs  with  stirrers,  and  heated  by  live  steam, 
are  suitable ;  they  are  then  mixed  in  a  third  vessel 
where  the  colouring  matter  is  precipitated. 

Different  proportions  of  acetate  or  nitrate  of 
lead  to  bichromate  yields  chromes  of  different 
shades.  The  paler  shades  frequently  have  sodium 
sulphate  dissolved  with  the  bichromate,  so  that 
the  colour  consists  of  a 
mixture  of  lead  chromates 
and  sulphates.  Ground 
barytes  is  frequently 
incorporated.  To  obtain 
orange  shades,  solutions  of 
caustic  alkalies  are  used 
which  produce  a  basic 
lead  chromate  of  composi- 
tion PbO.PbO04. 

Chrome  yellows  are  also 
made  from  zinc  and  barium 
salts,  which  yield  zinc  and 
barium  rhromates.  There 
are  a  number  of  other 
yellow  colouring  matters, 
Rnch  as  Mars  yellow,  which 
is  a  sort  of  artificial  ochre 


yellow  is  an  artificial  orpiment  or  sulphide 
of  antimony. 

Cadmium  yellow  is  sulphide  of  cadmium  precipi- 
tated by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  from  a  slightly 
acid  solution  of  cadmiuni  salt. 

Cadmium  orange  is  prepared  in  a  similar  manner., 
using  strongly  acid  solutions  of  cadmium. 

Aiiraolin  is  a  double  nitrite  of  potassium  and 
cobalt.  These  last-mentioned  yellows 
are  very  permanent,  and  much  used 
by  artists.  They  are,  however,  too 
expensive  for  house  painting. 

R.ed  Lead.  This  substance  is 
.in  oxide  of  lead  having  approximately 
a  composition  represented  by  the 
formula  Pbs04,  and  is  obtained  by 
roasting  litharge  until  it  acquires  the 
desired  colour.  It  is  an  excellent 
pigment  and  mixes  well  with  oil.  It 
has  a  peculiar  action  on  linseed  oil, 
which  causes  it  to  dry  rapidly,  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  saponifies  the  oil  and  forms  a 
mass  of  red  lead  cemented  with  lead  soap. 

Venetian  red  is  an  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  obtained 
from  natural  sources,  by  grinding  the  hard  rock, 
or  is  made  artificially  by  roasting  copperas 
(sulphate  of  iron).  It  can  also  be  precipitated  by  a 
wet  process.  It  is  a  very  permanent  colour. 

Vermilion.  True  vermilion  is  a  sulphide  of 
mercury  (HgS),  but  for  house  painting  is  largely 
replaced  by  inferior  substitutes.  The  best  ver- 
milion is  of  Chinese  origin,  and  in  China  its  use 
dates  back  for  centuries.  It  is  prepared 
by  heating  together  a  mixture  of 
mercury  and  sulphur,  and  the  resulting 
mass  is  then  more  strongly  heated, 
so  that  the  vermilion  sublimes — that 
is  to  say,  it  is  converted  into  vapour, 
and  deposited  again  in  the  cooler 
parts  of  the  apparatus.  Finer  sorts 
of  vermilion,  as  prepared  in  China, 
by  levigation  in  solutions  of  gum  in 
colour  settles  only  slowly.  Inferior 
is  prepared  by  the  wet  method  of 


purified 
which    the. 


made  by  precipitating  together  oxide  of  iron  and 
alumina. 


3  pu 
lich 

vermilion 

precipitation,  and  washing  the  resulting  product. 
Vermilion  has  a  great  covering  power,  and  is  a. 
very  permanent  colour. 

Antimony    vermilion    is   a    sulphide    of     arsenie 
(As2Sn),    prepared    by   precipitating  a  solution  of 
the  chloride  with  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen or  sodium  thiosulphate. 

Umbers.   These  are  earth  colours, 
similar  to  the  ochres  and  siennas,  and 
similarly  prepared.     They  are  charac- 
terised    by    containing    the     element 
manganese.     They  are  per- 
manent and  good  pigments. 
Vandyke      Brown. 
Pigments  of  quite  different 
origins  are  met  with  under 
this  name.  For  house  paint- 
ing, vandyke  brown  usually 
consists   of    a    mixture   of 
lamp  or  other  blacks,  and 
ochres  or  reds.     For  artist's 
use,  it  is  made  by  calcining 
vegetable  matter  in  closed 


EDGE-RUNNER    GRINDING    MILL 

vessels.      The  first  variety  is  permanent,  and  the 


Turner's  yellow  is  obtained  by  calcining  a 
mixed  paste  of  litharge  and  common  salt. 


well 


y.Voir  contains  antimony  compounds, 
generally  mixtures  of  oxides  of  antimony  and 
lead 

5144 


latter  only  partly  so. 

Coppagh  brown,  and  other  browns  of  less  import- 
ance, are  used  by  artists. 

Ultramarine.  This  blue  was  originally  ob- 
tained by  grinding  the  lapis  lazuli  [see  Mineralogy]. 
It  is  now  made  in  huge  quantities  artificially.  The 


ingredients  consist  of  china  clay,  or  kaolin,  which 
must  be  free  from  iron  and  contain  only  a  trace  of 
lime,  sodium  stilphate,  sodium  carbonate,  sulphur, 
coal  or  charcoal,  resin,  finely  powdered  quartz, 
and  kieselguhr,  or  infusorial  earth  [see  GEOLOGY]. 
The  proportions  differ  according  to  the  product 
required.  For  some  ultramarine  no  sodium  sulphate 
is  vised;  such  is  termed  soda  ultramarine  and  is 
of  a  violet  blue  tint.  The  ultramarine  containing 
sodium  sulphate  has  a  more  greenish  hue.  The 
thoroughly  mixed  ingredients  are  calcined  in 
covered  pots  in  a  furnace  and  yield  a  greenish 
product.  This  is  reduced  to  a  fine  state  of  division 
and  mixed  with  sulphur,  and  again  heated.  The 
resulting  product  is  ground,  washed,  and  levigated 
to  remove  a  quantity  of  soluble  sodium  salts, 
ritramarine  is  a  permanent  colour  of  a  beautiful  blue 
shade.  The  more  silica  used  the  deeper  the  shade. 
It  is  permanent  under  ordinary  conditions,  but 
the  colour  is  discharged  by  weak  acids.  It  can- 
not be  used  in  mixtures  with  lead  compounds, 
as  black  lead  sulphide  would  be  formed  owing  to  the 
sulphides  contained  in  the  ultramarine. 

Prussian  Blue.  Varieties  of  this  blue  are 
known  as  Chinese,  soluble,  Antwerp  and  Brunswick 
blues.  It  is  produced  in  various  shades,  the  greener 
shades  by  precipitating  iron  salts 
with  yellow  prussiate,  while  an 
addition  of  bleaching  powder 
produces  an  in  tenser  blue.  Alum 
is  added  to  the  solution  when 
a.  lighter  shade  is  required,  and 
violet  tinted  blues  are  produced 
with  red  prussiate, 
ft  is  a  permanent 
colour  unaffected  by 
dilute  acids,  decom- 
posed by  alkalies.  It 
has  the  disadvantage 
that  it  is  extremely 
hard  to  grind. 

Cobalt  Blues. 
These  blues  are 
among  the  most 
permanent  and  are 
of  a  beautiful  shade. 
They  are,  however, 
too  *  expensive  for 
use  011  a  large  scale, 

but  form  with  ultramarine  the  most  important 
blues  in  the  artist's  palette.  There  are  two  classes— 
firstly,  smalts,  which  is  a  blue  glass,  and  is  prepared 
from  a  mixture  of  silica  and  potash  (not  soda)  with 
cobalt  ore.  The  mixture  is  fused  in  a  furnace,  and 
the  blue  glass  finely  ground.  The  silica  must  be  free 
from  iron  and  alumina,  The  colour  is  very  per- 
manent, but  the  pigment  does  not  mix  well  with  oil. 
Cobalt  Urn,  used  largely  by  artists,  is  prepared  by 
m-ecipifeiting  oxide  of  alumina  and  cobalt  together. 
The  precipitate  is  dried  and  heated  in  a  crucible. 
The  colours  are  very  permanent.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  other  blues,  such  as  the  copper  blues  (bas.c 
copper  carbonates),  coeruleum,  etc.,  which  are  o 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

Emerald  green  is  a  peculiar  bright,  vivid  given, 
prepared  by  adding  sodium  arsenite  to  copper 
sulphate.  The  resulting  copper  arsenite  is  allowed 
to  stand  with  an  excess  of  acetic  acid.  The  colour  so 
produced  is  chemically  an  aceto-arsenite  of  copper. 
It  is  permanent  but 'poisonous  in  character,  and 
is  often  replaced  by  aniline  lakes  [see  Lakes]. 

Terra  verte  is  a  natural  green  earth,  like  the 
ochres.  There  are  other  greens  of  less  importance, 
such  as  verdigris  or  basic  acetate  of  copper. 

Lampblack.  This  is  essentially  soot  prepared 
by  calcining  waste  oils,  greases,  coal  tar,  etc.,  in 
special  ovens  [see  also  Coal  Tar  Products].  The 
lampblack  from  coal  tar  is  not  quite  so  high  in 
quality  as  that  prepared  from  oils  and  greases. 

Bone-black  is  obtained  by  charring  bones.  It- 
has  not  the  depth  of  colour  or  brilliancy  of  lamp- 
black. Ivory  black  is  prepared  by  charring  waste 
ivory  cuttings.  Animal  black,  or  animal  charcoal, 
is  obtained  from  animal  matter  of  all  kinds.  All 
these  black  pigments  are  permanent. 

Organic  Pigments.  The  colours  which  we 
have  already  spoken  about  are  minerals  or  of 
mineral  origin.  There  are  also  a  number  of  colour- 
ing matters  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin,  which, 
however,  are  little  used  for  paints  at  the  present 
day.  Such  substances  are 
cochineal,  logwood,  saffron,  tur- 
meric, annatto,  and  a  number  of 
others.  For  making  paints  theyx 
have  been  mostly  replaced  by 
the  aniline  colours  [see  Coal 
Tar  Products].  These  are 
generally  used  in 
the  form  of  lakes. 
We  should  not  omit 
to  mention  gam- 
boge, an  orange- 
coloured  resin  yield- 
ing a  fine  yellow 
in  water.  Unfor- 
'tunately  it  is  not 
permanent. 

Lakes.  Lakes 
are  insoluble  pig- 
ments prepared  by 
precipitating  an  or- 
ganic colouring 


less  importance. 


7.  EDGE-RCJNNER  GRINDING  MILL  (Follows  &  Bate,  Ltd.,  Manchest.  r)  matter  with  metal- 
lic salts.  Thus,  if  to  a  solution  of  alum  be  added 
some  cochineal,  and  then  carbonate  of  soda,  the  pre- 
cipitated alumina  will  carry  down  with  it  the  colour- 
ino'  matter  of  the  cochineal,  and  on  washing  and 
drying  we  shall  have  an  insoluble  red  pigment. 
Many  lakes  made  in  this  manner,  especially  the 
madder  lakes,  are  used  by  artists.  Working  on  a 
lar^e  scale  the  colouring  matter  is  always  an  aniline 
dye  and  the  products  are  not  pure  lakes  in  that 
there  is  always  incorporated  with  them  a  certain 
proportion  of  inactive  substance  termed  a  base. 
This  base  usually  consists  of  some  white  pigment, 
such  as  barytes,  gypsum,  china  clay,  whiting, 
or  a  zinc  wliite.  The  dye  is  precipitated  upon 
this  base  by  what  is  termed  a  mredpUating  agent. 
This  will  vary  according  to  the  type  of  aniline 


Greens.  For  many  purposes  these  are  i 
o?lS£££  of  blues  and  yellows.  Thus,  Brunswick 
green  is  commonly  a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue 
chrome  yellow,  and  barytes.  Chrome  greens  sue 
as  Guignet's  green,  are  not  to  be  confused  with 
greensfsuch  at  Brunswick  greens,  containing  chrome 
yellows.  Guignet's  green  is  prepared  by  roasting  a 
mixture  of  potassium  bichromate  and  boraoic .acid. 
The  resulting  chromium  oxide  is  ground,  washed, 
and  levigated. 


111JS       \\lll       VCU.V       «wv.i— 1"&       -~ -./   I  _,         . 

dye  which  is  used.  Thus,  for  basic  dyes  [see  Coal 
Tar  Products],  tannic  or  picric  acids  are  used,  and 
for  acid  dyes,  lead  acetate,  aluminium  sulphate, 
or  barium"  chloride.  Adjective  dyes  are  more 
difficult  to  precipitate.  Aluminium  acetate  is 
often  employed.  The  process  of  manufacturing 
the  lake  is  simple.  The  dye  is  dissolved  m  water- 
in  a  tank  to  a  10  per  cent,  solution.  The  pre- 
cipitatin"  agent  is  dissolved  in  a  separate  vat, 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

and  in  a  third  vessel,  the  base,  which  of  course  is 
insoluble,  is  thoroughly  mixed  and  incorporated 
with  hot  water.  The  solution  of  dye  is  then  run 
in  and  mixed  with  the  base,  the  whole  heated  to  a 
suitable  temperature,  and  then  the  precipitating 
agent  added.  After  mixing  thoroughly,  the 
I 'ike  is  allowed  to  settle.  The  supernatant 
liquor  should  be  colourless,  showing  that  all  the 
colour  has  been  precipitated.  After  washing  with 
water,  the  lake  may  be  fdtered  off  and  dried  at  a 
low  temperature.  These  aniline  lakes  cannot 
compare,  so  far  as  |>ermanencygoes,  with  the  mineral 
colours,  but  they  are  often  much  cheaper  and  serve 
as  substitutes  for  many  of  them.  Thus,  ver- 
milionettc  is  a  substitute  for  vermilion,  and 
consists  of  an  eosine  lake,  precipitated  on  a  base 
consisting  of  barytes  or  red  lead.  It  is,  of  course, 
a  fugitive  colour,  although  some  lakes  are  more 
permanent  than  others. 

Chemical  Tests.  We  must  here  refer 
to  the  course  of  chemical  analysis,  as  paints  are 
frequently  mixtures  of  different  pigments,  and  the 
analysis  is  often  a  complicated  matter.  In  some 
cases,  however,  it  is  simpler.  Thus, 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  testing  a  sample 
of  white  lead  for  an  adulterant  such 
as  chalk,  or  in  determining  the  pro- 
portion of  barytes  and  zinc  in  a  sample 
of  lithopone,  or  determining  whether 
a  sample  of  green  paint  owes  its  colour 
to  a  mineral  green  or  to  an  aniline 
dye. 

Physical    Tests.      The  covering 
power  of  a  paint    is  one    of  its    most 
important  properties.     This  will  depend 
partly  on    the  nature   of  the  pigment, 
and  partly  upon  the  fineness  to  which 
it  is  ground.     This  latter  consideration 
applies  especially  to  materials  such   as 
barytes.     It   is  not  always  economical 
to   work    with   a   cheap    and    coarsely 
ground  sample;  not  only  is  its  covering 
power  much  less,  but  it  requires  a 
larger  proportion   of   oil    for    grind- 
ing.    The  fineness  to  which  a  paint 
is  ground    is  usually  tested  in  a  very 
rough  and  ready  manner — by  the  feel 
of    the    dry   pigment    between   the 
fingers,  or  by  working  it  on  a  piece       8. 


of  glass  with  a  palette  knife.  Al- 
though this  test  is  not  of  much  use 
in  determining  the  exact  fineness  of  the  grinding, 
it  is  useful  in  detecting  particles  of  grit.  To  test 
the  covering  power,  equally  small  quantities  of  the 
sample  and  of  the  standard  are  ground  up  with  a 
quantity  of  oil,  and  spread  as  evenly  as  possible 
over  glass  plates  of  the  same  area.  The  relative 
jKwer  of  the  two  samples  to  produce  a  good  colour 
is  noted. 

In  addition  to  the  covering  power,  or  body,  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  test  the  colouring  power 
of  the  pigment.  For  this  yjurpose  it  is  useful  to 
mix  a  known  weight  of  the  pigment  with  three  or 
four  times  its  weight  of  some  indifferent  white 
pigment  such  as  china  clay.  The  higher  the 
colouring  power  of  the  pigment  in  question  the 
deeper  the  colour  it  will  impart  to  the  china  clay. 
Some  pigments.  e>j»erially  the  aniline  lakes,  have 
very  high  colouring  power,  and  only  a  very  small 
quantity  is  required  to  give  the  necessary  intensity  of 
colouring  to  the  base.  Finally,  there  b  the  perman- 
ence or  durability  of  the  colour  to  be  considered. 

As  a  general  ru!e  the  mineral  colouring  matters 
are  the  mn-t  p«-rm,iii"iit.  and  .-taud  exposure  to 


TEGRATOR  (Follows  &  Bate,  Ltd.) 


light  and  air  better  than  any  others  :  while  the 
aniline  dyes,  although  they  give  colours  of  great 
intensity,  fade  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  light. 
To  test  a  sample  for  colour,  it  is  exposed,  together 
with  a  standard  colour,  in  a  thin  layer,  to  sun- 
light, and  the  fugitive  or  permanent  character  of 
the  colour  can  be  judged  by  comparison  with  the 
standard. 

Many  of  the  mineral  colours  are  largely  adulter- 
ated by  use  of  small  quantities  of  aniline  colours, 
and  this  test  is  of  special  importance  for  testing 
the  genuineness  of  these  articles. 

For  many  practical  purposes  it  is  essential  to 
have  some  means  of  estimating  the  exact  shade  or 
tint  of  a  colour.  The  "  tintometer,"  invented  by 
Lovibond,  is  the  instrument  generally  used. 

Linseed  and  Drying  Oils.  Linseed  oil 
is  obtained  by  crushing  and  extraction  from  the 
seed.  It  is  used  more  than  any  other  for  the 
purpose  of  mixing  paints  and  is  found  specially 
suitable  on  account  of  its  drying  power.  It  appears 
that  by  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  air  it  is 
converted  into  solid  substances,  forming  a  tough 
^  skin,  coating  the  surface  on  which  it  is 
deposited.  For  paint-mixing,  linseed  oil 
required  of  different  grades  and 
qualities.  Raw  linseed  oil  usually  un- 
dergoes a  refining  process  to  remove  a 
small  proportion  of  albuminous  and 
mucilaginous  matter. 

For  many  purposes  a  quicker  drying 
oil  is  required  than  ordinary  linseed  oil, 
and  to  produce   this   effect  it  is  heated 
and   air   passed   through    it   whereby  a 
certain  amount  of  oxygen  is  absorbed, 
and     a    product     produced     somewhat 
thicker  than   linseed  oil,  termed    boiled 
oil.      The   rate   of   drying  can    be    ac- 
celerated by  the  incorporation  of  small 
quantities  of  certain  chemicals  with  the 
oil,   usually   added    in     the    process    of 
boiling.     Such  substances  are   litharge, 
manganese    borate,  and  other  com- 
pounds   of    lead    and    manganese. 
A    very   small   quantity  of  any    of 
these     substances     stirred     in    and 
heated  'with    the     oil    considerably 
accelerates  the  drying. 

Linseed  oil  is  occasionally 
adulterated  with  other  oils,  such  as 
resin  oil  and  mineral  oils.  A 
number  of  tests  can  be  applied  for  detecting  the 
presence  of  adulterants,  such  as  specific  gravity, 
flash  point  (to  detect  resin  oils  or  mineral  oils), 
and,  in  addition,  certain  chemical  tests,  such  as 
the  sulphuric  acid  test,  iodine  absorption,  etc. 

Another  good  drying  oil  used  to  a  certain  extent, 
especially  by  artists'  colourmen,  is  poppy  oil.  It 
is  very  pale  in  colour,  but  much  more  expensive 
than  linseed  oil. 

Resin  Oil.  This  is  obtained  by  decomposing 
resin,  the  residue  left  after  distilling  off  turpentine 
from  the  crude  gum.  The  resin  is  placed  in  large 
cast-iron  stills,  which  are  connected  with  condensers, 
and  distillation  is  carried  on  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  distillate  is  collected  in  separate  fractions, 
of  which  crude  resin  oil  is  one,  making  up  some 
85  per  cent,  of  the  whole  distillate.  It  is  refined 
with  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  soda  and  then 
re-distilled. 

It  is  largely  used  in  compounding  a  cheaper  class 
of  paints.  It  is  not  a  drying  oil,  and  has  certain 
disadvantages.  After  drying  down  by  evaporation 
it  has  a  tendency  later  ot/to  become  soft  and  sticky. 


CONE    MILL   OR   DISIN- 


This property  especially  reduces  its  value  for 
paint-making.  As  its  specific  gravity  is  '980  to 
•095  or  higher,  and  that  of  linseed  oil  is  about  '932, 
the  adulteration  of  linseed  oil  by  resin  oil  is 
apparent  in  the  increase  of  specific  gravity. 

Resin  oil  is  unsaponifiable — that  is  to  say,  it  is 
not  converted  into  soap  by  boiling  with  alkalies. 
In  this  respect  it  behaves  altogether  differently 
from  linseed  oil,  which  is  saponified  like  all  other 
fatty  oils.  If  a,  mixture  of  the  two  be  boiled  with 
soda,  the  linseed  oil  only  will  be  saponified,  leaving 
the  resin  oil  behind,  and  the  amount  of  the  latter 
may  thus  be  practically  determined. 

Turpentine.  Turpentine,  or  oils  of  tur- 
pentine, frequently  known  as  turp*,  is  the 
product  of  distillation  of  the  crude  gum  exuding 
from  pine  -  trees.  The  distillation  is  generally 
carried  on  close  to  the  spot  where  the  material 
is  collected.  It  is  American,  French,  or  Russian 
in  origin.  The  turpentines  differ  in  quality,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  differences  in  methods  of 
tapping  the  trees  and  distilling,  but  also  in  the 
variety  of  tree  from  which  the  gum  is  derived. 

Turpentine  is  a  chemical  substance  of  the  formula 
C'loHi  r.  fsee  Organic  Chemistry  j.  It  is  a 
mixture  of  a  number  of  allied  sub- 
stances having  the  same  percentage 
composition.  It  is  very  light,  its  specific 
gravity  being  only  '807,  and  this  is  a 
good  test  of  its  purity.  It  is  very  fre- 
quently adulterated/  especially  "  with 
petroleum,  shale  naphtha,  resin  spirit, 
and  coal-tar  naphtha. 

The  specific  gravity  of  all  these 
substances,  with  the  exception  of  the 
last,  is  higher  than  that  of  turpentine. 
The  best  method  of  testing  the  purity 
of  a  sample  of  turpentine,  apart  from 
the  specific  gravity,  is  to  distil  the 
sample  fractionally,  as  the  adulterant 
have  a  considerable  effect  on  the 
boiling-point.  Petroleum  spirit 
and  shale  naphtha  are  the  low 
boiling  hydrocarbons  derived  from 
petr oleums  [see  Petroleum].  Resin 
spirit  is  obtained  with  resin  oil, 
but  comes  over  in  an  earlier 
fraction.  Coal-tar  naphtha  con- 
sists of  the  lower-boiling  portions 
of  coal-tar  distillates  [see  Coal- 
tar  Products].  Such  substances 
as  these,  mostly  adulterants,  are 
to  be  found  on  the  market  under 
fancy  names.  But,  whatever  their  composition, 
they  are  not  equal  to  turpentine  for  paint- making, 
and  are  more  or  less  good  or  bad  according  to 
the  constituents  of  which  they  are  composed. 

Methylated  Spirit,  'in  this  place  we  may 
also  mention  methylated  spirit  as  a  useful  solvent  in 
varnish-making.  Ordinary  methylated  spirit  is  a 
mixture  of  rectified  spirit  of  wine  and  wood  spirit, 
the  former  being  ethyl  and  the  latter  methyl 
alcohol.  In  addition  to  this,  small  quantities  of 
petroleum  are  added  to  make  it  nauseous  and  un- 
drinkable.  It  is  an  excellent  solvent  for  most  of  the 
resins,  and  is  used  in  making  the  spirit  varnishes. 

Varnishes-.  By  far  the  greater  number  of 
varnishes  are  what  are  termed  either  oil  ramifies 
or  spirit  varnishes.  They  consist  of  resins  in  some 
form  or  another  (usually  termed  gums)  incor- 
porated in  the  case  of  the  former  with  linseed  oil 
and  turpentine,  and  in  the  case  of  the  latter  with 
methylated  spirit  or  a  substitute.  We  may  enu- 
merate, in  addition,  water  varnishes,  pyroxylin,  and 


9.    VERTICAL  MIXER 
(Follows  &  Bate,  Ltd.) 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 

certain  natural  varnishes.  As  almost  all  varnishes 
contain  resins  or  gums  as  the  essential  ingredient 
we  shall  consider  these  first. 

Most  people  are  familiar  with  common  resin,  or 
colophony,  such  as  is  used  for  rubbing  on  violin 
bows.  This  substance  is  the  residue  from  the, 
distillation  of  products  which  exude  from  pine- 
trees,  when  the  bark  is  cut  or  injured,  and  is  left 
in  the  retort  after  the  turpentine  has  distilled 
over.  It  has  been  mentioned  above  as  yielding 
resin  spirit  and  resin  oil  when  distilled.'  It  is, 
perhaps,  the  commonest  of  the  resins,  and  is  largely 
used  for  making  the  cheaper  varnishes. 

It  varies  in  appearance  and  quality,  sometimes 
being  pale  in  colour  and  transparent  ("  win-low- 
glass  resin"),  and  at  other  times  much  darker  in 
colour,  sometimes  almost  black.  These  latter 
varieties  yield  correspondingly  dark-coloured 
varnishes. 

For  the  better  classes  of  varnishes  (generally 
termed  carriage  and  cabinetle  varnishes),  gums 
of  a  better  class  are  employed.  These  are  usually 
*•  f  fossil  resins,  and  are  much  harder 
and  more  difficult  to  'fuse,  but 
they  yield  the  very  finest  var- 
nishes. Of  these  the  following 
are  the  more  important. 

Fossil  Resins.  The  fossil 
resin  amber  is  found  in  certain 
strata  known  as  the  Greensand 
Beds,  which  make  their  appear- 
ance on  the  surface  of  the  earth  as  a 
narrow  band,  running  from  England 
across  Holland  and  the  Baltic  [see 
GEOLOGY].  The  amber  is  either 
washed  up  from  the  sea,  owing 
to  the  disintegration  of  the  rock 
under  the  water,  or  else  it  is 
mined,  as  in  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many. Of  course,  amber  is 
mostly  too  expensive  for  use  in 
varnish-making,  but  the  amber 
waste  and  inferior  pieces  form 
suitable  material. 

The  fossil  resins  mostly  used  are 
animi,  copal,  and  kauri.  Animi 
is  the  best  varnish  resin.  It  is 
found  a  few  feet  beneath  the  soil 
in  the  district  of  Zanzibar.  It  is 
usually  identified  by  a  peculiar, 
very  characteristic,  wrinkled  ap- 
pearance of  the  surface,  commonly 
called  goose  skin. 
Copal  includes  a  number  of  fossil  resins  from 
Africa. 

Kauri  resembles  copal,  and  comes  from  New 
Zealand. 

Resins.  Dammar  is  a  resin  which  exudes  from 
certain  trees  growing  in  Java,  Borneo,  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Straits  Settlements.  It  is 
rather  inclined  to  be  soft  and  friable.  In  addition, 
we  may  mention  sandarac,  mastic,  Manila  copal, 
and,  finally,  the  different  varieties  of  lacs. 

The  lacs  are  the  resinous  exudation  of  a  number 
of  different  trees  growing  in  India,  China,  and  the 
Malay  Archipelago.  The  exudation  is  caused  by 
puncture  of  the  bark  by  the  lac  insect  (coccus 
lacca).  The  commonest  variety  is  shellac,  which 
consists  of  the  resin  purified  by  heating  and 
filtering  through  cotton  cloths.  Good  qualities 
have  bright  orange  colour. 

The  other  constituent  of  oil  varnishes  is 
linseed  oil,  which  should  be  of  the  very  best 
quality. 

5147 


APPLIED    CHEMISTRY 


10.    CONE  MILL,  OR  DI3IN- 
1EGRA1OR 


Making  Varnish.     For 

the  preparation  of  varnishes, 
the  ^iiiu  or  resin  is  melted  in 
a  copper  pot.  The  quantity 
taken  varies  indifferent  works. 
In  England,  a  common  quantity 
is  50  Ib. ,  but  in  America , 
aeeording  to  Sabin 
("  Technology  of  Paint 
and  Varnishes"),  100  Ib. 
or  even  125  Ib.  is  the 
usual  amount.  This 
melting  process,  termed 
"  gum  running,"  re- 
quires very  careful 
manipulation.  A  large 
quantity  of  inflam- 
mable gases  are  given 
off,  a  mounting  to  at  least 
25  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  gum,  so  that  the 
pots  have  to  be  provided  with  suitable  hoods  and 
draught  to  carry  off  the  gases.  In  order  to  avoid  as 
far  as  possible  the  danger  of  the  gum  catching  fire, 
the  pot  is*  set  on  a  fire  fed  from  the  other  side  of 
a  partition.  The  temperature  of  the  molten  mass 
will  seldom  be  below  650°  F. 

WThile  the  gum  is  being  run,  the  linseed  oil  is 
heated  in  a  boiling  pot  to  a  temperature  generally 
not  exceeding  500°  F.  The  heating  may  be  pro- 
longed for  an  hour  or  two.  The  oil  is  then  run  into 
the  "  gum  pot,"  and  thoroughly  mixed,  and  the 
heating  must  be  continued  for  some  time,  in  order 
to  bring  about  a  thorough  action  between  the  gum 
and  oil.  If  a  drop  of  the  mixture  be  removed 
-i  filmed  iately  after  mixing,  and  cooled  on  an  earthen- 
ware plate,  it  will  form  a  cloudy  mass,  owing  to  the 
separation  of  the  gum  from  the  oil.  When  the 
reaction  between  the  gum  a,id  the  oil  is  complete, 
a  drop  taken  up  will  remain  transparent  on  cooling. 
This  test  is  useful  as  marking  the  completion  of  the 
process.  According  to  Sabin,  it  is  usual  to  take  the 
temperature  of  the  mixture  as  a  guide  to  the 
completion  of  the  reaction,  it  having  been  previously 
determined  by  preliminary  experiments  how  long 
the  two  must  be  heated  together  in  ortler  to  procure 
a  complete  interaction.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
larger  the  proportion  of  oil  to  gum  the  longer  the 
heating  required. 

After  the  mixture  has  sufficiently  cooled,  it  is 
gradually  thinned  with  turpentine.  As  the  thinning 
cannot  be  done  cold,  and  the  turpentine  is  very 
volatile,  the  thinning  shed  should  be  situated  away 
from  any  fire  or  flame  of  any  kind,  for  fear  of  the 
heavy  vapours  of  turpentine  given  off  catching  fire. 
Instead  of  tutpcntine,  benzene  is  sometimes  used, 
but  it  produces  an  inferior  product.  The  varnish 
is  not  fit  to  use  at  once,  but  has  to  be  stored  for 
t  wel  ve  months  or  so  in  iron  tanks,  where  it  matures 
t  and  a  sediment  settles  out. 

The   proportion    of    resin    to 
oil    varies     very    considerably, 
.-K-IM  it-ding  to  the 


12.    ROLLER    GRIXDIN-Q    MILL, 

SIDE  VIENY 
5148 


varnish 
we        desire      to 

prepare:  25 
..-"I.  or  30  gal. 
of  oil  to  100  Ib. 
of  resin,  and 
about  40  «al. 
of  turpentine, 
may  be  taken 
:is  .1  fair  aver- 
a-o  for  thr  be^t 

varnishes, 


11.  VERTICAL  MIXER 


Spirit      Varnishes. 

These  may,  or  may  not, 
contain  a  small  quantity  of 
oil.  If  they  do  contain  oil, 
they  are  made  on  the 
snme  lines  as  the  oil  var- 
nishes. Ordinary  spirit 
varnishes  are  merely  solu- 
tions of  the  resin  in  spirit. 
Of  course,  man}'  of  the 
resins  are  not  sufficiently 
soluble  to  give  spirit  var- 
nishes. Those  commonly 
used  are  shellac,  sanderac, 
mastic,  and  common  resin. 

Lacquers.  Common 
lacquers  are  usually  solu- 
tions of  shellac  in  suitable 

solvents,  with  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  colouring  matter,  usually  an  aniline  dye.  l!e- 
cently  they  have  been  replaced  by  pyroxylin 
varnishes,  which  consist  of  a  solution  of  pyroxylin 
[gee  Guncotton  and  Celluloid]  in  amyl  acetate, 
with  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  resin. 
These  pyroxylin  varnishes  can  also  be  coloured, 
and  are  suitable  for  lacquering  metal,  wood,  and 
other  substances.  They  also  serve  as  a  medium 
for  the  bronze  and  aluminium  paints. 

"  Galuvos  "  is  a  lacquer  belonging  to  this  type 
which  has  recently  been  put  on  the  market.  It  is 
manufactured  in  four  varieties,  three  of  which  are 
coloured,  corresponding  to  the  primary  colours  red, 
blue,  and  yellow,  while  the  fourth  is  a  colourless 
preparation.  By  suitable  combination  of  two  or 
three  of  the  primary  colours,  any  desired  shade  of 
colour  may  be  obtained,  which  is  then  diluted  to 
obtain  the  required  tone  by  means  of  the  colourless 
variety.  A  table  has  been  prepared  by  the  makers, 
the  Metallic  Composition  Company,  showing  the 
proportions  required  to  produce  the  ordinary 
shades,  thus  t  three  parts  of  primary  yellow  and 
seven  of  primary  blue,  give  emerald  green ;  or 
again,  four  of  primary  red,  reight  of  primary  blue, 
and  eight  of  primary  yellow,  give  olive  green,  and 
so  on.  The  coatings  produced  are  tough  and  damp- 
proof,  and  become  extremely  hard  and  resistant  after 
being  stoved. 

Protective  Paints.  Asphaltum,  which  is 
a  native  bituminous  substance  [see  GEOLOGY],  can 
be  used  as  a  black  varnish  by  dissolving  it  in  coal- 
tar  naphtha  or  turpentine.  It  is  recommended 
as  an  anti-corrosive  paint  for  metals,  ironwork, 
bridges,  girders,  and  other  structures  where  iron  or 
steel  surfaces  are  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and 
require  to  be  coated  with  some  sort  of  anti-corrosive 
paint  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  rust.  Many 
different  kinds  of 


protective       paints 
have      been     tried, 
and  a   considerable 
amount       of       ex-   D\ 
perienc''       accumu- 
lated.    It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  surface  £  . 
should  be  clean  and 
dry,     as     rust    has 
often  been  found  to 
form   underneath  a 
coating     of     paint. 
Mill  seale,  the  oxide 
of      iron      coating, 
commonly  found  on 
ficshly          wrought     1 
iron       and       steel, 

e- 

1 
[ 

<--.- 

3. 

V 

b 

H 

1 

—  i 

K 

c 

^L 
-t 

-=3 
K 

} 

L              A            L 
*                            » 

{                            I 

I 
C 

•  \_i/, 

>LLER   GRINDING  MILL, 
WED    FROM    ABOVE 

should  also  be  removed.  This  is  accomplished 
nowadays  by  means  of  a  sand  blast.  It  is  usual 
to  give  the  iron  a  coaling  of  red  lead  in  oil,  which 
of  itself  appears  to  possess  considerable  protective 
power.  But  at  other  times,  it  apparently  fails  in 
its  object. 

A  cheap  anti-corrosive  coating  may  be  prepared 
from  coal-tar  products — that  is  to  say,  solutions  of 
coal-tar  pitch  in  coal-tar  naphtha.  These  have 
been  used  with  some  success,  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  none  of  the  coal-tar  acids  or  crude  dead 
oil  [see  Coal-tar  Products]  .find  their  way  into  the 
paint.  A  good  anti-corrosive  paint,  possibly  of 
a  similar  nature,  is  now  on  the  market  and  known  as 
"  Siderosthen."  A  large  number  of  tests  have  been 
made  in  the  United  States  by  immersing  sheets  of 
metal,  coated  with  anti-corrosive  paints,  in  the 
waters  of  Lake  Cochituate  for  several  months  at  a 
time.  From  the  result  of  these  and  other  tests, 
Sabin  recommends  a  varnish  in  which  the  propor- 
tion of  oil  to  resin  is  high  as  the  best  coating  for 
the  protection  of  steel  structures.  ,  Pigments  can 
be  worked  in  with  such  a  varnish,  producing  varnish 
paints  of  great  beauty  and  resistant  action  to  the 
moisture  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. 

Many  of  the  anti-cor- 
rosive paints  sold  con- 
sist of  nothing  but  00 
per  cent,  of  oxide  of  iron 
ground  in  linseed  oil. 

Distempers.  These 
consist  of  water  paints, 
and  the  coat  is,  to  a 
certain  extent,  water  re- 
sistant, and  therefore 
washable.  The  names 
of  the  makers  of  these 
washable  paints  are 
given  on  page  1030. 
Such  paints  are  fre- 
quently made  with  casein, 
the  albuminous  consti- 
tuent of  milk,  and  con- 
tained in  the  watery 
liquor  after  the  removal 
of  the  fat.  A  description 
of  casein  is  given  under 
Ghies  and  Adhesives," 


14.    ROLLER 
(Follows  &  Bate 


VJTIUV^O    iii_iv*     ^iv».  t          •         'j-       If 

but  we  may  mention  here  that  casern  is  itself 
insoluble  in  water,  and  requires  the  addition  o 
an  alkaline  substance,  such  as  soda,  ammonia,  or 
borax  to  dissolve  it,  Where  the  distemper  is  sold 
in  the  solid  form,  as  powder  or  paste,  the  pigment 
is  incorporated  with  the  right  proportion  of  casein 
and  alkali.  If,  now,  the  alkali  chosen  be  ammonia, 
this  will  gradually  diffuse  and  evaporate  into  the 
atmosphere,  when  the  paint  is  spread  in  a  thin  layer 
over  a  large  surface,  leaving  the  casein  behind  m 
the  insoluble  form.  The  particles  of  pigment  will  thus 
be  knit  together  by  a  medium  insoluble  m  water, 
so  that  the  surface  covered  by  the  paint  is  washable. 
There  are  other  means  of  rendering  the  casein  m- 
*oluble  :  thus  with  slaked  lime  it  gradually  sets  to  a 
'hard  water-resistant  mass,  and  these  substances  may 
be  found  inmany  distempers.  The  slaked  ime  which 
in  the  presence  of  water  has  helped  to  dissolve  ti 
casein  Gradually  absorbs  carbonic  acid  from  the  air 
fornin"  calcium  carbonate,  with  the  separation  of 
the  calein  in  the  insoluble  form,  just  as  in  the 
case  of  the  ammonia  casein  already  described. 

Various  Polishes.  Although  polishes  no 
doubt  protect  the  surface  of  wood,  or  other  sub- 
stances  polished,  they  are  more  often  used  to  improve 


APPLIED  CHEMISTRY 

the  look  of  the  object  and  give   it   an  attractive 
appearance. 

French  polish  is  made,  according  to  Standage.  afl 
follows  :  4i  o/.  finest  shellac  is  dissolved  in  25  oz. 
of  alcohol  (96  per  cent,  strength).  J  oz.  of  a  natural 
colouring  matter,  known  as  dragon's  blood,  is 
dissolved  separately  in  25  oz.  of  alcohol,  and  the 
clear  solution  poured  off  from  the  sediment  into  the 
first  liquid  containing  the  shellac.  The  liquids  arc 
mixed,  7f  grains  of  turmeric  added,  and  the  whole 
allowed  to  stand  twenty-four  hours,  after  which  it  is 
filtered.  Of  course,  there  is  as  much  to  be  learnt  ill 
the  method  of  applying  the  polish  as  in  making  it. 
Furniture  polish  may  be  made  according  to  the 
following  recipe :  1  oz.  of  beeswax,  }  oz.  of  white 
wax,  and  1  oz.  of  Castile  soap,  the  latter  shredded 
very  fine,  are  heated  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water. 
When  cold,  £  pint  of  turpentine  and  \  pint  of 
spirits  are  mixed  in. 

Metal  Polish.  To  brighten  the  surface  of 
metals,  whiting  or  chalk  finely  ground  is  mixed 
with  colcothar  (an  oxide  of  iron),  and  made  into 
a  paste  with  a  little  soap  and  oil.  Ammonia  on  a 
rag  will  often  prove  effective  in  cleaning  tarnished 
brass  and  other  metals. 
Boot  Polishes. 
Like  all  other  var- 
nishes and  polishes,  the 
primary  use  of  a  boot 
polish  should  be  to  pre- 
serve the  leather  under- 
neath. Nowadays,  boot 
polishes  are  judged  by 
other  standards,  parti- 
cularly by  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  polish 
obtainable.  This  will 
be  better  realised  when 
we  say  that  many  boot 
polishes  as  now  manu- 
factured are  innocent 
of  any  fatty  or  oily 
constituent,  and  fre- 
quently contain  small 
quantities  of  acid,  which 
exert  a  destructive 
rather  than  a  preser- 
vative action  on  the 
leather. 

The  small  quantity  of  oil  contained  in  the  polishes 
soon  loses  its  effect  when  boots  are  worn  in  wet 
or  snowy  weather.     The  vegetable  waxes  used  in 
some  polishes  work  well  in  this  respect,  but  fatty 
substances  interfere  with  the  production  of  a  hi 
polish,  and  their  use  is,  in  consequence,  very  limited 
(Andes).     All  boot  polishes  must  conform  to  tl 
following  essentials : 

(a)  Give  as  high  a  polish  or  shine  as  possible, 
when  brushed. 

(b)  Be   of    a    good   black    colour,     or   else    pale 
transparent  hue  for  brown  boots. 

(c)  Dry  hard,  so  that  the  polish  will  not  soil  or 
come  off  on  the  clothes. 

(d)  Contain  only  a  small  quantity  of  acid,  so  as 
not  to  destroy  the  leather. 

(e)  The  materials  composing  the  polish  must  be 
regularly   and   uniformly    mixed,  so  that  a  small 
quantity  of  polish  will  cover  a  large  surface  of  leather. 


GRINDING  MILL 
Ltd.,  Manchester) 


J^STused*  in^npo;na^g'---blacking-'    M 
a"  often  as  not  aniline  dyes  arc  used,  especially  such 

5149 


APPLIED     CHEMISTRY 

ft*   have  :\n    intense"  violet   eolour   indistinguishable 
from  black  when  applied  in  the  form  of  a  polish. 

lilarkiiiil  frequently  contains  sugar  or  glucos*'  in 
M.IIIC  form  or  another,  usually  more  or  less  caramel- 
ised by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid.  Sugar  much 
improves  the  polish,  but  the  effect  soon  goes  oft' 
if  too  mueh  sugar  has  been  used,  as  it  is  "delique- 
scent"  that  is  to  say.  it  attracts  moisture  from 

the  atmosphere.     The  same  considerations  apply  to 
glycerin,    a  not  infrequent  constituent  of  polishes. 

\\e  cannot  do  better  than  give  <v  list  of  some 
of  the  more  common  constituents  of  boot  polishes 
and  blackings  : 

Aniline  dyes  and  mineral  colours. 

Gum  arabic. 

Swedish  tar  :   coal-tar,  and  asphalt. 

Glycerin. 

Animal  charcoal,  or  bone-black  substitutes. 

Molasses  and  sugar  syrups,  gra)>e  sugar  and 
starch  paste. 

Paraffin — S|>ermacet  i. 

Linseed  oils  and  fish  oils. 

Shellac. 

Lard,  stearine,  tallow,  and  other  fats. 

Turpentine,  petroleum  jelly,  and  high-boiling 
hydrocarbon  oils. 

Waxes,  especially  beeswax,  carnauba  wax,  Japan 
wax  and  ceresin. 

Sulphuric  acid,  acetate  of  iron  and  other  chemicals. 

The  machinery  used  for  incorporating  the  in- 
gredients arc  the  same  or  similar  to  those  used 
in  paint  manufacture,  such  as  mixers  [9]  and 
grinding  rollers  [14]. 

Recipes.  Tn  what  follows  we  give  recipes  from 
well-known  authorities. 

BLACKINGS 

T. 

Beeswax..      ..     10  parts     Bone-black.. 
Spermaceti       ..     66     „        Prussian  blue 
Turpentine       . .      60     „         Nitrobenzene     1     „ 
Asphalt  varnish        5     .,         Borax..      ..      1     .. 

The  wax  should  be  melted,  and  the  borax  added 
and  stirred  in.  The  spermaceti  and  asphalt 
varnish  are  melted  separately,  and  the  turpentine 
added.  After  thoroughly  stirring,  add  the  wax. 
Finally  add  the  colour,  well  rubbed  down,  and  the 
benzene  (Standace). 

II. 

Bone-black    . .     30  parts     Sulphuric  acid      1  part 
Syrup     ..      ..      15     „        Olive  oil.  .         ..2     „ 

The  black  and  the  syrup  are  mixed,  and  the  oil 
added,  then  the  acid,  "a  little  at  a  time.  Finally 
dilute  wi'h  water  to  the  right  consistency  (Andes). 

III. 

M«>!.is<es       ..      100  parts     Dextrin     ..        3%>  parts 
Vinegar.  .     .  .        25      ..         Bone-black        30 
Alum    ..       ..          3  Lubricating  oil  7'5     ,. 

This  is  a  German  patent.  No.  104.  740. 
IV. 

1'5  parts  white  wax  mixed  hot  with  '15  parts  sper- 
maceti, and  2  parts  linseed  oil,  and  1  part  molasses, 
the  mixture  kept  at  110-120°  C.,  and  1'3  parts 
of  lampblack  and  2'8  parts  of  turpentine  add(  d. 
Finally  add  a  solution  of  '02  parts  of  aniline  violet 
and  •().")  parts  of  shellac  in  '35  parts  of  alcohol. 

This  polish  dries  somewhat  slowly,  but  is  a  better 


5  ]  >arts 
2     . 


preservative  for  leather  than  most  other  blackings 
(Xic-oM). 


S  parts     :>.")  per  cent,  spirit  38  parts 

8  M  Xigrosine 

(iiniline  dye)     k    „ 


French  turpen- 
tine    . 


r.i.-o 


The  shellac  is  dissolved  in  turpentine,  and  after 
removal  from  the  fire  the  nigrosine  in  spirit  is 
added  (Andes). 

This  is  recommended  as  an  excellent  varnish 
for  black  leather. 

VI. 

Wax  polish  prepared  according  lo  Brnnner  ("The 
Manufacture  of  Lubricants,  Shoe  Polishes,  etc."): 

Yellow  wax         50  parts 

Oil  of  turpentine       5      „ 

Potash          10       „ 

These  are  incited  together  and  treated  with 
sugar,  10  parts;  water,  500  parts.  The  resulting 
mass  is  stirred  with  enough  lampblack  to  colour 
it  deep  black. 

BOOT       ('UK  A. MS 
I.  Brown  Cream. 

Paraffin 25.400  parts 

Soap 3,175      „ 

Glue  jelly  (say,  10  per  cent  glue)       ..       1.815 

Water    *.      .' 0.800      „ 

Oil 2,050     „ 

Bismarck  brown  (aniline  dye)    ....  70     ,, 

Soap  and  glue  are  boiled  together  in  water,  and 
the  liquid  dyed  with  Bismarck  brown,  and  mixed 
with  the  rest. 

IT.  White   Cream. 

White  beeswax       4  parts     Turpentine.  .         8  parts 
Carnauba  wax          1      ,,         Water  ..      ..      12      ,, 
Potash..      ..        A 

If  white  beeswax  be  replaced  by  the  ordinary 
yellow  wax.  a  yellowish  cream  is  obtained.  Or  by 
the  addition  of  suitable  dyes  and  soap  in  the 
place  of  potash,  brown  or  black  creams  can  be 
prepared.  Nigrosine  is  a  suitable  black  dye  to 
use  in  these  mixtures. 

Leather  Greases.  There  are  a  number  of 
preparations  which  have  for  their  object  the 
rendering  of  leather  soft  and  supple,  with  a  view  to 
its  preservation,  and  also  to  render  it  water 
resistant. 

The  following  formula-  are  jjivcn  by  Brunner  : 
HARNESS     CREASE 

Soa]>       2  parts 

Sugar 2 

Water  4 

Potash  1 

Kape  oil        20      .. 

The  other  ingredients  are  dissolved  in  the  water 
and  incorporated  with  the  rape  oil  by  thoroughly 
stirring  in  in  a  gentle  heat  until  the  mixture  attains 
uniform  consistency. 

WATERPROOF  GREASE  WITH   GLOSS 

Wax        1    part 

Soap        •  •       I 

Lampblack 3 

Oil  of  turpentine         5 

Fish   oil          20       ., 

The  wax  is  dissolved  in  the  turpentine  by  gently 
warming;  the  soap  is  then  added  in  the  form  of  thin 
shavings:    after  this,  the  fish  oil,  still  keeping  the 
mixture  warm,  and  finally  the  lampblack. 
VASELINE   GREASE  FOR  BLACK  LEATHER 

Vaseline       100   parts 

Lampblack 5 

Prussian  Blue 5 

Some  of  the  vaseline  is  melted  and  incorporated 
with  the  lampblack  and  Prussian  bhie  in  an 
enamelled  iron  pan  by  stirring  until  a  uniform 
mixture  ift  obtained,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
vaseline  is  added  by  degrees,  keeping  the  wax 
,  stirred  all  the  time. 

Conlinued 


VALUING 


Occasions   Demanding  Valuation.      Procedure.       Preparing  the 
Report.    Inwood's  Tables  with  Examples.    Setting  up  in  Business 


Group  7 

AUCTIONEERING 
AND  VALUING 

2 

Continued  from  page  -liKs 


By    JOHN    COX 


'""THE  practice  of  valuation  may  be  said  to  be  the 
•••  natural  concomitant  of  the  auctioneering  pro- 
fession, for  the  exercise  of  the  one  naturally  calls 
for  a  knowledge  of  the  other.  The  term  valuer 
in  its  ordinary  acceptation  signifies  a  person  who 
is  competent  to  form  a  sound  opinion  as  to  the 
value  of  any  conceivable  article  or  commodity, 
and  a  like  accomplishment  in  respect  of  real  estate 
or  any  interest  therein. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  field  encompassed  is  of 
the  widest  possible  description,  and  it  naturally 
follows  that  expert  universal  knowledge  of  values 
cannot  possibly  be  claimed.  One  finds  in 
practice  that  there  exist  valuers  who  have  made 
a  life-long  study  of  the  various  specialities,  and  we 
therefore  have'  competent  appraisers  of  pictures, 
china,  silver,  antique  furniture,  and  so  on. 

Tt  may  here  be  said  that  what  we  may  term  the 
general  practitioner  should  never  commit  himself 
to  an  opinion  as  to  the  worth  of  what  he  may 
suspect  to  be  an  unusually  valuable  item.  There 
is  a  very  powerful  argument  in  support  of  this,  for 
there  is  a  fashion  which  governs  the  market  price 
of  articles  of  vertu  as  in  other  commodities  ;  and 
as  the  paintings,  statuary,  or  what  not  of  a  particii- 
lar  master  are  to-day  sought  after,  so  the  public 
taste  periodically  inclines  in  quite  a  different 
direction. 

As  an  instance  of  the  diversity  in  values,  when 
dealing  with  pictures  at  a  recent  sale,  "  The 
Standard  Bearer,"  by  Meissonier,  which  had  sold 
in  1877  for  £787,  realised  £2,625;  while  Gains- 
borough's "  Duchess  of  Grafton,"  a  small  oval 
which  had  sold  in  1884  for  £556,  only  realised 
a  hundred  guineas.  Again,  Landseer's  "  Prize 
Calf,"  which^sold  in  1863  for  £1,890,  hammered  to 
only  £1,438  when  offered  two  years  later,  and  in 
1901  fetched  but  £441.  Similarly,  Millais'  "  Cuc- 
koo," which  in  1884  brought  £1,995,  was  valued  at 
but  £1  ,627  10s.  seventeen  years  later. 

One  might  multiply  such  instances  indefinitely, 
but  the  foregoing  will  prove  conclusively  that 
the  prices  of  yesterday  are  scarcely  any  criterion 
of  the  prices  to-morrow.  As  a  general  rule,  there- 
fore, it  is  the  wiser  policy  to  consult  the  opinion 
of  a  specialist  in  the  matter  of  values  of  subjects 
which  may  be  suspected  of  extraordinary  worth. 

Occasions  Requiring  Valuation.     We 

may  here  consider  the  occasions    for  a  valuation 
and  the  purpose  for  which  one  may  be  required. 

PROBATE  VALUATIONS.  Probate  valuations, 
which  are,  perhaps,  the  most  common,  are  called 
for  on  the  proving  of  a  will.  The  whole  of  the 
real  and  personal  property  of  a  deceased,  not 
entailed,  are  comprised  in  the  probate  valuation, 
the  purpose  being  that  the  succession  duty  may 
be  properly  assessed. 

PURPOSES.     Before  advancing  funds 


upon  mortgage  it  is  usual  to  retain  the  services  of  a 
valuer,  who  must  report  fully  as  to  the  worth  of 
the  proposed  security.  The  greatest  care  is  called 
for  in  these  matters,  because  a  valuer  renders 


himself  liable  to  an  action  should  the  mortgagor 
default  and  the  property,  upon  being  sold,  fall 
short  of  realising  the  amount  lent  upon  it,  if, 
indeed,  it  can  be  shown  that  the  funds  were 
advanced  upon  the  strength  of  an  exaggerated 
valuation. 

PARTITION.  In  splitting  up  portions  of  an 
estate  for  succession  or  other  purposes. 

LANDLORD  AND  TENANT.  The  valuing  in  of  a 
tenant  who  takes  trade  or  farming  stock  and 
fixtures,  growing  crops,  and  the  like,  from  an  out- 
going party,  is  usually  carried  out  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  two  valuers,  one  employed  by  the  incomer 
and  the  other  by  the  outgoer.  The  inventory 
having  been  taken,  the  valuers  meet  upon  the 
property  and  agree  as  to  the  price  to  be  paid  or 
allowed. 

COMPENSATION,  OR  COMPULSORY  ACQUIREMENT 
PURPOSES.  Upon  the  taking  of  any  lands  or 
hereditaments  by  a  railway  or  other  undertaking, 
the  service  of  a  notice  to  treat  under  Parliamentary 
powers  is  the  opening  of  the  negotiations.  ,The 
party  upon  whom  the  notice  is  served  instructs  a 
valuer,  who  proceeds  to  appraise  the  property  to 
be  acquired  in  the  ordinary  way,  with  the  exception 
that  the  valuation  is  increased  by  the  addition  of 
10  per  cent,  thereof  for  "  forced  sale  "  or  severance 
of  the  interest.  The  valuer's  fees  in  these  cases 
are  paid  by  the  body  taking  the  property. 

DILAPIDATIONS.  A  valuation  of  dilapidations 
is  very  often  called  for  in  the  case  of  the  termination 
of  furnished  house  lettings. 

Valuation  of  Portable  Property.  It 
would  hardly  be  possible  to  lay  down  directions 
for  the  process  of  valuing  portable  property ;  but 
it  is  sufficient  for  the  moment  that  the  lines  upon 
which  the  valuation  is  carried  out  be  indicated. 

Firstly,  then,  as  concerns  such  property  as 
household  furniture,  the  valuer  must  draw  upon  his 
auction-room  experience  for  aid.  If  will  be  found 
that  a  very  short  but  intimate  acquaintance  with 
auction  sales  will  give  one  a  very  useful  insight 
into  the  values  of  everyday  articles,  but  it  is 
obviously  impossible  to  place  old  heads  upon 
young  shoulders  in  these  matters.  It  should  be 
understood  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  value  of  an 
article  is  what  it  will  fetch  in  the  open  market- 
that  is,  the  "  auction  price."  The  valuer  does  not. 
except  in  specialised  articles,  concern  himself  with 
a  fancy  value,  but  deals  strictly  with  intrinsic 
worth,  relying  solely  on  his  knowledge  of  the 
markets.  It  is  the  practice  on  every  occasion  to 
make  an  inventory  of  the  goods  with  the  values  set 
.clown  in  the  proper  column  of  the  inventory 
book,  a  character  or  private  mark  being  usually 
employed.  The  inventory  is  summarised  at  the 
end  of  the  entry,  as  follows  : 

Furniture  £ 

Statuary  and  ornaments . .  £ 
Silver  and  plated  ware  . .  £ 
China  and  glass  . .  . .  £ 

Wines         £ 

5151 


AUCTIONEERING     AND     VALUING 

A    report   as  to    the  value    is   thru   prepared    in 
tlia  following   form  : 

i-    '/'.  Ificliai-fl.-i.  Esq.,  Deed. 

VALIDATION  for  Estate  />"'//  of  tlic 
Fur, ii< art  A-  Urneral.  E  fleet*  in  and  upon 
tin  }»•<•  >in*<*  knoirn  as  "The  Man«e," 
Cah  rim  in  Valley,  Surrey,  late  the  property 
of  Thomas  Afefcmb  AV/..  l>ccd. 

SUMMARY 
Furniture,     Statuary.    Ornament* 

emdGe*&*  Effect* £2,81714    0 

Silnr  <(• '/Jain!  iron       492     <>     0 

Jewellery        890    0    0 

China  <t-  Gla**       89  10    0 

Wines     ..      ..      ..      450    0    0 

Horses,   Carriages,   Lire   <(•    l>emf 
Stock  ..      . .' 


sum  to  be  expended  on  the  property  forthwith 
before  it  can  be  expected  to  return  a  proper  revenue? 

(8)  In  what  degree  does  the  law  of  supply  and 
demand  operate  upon  the  interest  ? 

Having  given  due  consideration  to  these  factors. 
the  valuer  must  consider  under  what  percentage  of 
return  he  must  make  his  calculations,  and  as  regards 
the  rates  the  table  on  this  page  will  be  found 
generally  applicable.  One  often  deals  with  the  values 
of  weekly  class  property,  and  in  arriving  at  the  net 
annual  income,  we  give  a  table  which  will  be  xiseful : 

PROPORTIONS  or  OUTGOINGS  TO  RACK  RENT 

Ground  rent      y;th  to  -,'()th 

Insurance  . . 


£.-),().-)!    10     0 

LONDON.  May  2nd,  190(5. 

The  above,  more  particularly  enumerated  in  an 
Inventory  made  this  day,  are  valued  for  the  purpose 
of  Estate  Duty  at  tJie  sum  of  Flee  thousand  and 
fifty  one  pounds  ten  shillings. 

ED.  JAS.  CARPENTER, 

Aiictioneer,  ,(•<-.. 
£5,051  10     0.  680,  Barbican,  E.G. 

Valuation    of   Real    Estate.      We  now 

arrive  at  a  branch  of  valuation  which 
is  capable  of  being  dealt  with  upon 
established  principles — namely,  the 
valuation  of  real  property.  Apart 
from  local  factors,  which  favourably 
or  otherwise  operate  upon  values, 
we  here  call  into  use  the  valuation 
tables,  more  commonly  referred  to  as 
Inwooffs  Tables. 

These  tables  are  a  collection  of 
ascertained  numbers,  showing  the 
number  of  years'  purchase  of  a  net 
annual  income  arising  from  a  pro- 
perty, and  which  may  be  given  for 
that  property,  in  order  that  a  pur- 
chaser may  receive  a  fixed  rate  of 
interest,  together  with  the  return  of 
his  capital  within  the  period  during 
which  the  property  or  his  interest  in 
it  shall  endure.  *A  reference  to  the 
tables  will  show  that  they  apply  to 
certain  and  uncertain  interests,  to  the 
value  of  an  interest  in  reversion,  to 
the  amount  of  premium  payable  for 
a  lapsed  lease,  and  so  on. 

In  beginning  a  valuation,  the  prime 
factor  is  contained  in  the  answer  to 
the  question  :  What  is  the  net  annual 
income  a  purchaser  will  get  from  the 
property  under  notice  ?  The  answers,  then,  to 
the  following  questions  will  form  the  ground  work 
of  any  valuation  : 

(1)  What   is   the    nature    of   the    interest    I    am 
valuing  : 

(2)  What  amount  will  the  purchaser  receive  ? 

(3)  For  how  long  will  his  interest  endure  ''. 

(4)  What  rate  of  interest  must  lie  have  ''. 

(.">)  How  long— if  at  all— will  it  be  before  he 
!» -.rins  to  take  his  income  ? 

(i!)  What  is  the  present  value  of  any  capital 
M mount  ho  may  have  to  pay  in  respect  of  which 
allowance  must  be  made  ? 

(7)  Is  the  condition  of  the  property  such  that 
from  the  valuation  must  be  deducted  a  stated 

5152 


Land  and  other  taxes 
Repairs,  average  annual  .  . 
Rates  and  Taxes  : 

House  Duty 

Poor  Rate      

Consolidated  and  Cene- 
ral  Rate 

Water  Rate   . 


Is.  6d.    to    2s.  G.l."()    on 
value  of  build  in u 

OKI 

_  . ,      , , 

10   ",, 


4  °;, 

12  % 

7V>() 


Contingencies,  say 
Management 


Say,  about  ,10  °0  of  gross  rent 


MARKET    BATES    OK     IXTKJIKST 

dan 

Interest 

y«uv 

purchase 

lifix.ji  for  stated  Intnv.-t 

Agricultural  land 

3°0  to  :;A",, 

:;:;    to    ±8 

SatV  security,  sought  by 

wcalthy  persons  for  the 

social   position  it  gives. 

Ir  is,  as  a  rule,  underlet, 

and  will  increase  in  value 

Accommodation 

4% 

2o 

land 

I!  ipc  building  land 

5% 

20 

(J  round  rents,  well 
secured  freehold 

3  o/ 

33 

These  sell  to  pay  thestated 
rates  of  -interest  because 

Do.  other  freehold 

3*% 

271 

of    the    security    being, 
from  five  to  ten  times 

covered,  and  the  invest- 

Do. leasehold 

4%    to     5% 

ment  increases  yearly  in 

value. 

Tret-hold    houses  : 

Superior 

4%  to     :.% 

2.".    to   20 

Sell  to  pay  the  stated  rates 

because  the  security  is 

Inferior 

7%   to     9% 

]4    to    11 

not,  like  leaseholds,  sub- 

ject to  vexatious  repair- 

ing covenants  and   de- 

preciation in  length  of 

Leasehold  houses  : 

holding. 

Superior 

5%   to     7% 

20  to   14 

Outgoings    to    be    paid, 

let    or    not.      Restric- 

Inferior 

8%   to   10% 

12   to    10 

tion  from  free  dealings. 

!     Limited   nature   of   the 

interest. 

By  "compounding"  for  th?  payment  of  rates  an 
owner  may  save  from  30  per  een't.  to  25  per  cent, 
of  them. 

In  wood's  Tables.  Turning  to  In  wood's 
tables,  we  will  briefly  refer  to  the  uses  to  which 
the  more  important  of  them  are  put.  Table  1. 
it  will  be  seen,  enables  one  to  value  a  lease  or 
property  for  any  number  of  years  at  rates  of  from 
3  per  cent,  to  10  per  cent,  interest.  Thus,  a  lea- 
for  50  years  to  make  7  per  cent.,  and  to  get  back 
the  principal  is  worth  13'801  years'  purchase  of 
the  net  annual  income. 

Table  2  enables  the  valuer  to  ascertain  the 
number  of  years'  purchase  he  may  give  for  an 
interest  secured  by  a  life  deduced  from  mortality 
observations  made  at  Northampton.  Thus,  a 


lease  or  annuity  to  endure  for  the  term  of  a  certain 
"life"  may  be  valued  by  means  of  calculating 
on  a  person's  present  age.  For  example,  an  interest 
secured  on  a  life  aged  20,  to  show  6  per  cent.,  is 
worth  12'398  years'  purchase  of  the  annual  net 
income. 

Table  3  is  substantially  the  same  as  Table  2, 
but  is  based  upon  deductions  made  at  Carlisle. 
On  this  table,  the  interest  last  referred  to  would 
be  worth  13\S35  years'  purchase,  because  the 
Carlisle  rate  of  mortality  is  not  so  great  as  that 
of  Northampton. 

Table  4  shows  the  present  value  of  £1,  due  at 
the  end  of  any  number  of  years,  expectant  upon 
the  death  of  a  person  of  any  age. 

The  tables  then  follow  on,  dealing  with  various 
contingencies,  until  we  reach  the  next  most  useful 
one — Table  17 — which  shows  the  present  value 
of  a  reversion  to  a  perpetuity  after  the  expiration 
of  any  number  of  years  not  exceeding  GO.  It 
may  be  noted  that  any  interest  deferred  a  greater 
period  than  60  years  is  not  considered  valuable. 
This  table  is  used  in  valuing  freehold  ground  rents 
where  the  reversion  to  the  rack  rents  is  getting 
considerable.  [See  example.] 

Smart's  Tables.  Upon  somewhat  similar 
lines  the  tables  proceed  to  deal  with  the  value  of 
reversions  to  perpetuities  secured  upon  various 
lives.  Smart's  five  tables  of  compound  interest 
are  then  given,  and  these  are  of  very  great  assist- 
ance to  the  valuer. 

The  first  table  shows  the  amount  which  £1  will 
make  if  put  out  to  interest  at  the  several  rates  of 
percentage  for  any  number  of  years.  It  will  be 
clear  that  this  table  enables  the  valuer  to  calculate 
the  immediate  capital  outlay  necessary  to  provide 
for  a  contingency  at  the  expiration  of  any  period. 
For  example,  if  we  buy  a  house  for  £500,  the 
lease  of  which  will  fall  in  in  60  years,  and  desire, 
by  making  a  payment  now,  to  secure  the  return 
of  £500  in  60  years,  we  find  that  £1  invested  now 
at  3  per  cent,  compound  interest  equals  5 '89  in 
60  years. 

Therefore,  £500  -+-  5 '89  will  equal  the  amount 
required  to  be  laid  out  now  to  return  the  capital 
at  the  end  of  the  period. 

The  second  table  treats  with  the  present  value 
of  £1  due  at  the  end  of  any  number  of  years.  For 
example,  if  we  know  that  at  the  end  of  20  years 
we  shall  have  to  pay  a  premium  of  £100  for  the 
renewal  of  a  lease,  we  know  by  reference  that  the 
amount  to  be  deducted  from  the  present  value  of 
a  property  with  such  a  condition  attaching  to  its 
purchase  will  be,  on  the  4  per  cent,  table,  £100  X 
•4564  =  £45-64. 

The  third  table  shows  the  amount  of  £1  per 
annum  in  any  number  of  years.  For  example, 
suppose  we  have  a  leasehold  house  with  an  un- 
expired  term  of  80  years,  and  desire  to  put  by  an 
annual  sum  which  will  return  the  amount  we 
paid  for  it,  say  £500,  when  the  lease  falls  in,  we  see 
that  if  we  put  by  £1  per  annum  at  3  per  cent, 
interest  we  shall  have  £321'36  at  the  end  of  80 
years,  so  that  £500  -±-  321'36  will  show  the  exact 
annual  amount  to  be  laid  by. 

The  fourth  table  shows  the  present  value  of 
£1  per  annum  for  any  number  of  years.  This 
table  is  practically  identical  with  In  wood's  Table  1, 
and  shows  what  amount  must  be  paid  for  tne 
stated  income  at  the  required  rates  of  percentage. 

The   fifth   table    shows    the    annuity   which   £1 

will  purchase  for  any  number  of  years.     Thus,  a 

lessee  taking  premises  at  £100  a  year  on  a  lease  for 

21  years  pays  a  premium  of  £300,  and  desires  to 

2  D  =7  c; 


AUCTIONEERING    AND    VALUING 

know  the  annual  amount  at  which  he  "  sits,"  or 
his  sitting  rent,  If  he  were  to  lay  by  his  £500 
at  5  per  cent,  interest  for  21  years  he  would  be 
getting  £-0780  per  annum  for  each  £1,  so  that  he 
pays,  in  fact,  in  each  year  £'0780  X  300,  in  addition 
to  his  rental  of  £100,  or  in  all,  £123 "4  per  annum. 

We  need  not,  for  our  present  purpose,  pursue 
the  tables  further,  but  will  conclude  with  a  few 
brief  examples,  which  may  serve  to  show  the 
method  of  getting  out  the  values  of  properties 
more  ordinarily  met  with,  following  our  rule  always 
to  arrive  at  the  net  annual  income,  and  carefully 
settling  the  rate  of  interest. 

EXAMPLES 

Value  20  acres  of  freehold  agricultural  laud 
letting  at  £2  per  acre  per  annum. 

3  PER  CENT.  TABLE. 

20  X  2  =  £40,  net  annual  income. 

40  x  33-333=  1333 '32 

or  £1,333     6    8 

Value  20  acres  of  accommodation  land,  letting 
at  £4  per  acre  per  annum.  There  is  a  tithe  rent 
charge  of  £5  per  annum  on  the  whole. 

4  PER  CENT.  TABLE. 
20x4=80.     £80=  the  gross  annual 

income. 
Deduct  tithe  rent  charge        5 

£75  —  net  annual  income. 
75  X  25  =  £1,875. 

Value,  say,  12i  acres  of  ripe  building  land 
situate  on  the  borders  of  a  rapidly  rising  town, 
and  possessing  a  main  and  parish  road  with  avail- 
able building  frontages  of  3,000  ft. 

This  may  be  taken  all  round  at  £5  per  foot 
frontage,  it  being  safe  to  assume  that  a  plot  of 
30  ft.  frontage  would  let  at  £7  10s.  per  plot  ground 
rent,  thus  showing  a  5  per  cent,  investment,  so 
that  we  have  : 

3,000  x  5  =  £15,000. 

What  is  the  fee  simple,  or  freehold  value  per 
acre  of  land  which  for  ten  years  will  remain  agri- 
cultural land  worth  a  rental  of  30s.  per  acre  per 
annum,  for  the  second  ten  years  will  be  accomo- 
dation  land  worth  £3  per  acre  per  annum,  and 
after  that  time  will  be  ripe  for  building  operations 
and  command  a  ground  rent  of  £10  per  acre  per 
annum  ?  It  will  be  ten  years  before  the  whole 
of  the  land  is  developed  and  the  full  ground  rent 
secured. 

Here  we  see  that  a  purchaser  would  get  out  of 
the  agricultural  land  £1  10s.  per  acre  for  ten  years : 

AGRICULTURAL  LAND,  3  PER  CENT. 
£1  10s.  per  acre  per  annum  for  10  years  =      Value 

1-5  X  8 '530  years'  purchase  =  12'795,     per  acre. 

or,  say £12  15    0 

Next  we  have 

ACCOMMODATION  LAND,  4  PER  CENT. 
£3  per  acre  per  annum  for  10  after  10 

years  [see  note  below]  =  3  X  5 '479  = 

16-437,  or,  say 16  10     0 

We  have  now  disposed  of  the  matter  so 
far  as  regards  20  years  of  the  period,  and 
we  now  come  to 

SECURED  FREEHOLD  GROUND  RENTS, 
34  PER  CENT. 

We  see  that  a  purchaser  will  be  getting 

not  £10  per  acre  at  once,  but  at  the  end  of     

Forward     29     5     0 

5153 


Forward  £29     6 

10  nftor  20  years.     The  average  annual 
inrmue  for  the  period  must  be  deduced. 

Tlii-  is  arrived  at  as  follows: 
For  tin-    1st    year  ^  of  £10  =  £1 
2nd  year  ,-,T  of     10  = 
3rd  year  -,:!(7  of     10  = 
4th  year  ,-»„- of     10  = 
.".111  ye;tr  ,•'„  of     10  = 


Forward    £426   10     0 


FREEHOLD  PROPERTY,  4  PER  CENT. 


6th  year  ,';,  of 


„         7tli  year  Tv  of 
„         8th  year  W  of    10  — 
Oth  year  &  of     10  --= 
10th  year  a  whole  1 0  =  _1 0_ 

Total        £55 

.-,.-,  .4-  10  —  5'5  or  £5  10s.,  being  the 
average  annual  ground  rent  for  the 
term.  £5  10s.  per  annum  for  10 
after  20  years  =  <V5  x  4'180  years' 

purchase^  22 '99,  or 

Lastly,  after   the  lapse  of  30  years  the 
purchaser   begins  to  receive  the  full 
ground  rent  per  acre,  so  that: 
SECURED  FREEHOLD  GROUND  RENTS, 

3i  PER  CENT. 

tin  per  annum,  full  annual  ground 
rent,  in  perpetuity  after  30  years 
=  10  X  10*179  years'  purchase  = 
101*79,  or,  say 


23     0     0 


102     0     0 


So  tint  the  present  value  of  the  land  is 

per  acre  ..£1.14     5     0 

The  method  of  getting  out  the  year's  purchase 
for  a  term  after  a  term  is  by  taking  the  year's 
purchase  equivalent  to-  the  sum  of  the  periods 
and  deducting  therefrom  the  equivalent  of  the 
greater  of  the  periods.  For  instance,  in  the  first 
of  the  above-mentioned  we  have  10  after  10  years. 
On  the  4  per  cent.  Table,  the  equivalent  of  the 
sum  of  the  two,  that  is 

20,  is      ......      13'o90  years'  purchase 

and  10  years  on  the  same 

table  is   ..          ..          ..       8'Hl      „  „ 

Deducting,     we     get      the 

equivalent  of  10  after  10      5  '479      „  „ 

The  method  is  the  same  in  the  other  instances. 

Value  a  freehold  ground  rent  of  £50  per  annum 
abundantly  secured  upon  well-built  property  in 
the  Strand,  London,  of  a  present  annual  value  of 
£600  per  annum,  with  reversion  to  the  rack  rents 
in  90  years. 

Here  we  have  an  excellent  security,  and  value 
simply  upon  the  3  per  cent.  Table. 
50  x  33-333  =  1666-65,  or,  say       .  .  £1,606  10     0 

Where,  however,  a  freehold  ground  rent  has  its 
rc\.-rsion  to  the  rack  rents  in  a  less  period  than  60 
\cars  the  reversion  is  a  considerable  factor.  The 
around  rent  is  valued  firstas  a  well-secured  income  for 
a  term,  with  the  addition  of  the  reversionary  value. 
Say,  for  example,  if  in  the  foregoing  instance  the 
reversion  to  the  rack  rent  were  distant  but  10  Tears, 
the  working  would  be  : 


\\  i.i.i.- 


FRKKHOLD    CR<TM> 
3    PKK    CKXT. 


i'50  |  er  annum  for  10  years  50  x 
S-530  421  iT).  or,  say 

Although  in  ordinary  instances  we 
•-hould  treat  the  reversion  upon  the 
5  percent.  Table,  yet  here  we  have  such 
an  exceptionally  tine  reversion  that  we 
deal  with  it  upon  the  4  per  cent.  Table. 

5151 


£426   10    0 


Rack  rent  £600  per  annum  in 
petuity  after  10  years  =  600  x  K 
years'"  purchase  =  10133'4,  or,  say 

Full  value       .. 


per- 

SS'.t 

..    10.1  33  10 
..£10,560     0 


0 
0 

Value  an  income  arising  out  of  a  property  held 
for  60  years  at  a  head  rent  of  £2  and  under- 
leased for  the  full  term,  less  one  day,  at  £20  per 
annum. 

LEASEHOLD  GROUND   H  E.VT,  5  PER  CENT. 

£20-  £2  head  rent=  £18.     18  x  18'929 

=  340-722,  or,  say         ......     £34015    0 

Where  the  interest  is  shorter  the  table  used  is 
higher,  this  class  of  security  selling  to  pay  from 
5  per  cent,  to  9  per  cent,  according  to  the  duration 
of  the  interest. 

Where  the  property  is  not  underleased  for  the 
full  term  the  reversion,  if  less  than  60  years  distant, 
is  taken  into  account,  and  valued  upon  the  selected 
table  at  the  full  net  rental,  after  the  term  for  which 
it  is  underleased,  the  years'  purchase  being  made 
out  as  previously  shown. 

Value  a,  well-built  freehold  house  let  upon  a 
three  years'  agreement  at  £60  per  annum,  situate 
in  an  established  London  suburb. 

Here  we  have  to  take  the  gross  rental,  and  make 
deductions  for  contingencies  : 
Cross  value  .'.          ..      £60     0     0 

Allow: 

For  repairs,  10  per  cent.,  £6 
,,  empties,   one    quarter's 
rent  in  every  3  years, 
per  annum       .  .       £5       1100 

Net  income..  ..  49  0  0 
We  value  upon  the  6  per  cent.  Table,  and  have 

49  X  16-667  =  816-683,  or,  say,  £816  10  0 

The  procedure  in  the  case  of  a  leasehold  house 

would  be,  assuming  that  the  property  were  let  at 

£60  per  annum,  but  that  there  were  a  ground  rent 

of  £10  with  a  term  of  55  years  to  run  : 

LEASEHOLD  HOUSE  PROPERTY,  7  PER  CENT. 

Cross  value    ......   £60    0     0 

Allow; 

C  round  rent          .  .       £10 
Outgoings  as  before         11     21     0     0 

39     0     0 

Net  annual  income  £39  for  55  years 
=  39x13-940=543-972,  or,  say  .  .  £544__0_0 

\Vhere  such  a  contingency  as  the  putting  into 
repair  of  a  property,  the  payment  of  road-making 
charges,  and  so  on,  necessitating  an  immediate 
capital  outlay,  has  to  be  provided  for,  a  deduction 
is  made  from  the  amount  of  the  valuation  of  a 
sum  estimated  to  be  sufficient  to  cover  the  outlay. 

The  above  examples  should  have  made  suffi- 
ciently clear  the  lines  upon  which  the  correct 
valuation  of  the  interests  more  ordinariby  met  with 
should  be  conducted.  The  main  points  to  be  borne 
in  mind  are,  as  we  have  already  said,  what  the 
purchaser  is  to  receive,  and  if  he  will  have  to  make 
provision  for  an  immediate  or  distant  contingency, 
the  occasion  for  which  he  has  a  knowledge  at  the 
time  he  appraises  the  worth. 

On  the  next  page  we  ;Jve  a  form  of  the  "Report 

as  to  the  Value  "'  which   is  usually  adopted. 


A  REPORT  as  to  the  VALUE  of  certain 
property  known  as  13,  15,  17,  10,  <0  21, 
Bank  Parade,  North  Hampstead,  in  the 
County  of  London,  and  made  for  the  purpose 
of  mortgage. 

The  above  property,  which  is  FREEHOLD,  is 
situate  in  a  well-established  market  position,  adjacent 
to  two  Railway  Stations  and  the  terminus  of  the 
electric  tramway  route.  A  station  on  a  new  under- 
ground railway  is  in  course  of  erection  upon  the  site 
of  Nos.  23  <fc  25,  Bank  Parade. 

The   property  is  of  very  sound  construction,   the 
present  condition  is  excellent,  the  tenants  well  estab- 
lished,   and    all    of    them   hold  upon  full  repairing 
leases  for  long  terms  at  the  following  rentals  : 
No.  13.  J.  Scott,  Family  Butcher     @       £160  p.  a. 
„   15.  Amalgamated  Dairies  Coy.  ,,          150   ,, 
,.    17.  Pacific  Bank  (Hampstead 

Branch]      „          130   „ 

Nos.  19  cfc  21.  J.  Barnes,  General 

Draper  „         200   „ 

Total  Rental        ..  £700   „ 

REPORT 

}Ye  have  fully  inspected  the  above  described  property 
together  with  the  Leases  under  which  the  tenants  hold, 
and  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  value  of  the  fee  simple  is 
FOURTEEN  THOUSAND  POUNDS.  The 
tenants,  ivc  find,  all  covenant  for  an  increased  rent 
within  a  period  of  five  years,  and  the  value  will 
therefore  proportionately  increase. 

HAT  TON  JONES  cfc  €07., 

444,  Fleet  Street, 
£14,000    0    0  London,  E.G. 

Fees.  We  give  a  scale  of  fees  applicable  to 
valuations  : 

For  valuations  of  furniture,  fixtures  or  other 
effects,  5  per  cent,  up  to  £500,  and  2|  per  cent, 
on  the  residue. 

Valuations  of  furniture  and  effects  for  probate 
purposes,  2i  per  cent,  on  the  first  £100  and  \\  per 
cent,  on  the  residue. 

Valuation  of  properties,  1  per  cent,  up  to  £1,000, 
5s.  per  cent,  beyond  on  the  lull  amount  of  the 
valuation.  In  valuations  for  mortgage  purposes, 
if  an  advance  be  not  made,  one-third  of  the  above 
scale,  the  minimum  fee  to  be  £3  3s. 

In  Business  as  an  Auctioneer  and 
Valuer.  As  with  other  professions  necessitating 
the  build'ing  up  of  a  connection,  so  with  that  of 
and  valuer.  It  is  manifestly  unwise 


should  advise   our  pupil   to  endeavour,  as   far   as 
possible     to   limit   the   area  of    his  early  engage- 
ments to  his   immediate  locality.     The  difficulty  is 
always    to    find    a    suitable    opening,    and   this 
increasing  year  by  year. 

Auctioneering— and     its     associated     branches, 
valuing,   estate   agency  and  surveying— being  the 


AUCTIONEERING    AND    VALUING 

ment  with  firms,  one  is  fairly  certain  of  forming  an 
acquaintance  which  may  ripen  into  a  business 
arrangement  in  later  years.  We  would  say,  then, 
seek  a  competent  partner  with  whom  there  is  a 
fair  probability  of  mutual  agreement,  settle  the 
departments  which  each  is  to  take,  and,  having 
chosen  an  opening,  begin  to  found  a.  business  upon 
the  lines  which  experience  has  taught  are  the 
right  ones. 

Where  to  Start.  As  regards  locality,  we 
cannot  counsel  the  beginning  of  operations  in  the 
more  confined  portions  of  London,  for  the  reason 
that  such  districts  seem  to  have  well-established 
local  practitioners  ;  and  unless  one  happens  to  come 
across  some,  say,  estate  agency  business,  which 
will  serve  as  a  nucleus  and  a  support  to  the  sister 
profession,  it  would  be  far  better  to  seek  a  de- 
veloping locality,  and  to  take  one's  chance  there. 

Given  the  right  position,  a  reasonable  amount 
of  financial  backing,  and  a  good,  sound  knowledge 
of  the  business,  crowded  though  the  profession 
undoubtedly  is,  a  soundly  managed  concern  will 
prosper. 

The  endeavour  should  be  to  found  a  connection, 
and  it  must  be  acknowledged  that,  as  a  rule, 
auctioneering  as  a  profession  in  itself  will  not  answer, 
but  it  is  well  supplemented  by  the  estate  agency 
and  valuing  branches ;  the  latter  will  "  feed " 
the  former,  and  should  be  fostered  accordingly. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  unless  one  is  fortunate 
enough  to  be  well  supported  by  solicitors  and  others 
having  need  of  the  frequent  service  of  an  auctioneer, 
sales  by  auction  are  not  sufficiently  numerous 
for  the  branch  to  be  carried  on  by  itself. 

The  Office.  Having  determined  the  position, 
the  offices  should  be  well  decorated,  and  furnished 
solidly  and  usefully.  Prominent  professionally- 
worded  notices  should  be  displayed,  and  if  sale 
rooms  are  an  annexe,  the  fact  should  be  brought 
to  the  notice  of  the  locality.  Possibly  the  systematic 
circularising  of  the  neighbourhood— personally 
addressed  letters  to  residents— may  serve  as  a  good 
introduction,  and  we  think  that  well-displayed, 
neatly  written  poster  boards  are  to  be  recommended. 
One  must  be  careful  not  to  approach  anything  in 
the  nature  of  the  "  cheap-jack  "  style  of  business 
for  advertising  in  the  auctioneer's  calling  should 
be  done  in  "  professional  "  style.  Without  amplify- 
ing this  too  much,  we  would  instance  the  manner 
in  which  the  names  of  certain  firms  in  various 
localities  seem  to  preponderate  over  others. 

In  perhaps  few  vocations  does  the  personality 
of  the  principal  so  largely  affect  the  success  of  a 
business  as  that  of  an  auctioneer.  He  must  be 


thes 


tag  the  latter  portion  of  one's  emplo 
" 


Deal  brisklv  with  all  matters 
^    ^    ^  ^    ^^ 

affairs   are    properly   handled   in    the    office. 
"  it    may1  appear    of    accomplishment, 

^^^./^j/Ld  it  is  quite  possible  to 

:  course  of  time- 

professional  man. 


e    a 
AUCTIONEERING  AND  VALUING  concluded;  followed  by  ESTATE  AGENC 


5155 


Group  19 

PRINTING 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  COMPOSITOR 

The   "Lay"  of  the   Case.      The  Tools  Used  in  Setting  and  Cor- 
recting1 Type.     Spacing.     Punctuation.     Paging.     Inserting  Notes 


By    W.    S.    MURPHY 


An   ordi- 


WE  have  now  got  our  type  and  spaces, 
and  must  next  learn  where  to  put  them 
and  how  to  use  them.  The  type  is  kept  in 
shallow  wooden  trays,  called  cases.  For  a  full 
fount  of  type  a  pair  of  cases  is  needed,  the  one 
to  hold  the  small  letters  (called  the  lower  case), 
the  other  the  capitals,  small  capitals,  figures, 
etc.  (called  the  upper  case).  The  cases  are 
divided  by  strips  of  wood  into  small  partitions 
or  boxes,  the  lower  case  having  53  boxes  and 
the  upper  case  98,  as  shown  in  2. 

The    Lower    Case.      There    are    several 
particulars    requiring    special     attention    here. 
You  see  that  the  lower   case  is   divided  into 
boxes  of   different  sizes,  and   that   the   letters 
do   not  lie   in   alphabetical   order.     Two  prin- 
ciples  have    dictated   the    form    of    the    case. 
The  compositor,  when  at  work,  stands  at  the 
centre  of  the  case,  which  is  on  the  top  of  the 
frame   [1] ;    therefore,  the  letters  most  in  use 
should  be  nearest  his  hand  and  line   of  vision, 
and  also  occupy  the  largest    boxes. 
The  letter   "e"   occurs    most  often 
in  English  words,  and  so  it  is  placed 
in    a    large    box,    right    before   the 
eye   of    the  compositor, 
nary   full    case   contains, 
roughly,  2  Ib.  of  "e,"  and 
about  4  oz.  of  "x"  and 
"  z."  The  second  principle 
takes  account  of  the  fact 
that    English,    being    an 
uninflected  language,  con- 
tains a  number  of  small 
and  constantly  recurring 
words,    such    as    "  the," 
"  and,"       "  of,"       "  is," 
"  that,"       "  no,"        and 
"  not,"    and   the    letters 
composing    these    \vords 
are  placed  in  juxtaposi- 
t  ion.    The  beginner  could 

not  do  better  than  learn  1.  CVSE  FR\MB 

to  point  out  rapidly  the 

boxes  which  make  up  those  words  ;  the  lesson  is 
easy,  and  yet  of  great  help  in  learning  the  boxes. 

The  Upper  Case.  The  arrangement  of 
the  upper  case  is  essentially  simple,  so  far  as 
the  alphabet  of  both  capital  and  small  capital 
letters  arc  concerned.  Each  letter  follows  in 
regular  order,  with  the  exception  of  U  and  J. 
Jn  2  the  lay  of  the  "book"  case  is  given. 
and  here  a  divergence  occurs  between  the 
practice  in  most  newspaper  offices  and  book 
« «flices.  Instead  of  the  caps  ranging  in  regular 
-  -Hience  from  the  top  of  the  left-hand,  and  the 
small  caps  from  the  top  of  the  right-hand  divi- 
sion of  the  case,  the  news-man  finds  his  capitals 

5136 


in  the  four  lines  of  boxes  at  the  bottom  of 
the  right-hand  division  of  the  case  [3].  This, 
however,  is  a  matter  of  office  practice.  A 
compositor  trained  in  Glasgow  is  accustomed  to 
a  lay  of  case  different,  in  very  important  respects, 
from  those  used  in  London.  The  figures  in  the 
standard  Scottish  case  range  along  the  head  of 
the  lower-case,  and  the  spaces  are  grouped 
round  the  full -point  box.  The  compositor  must 
learn  to  think  of  letters  as  the  component  parts 
of  words,  not  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet,  and 
once  he  has  acquired  that  habit,  no  arrangement 
of  letters  in  the  cases  will  present  any  difficulty. 
Before  leaving  the  cases,  we  would  add  a 
word  of  advice.  The  student  should  carefully 
note  the  position  of  accents,  signs,  and  reference 
points,  and  keep  them  in  order,  because,  being 
seldom  used,  they  are  apt  to  slip  into  confusion, 
and  much  time  is  thereby  lost. 

The  Italics.  Next  in  importance  is  the 
italic  case.  Where  a  large  quantity  of  italic 
is  used,  the  letter  is  laid 
in  a  pair  of  cases,  like 
the  ordinary  founts  ;  but 
for  small  offices,  or  light 
founts,  a  form  of  italic 
case  has  been  devised 
which  carries  the  whole 
fount  in  one  case.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  area  to  the 
left  is  the  lower-case,  laid 
like  an  ordinary  large 
lower-case,  the  third  to 
the  right  being  the  upper 
case.  This  is  a  handy  form 
of  case,  and  is  much  used 
for  small  founts  of  fancy 
and  jobbing  type  [4]. 

The  frame  [1]  on  which 
our  cases  stand  con- 
tains eight  pairs  of  cases, 
shelved  one  above  the 
other.  Frames  are  all  of 
the  same  structure,  height , 

and  width  ;  but  there  are  single  frames,  whole 
frames,  an  d  double  frames.  The  form  of  single  and 
double  frames  is  obvious  ;  the  whole  frame  has 
an  extension  equal  to  half  the  case  rack,  the  under 
part  of  which  is  a  kind  of  cupboard,  and  the 
upper  part  a  shelf,  useful  for  holding  the  com- 
positor's stores  of  various  kinds. 

Compositor's  Implements.  The  per- 
sonal equipment  of  the  compositor  is  a  very 
light  one.  Some  of  his  tools  are  provided  for 
him.  Every  self-respecting  compositor,  however, 
provides  himself  with  at  least  two  composing- 
sticks  [5],  a  set  of  brass  setting-rules  [6],  a 
bodkin  1 7 1,  a  pair  of  shears,  and  tweezers  [8]. 


The  Composing=stick.  The  composing- 
stick  commonly  used  in  book-work  is  made  of 
iron ;  it  is  flat,  8  J  in.  long,  2  in.  broad,  rimmed 
on  end  and  back  by  a  band  half  an  inch  deep 
and  fitted  with  a  movable  bar,  set  at  right  angles 
with  the  back  and  parallel  with  the  end  and  fixed 
by  screw  or  clip  at  any  point  in  the  length 
of  the  stick.  The  type  is  set  between  the 
movable  bar  and  the  end  rim,  the  bar  being 
fixed  at  the  breadth  to  be  set.  News  setting- 
sticks  are  sometimes  made  of  solid  mahogany, 
with  the  column-breadth  cut  out  and  lined  with 
brass.  Large  setting-sticks,  usually  made  of 
wood,  for  bills  and  wide  measures,  are  supplied 


PRINTING 

section  of  the  upper-case  most  convenient,  and 
begin.  Hold  the  setting-stick  in  the  palm  of 
the  left  hand,  lightly  clasping  it  with  the  four 
fingers,  leaving  the  thumb  to  play  free  [9].  Take 
a  few  words  of  the  copy  into  your  memory;  pick 
up  the  letters  one  by  one,  and  place  them,  nicks 
outward,  into  the  setting-stick,  holding  each  one 
as  it  comes  lightly  with  the  tip  of  the  left-hand 
thumb.  Put  in  a  space. 

How  to  Get  Up  Speed  in  Setting. 
Simple  as  that  action  looks,  it  involves  a  great 
deal.  The  compositor  should  stand  erect, 
shoulders  straight,  head  well  poised,  arms  moving 
freely  from  the  elbow  to  wrist.  He  should  never 


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2.    OLD-FASHIONED  BOOK- WORK  CASE 


3.    FAST  NEWS-WORK  CASE 


by  the  "  house."     Brass 

setting-rides  are  slips  of 

brass,  type  high,  nosed 

at  the  end,  cut  to  pica 

ems,    from   2   ems   up- 
wards,   and     are    used 

to  give   a   smooth  sur- 
face  on   which   to    slip 

the  type  and  assist  in 

lifting  it  when  the  stick 

is     full.       Bodkin    and 

tweezers  assist  the  com- 
positor   when     making 

corrections  or   alterations  in  the  type  after  H 
has  been  set. 

Attaching  the  Copy,  ^e  assume  that 
our  young  compositor  has  mastered  the  1  rant 
and  the  boxes,  and  is  ready  to  take  up  "copy. 
A  compositor's  copy  is  the  manuscript  to  b 
printed.  Typewritten  copy  is  very  common, 
but  handwriting  is  still  to  be  read  in  book 
offices,  and  even  more  frequently  in  news 
offices.  If  the  copy  looks  bad,  it  is  a  wise 
plan  to  study  the  style  of  the  writing  for  a 
few  minutes.  You  may  take  it  as  certain 
that  an  educated  man  always  uses  the  same 
sisn  for  every  word  or  letter,  and  once  you  get 
into  the  secret  of  his  style,  difficulty,  for  the 
most  part,  vanishes.  Now  fix  the  copy  on  the 


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4>.  JOBBING  "HALF"  CASE 

try  to  read  his  copy 
and  pick  up  letters  at 
the  same  time ;  half 
a  dozen  words  or  a 
phrase  may  be  taken 
into  the  memory  at 
once,  and  at  the  spacing 
of  the  last  word  the  eye 
is  free  to  return  to  the 
copy.  When  picking 
up  letters  the  eye  should 
direct  the  fingers  ;  the 
letter  to  be  picked  up 
is  seen,  and  its  angle  of  position  observed  ;  it 
is  picked  up  so  that  it  drops  face  upward,  nicks 
outward,  into  the  stick.  A  straight  line  is  the 
shortest  distance  between  two  points ;  the 
lifting  hand  should  go  straight  to  the  setting- 
stick.  The  distance  can  be  lessened  by  letting 
the  setting-stick  follow  the  lifting  hand.  Obser- 
vation of  these  directions  saves  the  compositor 
from  falling  into  bad  habits  and  tricks  of  style 
that  waste  time  and  energy.  Some  compositors 
twirl  the  type  after  it  is  in  their  fingers  ;  others 
make  sweeping  curves  in  bringing  the  lett< 
to  the  setting-stick,  and  many  have  worse 
habits  Every  unnecessary  action  is  lost  time 
and  energy.  The  ideal  compositor  is  an  intel 
sent  automaton  ;  his  brain  thinks  ;  his  eyes, 

5157 


PRINTING 

lingers,  bawls,  ami  arms  move  -uith  mechanical 
regularity  and  accuracy. 

Composing— a  Work  of  Art.  A  book  is 
ji  work  of  art.  It  is  not  enougli  that  the  words 
be  made  readable.  In  the  plainest  book  the 
lines  must  all  be  of  equal  length,  and  the  spaces 
between  the  words  as  regular  as  possible.  The 
spaee  commonly  put  between  words,  to  separate 
1  hem  from  each  other,  is  the  thick  space.  When, 
near  the  end  of  a  line,  the  compositor  finds  he 
lias  a  space  too  small  for  the  next  word,  one  of 
three  courses  may  be  open  to 
him,  or  perhaps  he  has  choice 
of  all  three.  He  may  lessen  the 
spaces  between  the  words  of 
the  line,  and  get 
in  the  word ;  he 
may  enlarge  the 
spaces  between  the 
words  and  fill  up 
the  line ;  or  he 
may  divide  the 
word,  putting  in 
the  first  syllable, 
with  a  hyphen. 
Dividing  words 
should  be  avoided, 
wherever  possible 


6.    SETTING  RULE 


It  is  a  good  rule  to  double 
rather  than  halve  the  space  between  the  words. 
Words  irregularly  spaced,  and  lines  widely 
spaced  coming  close  after  lines  spaced  thinly, 
present  an  unsightly  appearance.  As  the  com- 
positor is  provided  with  spaces  finely  graded — 
with  the  hair-space,  and  spaces  of  hair-line  grada- 
tion— he  has  no  excuse  for  making  bad  work. 

Indention  and  the  use  of  capitals  are  sub- 
ject to  general  rules  ;  but  individual  taste  has 
considerable  play.  To  indent  is  to  shorten  the 
line  at  the  beginning  by  a  space.  The  first 
line  of  a  paragraph  is  commonly  indented.  In 
short  breadths  the  indention  is  1  em,  and  for 
broad  measures  it  runs  from  1£  ems  up  to  3  ems. 
Reverse  indention — that  is,  the  shortening  of 
the  second  or  following  lines — occurs  in  certain 
forms  of  verse,  special  quotations,  and  tabular 
matter. 

The  general  rule  for  the  use  of  capitals  is: 
First  letter  of  the  first  word  in  every  sentence, 
proper  names,  prefixed  titles  and  degrees,  names 
and  titles  of  Deity.  Office  style,  and  the  taste 
of  the  author  or  editor,  largely  govern  the  use  of 
capitals.  Carlyle,  for 
example,  insisted  on 
capitals  to  the.  verge 
<>t'  bad  taste. 

Spelling.  It  is 
;m  essential  part  of  a 
compositor's  mental 
equipment  that  he 
should  be  able  to  spell 
correctly  the  words 
most  commonly  used  in  literary  English.  The 
<  ompositor's  product  is  words,  lines  of  words, 
paragraphs  of  words,  and  patjes  of  words,  and  he 
ou^lit  to  know  the  form  and  appearance  of  the 
things  he  builds.  If  he  studies  the  look  of 
Moids,  the  compositor  will  readily  see  when  a 
•word  is  rightly  or  wrongly  spell. 

5158 


METHOD  OF  HOLDING 
Til  1C  (  OMI'OSINC-STICK 


Punctuation.  The  subject  of  punchi;;iioii 
-cems  thorny  with  difficulties,  and  is  a  complex 
one.  Yet  a  great  many  compositors  who  could 
make  neither  head  nor  tail  of  the  elaborate 
rules  given  in  manuals  of  English  composition 
punctuate  almost  perfectly.  Punctuation  marks 
may  be  classed  in  two  divisions — breathing  marks 
and  tone  marks.  Comma,  semicolon,  and  period 
are  marks  of  silent  breathing,  or  pause  ;  colon, 
dash,  parenthesis,  bracket,  interrogation,  and 
exclamation,  denote  change  of  tone.  Again,  in 
grammar,  punctuation  indicates  the  partition 
and  nature  of  the  sentence.  The  comma  marks 
the  divisions  of  the  sentence  directly  related  to 
the  main  predicate  or  verb  ;  the  semicolon  separ- 
ates the  qualifying  contrary,  or  adversative 
addition  to  the  main  proposition,  generally 
having  a  predicate  of  its  own  ;  the  colon  denotes 
equality  between  two  or  more  sentences,  closely 
connected,  and  related  to  one  idea,  or  parts  of 
one  proposition  ;  the  dash  marks  a  break  in 
the  continuity  of  the  sentence,  a  transition, 
ellipsis,  explanatory  clause,  or  parenthesis  ; 
marks  of  parenthesis  enclose  words,  phrases, 
or  sentences,  thrown  in  for  additional  elucidation 
but  having  no  part  in  the  grammatical  structure 
of  the  sentence  ;  brackets  arc  sometimes  used 
as  parentheses,  and  to  mark  the  outside  of  a 
double  parenthesis,  but  more  frequently  to  dis- 
tinguish a  sentence  equivalent  to  a  footnote  in 
the  text.  The  period,  interrogation,  and  excla- 
mation points,  hyphen,  apostrophe,  2-em  and 
3-em  dash,  leaders,  and  braces,  yet  remain.  The 

full-point  or 
period  marks  the 
end  of  a  sentence, 
and  is  used  as 
the  sign  of  ab- 
breviation ;  in- 
terrogation and 
exclamation 
points  explain 
themselves  ;  the 
hyphen  serves  to  join  compounded  words  which 
custom  has  not  made  one,  and  marks  the  break 
of  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line ;  the  apostrophe 
denotes  the  possessive  case,  shortened  words, 
especially  in  dialect,  and,  used  either  in  single  or 
double  form,  serves  to  indicate  the  end  of  quota- 
tions ;  the  2-em  dash  is  used  to  finish  a  brokcn-off 
sentence ;  the  3-em  dash,  leader,  and  bra-es 
seldom  appear  in  ordinary  text. 

For  literary,  rhetorical,  or  pictorial  reasons, 
the  author  of  book  or  placard  may  elect  to 
restrict  the  number  of  commas  to  the  lowest 
limit,  insert  dashes  where  colons  would  suit  the 
structure  of  the  sentence  better,  or  make  semi- 
colons of  periods  ;  but  with  all  that  the  com- 
positor has  little  concern — his  duty  is  then  to 
follow  copy  blindly.  We  have  given  here  the 
punctuation  most  generally  adopted  by  practical 
printers,  apart  from  all  theories  on  the  subject. 

The  Slip=galley.  When  the  compositor's 
setting-stick  is  full,  he  lifts  the  type  carefully 
out,  and  lays  it  on  a  slip-galley.  This  is  a  frame 
of  brass  with  zinc  bottom,  like  a  long  picture 
frame,  with  one  narrow  end  out.  There  are  other 
kinds  of  galleys,  some  square,  some  with  only  two 


7.    BODKIN 


8.    TWEEZERS 


sides  framed,  some  solid  brass,  and  some  wood ; 
but  the  use  of  all  is  to  hold  type  which  has  been 
set.  After  the  galley  has  been  filled  with  lines 
of  type  it  is  taken  away  to  another  part  of  the 
establishment,  which  we  shall  visit  soon,  and 
comes  back  accompanied  by  a  corrected  first- 
proof.  The  reader  has  read  the  proof,  and 
marked  the  errors.  The  compositor  lays  the 
galley  on  his  frame,  and  begins  the  work  of 
correcting.  Where  it  is  a  mere  change  of  a 
letter  of  similar  breadth,  or  the  turning  of  a 
letter,  no  difficulty  occurs  ;  but,  unfortunately, 
our  beginner  does  not  tet  so  carefully  as  that.  If 
the  letters  to  go  in  and  the  letters  to  come  out 
differ  in  the  least — and  this  is  nearly  always  the 
case— the  spacing  must  be  carefully  readjusted. 
When  the  corrections  are  specially  heavy,  such 
as  omissions  of  words  or  phrases,  the  corrector 
should  take  line  after  line  into  his  setting-stick 
and  run  over  from  line  to  line  till  all  is  made 
square  again. 

Making  Up  the  Page.  We  will  suppose 
that  the  revise  proof  has  been  successfully  passed, 
and  that  the  type  is  ready  for  paging.  No  rules 
can  be  given  which  will  afford  a  guide  to  the 
sizes  of  pages,  chapter  headings,  page  headings, 
and  such  particulars,  for  practice  has  outrun  all 
rule.  Having  acted  according  to  instructions  in 
these  particulars,  the  compositor  must  carefully 
gauge  the  length  of  the  page,  and  make  up  to 
size.  The  length  of  the  page  includes  page 
numbers  and  headings  ;  but  in  addition  a  line 
of  quadrats  should  be  run  along  the  foot  of  the 
page  to  protect  the  type  and  afford  a  basis  for 
the  sheet  signature.  Two  safe  rules  may  be 
given :  no  page  should  begin  with  a  broken  line 
from  a  paragraph  in  the  page  preceding,  nor 
should  a  chapter  heading  or  full-line  sub-heading 
come  at  the  bottom  of  a  page. 

When  the  page  is  made  up,  it  is  corded.  Page- 
cord  is  a  strong  twine  made  for  the  purpose,  and 
it  is  given  out  in  lengths  suitable  for  the  various 
sizes  of  pages.  Fix  the  end  of  the  cord  on  the 
end  of  the  last  line,  and  pull  the  cord  firmly  round 
the  page,  winding  it  four  or  five  times  round, 
drawing  gradually  tighter,  and  slip  the  end  of 
the  cord  between  the  cords  and  the  type  at  a 
corner,  fixing  it  firmly.  If  the  page  has  been 
well  set,  it  will  now  lift  like  a  solid  slab,  and  slide 
easily  on  to  the  imposing  table. 

Sidenotes  and  Footnotes.  Sidenotes, 
footnotes,  and  cut-in  notes  are  used  for  commen- 
taries, summaries,  or  other  additions  to  the  text. 
Sidenotes  generally  lie  on  the  margin  of  the  page, 
and  are  set  in  types  three  removes  smaller  than 
the  body  of  the  page.  Small  in  width,  these 
notes  require  to  be  carefully  set,  and  placed 
exactly  in  line  with  the  passage  to  which  they 
refer.  Footnotes,  so  named  because  they  are 
placed  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  involve  the 
reference  marks,  *,  f,  etc.  The  asterisk  is  set 
in  the  body  of  the  type,  at  the  point  to  which 
the  first,  or  only,  reference  is  made,  and  a  cor- 


PRINTING 

responding  asterisk  begins  the  footnote.  The 
second  reference  is  similarly  marked  by  daggers, 
and  so  on.  If  there  are  more  notes  than  refer- 
ence marks  in  the  fount,  then  they  are  doubled, 
thus  making  reference  easy.  Cut-in  notes  present 
difficulties.  Of  course,  before  the  type  is  set 
these  notes  should  be  given  in  full  with  the  copy. 
Where  there  is  a  cut-in  note,  the  compositor 
must  shorten  his  line  by  the  breadth  and  margin 
of  the  note.  The  best  way  is  to  set  the  note 
first,  justify  it  to  the  size  of  the  type  of 
which  the  text  is  composed,  and  fill  in  the 
short  lines. 

Making  Even.  The  directions  given  above 
refer  mainly  to  bookwork,  because  the  book  still " 
remains  the  staple  product  of  the  printer.  Hand- 
setting  practice  is  nearly  the  same  in  all  branches 
of  the  trade.  The  news  compositor  gets  smaller 
pieces  of  copy,  and  must  learn  to  make  even. 
That  is  to  say,  instead  of  ending  with  a  para- 
graph, the  last  line  of  which  he  fills  up  with 
quadrats,  showing  the  short  line  seen  in  all  books, 
he  must  make  his  last  word  end  a  line.  This 
requires  foresight  and  clever  craft,  only  to  be 
acquired  by  practice.  Display  of  advertise- 
ments, colour-work,  posters,  handbills,  circulars, 
etc.,  belong  to  the  commercial  and  jobbing 
department,  directions  for  which  are  given  in  a 
special  section. 

Cleaning  and  Distributing  Type. 
When  a  job  has  been  worked  off  on  the  press 
or  machine,  or  has  been  stereotyped,  and  is  no 
longer  required,  the  type  is  cleaned  and  put 
back  into  the  cases  for  further  use.  A  fairly 
strong  solution  of  potash,  well  brushed  into 
the  type,  followed  by  a  thorough  rinsing  with 
water,  gives  the  cleanest  result.  Washing  done, 
the  forme— as  the  page  or  pages  of  type  placed 
in  an  iron  frame,  and  firmly  fastened  in 
with  wedges,  is  technically  called — is  laid 
upon  a  table,  unlocked,  stripped  of  its  side- 
sticks,  footsticks,  and  furniture,  and  made 
naked  for  dissolution.  The  various  furnitures 
ought  to  be  put  away  properly  first,  and  the 
sidenotes,  footnotes,  brass  rules,  or  other  parts, 
if  any,  separated  from  the  main  body,  and 
conscientiously  put  aside.  Lifting  on  his  brass 
setting-rule  as  many  lines  (nicks  upwards)  as  he 
can  comfortably  hold  between  his  fourth  finger 
and  the  ball  of  his  thumb,  the  compositor 
begins  to  distribute.  The  type  is  held  in  his  left 
hand,  and  with  the  thumb  and  second  finger  of 
his  right  he  lifts  a  few  words  from  the  top 
line,  and  lets  each  letter  drop  into  its  proper 
box.  The  movement  of  the  finger  and  thumb 
separates  each  successive  letter  by  mere  auto- 
matic impulse.  At  first  it  is  a  little  difficult,  but 
the  compositor  will  find  it  better  to  be  slow 
at  the  beginning  than  throw  the  letters  into 
the  wrong  boxes,  and  lay  up  trouble  for  himself 
when  he  comes  to  set  again.  With  practice,  an 
average  man  will  acquire  such  speed  as  to  clear 
away  a  page  very  quickly. 


Continued 


5159 


Group  2 

EARTHENWARE 


Following  GLASS  from 

4!»4<l 


THE  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  POTTERY 

Description  of  the  Raw  Materials  used  to  Make  Plastic  Clay.     Deriva- 
tion of  the   Raw  Clays.      Preparation  of  the   Mixed   Clay  or  "Body" 


By   MARK    SOLON 


term  pottery  may  be  said  to  apply  to  all 
articles    made    from    a    plastic    substance 
which  hardens  under  the  influence  of  heat. 

These  substances  occur  in  Nature  in  the 
form  of  rocks  and  clays  which,  when  mixed 
with  water,  are  capable  of  being  moulded  into 
different  shapes  and  have  the  property  of 
retaining  shapes  so  given  to  them.  When 
combined  with  other  materials  and  prepared  in 
a  suitable  manner  they  are  known  as  pottery 
bodies. 

After  having  been  moulded  and  dried  and 
rendered  hard  by  fire  the  pieces  are  said  to  be  in 
the  biscuit  state,  and  may  then,  for  domestic 
and  decorative  purposes,  be  coated  with  a  thin 
film  of  glass,  which,  being  remelted  upon  the 
surface,  becomes  incorporated  with  the  body, 
making  the  piece  for  all  practical  purposes 
impermeable. 

The  process  of  pottery  manufacture  may  be 
briefly  treated  under  the  following  headings  : 
(1)  materials  used  in  plastic  bodies  ;  (2)  pre- 
paration of  these  materials  ;  (3)  manipulation 
of  the  clay  ;  (4)  drying  ;  (5)  firing  of  biscuit 
ovens  ;  (6)  glazing  ;  (7)  decora- 
tion. 

Materials  used  in  Plastic 
Bodies.  In  order  to  facilitate 
the  study  of  the  properties  of  the 
materials  from  which  plastic 
bodies  are  made  we  will  take, 
in  the  first  place,  the  com- 
position of  an  opaque  body  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  ordinary 
domestic  goods  and  known  as 
"earthenware." 

It  is  necessary  for  the  mani- 
pulation, firing,  and  subsequent 
glazing  of  this  body,  that  the 
materials  from  which  it  is  made 
should  possess  the  following  pro- 
perties :  plasticity,  refractoriness, 
hardness  when  fired,  and  white- 


These  qualities  we  find  in  the 
natural  and  artificially  prepared 
clays  of  Dorset,  Devon  and 
Cornwall;  in  the  flint  taken  from  the  north 
coast  of  France,  and  in  .  the  semi-decomposed 
granite  rock  known  as  Cornish  stone. 

The  j>lti.Kficifi/,  upon  which  depends  the  ease 
with  which  the  clay  may  be  worked  and  moulded, 
is  due  almost  entirely  to  the  "  blue,"  or  "  ball," 
day  of  Devon  and  Dorset,  a  clay  in  which  the 
particles  ju-c  very  finely  divided  and  combined 
naturally  with  a  certain  amount  of  water. 

The  refmrtory  property,  which  makes  the 
body  capable  of  withstanding  the  high  tem- 
perature to  which  it  is  submitted  during  firing, 

5160 


is  due  to  the  purer  forms  of  clay  artificial  I  v 
prepared,  and  known  as  china  clay  or  kaolin, 
and  also  to  the  French  flints. 

The  hardness  is  due  to  a  great  extent  to  the 
Cornish  stone,  which  fuses  during  the  firing  and 
vitrifies  the  materials  with  which  it  is  mixed. 
Colour  Composition  and  Derivation. 
All  the  above  materials  are  fairly  white  when 
fired  with  the  exception  of  the  ball  clay.  This 
clay,  owing  to  a  small  quantity  of  iron  in  its 
composition,  develops  a  slightly  cream  tint  on 
burning.  It  is  by  bringing  these  materials 
together  in  suitable  proportions  that  we  are 
able  to  make  a  mixture  or  body  having  all  the 
necessary  properties. 

All  clays  are  hydrated  silicates  of  alumina, 
or  in  other  words  are  a  chemical  combination 
of  silica  (the  matter  of  rock  crystal),  alumina 
(the  matter  of  sapphire  and  ruby),  and  water. 
They  are  all  derived  from  felspathic  rocks 
decomposed,  naturally  or  artificially,  by  the 
action  of  water. 

China  CJay.  The  rock  from  which  china 
clay  is  derived  in  its  natural  state  consists  of 
silica,  about  (55  per  cent.  ; 
alumina,  about  20  per  cent,  to 
25  per  cent.  ;  potash,  10  per 
cent,  to  15  per  cent. 

In  its  semi -decomposed  state 
the  silica  is  visible  as  quart/,  or 
sand,  the  alumina  as  fine  white 
clay,  while  small  quantities  of 
under-decomposed  felspar  and 
mica  are  also  present. 

The  clay  is  artificially  pre- 
pared by  running  water  over 
the  rock  into  large  tanks  ;  the 
decomposed  portion  of  the  rock, 
being  reduced  to  a  fine  state  of 
division,  is  readily  removed  in 
mechanical  suspension  by  the 
water  passing  over  it.  During 
the  settling  of  the  liquid  in  the 
tanks  the  quartz  and  coarse 
particles  of  silica  fall,  while  the 
finely  divided  particles  remain  in 
suspension.  The  latter  constitute 
the  kaolin  or  china  clay,  which,  after  having 
been  dried,  have  the  following  composition  : 


Ki.l  per  i 


Silica       . . 
Alumina  .  . 
Lime  ami  alkalies 
Moisture.. 
Combined  water 


It  will  be  noticed  on  comparing  the  analysis 
of  the  prepared  kaolin  with  the  original  rock 
that  the  percentage  of  alumina  has  increased 
and  the  potash  entirely  disappeared.  This  is 


accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  a  large  portion  of 
silica  remains  at  the  bottom  of  the  settling  tanks 
in  an  undecomposed  state,  and  the  potash  be- 
coming soluble  on  decomposition  is  washed  out. 
Ball  Clay.  Ball  clay  is  a  more  impure 
form  of  clay,  being  derived 
either  from  compound  rocks 
such  as  Greenstones,  which 
are  a  mixture  of  felspar  and 
a  mineral  named  horn- 
blende, or  from  a  pure  fels- 
pathic  rock  which,  during 
the  course  of  its  natural 
decomposition  by  water,  has 
been  washed  into  localities 
where  it  has  become  in- 
termingled with  earthy 
matters  in  a  finely  divided 
state.  It  generally  contains 
iron  pyrites  and  sometimes 
lignite  carbon  and  bitumen. 
It  is  found  in  elliptical  beds 
as  though  deposited  by  the 
water  into  natural  basins. 
As  this  clay  in  the  course 
of  its  decomposition  does 
not  undergo  any  systematic 
washing  we  find  that  a 
certain  quantity  (from  1  per 
cent,  to  2  per  cent.)  of  the 
alkalies  remains  in  the  clay. 


2.    GRINDING   PAN 


EARTHENWARE 

But  the  exact  quantities  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  experiment  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  actual  materials  used.  Having  decided 
the  best  proportions,  the  ingredients  are  pre- 
pared in  the  following  manner  : 

The  first  process  is  to 
reduce  the  materials  to  one" 
standard,  in  order  to  ensure 
accuracy  in  mixing ;  to  in- 
troduce water  artificially  to 
assist  plasticity ;  to  extract 
the  undesirable  impurities 
which  occur  in  most  natural 
products,  and  finally  to  knead 
the  clay  and  render  it  homo- 
geneous and  of  equal  con- 
sistency throughout.  This 
process  is  divided  into  five 
distinct  operations— blunging, 
lawning,  magneting,  pressing, 
and  pugging.  In  the  opera- 
tion called  blunging  the  clays 
are  thrown  into  machines  in 
which  they  are  violently 
beaten  in  water  until  con- 
verted into  a  thick  cream 
01-  dip. 

The  machines  [1],  which 
are  octagonal  hi  shape,  are 
fitted  internally  with  a  re- 
volving shaft,  A,  to  which 


are  attached  a  number  of   blades,   B.      When 


The  silica  also  is  always  in  a  higher  percentage      are  attached  a  num  er  ot    01* 

than  in  the  china  clay"  put  in  motion  the  b  ades  dash  the  clay  in  he 


china  clay 

Owing  also  to  the  length  of  time  that  the  clay 
has  been  decomposing,  a  greater  quantity  of  it 
becomes  combined  with  water  and  the  particles 
become  very  finely  divided,  tw^o  facts  which 
account  for  its  great  plasticity. 

The  composition  of  ball  clay  is  as  follows: 

0:1;,,.,  r>0  per  cent. 


Silica 
Alumina. . 
Alkalies  .  . 
Iron 
Water     . . 


SO  per 
33         , 


Cornish  stone  is 
merely  the  semi- 
decomposed  fels- 
pathic  rock  from 
which  the  china 
clay  is  derived. 
It  'varies  in  fusi- 
bility according  to 
the  quantity  of  al- 
kalies it  contains. 

Preparation  of 
the  Body.  The 
approximate  pro- 
portions in  which 
the  foregoing 
materials  should  be 
mixed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  producing 
the  earthenware 
body  now  under  consideration  arc 

Dry  w<> 
4 


3      PRESS     OF    WOODEN    TRAYS    FOR    CONVERTING    : 
INTO    CLAY 


water    against  the    stationary  sides  until    the 
former  is  thoroughly  disintegrated. 

A  certain  quantity  of  the  liquid  slip,  generally 
one  pint,  is  then  brought  to  a  given  weight,  tin- 
ball  clay  to  24  oz.,  the  china  clay  to  28  oz., 
more  water  or  clay  being  added  in  the  blunger 
to  make  the  slip  lighter  or  heavier. 

Calcination    and     Grinding.       Having 

determined  the  density  of  the  slip  in  this  way 

the    clays   are  ready   to    mix    with    the    other 

ingredients-namely,    the     French     flints    and 

Cornish  stone. 

These  materials 
are  naturally  ex- 
tremely hard  and 
require  to  be 
specially  treated 
before  they  can 
become  part  of 
any  plastic  body. 
The  flints,  which 
arrive  in  the  form 
of  small  boulders 
or  stones,  are  first 
of  all  calcined  ai 
a  low  temperature 
in  specially  con- 
structed kilns  in 
order  to  rendei 
them  friable  and 
The  kiln  1 41.  which 


so  more  readily  ground. 

is  fitted  at  the  bottom  with  fire  bars,   is  fed 


Ball  clay. ... 
China  clay  •  • 
Flint  .... 
Cornish  stone 


12    inches   at   '24  oz.  to  pint. 

2        ::  S  ::    :: 

4-         ,,         „     :«     „          n 


from  the  top  with  raw  flints  mixed  with  a 
small  proportion  of  fine  slack,  the  slack  on 
burning  producing  sufficient  heat  to  calcine 

.">!(>  I 


4.  CALCINING   KILN 


EARTHENWARE 

the   flints.     After  calcination   they   are   drawn 

from  the  bottom  of  the  kilns,  crushed  into 
small  pieces,  and  put 
upon  the  grinding  pan  [2]. 
The  form  of  pan  most 
generally  used  consists  of 
a  vertical  shaft,  A,  fitted 
with  four  arms,  B,  to 
which  are  loosely  attached 
large  granite  or  chert 
blocks,  C.  As  the  shaft  is 
set  in  motion  the  granite 
blocks  are  carried  round 
in  the  pan,  the  under 
face  rubbing  against  the 
stone  pavement,  D.  The 
materials  being  intro- 
duced in  the  pan  with 

the    requisite    amount  of    water,  the  grinding 

takes    place   between   the    contiguous    surfaces 

of   the  blocks   and  the  pavement.     The  large 

particles  which    have    escaped   being    properly 

ground    are    then    separated    by    running    the 

whole  of  the  liquid  into  tanks  of 

water,  agitating  it,  and  allowing 

it  to  settle  for  a  few  moments. 

The  particles  which  remain  in 

suspension  are    then  drawn  off 

ready  for  use,  while  those  which 

fall  to  the  bottom  are  returned 

to  the  pan. 

Crushing     Cornish 

Stone.     The  Cornish  stone  is 

ground    in   the    same   manner, 

arriving  at  the  factory  in   large 

lumps  which  simply  require  to 

be  crushed   and    put   into   the 

pan.    Both  these  materials,  after 


MAGNETS   FOR   EXTRACTING 
IRON    FROM   THE    SLIP 


PUG    MILL 


grinding,  are  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
ball  and  china  clay,  water  being  added  to  the 
bulk  until  one  pint  is  brought  to  a  given  weight, 
generally  32  oz. 

Having  obtained  all  our  materials  in  slip 
of  a  given  density  they  are  run  into  large  mixing 
tanks,  on  the  sides  of  which  are  indicated  the 
number  of  inches  of  each  material  required. 
At  this  point  an  extremely  small  quantity 
of  cobalt  oxide,  finely  ground,  is  added  to  the 
mixture.  This  has  the  effect  of  counter- 
acting the  cream  tint  which  the  ball  clay 
develops  on  firing.  The  cobalt  oxide  has  the 
peculiar  property  of  neutralising  the  staining 
power  of  the  iron  when  the  latter  occurs 
only  in  small  quantities. 

Lawning.      The  next  process,  lawning,  is 
to  abstract  all  the  small  impurities,  and  this 
is  done  by  causing  the  slip  to  fall  on  shaking 
sieves,  or  kvwns,  which  are  worked  mechanically. 
From  the   lawn  box   the  slip  is  run  through 
a  series  of  magnets,  which  extract  from  it  the 
nodules  of  iron.     These  are  not  only  present  in 
the  natural  clay  but  are  liable  to  get  into  the 
slip    through    the    wearing   of   the    machinery. 


The  magnets  are  arranged  hi  series  in  long 
troughs  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  easily 
taken  out  and  the  iron  adhering  to  them  washed 
off  [5].  It  is  extremely  important  that  no  metallic 
iron  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  clay,  for 
this,  when  fired,  will  appear  in  the  form  of  small 
brown  specks. 

Draining  off  Superfluous  Water. 
Having  mixed  our  materials  thoroughly  in 
the  slip  state  we  must  now  get  rid  of  the  super- 
fluous water  and  convert  the  slip  into  clay.  To 
accomplish  this  filter  presses  [3]  are  employed, 
machines  in  which  the  liquid  slip  is  compressed 
by  means  of  a  force  pump  into  coarse  cotton 
bags,  which  retain  the  clay,  allowing  only  the 
water  to  escape.  The  type  of  press  generally 
used  consists  of  a  series  of  about  24  wooden 
trays  [3]  bound  together  by  means  of  iron  rods. 
Between  each  tray  occurs  a  space,  which  is  lined 
with  strong  cotton  sheets.  By  folding  the  edges 
of  these  sheets  a  bag  is  formed.  The  slip  under 
pressure  enters  at  the  point  A  [7]  through  small 
brass  tubes.  The  water,  flowing  down  the 
channels  in  the  tray,  B,  escapes 
through  small  holes  at  the  bot- 
tom. After  the  bags  are  filled 
with  clay  the  iron  rods  which 
bind  the  trays  together  are 
undone,  the  trays  separated 
one  by  one,  and  the  flat  cakes 
of  clay  taken  from  between  the 
cotton  sheets. 

Pugging.  Although  the  clay 
now  contains  only  the  right 
amount  of  water,  it  is  not  homo- 
geneous, and  requires  to  be  put 
through  a  mixer  or  pug  mill  [6], 
in  which  it  is  thoroughly  kneaded 
and  delivered  at  one  equal  consistency.  The 
machine  consists  of  an  iron  cylindrical  tube,  open 
at  both  ends,  through  the  centre  of  which  runs 
a  shaft.  Blades  which  mix  and  press  the  clay, 


DIAGRAM   OF    PRESS   FOR   CONVERTING   SLIP 
INTO  CLAY 

expelling  the  air  from  it,  are  attached  to  the 
shaft  at  a  slight  angle.  The  clay  is  fed  into  the 
mac-hine  at  the  mouth  A  and  delivered  in  a 
solid  block  at  the  point  B. 


Continued 


5102 


POLYGONAL  &  CURVED  ARTICLES 

Octagonal    Vase.     Ogee    Moulding.     Elliptical  Pans,  and 
Pans  with  Slanting  Sides.      Articles  with  Unequal  Slant 


Group  8 

DRAWING 
36 


TECHNICAL   DRA< 

roil  til  HUM  I  fn 
pa-r  504-2 


By    JOSEPH    G.    HORNER 


""THE  problems  involved  in  the  practice  of  sheet- 
metal  working  are  so  extremely  numerous 
that  nothing  more  than  elementary  principles 
can  be  taken  for  illustration  here.  In  previous 
articles  we  have  dealt  with  the  principal  geo- 
metrical forms.  In  this  and  the  one  to  follow 
we  shall  show  some  applications  of  the  same. 

Some  Polygonal  Forms.  The  method 
of  stepping  round  circular  arcs  has  been 
shown  in  several  problems.  We  now  illustrate 
that  method  applied  to  figures  which  are  curved 
in  one  direction  only,  but  combinations  of 
which  figures  in  the  other  direction  give  various 
polygonal  forms  of  great  beauty.  Among 
the*  applications  of  such  designs  are  vases  for 
ferneries  and  conservatories,  the  bases  of  orna- 
mental columns,  and  such  objects  as  aquaria 
and  fern  cases,  tureens  and  other  vessels. 
No  great  technical  skill  is  required  in  their 
design,  and  when  the  principles  of  one  or  two 
forms  are  understood,  any  others  may  be  drawn. 
Two  examples  are  given,  the  first  that  of  an 
equal-sided  figure  [113],  the  second  [116]  having 
sides  of  unequal  lengths. 

Pattern  for  an  Octagonal  Vase.  Fig. 
113  is  the  profile  of  an  octagonal  vase  in  half 
elevation.  Taking  the  largest  diameter ;  from 
the  centre  line  o  o  to  the  point  1  near  the  top, 
draw  an  outline  of  the  plan  as  in  114,  one-quarter 
of  the  view  being  sufficient.  Make  the  horizontal 
line  1  0'  [114]  the  centre  line  of  one  of  the  flats  of 
the  octagon,  and  let  the  diagonal  line  I'O' below 
it  represent  the  angle  from  the  centre  0'  to  the  ter- 
mination of  the  same  flat.  This  is  obtained  by  first 
drawing  a  quadrant  of  a  circle  and  dividing  it 
into  four,  but  the  two  lines  10',  I'O'  are  the 
essentials  that  are  afterwards  required.  Now 
divide  the  profile  [113]  into  any  convenient 
number  of  parts,  stepping  round  the  outline 
with  dividers,  and  afterwards  dividing  the  per- 
pendicular centre  line  o  o  [115]  similarly 
divisions  are  numbered  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  alike  on 
113  and  115.  From  113  project  lines  from  all 
these  points  down  to  114,  passing  through  the 
horizontal  line  1  0',  and  cutting  the  radial  line 
V  0'  below  at  1',  2',  3',  etc.,  these  intersections 
being  similarly  numbered  to  correspond  with  the 
points  in  113  from  which  they  are  projected 

The  dividers  are  now  set  in  turn  to  each  ot  the 
vertical  distances  in  114  on  the  lines  11,  ^, 
etc     measuring  from  the  horizontal  1 
diagonal  1'  0'.    These  lengths  are  transferred  to 
each  side  of  the  perpendicular  centre  line  oo 
rilSl  on  the  horizontals  similarly  numbered ;  the 
distance  1  1',  for  instance,  in  114  corresponding 
with  1  1  on  each  side  of  the  centre    oom  1 
Through  the  points  thus  obtained  in  115  the  out- 
line of  one  face  of  the  octagon  can  be  traced.    To 


avoid  confusion  of  lines  the  projection  and  num- 
bering are  not  shown  farther  than  10  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  vase,  but  the  lower  part  is 
marked  out  similarly. 

Rectangular  Base  with  Ogee  Mould- 
ing    of    Equal   Curves    on    all    Sides. 

Fig.     116    is    a     side    elevation    showing    the 
profile    of    an    ogee  moulding,    and    117    is    a 
half  view  of   its  plan.     A  half  plan  of  the  de- 
veloped pattern  is  shown  in  118.    To  construct, 
118,  transfer  the  rectangle  2222  from  117,  and 
add  to  its  side  and  ends  the  depth  2  3  from  116, 
similarly  numbered  in   118.      Then  divide  the 
curved  portion  in  the  profile  in   116  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts  by  stepping  round  the 
curves  with  dividers,  and  draw  horizontal  lines 
from  one  end  to  the  other  through  these  points, 
as  at  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.    With  the  dividers  still  set  to 
these  divisions,  step  off  on  118  the  same  number 
of  divisions  on  the  perpendicular  centre  line  1  1, 
beginning  at  the  horizontal  line  3  and  ending 
at  9  ;    and,  similarly,  also  from  3  to  9  at  each 
end  on  the  transverse  centre  line  10  10.    Draw 
lines  from  all  these  points  as  shown  dotted  in 
118,  at  right  angles  to  the  lines  they  arc  stepped 
off  on.     Add  the  depth  9  10  from  116,  giving 
the  horizontal  line   10  10  at  the  base  of   118, 
and  the  outer  perpendicular  lines  10  10  at  each 
end.    Take  the  length  of  the  base  10  to  10  from  116 
or  117,  and  transfer  it  to  the  base  10  10  in  118. 
Take  the  width  of  the  base  from  117  and  transfer 
it    to    the    end    perpendiculars    10  10    of 
Working  from  the  centre  line  1  1  of  116  and  118, 
take  in  turn  all  the  distances  1  to  4,  1  to  5,  etc., 
from  116,  and  transfer  them  to  the  horizontal 
lines  similarly  numbered  in  118.    These  will  give 
the  points  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,   8  at  each  end  of  the 
dotted  horizontal  lines  in  118.     To  obtain  the 
lengths  of  the  corresponding  perpendicular  lines 
on  the  ends,  take  the  distance  10  to  12  from  117 
and  mark  off  a  corresponding  distance  on  tl 
base  line  of  116  from  10  to  12.     The  point  12  thus 
obtained    marks    the    position    of    the    vertical 
dotted  line  11  12,  which,  in  relation  to  the  enc 
it  is  measured  from,  is  equivalent  to  the  centre 
line  of  an  end  elevation.    The  measurements  are 
taken  from  this  line  11  12  [116]  to  the  points 
4   5    etc.,  on  the  side  from  which  the  distance 
10  12  has  been  measured,  and  are  transferred  t 
the    correspondingly    numbered    perpendicular 
lines  at  each  end  of  118,  and  the  curves  drawn 
through  the  points  thus  obtained. 

We  now  take  some  concrete  examples  in 
which  problems  that  were  treated  under  conic 
frusta  are  embodied.  Two  general  cases  occur- 
that  of  objects  having  equal  slant  or  fl 
round,  and  that  of  others  in  which  the  slant  is 
not  equal.  These  problems  may  be  treated 

5163 


DRAWING 

directly  as  completed  cones,  or  by  the  methods 
of  triangulation  in  which  the  apex  is  inaccessible. 
Figs.  119  to  129  deal  with  objects  of  equal  slant. 
Development  of  a  Tapering  Ellip= 
tical  Article  in  One  Piece.  Draw  the 
elevation  and  plan  of  the  article  as  in  119 
and  120  respectively.  Draw  the  perpendicular 
line  32  [121],  and  at  right  angles  to  it  the  lines 
3  10,  5  11,  at  distances  apart  which  indicate 
.  the  depth  of  the  article,  3  to  5  [119].  From  120 
take  the  radii  of  the  end  curves  of  the  ellipse, 

1  9  and  1  8,  and  transfer  them  to  the  horizontal 
lines  in  121,  thus  obtaining  the  points  8  mea- 
sured from  3,  and  9  measured  from  5.     Through 
the  points  8  and  9  draw  the  diagonal  line  ter- 
minating at  1,  where  it  cuts  the  perpendicular 
3  2.    Take  the  radii  of  the  sides  of  the  ellipse, 

2  10  and  211,  from  120,  and  transfer  them  simi- 
larly to  the  lines  3  10  and  511  respectively  in  121, 
thus  obtaining  the  points  10  and  11,  through  which 
the  diagonal  10  2  is  drawn.    Now  draw  the  per- 
pendicular 81  [122],  and  with  the  distance  1  8 
from  the  first  diagonal  in  121  taken  as  a  radius, 
describe  the  curve  from  14  to  15  from  the  centre 
1  [122J.  The  length  of  tha  curve  must  correspond 
with  the  length  14  15  on  the  plan  120,  and  the 
measurement  is  transferred  by  stepping  it  off 
with  dividers,  as  already  explained  hi  connection 
with  other  problems.       From  the  points  14  15 
[122]  project  lines  through  the  centre  1,  and  to 
some  distance  beyond,  on  which  to  obtain  the 
points    2  2.     These  points  are  then  set  off  by 
taking  the  distance  2  10  from  the  second  diagonal 
in  121,  and  marking  them  from  14  to  2  and  15 
to  2  on  122.     With  the  points  2  2  as  centres, 
the  curves  18  14  and  15  16  are  continued  from 
the  ends  of  the  first  arc,  their  lengths  being 
taken  from  the  curve  15  to  16  on  120.     The 
radius  1  8  is  then  taken  from  the  perpendicular 
line  in  122,  and  set  off  from  the  points  18  and 
16  to  give  the  points  19  and  20  on  the  lines 
18  2  and  16  2.     The  points  19  and  20  are  the 
centres  from  which  the  curves  are  continued 
from  18  to  21  and  16  to  17,  their  length  being 
taken,  as  before,  from  the  plan  [120]  or  from  14 
or  15  to  8  [122].  Radial  lines  are  then  marked  from 
21  to  19,  and  17  to  20.     The  inner  curves,  911, 
are  struck  from  the  same  centres  as  the  outer,  the 
radii  being  obtained  from  121.   The  radius  of  the 
smaller  curve  is  1  to  9  on  121  and  122,  and  the 
radius  of  the  larger  curve  2  to  11  similarly  on 
both. 

Shape  of  the  Parts  of  a  Tapering 
Elliptical  Article  made  in  Four  Pieces. 
This  is  a  variation  on  the  previous  problem. 
Fig.  123  shows  the  article  in  end  elevation, 
and  124  in  plan,  figured  similarly  to  the  pre- 
ceding ellipse  [119,  120].  In  124,  1  1  and  2  2 
are  the  centres  from  which  the  curves  of  the 
ellipse  are  struck.  Draw  a  vertical  line,  3  2 
[125].  and  two  horizontal  lines  from  it,  3  10 
and  5  11,  at  a  distance  apart  corresponding  with 
the  vertical  depth,  3  5,  of  the  article.  Take  the 
radius  1  8  [124]  with  which  the  larger  end  curves 
are  struck  and  transfer  it  to  125  on  the  line 

3  to  8.    Take  the  smaller  radius  1  9  from  124, 
and  transfer  it  to  5  9  on  125.  Draw  a  line  through 
the  points,  8  9,  thus  obtained,  continuing  it  on 

5164 


to  1,  where  it  intersects  the  perpendicular  line 
3  2.  With  1  for  a  centre  and  1  8  as  radius 
strike  the  curve  8  12,  and,  similarly,  the  inner 
curve  913  from  1,  with  1  9  as  radius.  The  length 
of  the  segment  is  obtained  by  measurement 
from  124,  a  number  of  points  being  stepped 
off  round  the  curve  from  14  to  15  [124]  and 
the  same  number  transferred  to  the  curve  8  12 
[125],  and  a  line  is  then  drawn  from  12  to  1, 
coir» Dieting  the  segment.  The  segment  98  12  13 
thus  obtained  gives  the  shape  of  the  end  pieces 
minus  laps  for  jointing. 

To  obtain  the  shape  of  the  side  pieces,  take 
the  radius  2  10  from  124  and  set  it  off  from  3  to 
10  on  125,  and  the  inner  radius  211  [124]  set  off 
from  5  to  11  [125],  projecting  a  line  through 
these  points  to  the  point  2  on  the  line  3-  2  in 
125.  The  point  2  is  the  centre,  and  the  dis- 
tances 2  10  and  2  11  are  the  radii  with  which 
a  segment  for  the  sides  is  struck,  its  length 
being  obtained  by  stepping  round  in  124  along 
the  curve  from  15  to  16  and  transferring  to  the 
curve  10  17  in  125,  the  outer  end  being  marked 
radially  from  17. 

Shape  of  a  Tapering  Pan  in  Two 
Pieces.  Fig.  126  is  a  plan,  and  127  a  side 
elevation  showing  the  depth  of  a  tapsring 
pan.  To  obtain  the  shape  of  one  half  [123], 
draw  the  vertical  lines  1  2,  1  2,  through  the 
centres  from  which  the  corner  radii  in  126  are 
struck.  Draw  at  right  angles  to  them,  also 
through  the  centres,  the  lines  3  4, 3  4.  Draw  also 
a  central  horizontal  line  5  6,  which  will  indicate 
the  joint  between  the  two  parts.  Continue  the 
slant  of  the  end  [127]  from  6  down  to  7,  where  it 
cuts  the  perpendicular  line  1  2.  Draw  the 
horizontal  line  6  [128],  stopping  it  at  the  per- 
pendiculars 1 2.  Take  the  length  of  the  slant  edge 
from  6  to  8  [127],  and  mark  it  off  from  6  to  8  on 
128,  and  draw  the  second  horizontal  line,  8, 
through  it.  With  7  6  [127]  as  radius  describe 
the  arcs  which  are  continued  from  the  horizontal 
line  6  in  128,  the  centres  from  which  they  are 
struck  being  on  the  perpendicular  lines  at  2. 
Describe  also  the  inner  arcs  from  the  same 
centre,  with  the  radius  corresponding  with  7  8 
on  127.  Measure  the  length  of  one  of  the  outer 
curves  on  126,  as  indicated  by  the  divisions  at 
the  corner  1  3,  and  step  round  the  outer  curves 
on  128  to  the  same  length.  From  the  points  9  9 
thus  obtained  draw  lines  to  the  centres  2  2. 
From  9  and  from  10  it  is  now  necessary  to  carry 
lines  at  right  angles  with  the  lines  9  10,  corre- 
sponding in  length  with  3  5  and  4  6  in  126.  This 
gives  the  points  11  and  12  in  128,  and  it  only 
remains  to  connect  these  by  the  lines  11  12. 

Although  the  figures  given  are  those  of  com- 
plete objects,  it  often  happens,  especially  in 
platers'  work,  that  some  particular  section  only 
is  required,  such  as  one  curved  end  or  one  curved 
corner.  But  it  is  frequently  helpful  then  to 
mentally  regard  the  fragmentary  portion  re- 
quired as  part  of  a  complete  figure,  by  which 
its  relations  are  mentally  rendered  more  obvious. 
In  125,  for  example,  sectional  portions  only  may 
be  required. 

Fig.  129  shows  a  method  of  marking  out  which 
does  not  necessitate  drawing  a  complete  plan  of 


PAT1ERNS   FOR   POLYGONAL   AND    CTEVED  ^ 

"c 


DRAWING 

the  tray  as  in  126.  Two  complete  circles  are 
drawn  on  the  same  radii  as  the  outer  and  inner 
curves  at  the  corners  of  the  tray,  the  intervening 
straight  parts  being  omitted.  The  length  of 
the  straight  parts  being  known,  they  are  inserted 
in  the  construction  of  128  without  transferring 
them  from  a  plan  view.  Similarly,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  draw  the  complete  elevation,  as  hi 
127,  but  only  the  triangular  portion  comprising 
the  points  6,  8,  7  [127^,  and  the  perpendicular 
and  horizontal  lines  connecting  them. 

Figs.  130  to  135  deal  with  objects  having  un- 
equal slant.  Such  objects  are  very  frequent.  In 
approaching  problems  of  this  kind  some  of  the 
methods  described  hi  earlier  articles  have  appli- 
cation. In  all  such  cases  a  development  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  obtain  the  actual  radius 
of  the  developed  sheet,  by  ascertaining  first  the 
relations  between  the  vertical  and  the  slant 
heights  of  the  curved  portions,  obtained  in  the 
form  of  a  right-angled  triangle. 

RouncUend  Bath  Sloping  more  at 
the  Ends  than  Sides.  Fig.  130  is  the 
elevation,  and  131  the  plan  of  the  round-end 
bath.  The  outer  semicircles  in  the  plan  are 
struck  from  the  points  o,  and  the  inner  ones 
from  5.  Complete  the  two  circles  as  shown 
dotted  at  the  right-hand  end  [131],  and  divide  one 
quarter  of  the  outer  circle  into  an  equal  number 
of  parts,  as  1,  2,  3,  4.  Draw  in  132  the  horizontal 
lines  5  4  and  6  7,  at  the  same  distance  apart  as 
the  lines  similarly  numbered  in  130,  and  repre- 
senting the  vertical  depth  of  the  article.  Project 
the  diameters  of  the  circles  down  from  131  to  132, 
intersecting  the  horizontal  5  4  at  the  points 
8,  9.  10,  4  ;  and  from  8  and  10  continue  them 
to  the  lower  line  6  7.  Draw  lines  through  4 
and  7  and  from  9,  projecting  them  till  they 
meet  at  the  centre  11.  From  11  [132],  draw 
a  vertical  line  to  11  on  the  centre  line  of 

131.  From  the  centre  11  [131]  describe  arcs 
from  the  points  1,  2,  3   on  the  circle  to  cut 
the  centre  line   11  4  at  1,  2,  3.     From  these 
points  draw  perpendiculars  to  the  line  5  4  in 

132,  and  then  continue  them  from  these  points 
to  meet  at  the  centre  11.  Draw  also  radial  lines  in 
131  from  the  points  1,  2,  3,  on  the  circle,  to  meet 
at  the  point  1 1  on  the  centre  line.   These  cut  the 
smaller  circle  and  divide  it  similarly  to  the  larger 
one.    With  the  point  11  in  132  as  a  centre,  strike 
curves  from  the  intersections  1,  2,  3,  4  on  the  line 
5  4,  continuing  them  round  to  the  left  indefinitely, 
as  shown.   Also,  from  the  same  centre,  strike  the 
inner  set  of  curves  from  the  points  7,  etc.,  of  the 
intersections  of  1,  2,  3  on  the  line  6  7.    The  radial 
centre  line  of  the  pattern  may  now  be  drawn 
from    11    to   the    outermost   circle   to   the    left 
of  132,  cutting  it  at  4,  which  is  placed  at  a 
sufficient  distance  away  from  the  perpendicular 
to  allow  the  pattern  to  be  marked  out  without 
confusion  of  lines.     The  divisions  1,  2,  3,  4  are 
taken  from  the  circle  on  131  and  transferred  to 
each  side  of  4  [132],  stepping  from  one  curve  to 
the  next  adjacent,  so  that  the  circumferential 
division  3  comes  on  the  arc  3,  and  the  circum- 
ferential division  2  on  the  arc  2,  and  so  on.    The 
pattern    outline   is   then   traced   through    these 


5166 


Continued 


points  of  intersection,  and  at  the  ends  1,  1, 
racial  lines  are  drawn  to  the  centre  11.  The 
inner  edge  of  the  pattern  may  be  obtained  by 
similarly  dividing  from  the  smaller  circle  in  131, 
but  a  simpler  method  is  to  draw  radial  lines  from 
each  of  the  outer  points  to  the  centre  11,  as 
shown  in  132  (left  hand),  and  trace  through 
the  intersections  of  the  radial  lines  with  the  inner 
set  of  curves. 

Rectangular  Tray  with  Rounding 
Corners.  This  example  has  greater  slant 
at  the  ends  than  at  the  sides.  The  outer 
dimensions  in  the  plan  [133]  being  decided  on, 
draw  radial  lines  from  the  corners  of  the  com- 
pleted rectangle  to  the  centre  o.  Determine 
the  width  or  length  of  the  inner  rectangle, 
which  forms  the  base,  and  draw  that  with 
corners  meeting  at  the  radial  lines.  From  the 
centre  8,  from  \vhich  the  outer  sweep  is  struck, 
project  horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines  to 

3  and  4,  and  from  3  and  4  draw  radial  lines  to 
the  centre  o.     From  6  and  7,  where  the  lines  o3 

04  intersect   the  inner  rectangle,  project  hori- 
zontal and  perpendicular  lines  to  the  point  9, 
which  is  the  centre  from  which  the  inner  sweep 
is  struck.     Then  [134]  draw  the  two  horizontal 
lines  1  4  and  10  7,  corresponding  in  their  distance 
apart  to  the  vertical  depth  of  the  tray,  and  draw 
the  perpendicular  lo.     Then,  from  133  take  the 
lengths  o4,   o3,  and  o2,  and  transfer  them  to 
1  4, 1  3.  and  1  2  respectively  on  the  top  line  of  134. 
Take  also  from  133  the  lengths  ol,  06,  and  05, 
and  transfer  them  to  the  line  10  7  in  134.     Draw- 
lines  in  134  through  4  and  7,  3  and  6,  2  and  5 
to  intersect  the  perpendicular  at  o.     Then,  from 
133  take  the  radii  8  to  4  and  9  to  7  and  transfer 
them  to  the  top  line  of  134  from  1  to  4,  and  1  to  7 
respectively,  and  draw  lines    from    the   points 
7  and  4  parallel  with  the  line  3  6  o,  so  that  they 
cut  the  perpendicular  at  8  and  9. 

Next  draw  the  vertical  centre  line  lo  of  135, 
and  with  the  radius  o4,  taken  from  134,  describe 
the  arc  4  4.  The  distance  of  the  points  4  from 
each  side  of  the  centre  line  lo  corresponds  with 
the  distance  1  to  4  on  the  plan  line  at  the  top 
of  133.  A  horizontal  line  is  now  drawn  between 
4  4  on  135,  also  a  radial  line  from  each  end,  4  4, 
to  the  centre  o  [135].  Next  take  the  radii  o3,  o2 
from  134,  and  from  the  centre  o  [135]  describe 
the  arcs  3  3  and  2  2.  Take  also  from  134  the  radii 
o7  and  o5  and  describe  the  arcs  of  corresponding 
numbers  on  135.  Draw  perpendiculars  from  4  4 
and  7  7,  and  with  the  radii  8  4  and  9  7  from  134 
set  off  the  points  8  and  9  respectively  on  the  per- 
pendiculars 8  4  and  9  7.  From  centres  8,  8, 
describe  the  outer  curves  from  4  to  3,  the  point  3 
being  that  where  they  cut  the  large  curve  3  3. 
From  the  intersections  at  3  draw  radial  lined 
to  the  centres  8,  8,  and  also  to  the  centre  o  ; 
connect  7  7  by  a  chord  similarly  to  4  4,  and 
from  centres  9,  9  describe  the  curves  7  6,  ter- 
minating at  the  radial  lines  3o.  From  the 
points  3  and  6  draw  lines  tangential  to  the 
curves  at  2  and  5,  and  radial  lines  from 
those  points  to  the  centre  o.  This  completes 
the  pattern  for  one  half  of  the  tray,  to  which 
allowance  must  be  made  for  jointing. 


WIRE   AND   WIRE  WORK 

Wire   Rods  and  Wire-drawing.       Making  Pins  and  Needles.     Coiling  and 
Weaving    Wire.      Wire    Ropes    and    their     Manufacture.       Wire    Netting 


Group  14 

METALS 
10 

Continued  from 


THE  manufacture  and  working  of  wire  embrace  a 
group  of  industries  the  processes  in  which  are 
seldom  described  in  popular  books.  This  neglect 
of  the  wire  trades  is  rather  surprising  in  view 
of  the  importance  of  these  trades.  The  wire- 
making  industry  is  one  of  the  foundations  of  our 
civilisation,  and  the  low  cost  to  which  mechanic 
skill  has  succeeded  in  bringing  articles  of  wire 
enables  such  articles  to  be  the  property  of  the  many. 
The  ordinary  pin  is  turned  out  at  the  surprisingly 
low  price  of  something  like  one  penny  per  thousand, 
and  each  pin  has  to  undergo  many  operations. 
The  domestic  sewing  needle  is  as  fine  an  example 
of  the  result  of  highly  developed  manufacturing 
skill  as  any  trade  has  to  offer,  and  its  low  price  is  a 
surprise  to  those  unfamiliar  with  its  manufacture. 
Carding  wire  is  an  essential  in  the  textile  trades, 
coal  and  other  minerals  are  raised  from  the  mines 
by  wire  ropes,  without  which  the  cost  of  mining 
would  be  greatly  increased,  wire  fish-hooks  are  a 


necessity  to  the  fishing  industry,  the  modern  watch 
would  be  impossible  without  springs  of  flattened  steel 
wire,  wire  torpedo  nets  guard  our  battleships  from 
hostile  attack,  and  finally  wire  guns  are  the  weapons 
of  offence  used  in  our  Navy  and  coast  defence 
stations.  These  few  instances  of  the  uses  of  wire 
may  serve  to  illustrate  its  importance  to  the  com- 
munity, and  we  may  proceed  to  describe  its  manu- 
facture and  employment. 

Iron  and  Steel  Wire.  The  processes 
through  which  the  material  has  to  pass  before 
finally  emerging  as  wire  demand  that  good  iron 
and  steel  should  be  used  for  the  purpose  Puddled 
iron  and  charcoal  iron  [see  page  4635]  are  used. 
Hio-h  qualities  of  wire,  including  music  wire 
are0  made  from  Swedish  iron,  which  is  a  special 
quality  of  charcoal  iron.  Steel  used  in  wire  manu- 
facture must  be  free  from  both  phosphorus  and 
sulphur,  or  the  result  will  be  very  poor  wire.  Only 
steel  can  be  employed  in  making  articles  which  are 
to  be  tempered.  From  Mr.  Bucknall  Smiths 
'•Wire-  Its  Manufacture  and  Uses  we  extract 
a  table  showing  the  average  breaking  strains  of 
wires  made  from  different  classes  of  iron  and  steel.^ 

sq.   in.   of 
Section. 
25 
35 
40 
60 


Black  or  annealed  iron  wire 

Bright  hard-drawn  iron  wire 

Bessemer  steel  wire 

Mild  Siemens-Martin  steel  wire 

High  carbon  Siemens-Martin  steel  wire 
"(or  "  improved  ") 

Crucible  cast  steel  improved  wire 

-Improved"     cast     steel     "plough     .. 

Special  qualities  of  tempered  and  im- 
proved cast  steel  wire  may  attain  . . 


60 
100 
100 

150-170 


The    drawers    of    wire    purchase    their    material 
either  in  the  form  of  billets  or  of  wire  rods.     In 


usually  of  somewhat  irregular  shape  in  section,  but 
approximating  to  square  and  weighing  between 
80  Ib.  and  200  Ib.  These  billets  are  passed,  when  hot, 
through  rolling  mills  and  emerge  as  "  wire  rods." 
These  rods  are  really  coils  of  wire  from  200  ft.  to 
600  ft.  long,  the  length  differing  with  the  size  of  the 
original  billet  and  with  the  diameter  to  which  rolling 
has  reduced  it. 

Rolling  Wire    Rods.     Productive  economy 
makes  it  desirable  that  the  rods  should  be  rolled 
in  one  heat,  as  the  necessity  of  reheating  when  the 
rolling    is   partly  accomplished    adds   to    the  cost 
materially.     Rolling    is  performed   in    a   series  of 
machines    usually    called    a    "  train."      We   may 
describe  them  as  a  number  of  large  mangles  with  iron 
rollers  provided  with  grooves  around    their    peri- 
pheries.    There  are  two  rollers  in  each  machine  and 
both  rollers  are  grooved  alike.      Some  mills  have 
three  rollers,  but  for  the  sake  of  lucidity  we  may 
discard  this  consideration.     The  grooves  are  not  all 
semicircular  in  shape.  They  maybe  diamond  shaped 
or    oval  as    well.     The    shape    is  varied,  because 
the  practice  "  works  "  the  material  into  a  uniform 
mass,  increasing   both   its   tenacity   and  ductility. 
The  pairs  of  rollers  have  grooves  which  in  size  are  in 
a  descending  scale.     The  red-hot  billet  passes  through 
the    largest    grooves— say    round— then    through 
rollers  with  grooves  a  little  smaller— say  of  diamond 
shape— then  through  others  still  smaller  with  oval 
orooves,  and  so  on  through  the  entire  series,  the 
shape  of  the  section  varying  and  the  size  of  the 
section    decreasing    throughout   the    cycle.     Then, 
after    perhaps    ten   or   twelve   different   "  passes 
through  rolls,  the  rod  is  of  the  desired  diameter,  and 
as  it  leaves  the  last  pair  of  rollers  it  is  wound,  st 
hot    on  drums  which  make  it  into  coils.     Such  in 
bare  outline  is  the  history  of  the  "  billet "  during  its 
transformation  into  the  coil  of  thick  wire  known  as 
a   "  wire  rod."     Various  followers  of  the   proci 
have  introduced  modifications,  chiefly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  automatic  mechanisms  for  handling  the  rod 
as  it  passes  from  one  pair  of  rollers  to  another, 
but  the  essential  principle   in  all   is  as   we    have 
described    it.     The    rollers,  of    course,    are 
rollers  "-that  is  to  say,  they  are  driven  by  power 
from  an  engine,  so  that  they  pull  through  the  rod 
under  treatment.     Also  the  rollers  have  a  speed  of 
revolution  that  increases  as  their  grooves  decrease 
in  size.     This  higher  speed  is  to  compensate  for  tl 
oreater  length    of    the   rod   as  it  is  drawn  out  by 
rollers   with   smaller   and   smaller   grooves.     Some 
rolling  mills  are  arranged  so  that  several  rods  can 
be  made  to  pass  through  at  one  time,  several  pairs 
of  arooves  being  provided  on  each  pair  of  rollers. 
This  is  the  highest  point  in  productive  economy. 
After  rolling  the  rods  are  cleaned  in  a  tank  con- 
totaL  a  diluted  solution  of  muriatic  or  sulphunc 
acT we  put  into  lime-water  and  are  finally  dned 
r  an   oven.    They  are  then  ready  for  the  drawn* 
mill. 


5167 


METALS 

lengths  of  the  rods  arc  from  200  yards  to  000  yards 
long,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  billet  from 
which  they  have  been  made.  The  rods  were  made 
hot ;  they  are  drawn  into  wire  cold.  The  wire 
may  be  one  of  many  shapes — oval,  flat,  round, 
square,  or  U-shaped,  according  to  the  shape  of  the 
dies  through  which  it  is  passed.  The  draw-plate- 
is  merely  a  piece  of  hard  steel  with  holes  of 
different  sizes  through  which  the  wire  is  drawn 
successively,  each  hole  through  which  it  is  taken 
being  smaller  than  the  preceding  one.  The  number 
of  holes  through  which  the  wire  is  drawn  depends 
upon  the  reduction  in  diameter  required.  The  finer 
the  wire  is  to  be,  the  greater  is  the  reduction  and 
the  more  numerous  the  passes  through  the  draAv- 
plate.  The  plates  are  given  to  wear,  the  strain 
to  which  they  are  subject  in  use  being  very  great, 
and  when  the  holes  have  become  enlarged  by  use 
the  plates  are  heated,  hammered,  and  the  holes 
repunched  and  made  accurate.  The  end 'of  the 
thick  wire  or  "rod"  is  hammered  to  a  point,  making 
an  inch  or  two  at  the  extremity  thinner  than  the 
body,  and  able  to  be  put  through  one  of  the  holes 
in  the  draw-plate. 

The  Drawing  Mill.  The  wire-drawing  mill 
[1]  is  a  bench  mounted  with  a  series  of  "  blocks  " 
or  pulleys  from  12  in.  to  30  in.  diameter,  turning 
on  vertical  centres  and  with  a  draw  plate  and  pincers 
to  each  pulley.  The  end  of  the  rod,  where  it  has 
been  made  thinner  in  the  manner  stated,  is  put 
through  the  selected  hole  in  the  draw-plate,  and  placed 
in  the  jaws  of  the  pincers,  which  are  attached  to  a 
bar.  A  cam  attached  to  the  drum  spindle  is  made 
to  operate,  and  it  pulls  or  presses  the  bar  and  pincers 
away  from  the  draw-plate,  thereby  drawing  a 
little  of  the  wire,-enough  to  make  a  revolution  of  the 
drum  to  which  it  is  made  fast.  Then  the  drum 
itself  is  put  in  motion,  and  the  wire  is  drawn  through 
the  die  or  draw-plate  as  rapidly  as  the  drum  is 
made  to  revolve.  The  speed  which  can  be  maintained 
in  working  depends  upon  the  amount  of  attenuation 
being  given  and  upon  the  material. 

Lubricant.  The  work  of  drawing  is  made 
more  easy  by  the  use  of  a  lubricant.  For  thick 
gauges  the  lubricant  is  usually  of  paste  consistency— 
a  heavy  grease  ;  but  for  gauges  below  20  a  thin 
lubricant  such  as  soapy  water  is  employed.  The 
lubricant  not  only  facilitates  the  actual  work  of 
drawing  through  the  plates,  but  it  also,  if  wisely 
chosen,  leaves  a  thin  film  of  grease,  which  prevents 
oxidation. 

Manufacturers  use  various  lubricants  in  wire 
drawing,  and  each  manufacturer  is  a  law  to  himself 
in  the  matter.  For  fine  drawing,  a  lubricant  made 
of  sour  beer  yeast  and  olive  oil  is  sometimes  used. 
It  is  claimed  for  a  mixture  of  lard  and  sulphuric  acid 
thinned  with  water  that  its  use  saves  a  good  deal 


5168 


.    A\  n:i;-DKAwrN(;   BENCH 
ThoIDtt  liurracloir_'li.  London) 


of  the  annealing  otherwise  necessary  in  the  various 
stages  of  drawing.  A  hot  solution  of  lime  and  salt 
is  used  by  some  makers  when  drawing  steel  wire. 
This  practice  is  said  to  save  wear  upon  the  inner 
surface  of  the  die. 

Annealing.  With  the  repeated  drawing  the 
wire  becomes  hard,  and  it  is  necessary,  perhaps 
several  times  during  the  sequence  of  the  drawing 
operations,  to  anneal  the  coils.  Wire  reduced  to 
a  fine  gauge  may  have  been  annealed  about  six 
times  during  its  progress  from  the  wire  rod.  Some 
makers,  before  annealing  iron  and  steel  wire, 
immerse  it  in  a  thick  cream  made  with  chloride  of 
lime  and  water.  This  gives  it  a  protecting  coat, 
which  prevents  the  formation  of  scale  during 
annealing,  and  which  is  afterwards  removed  by 
washing  in  clean  water.  The  annealing  ovens  are 
air-tight  iron  chambers  capable  of  holding  from  two 
to  three  tons  of  wire  coils.  They  are  charged  and 
closed.  Then  they  are  heated  up  to  600°  F.  or 
700°  F.  The  duration  of  the  heat  depends  upon 
the  gauge  of  the  work  in  hand  and  upon  the 
quantity  in  the  chamber.  When  it  is  considered 
that  the  heat  has  been  maintained  long  enough, 
the  furnace  is  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  When  cool, 
the  wire  is  withdrawn  and  "  pickled "  in  acid 
solution  as  after  rolling,  and  before  the  work  of 
drawing  proceeds  again,  another  immersion  in 
limewater  is  given.  Then  the  work  goes  ahead 
as  before,  to  return  to  the  annealing  chamber 
should  it  be  necessary.  Finally,  we  have  the  wire 
drawn  to  its  final  shape,  and  it  is  ready  for  the 
market  or  for  one  of  the  many  industries  in  which 
wire  is  used. 

Continuous  Drawing.  Continuous  wire- 
drawing [2]  has  come  into  extensive  use  during  recent 
years,  and  is  economical.  In  machines  for  continu- 
ous drawing  the  wire  is  not  wound  on  a  block,  as  in 
ordinary  wire- drawing,  already  described,  but  is 
pulled  through  one  die,  wound  two  or  three  times 
round  a  block,  then  passing  through  another  die, 
round  another  block,  and  so  on  until  the  ultimate 
desired  gauge  is  attained.  The  circumferential 
speeds  are  varied  to  compensate  for  the  elongation 
of  the  wire  as  it  passes  through  the  dies.  Metals 
that  require  frequent  annealing  during  the  process 
of  drawing  are  limited  in  the  number  of  dies  through 
which  they  can  pass  at  one  time.  Thus,  in  drawing 
iron,  steel,  and  brass  wire,  the  saving  in  working 
with  continuous  machines  is  much  less  than  it  is 
with  a  metal  like  copper,  which  can  usually  be 
drawn  to  its  ultimate  gauge  without  annealing. 

Our  illustration  [2J  shows  the  wire  reel,  which  is 
being  drawn  down  through  the  several  dies,  mounted 
in  a  tub  containing  weak  acid.  This  practice  is 
frequently  followed,  and  removes  any  acid  that 
may  have  been  given  to  the  surface  of  the  wire 
during  the  process  of  annealing.  The  drawing 
drums  may  vary  in  diameter  from  10  in.  to  32  in. 
and  may  revolve  at  a  circumferential  speed  of  from 
300  ft,  to  400  ft.  per  minute.  Steel  wire,  however, 
must  be  drawn  at  a  slower  speed,  to  obviate  risk  of 
breakage.  Soft  iron  wire  and  copper  wire  may  be 
dra wnat  the  rate  of  500ft.  per  minute,  or  even  more. 

Fine  Drawing.  When,  for  special  purposes, 
such  as  watch-springs,  fineness  and  absolute 
accuracy  are  demanded,  the  steel  draw-plate  is 
discarded  and  precious  stones,  drilled  to  the  required 
size,  are  used  for  the  final  drawing.  The  ruby  is  the 
usual  stone  employed,  although  diamonds  and 
sapphires  are  al-;o  used.  A  silver  wire  ]  70  miles  long 
and  '003  in.  diameter  has  been  drawn  through 
a  hole  in  a  ruby,  and  upon  micrometer  measurement 
it  was  found  that  the  size  towards  the  end  of  the 


coil  was  "\actly  the  same  as  at 
the  beginning.  A  hole  in  a  steel 
plate  would  have  shown  signs 
of  appreciable  wear  with  one- 
tenth  of  the  Avork.  When  the 
ruby  or  other  gem  is  used,  it  is 
mounted  in  a  metal  plate,  and 
for  flat  work,  such  as  the  hair- 
spring of  a  watch,  the  hole  must 
be  of  rectangular  aperture. 

Wire  Gauges.  The  question 
of  wire  gauges  is  a  vexed  question, 
into  the  details  of  which  we  do 
not  intend  to  enter.  For  very 
many  years  there  was  no  uni- 
formity in  the  wire  gauges,  and 
this  led  to  much  confusion  and 
to  many  mistakes.  Every  maker 
almost  was  a  law  unto  himself, 
and  during  the  greater  part  of 
last  century  there  were  over  forty 
different  wire  gaiiges  used  in  this 
country  alone.  This  state  of 
matters  was  remedied  in  1884, 
when  the  Board  of  Trade,  after 
deputations  from  wire  manu- 
facturers and  consultations  with 
them,  inaugurated  and  made  the 


METALS 


CONTINUOUS    WIRE-DRAWING   MACHINE 
(Bond  &  Cooper,  Birmingham) 


legal  standard  of  wire  measurement  in  this  country  the 
"  Imperial  Standard  Wire  Gauge,"  which  is  usually 
designated  by  the  letters,  "S.W.G."  Yet  some  of 
the  discarded  gauges  still  linger  in  practice,  notably 
the  "  Birmingham  Wire  Gauge."  We  append  a  table 
giving  the  Imperial  wire  gauge,  the  Birmingham  wire 
gauge,  and  the  equivalent  sizes  in  decimals  of  an 
inch,  and  in  millimetres.  The  French  and  German 
practice  is  to  reckon  wire  by  millimetre  sizes. 


IMPERIAL       STANDARD       AND        BIRMINGHAM 
WIRE    GAUGES 

Imperial 
Wire  -gauge 

Birmingham 
Wire-gauge 

Equivalent 
Diam.  Inches 

Equivalent 
Diam. 
Millimetres 

Imperial 
Wire-gauge 

1  Birmingham 
Wire-gauge 

Equivalent 
Diam.  Inches 

!i! 

&QS 

w    a 

7/0 

•500 

12-699 

14 

_ 

•080 

2-032 

6/0 



•464 

11-785 

15 

15 

•072 

1-828 

0000  j  '454 

11-531 

16 

•065 

1-650 

5/0 

—       -432 

10-972 

16 

* 

•064 

1-625 

000      -425 

10-794 

_ 

17 

•058 

1-472 

0000- 

—       -400 

10-159 

yi  - 

__ 

•056 

1-421 

00       -380 

9-651 

18 

•049 

1-244 

000 

—       -372 

0-448 

18 



•048 

1-218 

00 

—    !  -348 

8-839 

19 

•042 

1-066 

0 

•340 

8-635 

19 

— 

•040 

1-016 

0 

•324 

•8-229 

20 

__ 

•036 

•9140 

1 

1 

•300 

7-620 

_ 

20 

•035 

•8886 

2 

•284 

7-213 

21 

21 

'•032 

•8124 

2 

•276 

7-010 



£2 

•030 

•7617 

"3 

•259 

6-578 

22 

•028 

•7109 

~3 

•252 

6-400 

23 

•025 

•6347 

~4 

•238 

6-645 

23 

M 

•024 

•6093 

4 

•232 

5-892 

24 

24 

•022 

•5585 

5 

•220 

5-588 

25 

25 

•020 

•5078 

5 

•212 

5-384 

28 

26 

•018 

•4570 

~6 

6 

1 

•203 
•192 
•180 

5-156 
4-876 
4-571 

27 
28 
29 

27 
28 
29 

•016 
•014 
•013 

•4062 
•3555 
•3300 

7 

g 

•176 
•165 
•160 

4-470 
4191 
4-064 

30 
31 
32 

30 

•012- 
•011 
•0108 

•3046 
•2800 
•2743 

~^ 

•148 

3-759 

33 

31    }  -010 

•2539 

9 



•144 

3-657 

34 

32    |  -009 

•2300 

10 
11 

10 
11 

•134 
•128 
•120 
•116 

-3-403 
3-251 
3-047 
2-946 

35 
36 
31 
38 

33 
34 

•008 
•007 
•0068 
•006 

•2031 
•1777 
•1727 
•1523 

12 
13 

12 

13 

•109 
•104 
•095 
•092 

2-768 
•2-641 
2-412 
2-336 

39 
40 
41 

42 

35 
36 

•005 
•0048 
•0044 
\  -004 

•1269 
•1219 
•1118 
•1015 

14 

•083 

2-108 

Drawing  Properties  of  Various 
Metals.  The  drawing  qualities  of  metals  are  due 
to  their  ductility  and  tenacity.  Ductility  is  the 
capacity  of  changing  molecular  form,  and  ten  city 
is  the  power  of  resisting  separation.  When 
these  qualities  are  high  and  are  combined  in  a 
metal,  that  metal  possesses  excellent  drawing 
properties.  Most  metals  are  capable  of  being 
drawn  into  wire,  although  some — as,  for  instance, 
antimony — are  brittle  and  useless  for  want  of 
tenacity.  Gold  is  the  most  ductile  of  the  ordinary 
metals,  and  it  is  followed  by  silver,  platinum,  iron, 
copper,  zinc,  tin,  and  lead  in  the  order  named. 
Steel,  again,  is  the  most  tenacious  of  the  metals, 
and  is  followed  by  iron,  copper,  platinum,  silver, 
gold,  zinc,  tin,  and  lead  in  the  respective  order. 

Metals  are  sometimes  drawn  in  combination. 
Steel  wire  of  large  gauge,  after  cleaning  in  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid,  may  be  given  a 
coating  of  copper  by  immersion  in  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  'if  the  copper-coated  wire  be 
then  put  through  the  draw-plate,  it  may  be  drawn 
very  fine,  the  copper  remaining  unbroken,  but 
attenuated.  Silver-gilt  wire  is  made  in  the  same 
way.  The  coating  of  gold  upon  a  silver  bar  or  rod 
may  be  less  than  one-thousandth  y>art  of  the  latter, 
but  drawing  this  out  to  hair  thickness  still  leaves 
an  unbroken  coating  of  gold  upon  the  cheaper 
metal. 

Telegraph  Wire.  Both  iron  and  steel  wire 
are  used  for  telegra  ph  purposes.  For  lengthy  spans, 
and  where  great  tensile  strength  is  necessary,  steel 
wire  is  preferred,  but  wire  made  from  Swedish 
charcoal  iron  is  used  for  ordinary  work.  The  wire 
is  generally  galvanised  [see  Galvanising.]  The 
qualities  demanded  in  wire  for  telegraph  purposes 
are  ductility  in  a  high  degree  and  freedom  from 
flaws  and  impurities.  Phosphorus  and  manga m-sr 
impair  electrical  conductivity,  hence  wire  for  tclr- 
fraph  purposes  should  be  free  from  these  imparities. 
It  is  considered,  however,  that  carbon  and  silicon 
have  no  influence  upon  electrical  conductivity. 
Government  departments  and  railway  companies 
have  rigid  specifications  stipulating  the  size,  weight, 
electrical  resistance,  the  minimum  number  c 
twists  in  the  strand,  and  specific  tests  for  strength 

5169 


METALS 

and  ductility   of   wire    to    be   used    for    telegraph 
purpose* 

For  covered  telegraph  and  telephone  work,  a 
wire  of  silicon  bronze  is  much  used.  This  alloy  is 
found  to  be  very  high  in  electrical  conductivity. 
Here  are  two  analyses  of  such  wire  : 


•205  per  cent.;  sulphur  up  to  '017  per  cent.  ;  phos- 
phorus from  '004  per  cent,  to  '018  per  cent.,  and 
manganese  from  '120  per  cent,  to  '425  per  cent. 
Physical  properties  of  the  wires  tested  were  as 
follows  in  three  samples  upon  which  experiments 
were  made. 


Telephone  Wire.                           Telegraph  Wire. 

Copper    .. 
Tin    .  . 

Silicon      .  . 
Iron 

99-94  per  cent. 
•03        „ 
•02        „ 
trace 

Copper     . 
Tin  .  . 
Silicon     . 
Zinc..     . 
Iron  .  .     . 

.     97  -12  per  cent. 
.       I'M        „ 

•05 
1-62 

.      trace 

Diameters.                    -040  in. 

•036  in. 

0-37  in. 

Torsion  or  turns  in  6  in.  .  . 
Ultimate  tensile  strength 
Equivalent    tension     per 
inch  of  section      .  . 

60  to  70 
400  Ib. 

142  tons 

30  to  40 
3181D. 

140  tons 

60  to  70 
340  11). 

141  tons 

Fencing  Wire.  Both  plain  and  strand  wire 
are  largely  used  for  fencing,'  the  latter  having  pre- 
ference in  this  country. 
Where  large  tracts  have  to 
be  enclosed  and  cheapness  is 
a  consideration,  cheap  iron 
or  steel  wire  (usually  No.  8 
S.W.G.)  black  varnished  is 
used.  A  coil  contains  between 
500  and  600  yards,  and  weighs  1  cwt.  Fencing 
of  strand  wire  is  usually  galvanised. 

Barb  Wire.      Barb  wire  for  fencing  owes  its 
origin  to  America.     It  might  with  justice  be  called 
"  barbarous "     wire.       It     no 
doubt  fills  a  practical  purpose 
in    times    of   both   peace   and 
war,  and  the  quantity  manu- 
factured is  very  great.      It  is 
usually  galvanised  after  having 
been  made. 

Two  wires,  generally  of  12  or  14 
standard  wire  gauge,  are  twisted 
together,  and  the  barbs  (short 
pieces  cut  obliquely  at  both  ends 
and  wrapped  twice  round  the 
main  strand  with  their  ends  pro- 
jecting) may  be  "  open-set  "- 
that  is,  be  about  6  in.  apart,  or 
"  thick  -  set  " — that  is,  be  from 
3  in.  to  4  in.  apart.  It  may  be 
"  two-point,"  or  "  four-point," 
which  mean  that  the  barbs  may 
be  single,  presenting  two  points 
only,  or  they  may  be  set  double 
when  there  are  four  points  of 
danger  for  the  unwary  every  few 
inches.  Barb  wire  contains  from  335  Ib.  to  440  Ib. 
to  the  mile. 

There  are  a  few  other  varieties  of  barb  wire  ;  in 
one,  a  strip  of  serrated  hoop  iron  is  enclosed  in  the 
strand,  and  in  another  a  plain  single-strand  wire 
of  oval  section  has  its  edges  cut  obliquely,  the  spikes 
made  thereby  being  raised  so  as  to  offer  offence  to 
the  intruder  ;  but  the  pattern  to  which  we  have 
already  made  reference  is  made  in  overwhelming 
proportion. 

Piano  Wire.  The  piano  manufacturing  trade 
is  a  large  consumer  of  steel  wire.  The  great  and 
constant  strain  to  which  steel  wire  is  subject  when 
strung  in  a  piano  demands  a  quality  of  wire  capable 
of  resisting  this  tensile  strain  without  breaking 
and  without  elongation.  The  total  tension  upon  the 
wires  of  a  grand  piano  approaches  20  tons.  The 
strain  upon  one  wire  in  a  piano  is  as  great  as  if  the 
writer,  or  the  reader — unless  he  be  abnormally 
heavy — were  suspended  from  it.  The  carbon  in  steel 
used  for  piano  wire  ranges,  according  to  Mr.  Buck- 
nail  Smith  in  special  tests  made  by  him  upon 
samples  from  various  makers,  from  "570  per  cent,  to 
•740  per  cent.  ;  silicon  from  '032  per  cent,  to 

5170 


The  music  wire  gauge  differs  from    the  "Imperial 
standard"  (S.W.G.)  wire  gauge.    It  is  as  follows  : 


Music  Wire  Gauge. 

12 

13 

14 

16 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

•21         -2-2 

Diameters  in  inches 

•029 

•031 

•033 

•035 

•037 

•030 

•041 

•043 

•045 

•047  j  -052 

Nearest  size  in  Im- 

perial Wire  Gauge 

22 

•21 

21 

20 

20 

19 

1-.) 

19 

18 

IS        17 

Steel  piano  wire  must  be  hardened,  and  this  is 
usually  done  before  the  wire  goes  through  the  last 
drawing  operation.     The  procedure 
is    as    follows:      The    wire    is   lirst 
heated    in   the  ordinary  way  to  red 
heat,    and    then    allowed    to    cool. 
Then  it   is  placed  in   a    metal  bath 
made  of  40  percent,  lead,  1.2 per  cent, 
zinc,  26  per  cent,  antimony,  21  per 
cent,  tin,  and  1  per   cent,  bismuth. 
This  metal    bath    is   heated  above 
melting    point,   and   the    wire 
must  remain  in  it  until  it  has 
attained  the  same  temperature 
as  the  metal,  which,  of  course, 
is  longer  with  thick  wire- than 
with    thin  wire.       It     is  then 
taken      out,     and     water      is 
sprinkled  over  it.    This  process 
has     discoloured    it,    and    by 
giving  it  one  more  drawing,  it 
is    made   bright  again.     If    it 
need    not  be  bright,  then  the 
hardening  may  be  done   after 
the  last  drawing. 

There  are  other  purposes  for 
which  wires  of  exceptional 
strength  are  required — notably  for  cranes,  marine 
hawsers,  mining,  and  bridges.  We  have  seen  a, 
weight  of  1  ton  suspended  from  a  steel  wire  of 
No.  8  gauge,  to  be  used  for  deep-sea  sounding. 

Gold  and  Silver  Wire.  Gold  wire  is  now 
seldom  used.  Its  place  is  taken  by  silver-gilt  wire. 
The  gold  is  put  on  to  the  silver  rod  in  the  form 
of  leaf ,  a  piece  of  which  4J  in.  square  weighs  about 
18  grains.  The  gilded  rod  is  then  drawn  out 
through  steel  dies,  and,  as  it  gets  down  to  the  finer 
gauges,  through  dies  made  from  gems — diamonds, 
rubies,  or  sapphires.  The  amount  of  gold  put  on  the 
silver  rod  is  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  less  precious 
metal,  yet  even  this  small  proportion  can  be  drawn 
out  to  extreme  fineness.  Twenty-four  grains  of  gold 
in  a  silver  wire  have  been  drawn  out  to  the  length  of 
410  miles.  The  silver-gilt  wire  used  for  embroideries, 
laces,  vestments,  and  uniforms  generally  contains 
from  1,500  to  2,500  yards  to  the  ounce.  Sometimes 
the  so-called  silver-gilt  wire  is  really  copper  silver- 
gilt.  A  rod  of  silver,  before  gilding,  is  drilled  and  a 
rod  of  copper  inserted.  Then  the  gold  is  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  silver  as  already  mentioned,  and 
tho  three  metals  are  drawn  together,  the  attenuation 


3.    PIN-MAKING     MACHINE 

(Kirby,  Beard  &Co.,  Ltd.,  Birmingham) 


Brass  and  Copper  Wire.  The  quality  of 
brass  wire  depends  upon  the  proportions  of  the  con- 
stituent metals  of  which  the  brass  is  composed.  A 
high  proportion  of  zinc  gives  a  light  colour  and  a 
brittle  and  springy  wire.  For  fine  gauges  of  wire, 


METALS 

every  day, 

statement  constitutes  a  comment  upon 
human  carelessness  in  small  things.  Pins  are  made 
from  w.re  the  size  of  the  shank  or  bodv  of  the  pin 
and  the  wire  is  almost  always  of 'brass.  The 
material  mustl>e  soft  enough  to  allow  the  head 
to  be  riveted  up  from  the  stem,  and  hard  enoueh 

Tn    «f*rV£k      ifd      nl-fi-rv*  n-i-^.     «,  -,.  I 


and  for  weaving  into  gauze  such  as  is  used  exten-       to  serve  it  "I  7!"**  r"v"«" 

sively  in  paper-making,  a  brass  high  in  copper  is       easily      TwL.^A^T*?  w          t  bendmg  too 


used. 

The  old  method  of  making  brass  and  copper 
wire,  and  that  still  in  extensive  use,  is  to  roll  the 
metal  cold  between  flat  rolls  until  Jhe  thickness 

desired — depend  ing  upon  the  final  gauge  of  the  wire 

is  attained.  This  operation  yields  strips,  which  are 
then  cut  into  thin  rods,  to  be  afterwards  drawn 
into  wire  in  the  manner  described  for  iron  and  steel 
wire. 

Aluminium  Wire.  Aluminium  in  its  pure 
state  has  a  restricted  use  in  the  form  of  wire.  It 
is  light,  but  its  tensile  strength  is  low,  being  only  about 
10  tons  per  square  inch  of  cross  section.  Its  elastic 
limit  is  also  low,  a  further  factor  which  mili- 
tates against  its  Tise.  Fine  aluminium  wire  is 
sometimes  used  for  scientific  instruments  when 
lightness  is  required,  and  is  used  in  embroideries 
instead  of  silver  wire.  Alu- 
minium bronze,  however,  an 
alloy  of  aluminium  and 
copper,  yields  a  metal  high  in 
tensile  and  elastic  properties, 
being  also  a  good  conductor 
of  heat  and  electricity,  and 
inoxidisable.  Hence  wire  of 
aluminium  bronze  has  a  wider 
sphere  of  usefulness  than 
wire  of  pure  aluminium. 

Aluminium  wire  is  used  to 
some  extent  in  electrical  en-  \ 
gineering.  It  is  proposed  to 
convey  the  electric  current 
generated  at  the  Victoria 
Falls  on  the  Zambesi  to  the 
Johannesburg  district  by 
means  of  aluminium  wires, 
and  as  we  write  a  sample  of 
the  wire  used  for  a  similar 
purpose  in  America  is  on  view 
at  the  Rhodesia  Museum  in 
Finsbury  Circus,  London,  E.G.  The  aluminium 
electric  cable  is  a  "  formed "  wire  rope,  with  a 
central  wire,  surrounded  by  an  intermediate  layer 
of  six  wires,  and  finally  by  an  outside  layer  of  twelve 
wires,  the  entire  cable  having  a  diameter  of  1  in. 
It  is  proposed  to  carry  the  Rhodesian  cable  on  the 
top  of  steel  towers  60  ft.  high. 

Wire  of  Rare  Metals.  The  intrinsic  value 
of  platinum  is  very  high,  hence  its  use  as  wire  is 
very  limited.  It  can  be  drawn  into  very  fine  wire. 
It  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  electrical 
apparatus  and  scientific  instruments  where  the 
ability  to  resist  oxidation,  acids,  and  high  tempera- 
tures is  required.  It  cannot,  however  be  used  for 
electric  glow  lamps,  as  it  fuses  too  readily.  Osmium 
and  tantalum  are,  however,  rare  metals  which 
have  recently  been  introduced  into  the  manu- 
facture of  filaments  for  electric  glow  lamps.  Their 
use,  especially  the  latter  variety,  will  probably 
extend.  Special  measures  have  to  be  adopted  to 
reduce  osmium  to  the  form  of  wire  [see  page  2682 J. 
Pins.  Pin  manufacture  is  an  important  British 
industry,  the  chief  seat  of  which  is  Birmingham, 
where  indeed  are  made  about  three-fourths  of  the 
quantity  produced  in  the  country.  It  is  computed 


The  brass  from  which  pins  are  made  by  the 
best  makers  contains  from  60  to  65  per  cent,  of 
copper,  35  to  40  per  cent,  of  zinc,  traces  of  lead  and 
of  iron,  never  aggregating  more  than  '5  per  cent  and 
occasionally  minute  traces  of  tin,  these  last  being 
impurities.  For  long  years  the  standard  composition 

•j  P"?  Sf?88  WaS  two  of  c°PPer  to  one  of  zinc,  and 
indeed  this  mixture  came  to  be  generally  known 
as  pin  brass,"  but  the  slight  saving  achieved  by 
reducing  the  copper  percentage  has  caused  that 
practice  to  be  followed. 

The  brass  ingot  is  usually  about  2£  in.  square,  and 
is  hot-rolled  to  about  f  in.  diameter,  as  already  de- 
scribed.  Cold  rolling  is  sometimes  practised,  but 
it  requires  a  brass  richer  in 
copper,  and  is  therefore  more 
expensive.  In  either  case  the 
wire  is  drawn  to  its  final  size 
through  draw-plates. 

PinmaKing.  The  illustra- 
tion [3]  on  the  preceding  page 
will  help  to  an  understanding 
of  the  actual  process  of  pin" 
making.  The  coil  of  wire  ia 
placed  on  the  revolving  drum 
as  shown.  The  end  is  led 
through  a  guide  hole,  and 
then  between  iron  pegs,  which 
straighten  it  and  guide  it  to 
the  machine.  A  sliding  plier 
arrangement  seizes  the  end  of 
the  wire,  draws  it  forward, 
and  pushes  it  through  a 
hole  in  a  small  iron  plate. 
Here  a  tiny  hammer  or  punch 
'"upsets"  or  thickens  the 
end  of  the  wire,  thereby 
forming  the  pin  head.  The 
machine  has  been  set  carefully 
to  the  gauge  of  the  length  of 
pin  required,  and  as  soon  as 
the  head  is  formed  a  shearing  blade  comes  into 
action  and  cuts  off  a  short  length  of  wire.  This 
length  of  wire  is  a  rough  pin  with  a  head,  but 
without  a  sharp  point.  In  a  space  of  time  infinitely 
shorter  than  we  take  to  describe  the  movement  the 
pointless  pin  falls  into  an  inclined  groove  just  wide 
enough  to  hold  the  pins  suspended  by  their  heads. 
This  groove,  when  the  machine  is  in  operation,  con- 
tains a  row  of  pins  suspended.  A  revolving  cylinder 
with  file  teeth  graduated  from  coarse  at  the 
entering  end  to  fine  at  the  finishing  end  operates 
upon  the  end  of  the  suspended  pins,  which  move  back- 
wards and  forwards  in  the  groove,  and  files  the  ends 
to  sharp  points.  The  short  wires,  perfect  in  form 
but  far  from  perfect  in  finish,  then  fall  from  the  lower 
end  of  the  groove  into  a  receptacle.  The  machine 
we  have  seen  has  turned  out  the  pins  at  the  rate 
of  from  180  to  220  per  minute. 

Finishing  Pins.  The  pins  are  still  yellow 
brass.  They  must  be  whitened,  or  "  silvered." 
But  they  are  greasy,  and  must  •  first  be  cleaned. 
They  may  be  revolved  or  k'  tumbled  "  in  barrels  or 
cylinders  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda.  This 
cleans  off  all  adhering  grease.  Then  they  are 
transferred  to  "  kettles,"  or  vessels  heated  by  steam. 

5171 


PIN    STICKING    MACHINE 


METALS 

Metallic  lin  in  fine  powder    is   spread  over  them, 

some  hot  solution  of  bi-tartrate  of  potash  is  added, 

;m<l  the  vessels  are  sealed  up.      The  pins  are  allowed 

to  boil   for  about  four  hours,  when  they  emerge 

silvery  and  bright  in  their  coating  of  tin.     Then 

they  go  to  revolving  barrels  or  drums  containing 

sawdust,  and  are  tumbled  about  until  they  are  dry 

and  polished.     The  operator  now  handles  them  upon 

a  tray.     He  agitates  this  tray,  and  thereby  expels 

any  dust  which  may  adhere  to  them. 

Then  they  go  to  the  final  machine  [4], 

final    as    far    as    the   manufactory    is 

concerned,  and  are  put  into  rows,  and 

issue  as  papers  of  pins.     The  machine 

that   performs  this  operation  is  almost 

as  ingenious  as  the  machine  that  made 

the  pins.      The  pins  are  placed  in  a 

sort  of  hopper,  and   the  girl  operator 

sweeps  them  with  a  brush  into  grooves 

that  lead  down  to  the  roTls  or  strips  of 

paper  into  which  they  are  to  be    put. 

The  machine  creases  the  paper  into  the 

ridges   required,  and  the  operation  of 

a  lever  causes  the  paper   to  come  up 

to  the  rows   of  pin  points,  which  are 

then    pushed     into     their     respective 

places  in   the  paper.     The  papers  are 

made  to  contain  100  to  500  pins. 

Needles.  The  public  are  given  to 
associate  needle  manufacture  with  pin 
manufacture,  and  if  they  have  thought 
about  the  subject  at  all,  imagine  that  the  processes 
of  manufacture  are  somewhat  similar.  This  idea  is 
a  mistaken  one  ;  the  processes  are  quite  dissimilar. 
The  manufacture  of  needles  is  a  finer  operation, 
and  demands  greater  skill  as  it  is  not  so  dependent 
upon  automatic  machinery.  Needles  are  made 
from  a  superior  quality  of  cast-steel  wire.  This  wire 
is  delivered  to  the  rieedlemaker  in  coils.  A  workman 
cuts  this  wire  into  short  lengths,  each  length 
sufficient  for  two  needles.  These  short  wires  are 
not  perfectly  straight,  but  have  to  be  made  so 
before  anything  else  is  to  be  done  with 
them.  The  wires  are  taken  in  bundles 
about  as  big  as  can  be  compassed  with 
the  two  hands,  and  an  iron  ring  is 
placed  at  each  end  of  the  thick  bundle. 
The  bundles  are  heated  in  a  stove,  and 
then  placed  upon  an  iron  table,  where 
the  workman  rolls  them  backwards 
and  forwards,  still  in  the  bundle,  press- 
ing a  curved  bar  called  a 
"  rubbing  knife  "  upon  the 
body  of  the  wires  between 
the  rings.  This  operation, 
which  requires  skill,  makes  jjl 
the  wires  quite  straight  and  i 
regular  by  one  wire  rubbing 
against  another  under  the 
pressure  given. 

Making    Points    and 
Eyes.    Pointing  is  the  next 

process.  It  is  effected  in  an  automatic  machine, 
in  which  the  mechanism  holds  the  wires  and 
presses  them  against  a  swiftly  revolving  grindstone, 
which  forms  the  points  and  makes  the  needles  ready 
for  the  eye-stamping  machine.  The  process  of 
pointing  needles  used  to  be  fraught  with  very  great 
'l.m.jcr  to  the  health  of  the  workmen,  few  of  whom 
were  able  to  work  at  their  trade  beyond  the  age  of 
forty  ;  but  for  the  last  two  decades  conditions  have 
improved,  and  suction  fans  are  made  to  carry  the 
steel-dust  and  sand  from  the  grindstone  out  of 
danger  of  inhalation  by  the  workmen. 
.5172 


STAMPING    NEEDLE 


The  stamp  [5]  is  like  a  small  drop  forge,  operated 
by  a  stirrup  pedal.  Taking  in  his  left  hand  a  bundle 
of  wires,  the  stamper  places  them  in  rapid  succession 
upon  the  lower  die  of  his  machine,  and  with  his  foot 
causes  the  upper  die  to  descend  with  force.  The 
dies  form  the  heads,  make  beneath  the  needle-eye 
the  short  grooves  that  act  as  guides  in  the  act  of 
threading,  and  also  almost  pierce  the  eye  itself. 
As  many  as  6,000  wires  per  hour  can  be  handled 
by  a  skilled  man.  The  needles  are  still 
twins,  every  wire  being  two  needles, 
attached  by  their  heads. 

The  press  where  the  eyeing  is  done 
has  a  die  similar  to  that  of  the  stamp- 
ing machine,  but  made  so  as  to  pierce 
the  eye  quite  through.  One  by  one, 
the  double  needles  are  placed  upon  the 
bed  of  the  press  [6J,  and  the  handle 
causes  the  die  to  come  down.  The  holes 
are  made,  and  as  the  tool  retreats  again 
the  twin  needles  show  a  tendency  to 
stick  to  it,  but  a  special  part  of  the 
mechanism  pulls  the  wires  from  the  die, 
which  ascends  to  repeat  the  operation. 

The  stamp  has  left  the  head  of  the 
needle  rough.  Girls  thread  the  needles 
upon  a  fine  wire,  and  the  result  is  what 
look  like  fine  combs.  The  filer  takes 
the  "  combs  "  in  hand,  and  with  his 
file,  or  with  a  flat  grindstone,  clears 
away  the  "  rag,"  or  burr,  from  both 
sides  of  the  head.  Now  each  wire  is  placed  in  a 
hand  vice,  and  is  parted  ill  the  middle — the  opera- 
tion of  stamping  having  made  the  parting  easy — and 
another  treatment  with  the  file  makes  the  head 
smooth  where  the  pairs  have  been  joined. 

Hardening  and  Tempering.  The  needles 
now  go  into  an  oven  or  stove,  usually  heated  by 
gas,  and  are  raised  to  red  heat.  They  are  then  cooled 
by  being  plunged  into  oil,  after  which  they  are 
hard  and  brittle  as  glass,  and  quite  useless  as 
needles.  They  have  been  hardened.  The  tempering 
process,  performed  by  the  same 
workman  who  hardened  them,  con- 
sists in  heating  the  needles  up  to 
about  600°  F.,  and  allowing  them 
to  cool  gradually.  Any  needles  that 
have  become  crooked  during  the 
process  of  hardening  must  be  taken 
and  straightened  with  a  small 
hammer  on  an  anvil,  one  by  one. 

The  heads  of  the  needles 
are  softened  by  heat,  and 
then  follows  the  process  of 
scouring  and  burnishing.  The 
former  alone  takes  about  a 
week.  Its  object  is  to 
remove  the  dark  coating  of 
protoxide  of  iron  which  the 
needles  have  taken  on  as  a 
result  of  the  operations 
described,  and  to  show  a 
surface  of  polished  steel.  The  needles  are  placed 
upon  canvas  strips  laid  in  wooden  troughs,  and 
have  poured  upon  them  a  mixture  of  oil,  powdered 
quartz,  and  soft  soap.  The  canvas  strips  are  closed 
both  at  the  sides  and  ends,  and  the  sacks  of  needles 
are  placed  upon  what  is  called  the  "  runner  bench," 
a  table  with  boarded  sides.  A  heavy  wooden  block 
works  backwards  and  forwards  on  the  bags,  turning 
the  needles  and  pressing  them  one  against  another 
in  the  gritty  composition.  Several  times  during  the 
day,  when  the  operation  is  going  on,  the  needles 
are  opened  out  and  inspected,  and  finer  grit 


THE    EYEING    PRESS 


supplied.  Finally,  for  the  last  scourino-  wlnt  is 
known  as  '  polishing  putty  "  is  put  in.  The  needle* 
are  then  taken  out,  boiled  clean,  and  dried 
thoroughly  in  warm  sawdust. 

Finishing  Touches.  The  needles  must  now 
be  sorted  out,  for  all  these  processes  have  made 
them  of  varied  lengths.  They  are  placed,  with 
heads  all  one  way,  upon  a  narrow  board  in  a  row 
about  one  inch  deep,  and  the 
long  ones  are  removed  by  hand. 

A  drill  is  then  passed  through 
the  eye  of  each  needle,  to  make 
certain  that  there  is  no  roughness 
that  would  fray  the  thread  as  the 
needle  was  being  used.  Then  the 
finishing-room  does  its  part  to  the 
all  but  perfect  needles.  Cylinders 
covered  with  leather  buffs,  upon 
which  a  polishing  composition  is 
put,  burnish  the  needles.  The 
workman  handles  each  needle 
separately.  The  points  are  then 
ground  a  little,  for  the  cycle  of 
operations  has  blunted  them 
slightly.  An  operator  holds 
them  against  a  stone  mill  for 
this  purpose.  Then  the  needles 
are  rubbed  between  two  pieces 
of  buff  leather  to  remove  any 
moisture  or  stains.  Finally,  they 
are  taken  into  hot  store-rooms 
for  some  time,  as  a  last  precaution, 
and  then  they  are  made  up  into 


METALS 


7.    TACK    AND    TINGLE   MAKING 
MACHINE 

(Bond  *  Cooper,  Birmingham) 

the  familiar  'packets  which  we  see  on  the  market,       for  this 

This  brief  review  of  the  processes  of  needle  manu- 
facture will  make  it   hard   to   understand  how  the 

needlewoman   can   purchase  needles  for  the  small 

price  at  which  any  haberdasher  or  draper   will  be 

pleased  to  supply' them. 

Wire  Nails.     The  manufacture  of  wire  nails 

is  an  enormous  industry,  which  is,  however,  chiefly 

in  the  hands  of  German   firms,  who  command  the 

greater    part    of  the     world's  trade  in    common 

varieties  of  wire  nails.      The  functions  of  the  wire 

nail  machine  is   similar  to  that  of  the  pinmaking 

machine,  which  we  have  already  examined,  although 

there  is  no  great  similarity  between  the  two.     Wire 

nail  manufacture  is  a  much  simpler  process  than 

pinmaking.      In     the    former     case 

there    are    no     elaborate     pointing, 

polishing,  and  finishing  operations  to 

be  gone   through.     The   wire  is  fed 

into  a  machine    in   the  coil,  and  is 

automatically  straightened,  cut  into 
lengths  suitable  for  the  nails  being 
made,  pointed,  and  headed.  The 
operations  of  cutting  and  pointing  are 
performed  at  the  same  time.  The 
end  of  the  wire,  as  it  enters  the 
machine,  is  gripped  by  dies,  cutters 

part  it  into  suitable  lengths,  and  the  (Sir  James  Fanner  &  Sons,  Salford) 
flat  head  is  put  on  by  a  percussive 
or  a  pressing  part  of  the  mechanism.  There  are 
two  types  of  machines,  one  of  which  makes  the 
head  by  successive  blows,  and  the  other  by 
pressure.  The  latter  machine  [7]  is  the  better  and 
the  more  generally  used.  Its  output  is  much  larger 
than  that  of  the  percussive  machine.  The  output 
of  a  machine  is  from  100  to  300  nails  per  minute, 
according  to  size,  and  with  mechanical  means  of 
yielding  such  an  enormous  output  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  old-time  nailer  is  extinct  as  a 
craftsman.  Clout  nails  and  wrought  shoe  nails  and 
hobs,  none  of  which  are,  however,  made  from  wire, 


th  Jr°m  l  in"  UP  to  6  in"  a 

thicknesses  are  made  ,„  every  size.  Almost  all  the 
wire  nails  used  or  manufactured  in  this  country  are 
made  of  round  or  oval  wire,  the  proportions  bein. 
about  5  per  cent,  of  oval  wire  nails,  or  brads,  used 
for  door  panels  and  other  purposes,  and  the  remain 
mg  9o  per  cent,  being  round 
wire  nails  with  the  checkered 
heads.  The  oval  wire  nail.,  have 
usually  a  clasp  head,  which  is 
narrow,  and  owes  its  strength  to 
its  height  instead  of  to  its  size  in 
either  direction  laterally.  The 
purpose  of  this  form  of  head  is 
to  enable  it  to  be  sunk  into  the 
door-  panel  moulding,  so  as  not 
to  be  visible  in  the  finished  door. 
In  some  countries  square  wire 
nails  are  the  most  acceptable 
variety.  Obviously,  any  section 
of  wire  nail  desired  can  be  made 
by  feeding  the  machine  with 
suitable  wire,  and  any  shape  of 
head  can  be  given  by  equipping 
the  machine  with  suitable  head- 
ing dies.  Small  brass  and  iron 
nails  for  shoes  are  made  in  the 
manner  described,  but  the  sizes  of 


WIRE-COILING   MACHINE 


long. 

Fig.  7  shows   a  maohine  used 
smaller    class    of   work.     Its    particular 
purpose  is  for  wire  tacks  and  tingles. 

Wire  Coiling.  There  are  numerous  purposes 
for  which  wire  coils  are  used.  Fig.  8  illustrates  a 
machine  for  either  hand  or  power  use.  The  wire 
coil  may  be  seen  issuing  from  the  coiling  gauge. 
The  machine  is  simple  in  its  use,  and  rapid  in  its 
output.  More  complicated  machines  make  up- 
holsterers' springs,  which  are  made  of  steel  wire 
coated  with  brass  or  copper,  usually  the  latter. 
Such  machines  are  automatic,  making  each  spring 
narrow  in  the  waist,  as  required,  and  cutting 
it  off  when  finished. 

Wire  Ropes  and  Cables.  Wire  ropes 
are  divided  into  three  classes :  "  laid  ropes," 
''  formed  ropes  "  and  "  cable  laid 
ropes,"  and  there  are  important 
differences  between  them.  The  first 
has  a  central  core  of  hemp  or  soft 
wire  surrounded  by  six  strands,  each 
containing  a  similar  central  core.  A 
formed  rope,  again,  has  a  greater 
number  of  wires  in  its  composition. 
Around  the  six  wires  forming  the 
strand  as  used  in  the  laid  rope  are 
placed  another  layer  of  wires,  or, 
perhaps,  more  than  one  ;  otherwise 
there  is  no  difference.  A  cable  laid 
rope  is  used  only  for  large  diameters 
and  is  made  by  stranding  six  laid  ropes  together  to 
form  one  rope. 

Flexible  Ropes.  Wire  ropes,  or  cables, 
are  often  required  to  be  more  flexible  than  is 
possible  with  only  wire  strands.  .Such  ropes  are 
necessary  for  marine  purposes.  The  usual  practice 
is  to  make  a  wire  rope  around  a  hempen  core. 
Sometimes  each  individual  strand  of  the  rope  has 
a  core  of  hemp.  The  making  of  such  composite 
ropes  presents  no  difficulties  if  the  working  of  the 
ordinary  stranding  machines  be  understood.  The 
saving  of  both  bulk  and  weight  by  the  use  of  wire- 

5173 


METALS 

is  very  great.     According  to  Lloyd's  regulations  a  hempen  rope  of  13  in. 
nference  and  a  wire  hawser  of  4£  in.  are  considered  of  equal  strength.     The 
former  weighs  40  Ib.  per  fathom  and  the  latter  only  15  Ib.     Wire  ropes  for  marine 
purposes  are  generally  made  of  galvanised  wire  and  have  usually  hempen  cores. 

Manufacturing  Wire  Ropes.  The  manufacture  of  wire  ropes  and 
cables  represents  the  largest  and  most  important  use  to  which  wire  is  applied, 
and  its  use  is  ever  increasing  with  the  growing  demand  for  all 
kinds  of  metallic  ropes  and  cables.  The  last  fifteen  years  have  seen 
the  introduction  of  many  improvements  in  the  construction  of  the 
pu.n-hinery  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  wire  ropes  and  cables. 
These  improvements  are  the  outcome  of  the  ever-growing  demand 
for  better,  stronger,  heavier,  longer,  and  more  diversified  wire  ropes 
and  cables.  For  many  purposes,  a  great  demand  has  sprung  up  for 
\\  ire  ropes  and  cables  composed  of  a  large  number  of  fine  wires,  so 
as  to  render  them  more  flexible,  and  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible 
certainty  concerning  their  quality. 

Many  very  heavy  cables  are  being  used  in  connection  with  mines, 
bridges,  ropeways,  and  similar  work,  and  these  can  be  made  only 
on  very  large  machines  ;  such  machinery  can  make  cables  weighing 
up  to  80  tons  each  in  one  length — that  is  to  say.  in  the  case  of  an 
8- strand  cable  weighing  80  tons,  each  strand  has  to  weigh  ten  tons, 
and  the  cabling  machine  carries  8-strand  reelsv 

Considerable  variety  has  been  introduced  into  the  manufacture  of 
cables  by  the  use  of  wire  of  irregular  section,  and  machinery  has  been 
modified  to  facilitate  the  use  of  irregular-shaped  wires.  Generally 
speaking  also,  many  improvements  have  bee  i  made  so  as  to  facilitate 
the  employment  of  high  speed  in  the  running  of  cable  machinery. 
At  the  present  time,  stranding  and  cabling  machines  are  running 
about  50  per  cent,  quicker  than  formerly. 

Wire  Winding.  The  first  operation  is  the  winding  of  the 
wires  on  to  the  bobbins  of  the  machines.  This  has  to  be 
done  with  care  and  regularity,  so  that  the  bobbins  can 
contain  their  full  capacity  of  wire,  and  also  to  ensure  that 
the  wires  run  freely  from  the  bobbins.  Wire-winding 
machines  are  made  to  wind  simultaneously  on  to  six 
bobbins  if  the  bobbins  are  small,  say  of  5  in.  to  8  in. 
diameter ;  if  they  are  large,  each  winding  machine  is 
constructed  to  wind  one  bobbin; 

Recent  improvements  have  been  introduced  into  the 
construction  of  these  machines  to  make  them  automatic 
in  action,  so  that  whereas  formerly  one  skilled  n)an  was 
required  to  attend  to  two  machines,  now  one  unskilled  man 
••an  attend  to  seven  machines. 

Fig.  10  represents  an  improved  wire-winding  machine. 
During  the  passage  of  the  wire  from  the  reel  to  the  bobbin 
it  is  not  only  kept  constantly  tight,  but  also  in  constant 
contact  with  a  horizontal  guide  or  traverse- pulley,  furnished 
with  a  groove.  This  effects  a  regular  winding-on  of  the 
wire,  with  the  result  that  on  each  bobbin  the  maximum 
quantity  of  wire  is  wound,  and  in  the  most  regular  manner 
possible.  The  traverse  motion  can  easily  be  regulated  in 
order  to  adapt  it  to  the  thickness  of  the  wire  to  be 
wound,  and  to  the  width  between  the  flanges  of  the  bobbin. 
A  further  important  advantage  results  through  the  wire 
being  treated  with  the  greatest  care  in  its  passage  from  the 
ring  to  the  spool.  The  traversing-pulley  revolves  in  the 
-inic  direction  as  the  wire  and  runs  at  the  same  speed, 
so  as  to  avoid  all  scraping  or  scratching,  which  is 
damaging  in  the  case  of  galvanised  or  tinned  wire. 

Strand  Forming.     The  next  operation  is  forming 
the  wire  strands,  some  of  which  are  made  with  a  hemp 
core,  and  some  without  core.     All  the  bobbins  containing 
the   wires  to  be  used  in  making  the  strand  are  placed  in  the  wire- 
stranding  machine,  each  bobbin  in  a  steel  frame  or  flyer.     All  the  flyers 
are  fixed  in  iron  rings,  which  revolve  round  a  central  tube  through 
which  the  core  passes.     If  the  strand  is  to  be  constructed  of  19  wires, 
the  stranding  machine  must  carry  18  bobbins.     The  wires  are  drawn 
from  the  bobbins  with  the  utmost  regularity,  and  passing  through  dies, 
suine  their  proper  position,  and  form  the  desired  strand. 

Mr. mdin^  machines  of  the  most  modern  construction  must  be  able 

to    inaki-    Brands    composed   of  a    maximum  number  of  wires,   and 

be   able    to   revolve    at  the   maximum   speed.     The   best   means   of 

ing   this   is   by  combining  several  machine    together,   and    by 

T_r  llicir  diameter  a<  <mall  a<   |>o-~ih]p. 


Combined     Stranding    Machines.      A 

growing  demand  exists  for  combined  wire  stranding 
ma  chines,  capable  of  running  at  high  speeds  and 
makirg  strands  composed  of  a  large  number  of 
wires.  The  principal  reason  for  this  is  that  ropes 
and  electric-  cables  possessing,  among  other  special 
qualities,  much  greater  flexibility  than  formerly, 
are  in  ever  increasing  demand.  These  machines 
possess  several  important  advantages,  which  we 
set  forth  by  taking  as  an  example  a  treble  stranding 
machine  composed  of  three  sections  to  carry  6,  12, 
and  18  bobbins  respectively. 

Each  combined  treble  stranding  machine  is 
capable  of  being  transformed  into  three  separate  and 
independent  stranding  machines  in  such  a  manner 
that  each  section  can  work  in  either  direction,  make 
its  own  strand,  and  wind  it  on  its  own  reel.  Thus : 

Section  "  A  "  can  make  a  strand  of  7  wires. 

Section  "  B  "  can  make  a  strand  of  13  wires. 

Section.  "  C  "  can  make  a  strand  of  19  wires. 

Each  section  can  run  at  the  full  rate  of  the  speed 
of  which  a  machine  of  its  size  is  capable. 

The  sections  can  be  run  semi-independently. 
.Sections  "  A  "  and  "  B  "  can  be  run  together  to 
make  19- wire  strand,  while  section  *'C"  is  simul- 
taneously making  a  19- wire  strand:  or  sections 
"B"  and  "C" 
can  be  run  to- 
gether, making 
strand  up  to  31 
wires,  while  sec- 
tion  "A"  is 
making  a  7 -wire 
strand.  When  all 
the  three  sections 
of  the  machine 
a  r  e  combined, 
they  can  be  run 
in  either  direction, 
and  produce 
strands  up  to  37 
wires,  at  the  speed  J 
of  section  ''  C."  £ 
The  three  sec- 
tions, when  com- 
bined, are  able  to 
make  the  strand 
by  forming  a  core, 
say  of  7  wires,  putting  round  it  a  layer  of  12  wires, 
and  putting  round  it  another  layer  of  18  wires.  The 
three  sections,  when  combined,  are  able  to  form  a 
strand  by  carrying  all  the  wires  to  the  front  lay- 
plate,  and  there  combining  them  simultaneously 
into  one  strand  of  37  wires. 

These  combined  machines  are  not  merely  several 
machines  placed  one  after  the  other,  but  are  specially 
designed  for  the  manufacture  of  multi-wire  strands. 
If  stranding  machines  of  ordinary  construction  are 
placed  one  behind  the  other,  the  length  of  the 
combined  machine  is  enormous.  To  avoid  this, 
each  section  is  furnished  with  its  own  draw  drum, 
and,  alongside  it,  its  own  winding- on  apparatus,  so 
that  when  each  section  is  working  as  a  separate 
machine,  the  three  strands  produced  simultaneously 
are  taken  upwards,  each  passes  round  its  grooved 
swinging  pulley,  then  descends,  and  each  one  is 
wound  on  to  its  reels.  Some  machines  are  employed 
to  make  strands  up  to  61  wires  by  using  a  wire  core 
of  7  wires,  and  are  composed  of : 

Section  "  A  "  carrying  12  bobbins. 

Section  "  B  "  carrying  18  bobbins. 

Section  "  C  "  carrying  24  bobbins. 

For  telephone  cables,  combined  machines  are 
made  to  carry  up  to  224  pairs  of  wires. 


METALS 

Wire  Cabling.  Wire  cable  machine-  aw 
made  both  of  vertical  and  horizontal  construction. 
The  former  are  constructed  each  with  six,  eight, 
or  nine  flyers  to  carry  the  strand  bobbins,  and,  in 
addition,  each  machine  has  one  central  flyer  to 
carry  the  core  bobbin.  The  bobbins  vary  very 
much  in  size,  and  may  contain  each  from*2  tons 
to  10  tons  of  strand. 

Several  important  improvements  have  been  made 
in  these  machines.  For  instance,  the  whole  body 
of  each  machine,  instead  of  revolving  on  one 
central  step,  now  revolves  on  a  series  of  steel  balls, 
placed  in  special  steel  circular  paths.  This  arran  «,'<•• 
ment  reduces '  very  materially  the  power  required 
for  driving  the  machines,  and  does  away  with  the 
annoyance  and  frequent  stoppages  arising  from 
heating  and  wearing  of  the  central  step  in  the  old 
style  of  machines.  Each  closing  machine  in 
furnished  with  an  improved  double-geared  winding - 
on  apparatus,  working  automatically  with  self- 
acting  traversing  motion  for  winding  the  finished 
rope  or. cable  on  to  the  reel. 

The  horizontal  wire  rope  and  cable  machines  are 
constructed  to  cany  from  six  to  12  steel  flyers  and 
bobbins.  The  body  of  such  a  machine  is  mounted 
on  a  powerful  steel  tube  revolving  in  long  bearings  ; 
the  core 


10.    WIRE- WINDING   MACHINE 


through  this  tube; 
a  stand  is  sup 
plied  for  the  back 
of  each  machine 
to  carry  the  core 
bobbin.  The  rings 
of  the  body 
mounted  on  the 
tube  run  on  anti- 
friction rollers, 
which  are  easily 
regulated,  sup- 
port the  body  and 
facilitate  the  run- 
ning. The  flyers 
carrying  the  bob- 
bins are  made  of 
steel.  The  bob- 
bins vary  very 
much  in  size,  .-n y 
from  a  5-cwt.  to  a 
GO-cwt.  capacity.  Each  machine  has  a  suitable 
winding-on  apparatus,  with  reel,  indicator,  etc.  To 
ensure  the  maximum  speed,  the  cast-iron  body  rings 
are  hooped  with  wrought- iron  hoops,  shrunk  on 
hot,  as  a  security  against  the  danger  of  accidents. 

Fig.  9  shows  the  longitudinal  section  of  a  Com- 
pound Wire  Cable  machine  which  makes  the  strand* 
and  lays  the  rope  in  one  operation.  It  carries 
42  bobbins  of  wire,  up  to  No.  11  gauge,  and  makes 
in  one  operation  a  7-strand  cable,  3  in.  in  circum- 
ference and  without  any  splice,  whatever  may  be 
the  length  and  weight  required. 

The  driving  is  communicated  from  a  headstock. 
by  means  of  spur  gearing,  to  a  hollow  central  steel 
tube,  17  ft.  6  in.  long,  6  in.  external  diameter,  with 
hole  through  2  in.  diameter ;  this  steel  shaft  runs 
the  entire  length  of  the  machine  to  the  lay-plate, 
and  carries  the  whole  of  the  stranding  mechanism, 
and  is  made  hollow  to  allow  of  the  central  core  for 
the  cable  passing  along  the  inside.  By  means  of  a 
sun  and  planet  motion,  the  centre  wheel  of  which 
is  fixed  to  the  steel  tube,  motion  is  conveyed  to  six 
bobbins,  which  carry  the  six  central  wires  for  the 
six  strands,  and  these  bobbins  are  carried  by  them- 
selves on  a  separate  ring.  Then  follow  three  other 
rings  also  placed  on  the  central  tube ;  between  the 

.-,  i :.-, 


METALS 

first  ;in.l  M-eond  rin.u>  n-v..l\<-  three  *t  rand  ing 
apparata.  :IIK!  between  tin-  second  ami  third  rings 
I  hree  other  stranding  apparata.  all  these  >i\  >trand- 
mi:  apparata  l>ein»-  driven  by  means  of  spur  gearing 
Jixed  to  the  central  steel  tube,  and  motions  are 
introduced  for  lengthening  and  shortening  the  lay 
of  the  wires  in  the  strands.  The  six  strands  pa-.s 
through  dies  so  as  to  ensure  perfect  rotundity, 
thence  over  guide  rollers  and  through  the  head  of 
the  machine. 

After  passing   through    the    lay-plate,    the   six 
st  rands  enter  a  s^t  of  dies,  in  the  centre  of  which 
passes  the  core,  and-  are  thus  formed  into  a  cable. 
•These  dies  can  be  set  nearer  to  or  farther  from  the 
lay-plate,  according  to  the  diameter  of  the   cable 
being  made.     The  finished  cable  passes  five  or  six 
1  inics  round  a  draw  drum  5ft.  in  diameter,  which  is 
driven  by  gearing.     An  ingenious  arrangement  is 
•i  tt  ached  to  the  delivery  end  of  the  machine,  which, 
working  by  friction  on  the  edge  of  the  cable  as  it 
is  being  delivered,  automatically  records  the  exact 
length  as  it  is  being  made.     The  operation  of  the 
machine  will  be  understood  from  the  above  descrip- 
1  ion,  but  it  may  be  interesting  to  add  that,  assuming 
it,    is    intended   to  make   a   cable 
composed    of   six   strands    and  a 
central    core,    the    central    tube, 
which    carries   the    six    stranding 
apparata,    each    carrying  the   re- 
quired number  of  bobbins  all  full 
of    wire,    being    set    in    motion 
causes    the   six   wire 
strands  to  issue  from 
the      six     stranding 
apparata  and  to  com- 
bine    together.       In 
their  centre  is  placed 
the  core  of  manilla,  or 
hemp    rope,    which, 
having      been      pre- 
viously    saturated 
with    tar   oil,    passes 
along  the  middle   of 
the  central  tube  and 
takes  its  place  exactly 
ill  the  centre,  where 
J-he  six  strands  com- 
bine  around   it,  and 
•thus  form  the  cable. 
Uses    of  Wire 
Ropes.     The   industrial'  uses  of  wire    ropes   are 
always  extending.     At  the  top  of  the  tree  are  enor- 
mous wire  cables  for  suspension  bridges.     Messrs. 
Kichard  Johnson  &  Nephew,  Limited,  of  Manchester, 
recently  made  for  a  suspension  bridge  at  Cincinnati, 
United   States  of  America,  two  wire  cables,  each 
a  mile  long  and  each  containing  52,000  wires  from 
••ml  1o  end.     The  total  weight  of  the  two  is  500  tons 
and  the  breaking  strain  is  0,500  tons.     Incidentally 
it  is  a  source  of  national  pride  that  an  English  com- 
pany can   compete  successfully  for  such  articles  in 
i   high-tariff  wire-manufacturing  country  like  the 
United  States. 

Ropes  for  winding  purposes  find  their  chief  sphere 
for  use  in  mines  [see  page  3760]. 

Certain  cautions  must  be  observed  in  the  use  of 

rope.;  f()|-  hoisting  purposes.      A  steel  rope  is  not  so 

flexible   as    a   hempen  cable    and    the  strength    is 

8ly    impaired   if  the    pulleys  over    which    the 

ropes  nm  are  of  too  small  a  diameter.     Such  ropes 

"'ild  never  In-  made  to  coil  in  more  than  one 

direct  km,  as  fe  sometimes  done.  To  eaic-ea  wire  rope 

to  coil   in  two  direction*,  one  opposite  to  the  other, 


11.     WIRE-WEAVING    MACHINE 
(Sir  James  Fanner  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  Salford) 


is  to  subject  it  to  an  undesirable  strain  and  tc 
shorten  the  life  of  its  efficiency  by  one-half.  Ro])cs 
ror  hoisting  purposes  should  be  freely  lubricated 
when  in  use. 

Winding  ropes  for  use  in  mines  are  usually 
about  4  in.  in  diameter,  and  the  drums  or 
pulleys  upon  which  they  run  have  usually  s> 
diameter  of  from  20  ft.  to  30  ft. 

Wire  Netting.      The   trade  in  wire  netting  is 
very  large.     Yet  it  is  little  more  than  half  a  century 
old.     In  the  'forties  of  last  century  wire  netting 
began  to  be  made  by  cumbrous  hand  process,  to 
describe  which  would  have  only  a  historical  interest, 
it  is  with  the  wire-netting  machine  first  invented  by 
Mr.  Barnard,  of  Norwich,  in  1855,  that  we  have  con- 
cern.   The  wire  generally  used  for  netting  is  common 
annealed    iron   or   mild    steel   wire.      Wire-netting 
machines  may  differ  in  detail,  but  the  principles  of 
most  are  similar.     They  are  invariably  adaptable 
to  make  many  widths  of  netting  and  many  different 
meshes.     The  limits  of  width  are  from  1  ft.  to  6  ft., 
and  even   up  to    9  ft.   may   be    purchased.      The 
meshes   obtainable   run   from    |    in.   up   to  4    in., 
the  larger  sizes  being  usually  called  "  sheep  v   net- 
ting.   The  most  common  meshes  are 
from  \\  in.  to  2  in.      The  wire  used 
runs  from  20  and   22  gauge  for  J  in. 
mesh,  up  to  from  10  to  10  gauge  for 
4  in.    mesh.      In   this    country    the 
standard  roll  of  netting  is  50  ft.  long. 
The    usual    wire-netting     machine 
consists  essentially  of  a  number  of 
tubes  within  each   of  which  a  tight 
coil  of   wire  is  wound,  always  by  a 
special    machine    for    the     purpose. 
These  tubes,  which  contain   the  so- 
called     "  helices  "     of 
tightly  -  coiled      wire, 
have  at  their  top  ends 
semicircular      pinions. 
Another       series       of 
wires     is    fed    to    the 
machine  from  bobbins, 
and    are    led    through 
tubes  also  fitted  with 
semicircular      pinion-.. 
By  a  peculiar  half  turn 
and     sliding     motion. 
these    tubes  "  waltz  " 
about   as   the    wire   is 
pulled   througn    the    machine   and  rolled   upon    a 
cylinder.  Suitable  apparatus  control  the  size  of  the 
mesh  and  the  strand  that  forms  the  selvedge  border. 
Wire  Cloth  or  Gauze.      Wire  woven  into 
fabric    is    used    in    many    industries.     The    paper- 
making  trade  uses  large  quantities,  the  gold-mining 
industry  has  need  of  wire  gauge  of  speeial  quality. 
and  flour   millers   make   demands   upon   the  wire- 
weaver.     Wire  may  be  woven  so  fine  that  40,000 
meshes    go    to    the   square    inch.     This    degree    of 
fineness  can  be  better  appreciated  by  an  illustra- 
tion.    The  half-tone  photographic  blocks  usod   as 
illustrations    in    this    article    have    a   surface   made 
up  of  minute  points.     There   are    1-1,400  of  these 
points    in   every   square   inch,    but   the   wire   cloth 
mentioned  above  has  almost   three  times   as  many 
holes  as  the  half-tone  block  has  points. 

This  degree  of  fineness  is.  however,  unusuaT. 
The  machine  commonly  employed  for  weaving 
wire  [11]  can  produce  a  nie-h  of  from  two  to  100 
holes  to  the  lineal  in  h — t'lat  is,  of  from  four  to 
1,000  holes  to  the  square  inch.  Jt  is  really  a  loom 
driven  \>\  powi-r  and  is  entirely  automatic  in  action. 


WHEATSTONE'S  ABC  SYSTEM 

How  Complicated  Mechanism  Produces  Simple  Operation. 
Double-current  Working.      The  Cure  for  Capacity  Troubles 


Group  10 

TELEGRAPHS 
6 

Continued  from 
page  5067 


By   D.    H.    KENNEDY 

TTHE  communicator,  as  the  sending  instrument 
is  called,  is  made  up  of  the  generator,  the 
contact  maker  and  pawl  arm,  and  the  con- 
trolling keys.  The  generator  [36],  in  modern 
forms,  is  the  same  as  used  in  magneto-tele- 
phone sets.  It  is  really  an  alternator  [see  page 
1357]  in  its  most  simple  form. 

Three  horseshoe-shaped  permanent  magnets 
with  their  similar  poles  together  provide  the  lines 
of  force  for  the  field.  Two  soft  iron  pole  pieces 
are  provided,  one  for  the  north  side  and  one  for 
the  south  side,  and  their  inner  faces  are  holloAved 
out  so  as  to  allow  the  armature  to  revolve  with 
only  a  very  small  air  gap. 

The  armature  is  a  shuttle-shaped  piece  of  soft 
iron,  H-shaped  in  cross  section,  on  which  is 
Avound  many  turns  of  silk-covered  copper  wire. 
One  end  of  the  armature  Avinding  is  metallically 
connected  to  the  armature,  and  so  is  in  contact 
Avith  the  magnets  of  the  generator.  The  other 
end  is  connected  to  an  insulated  stud  which  is 
brought  out  at  the  end  of 
the  axle  as  shown  in  37. 

As  already  stated,  each 
revolution  of  such  an  alter- 
nator produces  two  current 
impulses,  one  positive  and 
one  negative.  Above  the 
generator  and  immediately 
under  the  dial  (already  shown 
on  page  4384)  is  placed  the 
mechanism  for  controlling 
the  sending  of  currents. 

First    it    is    necessary    to 
provide  that  only  one   key 
shall  be  depressed  at  a  time. 
This  is  arranged  by  the  uses 
of    an    endless    chain   passing  round    as. 
of    pulleys,  one  for  each  space,    and  adjuste 
so  that  the  depression  of  one  key  forces  all  the 
available    slack  in    between  two  pulleys.     The 
depression  of    any  other  key  will  therefore   be 
possible  onlvin  conjunction  with  the  restoring 
of  the  first  mentioned  to  normal.     This  is  shown 
in  38,  together  with  the  means  of  adjustment. 

Referring  now  to  39,  the  axle  C,  which  is 
turned  by  the  crank  handle  carries  the  generator 
driving  wheel,  and  also  the  bevel  wheel  D,  which 
gears  with  the  larger  bevel  wheel  D,. 
wheels  are  proportioned  so  that  fifteen  resolu- 
tions of  the  armature,  producing  thirty  currents, 
exactly  coincide  with  one  revolution  of  D,. 

Riaklly  attached  to  D,  is  the  disc  K,  wrth 
escape  teeth  cut  round  its  Pf1?^^.^*,!1? 
wheel  and  disc  together  run  free  on  the  axle  rf. 
On  the  same  axle,  and  immediately  abo  e  the 
escape  wheel,  is  a  flat  brass  arm,  A,  cariymg  o 
tts Pouter  lower  end  a  pawl,  p,  with  a  tail-piece.  t, 
and  two  stop-pins  limiting  its  play. 


Two  long,  flat  springs,  s(  and  s.>,  act  upon 
the  pawl ;  s,,  the  stronger,  presses  it  forward, 
causing  it  to  engage  with  K,  and  so  to  be  swung 
round.  It  will  so  continue  until  the  tail-piece 
comes  into  contact  with  a  depressed  key ;  *_, 
then  moves  the  paAvl  outwards  aAvay  from  tin 
teeth  of  K. 

Above  the  rotating  arm  A  there  is  still  another 
arm,  A15  on  the  same  axle.  Above  Aj  there  is  a 
conical  steel  spring  which  is  pressed  down  by 
the  adjustable  collar,  C,,  which  is  fixed  at  a 
suitable  point  on  the  axle.  The  upper  extremity 
of  the  latter  passes  through  a  bearing  and  tlien 
through  the  dial,  carrying  on  its  end  the  pointer, 
fixed  exactly  over  A.  Returning  to  A,,  the 
contact  arm,  its  outer  end  is  normally  held  in 
the  insulated  position  by  means  of  the  spring, 
S3.  •  When  the  tension  of  this  spring  is  over- 
come it  moves  over  and  connects  the  generator 
to  the  line. 

NOAV  let  us  reconsider  the  sending  of  the 
word  "Do,"  noting  the  be- 
haviour of  the  mechanism. 
Normally  we  have  the 
pointer  at  -f  and  the  arm  A 
lying  immediately  beneath. 
The  crank  handle  is  turned 
and  D  and  K  revolve,  but 
clear  of  A,  which  is  held  by 
the  tail-piece  lying  against 
the  lower  end  of  key. 

A,  is  also  held  in  its  normal 
position  by  S .,.    NOAV  we  de- 
press Key  D!    Immediately 
the   paAvl   engages  with    K 
and   the    arm    A   and   the 
pointer  moves  round.    The 
force  exerted  by  the  conical  steel  spring  pre^in^ 
\   and  A  together  is  sufficient  to  overcome  S:i ; 
therefore,  while  A  is  moving  round,  A,  is  con- 
necting the  generator  to  the  line  and  a  cum 
is  sent  out  for  each  letter  passed.     When  I 
reached   the    projecting  key  engages  with  th 
tail  end  of  the  pawl,  the  latter  disengages  from 
K  arm  A  ceases  to  rotate;  and  the  contact  am 
is 'therefore  drawn  back  by  S:,     The  supp  v  of 
currents  to  the  line  is  thus  interrupted  at  1 
proper  instant,  and  the  distant  indicator  nee< 
will  be  at  D.     The  same  description,  of 
applies  to  other  letters. 

The  ABC  Indicator.  As  in  the  Post 
Office  standard  relay,  we  have  the  large ^curve 
magnet  the  IAVO  coils,  and  the  two  armature* 
fixed  on  one  axle.  Referring  to  41,  the  arm  A, 
which  takes  the  place  occupied  in  the  relay  by  the 
tongue,  is  arranged  so  that  it  causes  the  axle  which 
the  indicating  needle  to '  <^e  »y 


,-ausc  the  axle,  a 


,  tc  rotate. 


TELEGRAPHS 

Fig.  42  illustrates  the  method  by  which  this 
rotary  motion  is  secured.  E  is  an  escape  wheel 
with  15  teeth  ;  pi  and  p2  are  light  springs ; 
rl  and  r2  are  small  screws.  When  the  armatures 
are  actuated  by  alternating  currents,  the  arm  A 
[41]  oscillates,  carrying  the  centre  of  E  from 
side  to  side.  When  it  moves  from  the  left  side,  as 
shown,  PI  restrains  its  upper  part,  causing  the 
under  side  to  move,  so  that  another  tooth  comes 
round  over  p2.  A  movement  of  the  armature 
from  right  to  left  in  a  similar  way  results  in  a 
tooth  moving  forward  under  pi,  so  that  two 
oscillations  of  the  armature  produce  rotation 
to  the  extent  of  one  tooth. 

Zero  Setting  Handle.  As  signalling 
must  always  begin  from  -J-,  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  for  setting  the  indicator  needle  to 
zero.  For  this  purpose  a  handle,  H,  is  provided, 

the    oscillation  .  of   

which  produces  the 
same  effect  on  the 
needle  as  do  the 
signalling  currents. 

Combined 
Indicator  and 
Bell.  In  the 
modern  form  the  in- 
dicator is  arranged 
so  that  it  does  duty 
as  a  bell  to  call 
attention. 

The  four  pole 
pieces  of  the  coils 
are  extended  up- 
wards. A  light,  bar- 
shaped  permanent 
magnet  is  provider1 
with  soft  iron  T 
ends,  as  armatures, 
and  has  fixed  to  its 
centre  a  project- 
ing bell  hammer. 
This  combination 
is  arranged  on 
pivots,  so  that  it 
rocks  from  side  to 
side  under  the 
influence  of 
alternating  cur- 
rents. Bell  domes 
are  placed  at  suit- 
able points  to  re- 
ceive the  impacts  of  the  hammer.  The  arrange- 
ment is  on  the  same  lines  as  the  magneto  bell 
[see  Telephones].  During  actual  work  the 
hammer  is  clamped  by  a  switch. 

The  resistance  of  the  indicator  is  250  ohms, 
and  of  the  generator  800  ohms.  Fig.  43  is  a 
diagram  of  the  connections. 

Double  •  current  Working.  Let  us 
take,  for  example,  a  single-current  sounder 
circuit,  and  consider  what  occurs  when  we 
depress  the  key  and  connect  the  battery  to  the 
line.  The  first  supply  of  energy  goes  to  charge 
the  line,  and  before  this  charge  has  reached  a 
suitable  value  the  distant  receiving  instrument 
cannot  l>e  actuated.  Moreover,  when  we  finish 


43 


WHEATSTONE   ABC   MECHANISMS 

37.  Generator  armature     38.  Endless  chain  adjustment     39  and 

40.  Communicator  mechanism     41.    Combined  bell  and  indicator 

42.  Indicator  escapement     43.  ABC  connections     44.   Dotible- 

cuiTeut  sounder  connections 


the  signal  and  allow  the  backstop  of  the  key  to 
connect  the  line  to  earth,  we  leave  the  line  in  a 
charged  condition,  and  this  charge  must  escape 
to  earth  and  leave  the  line  clear  for  a  second 
signal.  On  short  aerial  lines  the  time  necessary 
for  these  charge  and  discharge  operation?  is 
negligible,  but  on  long  lines,  and  more  especially 
on  long  underground  lines,  the  time  is  so  con- 
siderable as  to  interfere  with  the  signals. 

Capacity.  This  difference  between  the  long 
and  the  short  line  is  in  virtue  of  their  capacities. 
The  capacity  of  lines  on  single-wire  circuits 
varies — firstly,  directly  as  their  surface,  so  that 
increasing  either  length  or  diameter  increases 
the  capacity ;  secondly,  inversely,  as  their  dis- 
tance from  earth  ;  and,  thirdly,  in  the  case  of 
insulated  underground  wires,  directly  as  the 
specific  inductive  capacity  of  the  dielectric  or  in- 

sulating    material. 

Immediately  at- 
tempts were  made 
to  work  at  high 
speed  on  long  cir- 
cuits this  capacity 
effect  caused 
trouble,  but  for- 
tunately a  simple 
cure  was  soon 
found. 

The  sending  ap- 
paratus was  modi- 
fied so  that  instead 
of  signalling  being 
done  by  currents 
for  marks,  and  no 
current  for  spaces, 
marks  were  made 
by  a  current  in 
one  direction  and 
spaces  by  a  current 
in  the  opposite 
direction.  In  other 
words,  after  charg- 
ing the  line,  say, 
positively,  to  send 
the  signal ;  at  its 
termination,  in- 
stead of  allowing 
the  positive  charge 
to  leak  out  com- 
paratively slowly, 
the  line  is  im- 
mediately charged  negatively,  the  first  part  of 
the  negative  charge  absorbing  the  positive,  and 
altering  the  condition  of  the  line  in  a  much  shorter 
time.  Thus  we  have  double  -current  working. 

The  single -current  key  is  displaced  by  a  key 
which  controls  both  poles  of  the  battery,  and  is 
provided  with  a  switch  for  connecting  the  line 
to  the  receiving  instrument  when  the  key  is  not 
in  use  for  sending.  Fig.  12  [page  4607]  shows  a 
double -current  key,  while  44  shows  it  as  given 
in  diagrams.  Our  receiving  apparatus  must  be 
polarised,  as  is  the  P.O.  standard  relay.  It  is 
not  necessary  when  working  with  double  current 
to  adjiist  the  relay*  with  a  spacing  bias.  Fig.  44 
is  a  diagram  of  a  double-current  sounder  circuit. 


Continued 


5178 


JOINERY 


Beads       Doors   and  Door  Frames.      Hinging.     Window  Sashes    and    Frames. 
Movable  and  Fixed  Sashes.  Hinged  Windows.  Shutters.  Skylights  and  Lanterns 


Group  4 

BUILDING 

36 

Continued  from 
page  HW5 


By  WILLIAM  J.    HORNER 


"THE  work  of  the  joiner  is  confined  chiefly  to  neatly 
finished  fittings  and  constructions  that  are  not 
exposed  to  the  weather.  The  wood  used  must  be 
well  seasoned,  and  not  employed  in  pieces  of  large 
bulk,  or  trouble  will  subsequently  arise  through 
shrinkage.  The  preparation  of  parts,  formation  of 
joints,  mouldings,  etc.,  are  now  done  to  a  large 
extent  by  machinery,  so  that,  except  for  work  on  a 
small  scale,  the  modern  joiner  is  becoming  restricted 
to  assembling  parts  and  fixing  work  in  position. 

Beads  and  Chamfers.  These  simple  forms 
of  ornamentation  are  very  commonly  employed  in 
all  classes  of  joinery.  Examples  of  beads  are  shown 
in  1,  2  and  3.  They  are  usually  formed  with  a 
quirk,  or  groove,  at  one  or  both  sides,  as  shown,  the 
bead  itself  being  flush  with  the  surface  it  is  formed 
oil.  Beads  are  usually  formed  on  the  solid  wood, 
the  operation  of  working  them  being  called  sticking, 
and  the  bead  thus  formed  being  said  to  be  stuck  on, 
as  distinguished  from  being  planted  on,  when  it  is 
made  separately  and  attached.  These  terms  are 
also  employed  in  other  cases  where  there  is  a  choice 
between  working  out  of  the  solid  or  attaching  orna- 
mental parts.  When  they  stand  above  the  surface, 
beads  are  usually  planted  on. 

A  chamfer  is  formed,  as  in  4,  to  remove  the  sharp 
angle  of  a  corner.  When  it  is  not  planed  the  full 
length  of  the  wood,  but  is  rounded  up,  as  shown,  with 
an  inch  or  two  of  the  corner  left  beyond,  it  is  called 
a  stopped  or  stop  chamfer.  Reeds  are  a  series  of 
beads  side  by  side  [5].  Flutes  [6]  are  the  reverse  of 
reeds,  and  are  usually  terminated  as  shown. 

Special  planes  are  used  for  the  formation  of  sur- 
faces that  are  not  flat.  Planes  known  as  hottotvs 
and  rounds  are  used  for  forming  the  hollow  and 
rounded  surfaces  of  straight  mouldings,  etc.  They 
differ  from  rebate  planes  only  in  having  curved  soles. 
Fig.  7  shows  the  type  of  plane,  in  this  case  with 
a  rounding  sole  for  planing  a  hollow  channel,  such 
as  one  of  the  flutes  in  6.  This  kind  of  plane,  how- 
ever, has  been  giving  place  of  late  years  to  tools  of 
the  spokeshave  type,  fitted  with  fence?,  which  adapt 
them  for  both  straight  and  curved  work.  Their 
only  advantage  is  that  they  are  provided  with  sets 
of  irons  of  different  sizes  and  forms,  so  that  one  tool 
is  thus  capable  of  doing  a  great  variety  of  work. 
Their  bodies  are  of  iron  and  their  soles  flat,  the 
cutter  projecting  below  to  the  necessary  amount. 
Beads  are  formed  with  cutters  of  the  required  shape 
for  making  both  bead  and  quirk ;  reeds  and  flutes 
with  cutters  for  forming  a  certain  number  of  rounds 
or  hollows  side  by  side.  Chamfers  are  often  cut 
with  a  special  plane,  but  it  is  not  so  necessary  as  in 
the  case  of  beads.  A  return  bead  [3]  is  formed  with 
the  same  plane  as  used  for  a  single  bead  [1]. 

Doors.  The  methods  of  constructing  these  are 
typical  of  all  other  work  in  which  large  surfaces  of 
wood  are  required.  There  are  three  main  types  of 
door,  with  numerous  minor  distinctions.  The 
simplest  form  is  a  ledged  door,  like  8,  but  without 
the  diagonal  braces.  With  the  diagonal  braces  it 
is  known  as  a  ledged  and  braced  door.  The  next 
advance  on  this  is  a  framed  and  braced  door  [9J. 
Tn  this,  a  frame  is  mortised  and  tenoned  together, 


and  the  boarding  is  tongued  and  grooved  into  it 
flush  with  one  face  of  the  frame,  the  frame 
itself  being  more  than  twice  the  thickness  of  the 
boards,  or  battens,  as  they  are  called.  Of  this 
frame,  however,  only  the  two  uprights  and  top 
rail  are  the  full  'thickness  of  the  door,  and 
it  is  only  into  these  three  members  that  the 
battens  are  tongued.  The  bottom  and  middle 
rail,  and  also  the  braces,  are  thinner,  being  flush 
with  the  back  of  the  frame,  but  nailed  on  to  the 
back  surface  of  the  battens,  and  also  fitting  with 
barefaced  tenons  into  the  uprights,  or  stile*,  as  they 
are  called.  The  door  thus  resembles  an  ordinary 
ledged  door,  but  with  the  addition  of  a  frame  round 
top  and  sides.  This  prevents  shrinkage  in  width, 
because  the  rails  keep  the  stiles  at  a  fixed  distance 
apart,  and  the  stiles  are  too  narrow  to  shrink 
appreciably.  The  other  type  of  door  is  that 
employed  for  ordinary  dwelling  houses  and  for 
articles  of  furniture.  It  is  called  a  panelled  door. 

Panelled  Doors.  Fig.  10  shows  a  very 
simple  form  of  this  door,  consisting  of  a  frame  with 
only  one  panel.  In  the  example  given,  the  grain' 
of  the  panel  is  supposed  to  run  diagonally  to  brace 
the  frame,  but  this  more  for  appearance  than 
because  it  makes  much  difference.  In  a  small  door 
of  this  class  the  panel  would  probably  be  in  one  piece, 
with  the  grooves  cut  across  it  to  relieve  its  plain 
appearance.  In  larger  dc'ors  and  panelled  screens, 
the  panels  would  be  made  up  of  narrow  pieces  and 
the  grooves  would  indicate  joints.  Figs.  11  to  13' 
show  ordinary  forms  of  joints  suitable  both  for 
a  door  like  10,  and  for  the  battens  of  ledged  doors. 
Sometimes  the  bead  or  chamfer  is  formed  only  on: 
one  face  of  the  door,  but  only  in.  the  roughest  class 
of  work  is  the  joint  ever  made  flush  and  plain  on 
both  sides.  On  a  plain  unbroken  surface,  joints 
are  too  conspicuous,  and  look  very  bad  if  they  come 
open  through  shrinkage. 

Panels  are  nearly  always  thinner  than  the  door 
frame,  and  though 'they  are  fitted  loosely  to  permit 
of  shrinkage  or  swelling,  it  is  seldom  advisable  to 
make  them  more  than  11  in.  wide.  In  most  doors, 
therefore,  two  or  more  panels  side  by  side,  are 
necessary  to  make  up  the  width.  In  height,  also, 
the  frame  generally  needs  at  least  one  intermediate 
rail  to  tie  the  stiles  securely  and  also  to  give  solidity 
where  the  lock  or  handle  is  placed.  In  an  ordinary 
room  door,  therefore,  there  are  at  least  four  panels. 
All  the  horizontal  members  of  the  frame  are  called 
rails,  but  the  middle  upright,  instead  of  being  called 
a  stile,  is  a  muntin.  It  is  fitted  into  the  rails  with 
stub  tenons  only.  Fig.  14  shows  the  construction 
of  an  ordinary  door.  All  the  inner  edges  of  the 
frame  have  a  groove  ploughed  in  them  about  J  in. 
deep,  shown  dotted,  to  receive  the  edges  of  the 
panels.  These,  of  course,  have  to  be  slipped  into 
the  grooves  as  the  frame  is  put  together.  The  stiles 
and°rails  of  a  door  are  named  according  to  their 
position.  The  stile  to  which  the  hinges  are  attached 
is  called  the  hanging  stile,  because  the  door  hang* 
by  it.  The  other,  to  which  the  lock  is  attached,  is 
called  the  lock  stile,  or  dosing  stile.  The  rails  are 
known  as  top,  bottom,  and  lock  roils,  according  to 

5179 


BUILDING 

their  position.  When  there  are  four  rails,  as  in 
15,  the  first  ,0110  below  the  top  is  called  the  frieze 
rail. 

Proportions.  The  top  rail  is  about  the 
xuiie  width  as  the  stiles,  3£  in.  or  4£  in.,  and  the 
lock  and  bottom  rails  are  about  twice  that  width. 
In  ordinary  house  doors  the  top  edge  of  the  middle 
rail  conies  about  halfway  in  the  height  of  the  door. 
Stiles  always  run  the  full  length  of  the  door,  and  rails 
noned  between.  Tenons  at  top  and  bottom  are 
haunched,  as  in  14,  and  to  prevent  breaking  out 
during  wedging,  the  stiles  extend  an  inch  or  so 
at  top  and  bottom.  These  extensions  are  called 
hornx,  and  they  are  allowed  to  remain  until  the 
door  is  being  fitted  in  its  place,  when  it  is,  of 
course,  necessary  to  trim  them  off!  Owing  to 
their  great  width,  bottom  and  lock  rails  have 
their  tenons  divided  into  pairs,  as  shown  in  14. 
In  cases  where  a  mortise  lock  has  to  be  let  into 
the  door,  the  tenons  there  are  generally  made 
double,  as  well  as  paired,  so  that  four  distinct  tenons 
occur  on  that  end  of  the  lock  rail.  A  sash  door  [16] 
is  fitted  with  glass  in  its  upper  part,  and  the  stiles 
are  often  reduced  in  width,  as  shown.  A  double 
margin  door  [17]  is  employed  where  great  width  is 
required,  and  continuous  rails  are  considered 
unsightly.  The  middle  stiles  are  continuous  from 
top  to  bottom,  giving  the  appearance  of  two  doors 
meeting  in  the  middle.  The  door,  in  fact,  is  made 
in  separate  halves,  which  are  afterwards  united  by 
a  tongued  and  glued  joint,  and  also  keyed  by  three 
pairs  of  folding  wedges  through  the  stiles,  as  shown 
in  elevation  and  plan  in  17.  Large  doors  of  this 
class  are  sometimes  additionally  strengthened  by 
having  a  strip  of  flat  bar-iron  let  into  the  top  and 
bottom  edges,  the  recess  and  iron  being  stopped  a 
little  short  of  the  full  width  of  the  door,  so  that 
the  ends  of  the  iron  shall  not  show.  Sliding  doors 
may  be  either  battened  or  panelled  according  to 
their  situation.  Fig.  18  is  an  example  of  a  large 
sliding  door  with  an  opening  in  it  for  a  wicket 
door.  Where  the  braces  cross,  they  are  supposed 
to  be  halved,  but  in  many  cases  diagonal  braces 
are  not  used,  or  short  ones  are  fitted  between. 
The  ends  of  diagonal  braces  should  always  butt 
against  rails.  If  they  are  allowed  to  come  against 
stiles,  they  tend  to  force  the  joints  open.  A  jib 
door  is  one  made  to  form  in  appearance  an  unbroken 
continuation  of  the  wall  in  which  it  occurs.  It 
closes  flush  with  the  wall,  and  skirting  or  dado  to 
correspond  with  that  on  the  wall  is  put  across  the 
door.  A  dwarf  door  is  a  very  low  one,  of  the 
character  used  for  church  pews.  Revolving  doors, 
used  sometimes  for  public  buildings,  are  constructed 
on  the  principle  shown  in  19.  They  are  framed  and 
panelled  and  their  edges  have  projecting  strips  of 
rubber  or  felt  to  make  a  close  joint  and  prevent 
draughts.  They  revolve  on  pivots  at  top  and 
bottom,  and  are  arranged  to  fold  if  the  passage  is 
required  open. 

Panels  and  Mouldings.  Figs.  20  to  25 
show  in  section  different  forms  of  panels  and 
mouldings  employed  in  panelled  doors.  The 
simplest  form  of  panel  is  a  thin  sheet  of  wood  flat 
on  both  faces,  and  of  the  same  thickness  as  the 
grooves  into  which  its  edges  fit  [20].  The  same 
kind  of  panel  may  be  employed  but  with  various 
forms  of  moulding  round  its  edges.  Moulding  may 
be  put  on  both  sides,  as  in  21,  or  only  on  one. 
Owing  to  difficulties  with  shrinkage,  mouldings 
running  across  the  grain  of  panels  are  sometimes 
omitted  and  mouldings  with  the  grain  only  are 
put  on.  The  moulding  in  such  cases  is  usually  only 
a  bead,  and  Ui<?  panel  is  called  a  bead  butt.  'When 

5180 


continued  round  the  panel,  the  latter  being  Hush 
with  the  frame,  as  in  22,  it  is  called  a  bead  flush. 
Mouldings  may  be  separate  and  attached  after  the 
door  is  framed  together,  or  they  may  be  worked 
out  of  the  solid  either  on  the  stiles  and  rails  of  the 
door,  or  on  the  edges  of  the  panels.  When  a  panel 
is  flush  with  the  frame  on  one  side,  as  in  22,  a  bead 
is  employed  which  may  be  on  either  the  panel  or  the 
frame.  In  22  it  is  shown  on  the  frame,  which  is  the 
best  way.  When  on  the  panel,  it  is  necessary  to 
mitre  a  separate  bead  in,  across  the  grain,  and  this 
prevents  the  panel  from  shrinking,  or  rather  forces 
it  to  split  if  it  shrinks.  A  bolection  moulding  stands 
above  the  surface  of  the  frame,  as  in  23,  and  fits 
round  the  edge  it  comes  against,  so  that  shrinkage 
does  not  produce  an  open  joint.  Besides  the  sunk 
and  flush  panels  already  noticed,  we  have  the 
raised  and  fielded  [24],  the  raised,  sunk  and  fielded 
[25],  the  raised,,  sunk  and  moulded  (which  only 
differs  from  25  in  having  a  moulded  sinking  instead 
of  a  straight  one),  and  the  chamfered,  in  which  the 
chamfer  of  the  raised  panel  is  continued  to  the 
middle  of  the  panel. 

Doors  are  made  of  hard  or  soft  wood,  according 
to  the  quality  required.  Oak  and  walnut  are  con- 
sidered the  best  woods  for  high-class  doors,  both 
external  and  internal.  For  common  doors  ordinary 
deal  is  used  for  either  situation,  or  pitch-pine  for  a 
slightly  better  class  of  door.  For  good  interior 
doors,  mahogany  is  popular.  In  some  cases  they 
are  veneered. 

Marking  Out.  Before  beginning  to  make 
a  door,  it  is  marked  out  in  full  size  longitudinal  and 
transverse  sections  on  what  is  called  a  rod  [26].  This 
is  a  thin  drawing-board  of  suitable  length  and  width. 
It  is  generally  about  -f  in.  thick,  without  battens, 
so  that  both  faces  can  be  used.  These  rods  aro 
kept  for  permanent  use  when  doors  of  similar 
dimensions  and  character  are  frequently  wanted. 
The  lengths  of  stiles  and  rails,  positions  of  mortises, 
etc.,  are  transferred  directly  from  this  to  the 
planed-up  lengths  of  wood,  the  parts  being  laid 
on  the  drawing  on  the  rod,  and  distances  carefully 
marked  from  one  to  the  other  with  knife  or  pencil, 
thus  avoiding  risk  of  inaccuracies  by  measuring  with 
a  rule.  In  parts  which  have  to  correspond  with 
each  other,  as,  for  instance,  the  stiles,  one  is  marked 
from  the  rod  and  the  marks  squared  across  it,  and 
then  the  other  stile  is  cramped  to  it,  and  the  marks 
continued  across  that.  The  rods  contain  as  many 
sectional  views  as  are  necessary  to  give  all  par- 
ticulars of  the  door.  Face  views  of  ordinary 
doors  are  not  required. 

Fitting  Together.  The  parts  are  all  marked 
to  show  how  they  go  in  relation  to  each  other,  and 
the  thickness  of  mortises  and  tenons  is  gauged  from 
the  same  face  of  each  piece.  The  mortises  and 
tenons  may  then  be  cut  and  the  grooves  for  the 
panels  ploughed.  The  width  of  the  grooves  may 
be  either  the  same  or  less  than  the  mortises,  but  not 
more,  or  the  haunches  of  the  tenons  will  be  too  thin 
to  fit  it.  A  similar  groove  is  ploughed  in  a  block 
of  wood,  which  is  used,  as  in  27,  to  see  that  the  edges 
of  the  panels  fit  it  correctly.  Fig.  28  shows  how  a 
pair  of  tenons  are  cut  by  hand.  The  method  is 
applicable  to  many  other'  cases  besides  that  illus- 
trated. A  hole  is  bored  with  a  centre-bit  in  one 
corner,  and  a  keyhole  saw  inserted  and  a  cut  made 
along  the  root  of  the  tenons.  The  two  cuts  down 
the  tenons  may  be  made  with  a  handsaw. 

Each  joint  'is  tried  together  separately,  and  a 
straightedge  laid  across  to  see  that  the  parts  are 
in  line.  If  they  are  not,  the  tenon  or  mortise  must 
be  eased  to  bring  them  so.  Then  the  entire  frame 


JOINERY 

1.  Single-quirked  bead  2.  Double-quirked  bead  3.  Return  bead  4.  Stopped  chamfer  5.  Reeds  6.  Flutes  7.  Type  of 
plane  for  hollows  and  mouldings  8.  Ledged  and  braced  door  9.  Framed  and  braced  door  10.  Panelled  door  11-13. 
Joints  suitable  for  boarding  of  ledged  doors  14.  Method  of  framing  an  ordinary  panelled  door  15.  Door  with  flve  panels 
16.  Sash  door  17.  Double  margin  door  18,.  Sliding  door  19.  Revolving  door  20.  Flat  panel  21.  Moulded  panel 
22.  Bead  flush  panel  23.  Bolection  moulded  panel  24,  Raised  and  fielded  panel  25.  Raised,  sunk  and  fielded  panel 
26.  Rod  27.  Testing  thickness  of  panel  edge  28.  Using  a  keyhole  saw  29.  A  door  cramped  on  a  special  bench 
30.  Simplest  form  of  door  frame  31.  Segment  head  32.  Segment  head  in  two  parts  33.  Handrail  bolt  34.  Semicircular 
head  35.  Hammer-headed  key  joint  36.  Plain  lining  for  an  interior  door  37.  Plain  lining  38.  Double  rebate 
39.  Framed  jamb  and  architrave  40.  Framed  gronnds  with  framed  architrave  41.  Skeleton  lining  42.  Double-framed  lining 

5181 


BUILDING 

should  l>e  tried  together  U>  see  that  i!  docs  not 
wind.  l-\u-  ghliog  Up,  a  special  bench,  as  shown 
in  29,  is  very  convenient.  It  has  a  longitudinal 
cramp  for  the  mnntins,  and  separate  cramps  can 
In-  used  across  tin-  stiles  Cramps  are  employed  as 
a  simple  means  of  pulling  the  shoulders  of  the  joints 
up  tight  until  the  wedges  have  been  inserted,  after 
which  the  cramps  may  be  removed  and  the  door 
laid  aside  for  the  glue  to  dry.  Glue  joints  of  this 
kind  cannot  be  made  as  perfect  in  character  as 
rubbed  joints  previously  described,  partly  because 
the  parts  cannot  be  rubbed  and  properly  cramped, 
and  partly  because  the  glue  cannot  be  applied  to  all 
the  parts  quickly  enough.  Where  large  numbers 
of  doors  are  made,  machines  in  which  all  the  parts 
are  cramped  instantly  by  a  simple  movement  of 
foot  lever  and  hand  screw  are  employed.  Window 
sashes  are  put  together  similarly. 

Door  Frames.  As  doors  cannot  be  fitted 
directly  into  an  opening  in  masonry,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  a  wood  frame  or  lining  provided  with  a  re- 
bate or  stop  to  receive  the  door.  In  its  simplest 
form  such  a  frame  is  made  as  in  30,  the  projecting 
horns  at  the  top  being  built  into  the  brickwork, 
or  if  this  cannot  be  done  conveniently,  the  frame 
is  constructed  without  them.  The  head  piece  is 
always'  fitted  on  top  of  the  posts  or  jambs,  because 
the  frame  is  then  better  able  to  sustain  weight  than 
if  it  was  tenoned  between.  Door  frames  are  some- 
times made  with  a  sitt  as  well  as  a  head,  but  more 
frequently,  they  are  open  at  the  base,  like  30,  and 
dowelled,  or  socketed  into  stone  or  concrete,  as  the 
case  may  be. "  The  stop  is  usually  formed  in  common 
work  by  nailing  strips  £  in.  thick  round  the  inside 
of  the  frame,  allowing  for  the  thickness  of  the 
door.  Fig.  31  is  an  example  of  a  frame  with  a 
segment  head,  the  head  being  cut  from  a  solid 
piece.  When  the  depth  is  so  great  that  a  very  wide 
piece  of  wood  would  be  required,  and  the  grain 
would  consequently  be  very  short,  the  head  is 
formed  in  two  pieces,  as  in  32,  held  generally  by 
a  handrail  bolt.  These  bolts  were  formerly 
employed  chiefly  for  uniting  lengths  of  handrail  ing, 
but  have  been  found  very  useful  for  many  other 
pxir  poses  in  joinery.  The  position  of  the  bolt  in 
the  wood  is  dotted  in  32,  and  the  bolt  itself  is  shown 
in  33.  Recesses  are  cut  in  the  wood  to  a  suitable 
depth  and  in  correct  positions  for  the  nuts,  and  the 
bolt  hole  is  bored  from  the  joint  into  each  recess. 
The  bolt  is  provided  with  a  loose  nut  at  each  end, 
one  being  square,  and  the  other,  which  is  turned 
when  tightening  tip  the  bolt,  is  round,  and  provided 
with  slot>.  so  that  it  can  be  turned  with  a  screw- 
driver, or  more  properly  with  a  special  tool  called 
•a  IKI  ml  mil  punch.  Dowels  are  generally  inserted 
in  addition  to  the  bolt.  Fig.  34  is  a  frame  with  a 
sernieirciilar  head.  This  may  be  bolted  also,  but 
is  better  built  in  segments,  as  shown,  the  front 
being  in  three  segments  and  the  back  in  two. 
The  transom  is  tenoned  into  the  jambs  below 
the  segments.  The  curved  portion  is  united  to 
the  jambs  by  a  hammer-headed  key  joint  shown 
in  35.  This  is  an  alternative  to  the  handrail  bolt, 
hut  is  slightly  more  rigid,  though,  of  course,  taking 
more  time  to  tit.  The  key  is  made  to  fit  closely 
along  the  sides,  but  is  slack  endwise  until  tightened 
liy  the  wedgo.  This  pulls  the  joint  together.  In 
34  the  bottoms  of  the  jambs  are  shown  fitted  into 
east-iron  shoes  instead  of  provided  with  dowels. 
Tln-se  shoes  are  made  of  the  same  section  as  the 
jambs,  and  the  ends  of  the  latter  have  to  be  shoul- 
dered down  to  fit  into  them.  The  shoes  arc  sunk 
a  little  May  into  stone  or  concrete,  and  the  wood 
is  thii>  protected. 

5182 


Linings.  The  frame.-  for  internal  doors  are 
generally  thin  and  of  a  boxed-up  character  [36],  the 
wood  being  carried  not  only  across  the  interior  faces 
of  the  opening,  but  also  for  some  inches  over  the 
wall  surface  on  both  sides.  This  provides  both  a 
gauge  for  levelling  the  plaster  up  to,  and  a  wood 
surface  for  the  further  attachment  of  architraves,  as 
the  moulding  round  a  doorway  is  called.  The  wood 
within  the  opening  is  called,  at  the  sides,  the  jamb 
lining,  and  at  the  top  the  soffit  lining.  The  wood  on 
the  faces  of  the  wall,  forming  a  foundation  for  the 
architrave,  is  called  the  grounds.  Its  back  edge, 
against  which  the  plaster  comes,  is  undercut  or 
grooved  to  form  a  key  for  the  plaster.  When  the 
widths  of  the  pieces  of  wood  exceed  6  in.  or  8  in. 
they  are  not  made  solid,  as  in  36  to  38,  but  are 
framed  as  in  39,  40  and  42.  It  is  best  both  in 
solid  and  framed  linings  to  allow  a  little  air  space 
between  wood  and  masonry  by  backing  the  linings 
with  narrow  strips  about  2  ft.  apart.  Generally  the 
grounds  are  not  treated  in  this  way,  but  when  their 
width  is  considerable,  are  made  in  an  open  frame- 
work as  in  40.  Strips  are  shown  behind  the  jamb 
and  soffit  lining  in  36,  with  their  ends  supposed  to  be 
dovetailed  into  the  grounds.  A  strip  is  also  shown 
behind  the  jamb  lining  in  38  and  39.  Another 
method  is  to  make  a  skeleton  lining  [41],  to  which 
jambs,  soffit,  and  grounds  are  attached.  WThen  the 
width  of  the  lining  is  considerable  it  is  sometimes 
framed,  as  in  42. 

Fixing  Wood  to  Masonry.  In  doorways 
and  other  situations  where  wood  has  to  be  attached, 
breeze  bricks  are  generally  built  in  at  intervals 
and  into  these  nails  are  driven.  When  this  is  not 
done  bricks  or  stones  have  to  be  plugged,  or  nails 
or  suitable  iron  attachments  driven  in  or  built 
into  joints.  The  simplest  and  best  way  to  plug 
is  to  drill  a  hole  2  in.  or  3  in.  into  the  brickwork 
or  stone,  and  drive  a  wood  plug  tightly  in.  Into 
this  a  nail  can  be  driven.  The  hole  should  not  be 
larger  than  necessary,  because  a  needlessly  large 
plug  may  shrink  and  become  loose.  Half-inch 
diameter  is  enough  for  most  purposes.  The  kind 
of  bit  used  is  shown  in  43.  Sometimes  square  holes 
are  chipped  with  a  narrow  chisel.  Sometimes 
mortar  is  chipped  out  of  a  joint  and  a  thin,  wide 
plug  driven  in,  or  a  piece  the  size  of  a  brick  and 
§  in.  thick  may  be  built  in.  Sometimes  plugs  are 
tapered  and  cut  winding,  but  nothing  holds  better 
than  a  tightly-fitting  parallel  plug.  Frames  inserted 
after  walls  are  built  are  tightened  by  long,  thin 
folding  wedges  in  place  of  backing  strips. 

Fitting  a  Door.  The  door  to  be  fitted  in 
place  is  supposed  to  be  a  little  larger  than  required. 
The  frame  into  which  it  fits  is  supposed  to  be 
square  and  parallel  each  way,  but  if  it  is  not  so, 
the  door  must  be  made  to  correspond  with  it. 
If  the  frame  is  square,  it  should  measure  the  same 
each  way  when  tested  diagonally,  or  a  large  square 
should  fit  all  corners  alike.  Assuming  it  to  be 
square  a  strip  may  be  cut  to  the  length  and  another 
to  the  width  of  the  opening.  From  these  lengths 
the  required  reduction  for  joint  allowance  must  be 
made.  If  the  door  and  frame  have  to  be  painted  a 
slight  amount  must  be  allowed  for  that,  and  if  put 
up  in  summer  something  extra  must  be  allowed 
for  the  swelling  that  will  take  place  in  winter. 
Plenty  of  clearance  should  always  be  allowed  at 
the  bottom  and  as  little  as  possible  at  the  top, 
because  the  door  will  tend  to  sink  a  little  from  its 
own  weight.  If  it  has  to  be  reduced  much  in  size 
it  is  best  to  mark  lines  all  round  on  one  face  at  equal 
distance  in  from  the  edges,  and  plane  down  to  these. 
The  ends  should  be  planed,  or  shot,  first,  because 


43.  Smith's  drill .for  boring  brick  and  stoi 
depth  of  required  re( 

moulding     50*  KnucKie  wu  iai  i«,  --.-- 
52.   Hinge  tilted  to  bring  knuckle  into  lit 

62.  Terionsof  sash  bars  overlapping ;    63. -^ halved  J^g  ^ 


5183 


BUILDING 

there  will  then  be  loss  risk  of  damaging  the  corners 
in  planing  the  end  grain  of  the  stiles. 

Hinging.  Hinge-*  should  be  attached  to  the 
door  first,  and  then  the  door  held  in  position  while 
screwing  to  the  door  frame.  The  usual  method  with 
ordinary  butt  hinges  is  to  sink  them  into  each 
surface  as  in  44  and  45.  To  ensure  a  close  joint  at 
the  hinges,  the  hinge  flaps  genet-ally  have  to  be  sunk 
rery  slightly  below  the  .surface  of  the  wood,  but 
if  too  much  is  allowed  the  wood  will  meet  and 
bind  before  the  door  is  closed  properly.  The 
simplest  way  is  to  set  a  gauge  direct  from  the 
closed  hinge  as  in  46,  taking  half  or  slightly  less 
than  half  the  thickness  over  the  two  flaps,  which 
when  parallel  with  each  other  are  slightly  apart. 
This  is  gauged  on  the  door  and  frame  at  the  places 
where  the  hinges  are  to  go.  The  width  of  the 
recesses  may  be  obtained  similarly  by  setting  a 
gauge,  as  in  47,  to  the  width  of  the  hinge  from  edge 
to  centre  of  pin.  The  hinges  are  then  laid  in  posi- 
tion on  the  door  and  their  lengths  marked  with  a 
knife.  The  recesses  are  cut  out  with  a  chisel 
and  the  hinges  screwed  to  the  door,  care  being 
taken  to  insert  the  screws  square  with  the  surface, 
so  that  their  heads  will  not  appear  tilted  when 
they  are  in.  With  the  flaps  open  the  door  is  placed 
in  position  against  the  jamb,  the  hinge  lengths 
marked  on  it,  recesses  cut,  and  one  screw  inserted 
in  each  hinge.  If  the  door  works  properly  the 
others  may  then  be  put  in,  but  if  not  the  required 
adjustments  can  be  made  before  further  holes  are 
bored. 

In  some  rather  exceptional  cases  the  hinges  are 
fitted  to  stand  out  as  in  48,  so  that  the  door  may 
be  fully  opened,  as  in  49,  without  binding  against 
meulding  when  still  only  partly  open,  as  in  50. 
The  amount  to  which  the  hinge  must  stand  out  is 
ascertained  by  measuring  from  a  straightedge  as 
in  51.  The  distance  the  centre  of  the  hinge  pin 
stands  beyond  the  face  of  the  door  and  jamb  must 
be  only  half  the  amount  measured,  because  when 
the  hinge  is  opened  the  centre  of  the  pin  comes 
half-way  between  door  and  jamb,  throwing  the 
door  out  to  twice  the  measured  distance.  Hinges 
with  their  knuckles  standing  out  in  this  wa3^ 
leave  a  wide  crack  between  jamb  and  hinge  stile 
of  the  door  when  the  latter  is  open.  Hinges  with 
the  centre  of  the  pin  flush,  as  in  44,  leave  the 
minimum.  If  hinges  are  set  further  in  than  this 
the  corners  of  the  wood  must  be  removed  to  enable 
the  door  to  swing  at  all.  Hinge  pins  must  always 
be  in  line  with  each  other,  or  a  door  cannot  work 
properly. 

Hinges  are  sometimes  tilted,  as  in  52,  to  throw 
the  knuckle  to  one  .side  -so  that  it  corresponds  with 
a  bead  on  one  or  other  of  the  pieces  of  wood. 
When  edges  are  too  thin  to  have  butt  hinges  of 
sufficient  strength  attached,  hinges  are  put  on  the 
faces  of  the  wood  instead,  as  in  53.  The  hinges 
used  are  a  little  wider  than  butts,  and  are  known 
as  lack  flap  hinges.  The  cross  garnet  hinges  used 
for  ledged  doors  [8]  are  also  put  on  the  faces  but 
are  not  let  into  the  surface.  There  are  other 
varieties  of  hinges  and  methods  of  hanging  doors 
which  are  employed  in  special  cases. 

Windows.  Windows  may  be  either  fixed  or 
made  to  open,  cither  on  hinges  or  by  sliding.  In 
the  first  ease  *xll  that  is  necessary  is  a  solid  wood 
frame  fitted  in  the  wall  opening  to  receive  the  glass. 
In  the  .second  the  gloss  is  contained  in  an  inner 
frame  <>r  s;lsh  whirl,  iit,  within  the  outer  frame.  In 
yi  rtically  sliding  sa=,h«s  the  outer  frame  must  have 
it-  sides  cased  t,>  contain  balance  weights.  There 
arc  i l-i i  -nine  patented  improvements  on  ordinary 
5184 


sliding  sashes  which  dispense  with  weights  and 
enable  the  sashes  to  be  easily  removed  for  cleaning 
the  glass. 

Joints  in  Sashes.  Sashes  are  mortised  and 
tenoned  together  as  in  54  to  56.  The  meeting 
rails  of  an  ordinary  pair  of  sashes,  being  shallow, 
are  dovetailed  to  the  stiles  as  in  57,  or  a  tenon  the 
full  depth  of  the  rails  is  employed  by  prolonging 
the  stile  in  the  form  of  a  bracket  as  in  58.  In  54 
the  moulding  is  mitred.  In  55  it  is  scribed,  which 
does  not  result  in  an  open  joint  if  the  wood  shrinks. 
In  56  it  is  part  mitred  and  part  scribed,  which  avoids 
the  feather  edge  of  wood  necessary  when  one  part 
is  made  a  scribed  fit  round  the  other.  Mouldings 
are  mitred  with  a  chisel  guided  against  a  mitre 
templet,  which  is  placed  on  the  work,  as  in  59, 
and  generally  cramped.  These  templets  can  be 
made  of  wood.  The  one  shown  is  supposed  to  be 
of  metal,  in  skeleton  form  merely  for  lightness. 
Thick  sashes  are  sometimes  jointed  with  double 
tenons,  or  the  single  tenon  is  supplemented  by 
tongues  on  each  side. 

When  sash- bars  are  inserted  they  are  tenoned 
into  the  stiles  and  rails  as  in  60.  In  the  bottom 
rail,  which  is  deeper  than  the  rest,  they  are  stub- 
tenoned.  Where  they  cross  each  other  they  are 
generally  fitted  as  in  61.  Sometimes  a  dowel,  as 
shown  dotted,  is  inserted  in  addition ;  and  some- 
times only  a  dowel  is  used,  the  bars  merely  butting 
together.  Sometimes  the  tenons  are  reduced  in 
thickness  and  lap  over  each  other  as  in  62.  In 
this  example  the  bars  are  shown  mitred  instead  of 
scribed.  In  63  they  are  shown  halved  together, 
but  this  latter  method  is  suitable  only  for  mould- 
ings with  a  broad,  flat  top. 

Scribed    Joints    in    Sash=bars.     The 

simplest  method  of  making  a  scribed  joint  in  a  sash- 
bar,  or  other  moulding,  is  to  mitre  .the  end  as  in 
64,  and  then  remove  the  mitre  by  cutting  trans- 
versely with  gouges  and  chisels  back  to  the  outline, 
or  sight  line,  where  the  mitred  portion  finishes. 
This  gives  the  correct  outline  for  meeting  another 
member  of  similar  section.  As  a  tenon  usually 
has  to  be  formed  on  the  end,  the  actual  practice 
is  to  mitre  and  then  scribe  only  the  moulded 
portion  of  a  sash-bar  as  in  65.  Fig.  66  «hows  the 
method  of  using  a  gouge  in  cutting  a  scribed  joint. 
A  scribing  block  to  fit  the  moulding  is  necessary  to 
cut  on,  otherwise  the  under  edge  of  the  moulding 
would  get  split  away  in  using  the  gouge.  Another 
method  not  always  practicable  is  shown  in  67. 
In  this  case  a  chisel  is  used  and  no  scribing  block 
is  necessary.  Fig.  68  shows  still  another  method  of 
paring  a  curved  portion  with  a  chisel  without  the 
vise  of  a  block  at  all.  This  also  is  not  practicable 
in  some  cases,  because  a  projecting  portion  behind 
would  prevent  the  chisel  from  being  used  in  that 
way. 

Construction  of  Sashes.  In  ordinary 
sashes  which  slide  vertically  the  vertical  bars  are 
continuous,  and  the  horizontal  ones  fitted  between, 
this  being  the  best  arrangement  for  resisting  the 
stresses  and  shocks  to  which  a  vertically  moving 
sash  is  subject.  In  sashes  hinged  like  doors  the 
reverse  method  is  better.  The  thickness  of  sashes 
is  usually  about  If  in.  The  stiles,  and  also  the  top 
rail  of  upper  sashes,  measure  about  the  same  in 
width  as  in  thickness.  Meeting  rails  are  about  half 
the  depth,  and  the  bottom  rail  about  twice.  It  is 
not  often  that  mouldings  of  sashes  and  bars  are 
planed  by  hand,  but  the  method  is  shown  in  69. 
The  plane  must  be  of  the  form  required — generally 
what  is  known  as  a  lamb's  tongue  moulding  is  em- 
ployed. The  meeting  rails,  on  the  side  where  they 


5185 


2F 


BUILDING 

come  in  contact  with  each  other,  have  to  project 
beyond  the  face  of  the  stiles,  because  the  latter  are 
separated  by  a  bead.  The  joint  between  the  two 
meet  MIL;  rails  may  be  plain  bevel,  like  57,  or  a  better 
method  is  to  step  them,  as  in  70,  which  prevents  a 
knife  In'ing  inserted  from  the  outside  to  open  the 
catch.  To  keep  the  rails  flush  on  the  underside,  as 
in  70,  the  lower  one  is  grooved  for  the  glass  instead 
of  rebated.  In  all  other  parts  the  glass  fits  into  a 
rebate,  and  is  held  by  a  bead  [71]  or  by  putty. 

The  best  way  of  attaching  the  cord  for  the  weights 
is  shown  in  72,  but  sometimes  the  cord  is  merely 
nailed  into  an  open  groove  ploughed  in  the  stiles. 
In  72  a  knot  fitting  in  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  stile 
prevents  the  cord  from  pulling  out.  The  groove 
may  be  either  open  its  entire  length  or  preferably 
closed  for  a  portion,  as  shown.  The  cord  should 
extend  12  in.  or  more  down  the  sash.  It  is  carried 
up  over  small  pulleys  in  the  upper  part  of  the  stiles 
of  the  window  frames,  and  weights  are  suspended 
by  it  inside  the  casing.  Fig  73  shows  a  sash  wedged 
up  in  wood  cramps  specially  for  the  purpose. 

Frames  for  Sliding  Sashes.  A  per- 
spective view  of  an  ordinary  frame  with  parts 
removed  is  shown  in  74,  and  a  section  through  one 
of  the  sides  or  jambs,  with  the  weights  inside,  is 
shown  in  75.  The  bottom,  or  sill,  is  invariably 
solid,  and  of  teak  or  oak  sloped  outwards  to  throw 
off  wet.  The  top  maybe  solid  also,  but  frequently 
it  is  of  thin  material,  as  in  74.  The  lower  ends 
of  the  stiles  are  rebated  into  the  sill  and  tightened 
by  a  thin  wedge  in  the  rebate,  which  is  tapered  to 
fit  it  [74].  The  upper  ends  are  either  housed  or 
tongued  into  the  head,  as  shown.  In  good  modern 
work  all  parts  of  the  jamb  casings  are  rebated  to- 
gether. The  pulley  stile  is  generally  tongued  on 
opposite  corners,  as  in  75,  because  the  outer  lining 
extends  solid  beyond  it,  while  the  inner  has  a  loose 
bead,  which  necessitates  keeping  the  groove  farther 
back.  This  bead,  and  also  the  parting  bead  in  the 
middle,  are  not  attached  till  the  sashes  are  inserted 
in  the  frame  and  it  is  necessary  to  detach  them 
again  to  get  the  sashes  out.  The  inner  bead,  there- 
fore, should  be  screwed  in  place  and  fit  into  a 
rebate.  It  is  always  made  slightly  to  overlap  the 
joint  between  stile  and  inner  lining.  The  parting 
bead  should  fit  in  a  groove,  and  is  generally  held  by 
brads.  The  outstanding  faces  of  the  meeting 
rails  of  the  sashes  have  to  be  cut  away  to  clear  the 
parting  bead.  A  thin  back  is  attached  to  connect 
the  two  linings,  and  a  parting  slip  is  required 
between  the  weights  to  prevent  them  from  striking 
each  other  or  getting  entangled.  Its  upper  end 
lits  in  a  slot  in  the  head,  and  a  brad  or  wood  pin  is 
put  through  the  projecting  end  to  suspend  it. 
Sometimes  it  is  attached  at  the  back  as  well,  but 
generally  it  hangs  loose  [74].  For  convenience  in 
getting  at  the  weights  when  necessary  without 
pulling  the  frame  apart,  openings  called  pockets 
are  made,  and  closed  by  poc/v '  /mr <•>.•,  shown  in  74. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  have  these  o)wnings  the  full 
length  of  the  weights,  because  the  latter  can  be' 
slipjxxl  in  or  out  in  an  inclined  direction.  When 
situated  as  in  74  they  are  concealed  when  the  lower 
sash  is  shut.  Very  often  they  are  made  central 
in  the  casing,  and  the  parting  bead  between  the 
mrim  must  be  removed  before  the  pocket  piece  can 
be  taken  out.  The  chief  objection  to  making  it  as 
in  74  is  that  it  is  slightly  more  weakening  to  the 
pulley  stile.  The  bead  round  the  inside  of  the  frame 
may  be  either  plain  mitred,  or  stop  mitred,  as  in 
76.  The  part  itii;  bead  is  required  only  on  the  pulley 
stiles,  but  is  somelime<  .-arried  MTOn  Hie  head  of 
(he  frame  aKo. 

B1M 


Sills.  The  under  edge  of  the  lower  sash  is 
bevelled  to  fit  the  slope  of  the  sill,  as  in  77,  and  the 
inner  edge  of  bead  and  sash  should  be  bevelled  also, 
as  shown.  If  a  plain  unbroken  joint  were  made 
between  sash  and  sill,  water  would  get  through  by 
capillary  attraction.  This  is  prevented  by  making 
a  groove  called  a  throat  in  the  under  edge  of  the  sash 
rail  [77].  The  sill  is  also  stepped  and  throated  ai 
the  outer  face  of  the  sash.  Between  the  wood  sill 
and  the  stone  sill  a  thin  strip  of  iron  is  inserted 
like  a  tongue  [77].  This  is  called  a  wain-  bar,  and 
prevents  water  from  penetrating  beyond  it.  Some- 
times a  step  is  formed  in  the  joint  between  sash  and 
sill,  as  in  78,  and  occasionally  a  weather-board,  as 
dotted,  is  added  als9.  In  78  the  bottom  rail  of  the 
sash  is  made  extra  deep,  and  the  inside  bead  re- 
placed by  a  deep  bar.  The  sill  and  head  are  nailed 
to  the  stiles,  and  the  inner,  outer,  and  back  linings 
are  nailed  also. 

Hinged  Windows.  These,  when  hinged  to 
the  jambs  like  doors,  are  called  casement  windows, 
or,  if  they  are  carried  down  to  the  floor,  French  case- 
ments. As  no  space  for  balance  weights  is  required, 
the  frames  in  such  cases  are  solid,  like  door  frames. 
The  sashes  in  any  case  do  not  differ  essentially  in 
construction.  The  usual  plan  is-  to  have  two  sashes 
meeting  in  the  middle,  sometimes  arranged  to  open 
outwards  and  sometimes  inwards.  The  meeting  stiles 
come  together  direct  without  the  interposition  of  a 
post,  the  joint  between  them  being  one  of  the 
forms  shown  in  79  to  83.  The  most  popular  is 
the  hook  joint  [79].  On  the  Continent  the  joint 
shown  in  80  is  preferred.  Fig.  81  is  about  the 
simplest  form  of  joint  possible.  In  82,  pieces  of 
hard  wood  are  screwed  oil  to  the  stiles.  In  83,  the 
joint  is  complicated  by  grooves  and  beads  to  shut 
out  draught.  In  all  these  cases  the  meeting  edges 
are  at  a  slight  angle  instead  of  square  with  the 
easement,  so  that  they  separate  and  come  together 
without  friction.  Fig.  84  shows  how  a  bead  and 
groove  is  often  arranged  at  the  hinge  stile  to  prevent 
draught  and  entrance  of  water. 

In  French  casements  the  bottom  rail  is  made 
extra  deep,  and  sometimes  the  lower  part  of  the 
sash  has  a  wood  panel.  Casements  owning  in- 
wards are  more  troublesome  to  make  watertight 
at  the  base  than  those  which  open  outwards.  One 
method  is  shown  in  85,  in  which  a  metal  tongue 
stands  above  the  surface  of  the  sill.  Another  is 
shown  in  86.  In  this  case  there  is  no  metal,  but  a 
channel  is  formed  inside  the  stop  to  collect  con- 
densed water,  or  water  which  gets  beneath  the  door. 
Holes  are  bored  at  intervals,  as  dotted,  to  conduct 
the  water  away.  There  are  also  various  forms  of 
patented  water  bars  for  inward-opening  casements. 

Fanlights  and  other  small  windows  may  be  hinged 
either  at  top  or  bottom,  or  be  pivoted  at  or  near  the 
middle  of  the  stiles.  The  frames  and  sashes  of 
these  are  all  very  simple. 

Mullions.  These  are  intermediate  posts  be- 
tween sashes,  and  are  necessary  in^  windows  of 
great  width,  and  at  the  angles  of  bay  windows.  In 
both  of  these  kinds  the  side  sashes  are  often  fixed, 
and  only  the  central  ones  made  movable,  the  former 
usually  being  narrow  compared  with  the  central 
sashes.  As  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  mullions  as 
narrow  as  'possible,  the  cords  for  the  weights 
are  often  carried  over  the  fixed  sashes  [87]  to  avoid 
boxing  up  the  mullions  to  contain  them.  In  bay 
windows  this  is  scarcely  practicable,  and  the  weights 
are  arranged  in  the  mullions,  the  outer  portion  of 
which  is  often  masonry.  Fie".  88  shows  an  arrange- 
ment of  weights  in  the  mullion  of  a  bay  window  in 
which  all  the  sashes  are  huni;-.  the  weights  being 


consequently  four  in  number.  An  alternative  is 
to  make  two  separate  boxings  in  each  mullion 
similar  to  those  in  ordinary  frames.  In  bay  windows 
the  sill  and  head  of  the  frame  have  to  be  jointed 
at  the  mullions  where  the  angle  changes.  Half-lap 
joints  are  employed  for  this  purpose  in  the  head, 
and  sometimes  in  the  sill,  but  a  mitre  joint  is  often 
preferred  for  the  latter,  secured  by  handrail  bolts 
and  tongue. 

Shutters.  These  may  be  made  in  flaps, 
hinged  together  to  fold  into  boxings  at  eaeh  side  of 
a  window ;  or  they  may  be  large  panelled  frames, 
arranged  to  slide  either  vertically  or  horizontally ; 
or  a  number  of  separate  shutters  may  be  employed 
as  was  formerly  the  usual  method  of  protecting 
shop  fronts.  For  this  latter  purpose  revolving 
shutters  winding  on  a  drum  are  now  the  most 
popular,  but  as  they  are  constructed  chiefly  or 
entirely  of  metal,  the  joiner  is  concerned  only  with 
fitting  them  into  place.  The  first  mentioned  kinds 
are  framed  and  panelled  in  the  same  way  as  doors. 
In  89,  folding  or  boxing  shutters  are  shown  folded 
into  a  boxing  at  the  side  of  a  window,  the  panelling 
below  the  window  board  matching  the  shutters. 
In  90  a  two-flap  shutter  is  shown  in  a  splayed 
boxing,  and  the  dotted  lines  show  it  partly  drawn 
out.  In  91  a  shutter  is  arranged  to  fold  against 
the  wall,  with  no  boxing.  The  dotted  lines  show 
it  closed  over  the  window.  The  rule  joint,  when 
the  shutter  is  turned  back  against  the  wall,  has 
the  appearance  of  an  ovolo  moulding.  Folding 
shutters  are  sometimes  arranged  on  the  outer 
side  of  windows,  but  the  usual  practice  is  to 
have  them  inside.  The  joints  between  flaps  are 
always  made  to  overlap  by  means  of  rebates,  as 
shown.  Fig.  92  shows  the  most  popular  form  of 
sliding  shutters.  They  move  vertically,  and  are 
balanced  by  weights,  similarly  to  sashes."  They 
drop  into  a  space  beneath  the  window  board,  which 
is  hinged  as  shown.  A  hinged  flap  is  provided 
to  cover  the  grooves  and  cords  in  the  stiles  when 
the  shutters  are  down.  Before  drawing  them  up, 
this  flap  must  be  opened  and  turned  back  between 
the  shutters  and  sash  frame.  One  shutter  goes 
right  to  the  top,  covering  the  upper  sash,  and  the 
other  covers  the  lower  sash,  the  shutters  being 
secured  by  a  catch  or  thumbscrew  through  their 
meeting  rails,  which  overlap  each  other  an  inch 
or  so.  Horizontally  sliding  shutters  are  sometimes 
employed,  and  slide  in  rails  attached  to  the  wall, 
outside  or  inside  the  window. 

Skylights.  The  simplest  form  of  skylight  is 
glass  fitted  on  the  roof  [93].  It  fits  in  a  groove 
at  the  top  and  a  rebate  at  the  sides,  the  bottom 
being  left  free  to  throw  off  water.  For  the  same 
reason,  if  more  than  one  length  of  glass  is  used 
the  sheets  must  overlap.  In  94  a  frame  intended 
to  fit  into  a  trimmed  space  in  the  rafters  11 
shown.  The  glass  is  inserted  in  the  same  way,  but 
a  bottom  rail  is  provided  for  it  to  rest  on.  The  sur- 
face of  this  rail  is  recessed  as  shown,  to  allow  con- 
densed moisture  from  the  under-side  of  the  glass  to 
esca  pe.  The  bars  are  stub-tenoned  into  the  top  rail, 
and  usually  notched  into  the  bottom.  The  under 
edcres  of  the  frame  are  throated,  and  sheet  lead  is 
employed  to  cover  parts  where  water  might  pene- 
trate. In  the  best  work,  channels  are  provided 
beneath  the  glass  in  the  sides  of  the  bars  and  frame, 
to  conduct  condensed  moisture. 

Dormer  Windows.  For  these  [95]  a 
trimmed  space  is  provided  to  *?«^?^ 
window  timbers  are  built  into  this.  The  c 

Continued 


BUILDING 

posts,  which  represent  the  jambs  of  the  window 
frame,  are  shown  continued  down  to  a  joist,  the 
inner  surface  beneath  the  window  being  boarded  or 
lathed,  and  plastered  over.  Another  plan  is  to  let 
the  lower  ends  of  the  posts  bear  on  the  trimmer  or 
on  a  purlin.  The  studs  and  capping  pieces  are 
notched  to  fit  the  rafters. 

Lantern  Lights.  These  [96]  are  gla/ed 
constructions  built  either  on  a  flat  roof  or  on  the 
summit  of  an  ordinary  roof.  The  slopes  are  usually 
hipped,  and  the  sides  provided  with  windows,  either 
pivoted  or  hinged  at  the  top.  An  alternative  is 
to  fit  the  sides  with  louvres,  which  may  be  either 
slats  of  wood  or  pieces  of  glass  fixed  at  an  angle  in 
the  frames  in  Venetian  blind  fashion.  In  flat 
roofs  lantern  lights  rest  on  the  timbers  which 
trim  the  space.  In  sloped  roofs  queen  post  trusses 
are  generally  utilised,  so  that  the  corner  posts 
of  the  lantern  light  form  a  continuation  above  the 
queen  posts.  The  interior  below  the  windows  is 
generally  panelled  or  boarded  to  cover  the  trimming 
timbers.  Fig.  97  is  a  vertical  section  showing  a  usual 
arrangement,  the  windows  in  this  case  being  hinged 
at  the  top  to  open  outwards.  Fig.  98  is  a  section 
through  the  ridge.  In  many  cases  the  frames  are 
fitted  together  without  a  separate  ridge  and  hips. 
Where  the  latter  are  employed,  as  in  98,  their 
depth  cannot  be  quite  the  same  because  of  the  angle 
at  which  they  meet.  As  these  parts  are  usually 
moulded,  this  is  important,  because  the  moulding 
of  hips  and  ridge  must  be  of  different  section,  to 
enable  them  to  correspond  with  each  other  at  the 
inclined  joints.  The  adaptation  of  one  to  the 
other  will  be  dealt  with  further  on.  when  treating 
of  mouldings. 

Length  and  Angles  of  Hips.  As  neither 
a  plan  nor  ap  elevation  of  a  roof  can  give  true  plans 
or  elevations  of  the  hips,  these  have  to  be  obtained 
by  geometrical  methods.  Fig.  100  represents  a  plan 
of  one  end  of  a  hipped  roof,  such  as  the  lantern 
li^ht  in  question,  and  on  it  the  actual  length  of 
the  hip  is  developed  at  C  B.  Fig.  99  is  an  elevation 
of  the  roof  from  which  the  vertical  height,  A  B, 
is  taken,  and  projected  from  A  to  B  on  100,  at 
right  angles  with  the  plan  line  of  the  hip  A  C.  A 
line  drawn  from  C  to  B  gives  the  actual  length  of 
hip  on  its  upper,  or  longest  edge.  The  angle  at  I 
is  the  angle  required  to  fit  a  vertical  joint  at  the 
end  of  the  ridge  as  in  elevation  102. 

In  some  cases  the  top  edge  of    ridge  and  hips 
have  to  be  backed— that  is,  a  double  angle,  as  at  K 
[101],  is  formed  to  correspond  with  the  two  planes 
of  the  roof  which  meet  along  the  line  of  the  member. 
In  the  ridge  this  angle  is  simply  30°   or  whatever 
the  roof  slope  happens  to  be.     In  the  hips  the  angle 
must  be  obtained  by  the  method  shown  in  101.    The 
hip  length  DE  is  first  developed  as  in  the  previous 
figure,  and  then  a  point,  F,  is  taken  at  any  position 
on  the   line  DE,  and  from  this  a  line  is  project^ 
at  right   angles    to  cut  the    hip  line,  GE,  at  J 
Through  H  a  line  is  carried  at  right  angles,  cutting 
the  roof  edges  at  I  and  J.     With  H  as  a  centre, 
and  radius  HF,  an  arc  is  drawn  to  K.     Lines  fron 
I  to  K,  and  J  to  K,  give   the  angles  of  the   hip 
backing.     Fig.  102  is  an  elevation  and  plan  of  tl 
junction  of  ridge  and  hips.     At  their  lower  ends 
the  hips  are  notched  on  to  the  head  frame,  the 
corners   of    which   are   halved   together.     The   sill 
is    generally   mitred    and    bolted.     The   posts    are 
stub-tenoned   into   sill   and    head.      The   sill  rests 
on  a  stout  frame  called  a  curb,  which  m  turn  rests 
on  the  trimming  timbers  of  the  roof  below. 


5187 


Group  16 

FOOD  SUPPLY 
15 


',1  from  p:i«rt  -tW-> 


SCIENCE  AND  SEA  FISHING 

State-aided  Investigations  that  are  Helpful  to  Fishermen      Examination 
of   Plankton.     Marked   Fish.      Can   the    Sea   be    Depleted    of   Fish? 


By  Dr.  J.  TRAVIS  JENKINS 


o1 


late  years  much  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  application  of  biological  and  hydro- 
graphical  invest  igat .ion  to  the  elucidation  of  problems 
connected  with  the  sea  fisheries.  Schools  of  "  fishery 
science"  have  been  established,  notably  at  Bergen 
and  Kiel.  Marine  stations  have  been  erected  and 
equipped  with  the  latest  and  most  up-to-date 
apparatus  for  the  study  of  applied  marine  biology, 
and  practically  every  European  country  with  a  sea 
coast  has  one  or  more  biological  stations. 

Institutions  for.  the  hatching  of  sea-fish  are  spring- 
ing up  around  the  coasts  of  Northern  Europe  and 
America,  and  some  are  already  in  full  working 
order.  They  exist  in  England  at  Piel  and  Port 
Erin,  and  in  Scotland  at  Aberdeen. 

An    International     Council.      For    the 

last  five  years  an  international  council  of 
scientific  men  has  been  engaged  in  the  study  of  the 
causes  that  affect  the  harvest  of  the  seas,  and  an 
enormous  sum  of  money  has  been  expended.  The 
central  laboratory  is  established  at  Christ  iania,  and 
the  office  of  the  central  bureau  is  at  Copenhagen. 
Each  country  has,  in  addition,  its  own  laboratories, 
steamers,  and  a  trained  staff  of  naturalists,  hydro- 
graphers,  chemists,  arid  physicists,  all  working  to  a 
common  end.  Voluminous  reports  appear  from 
time  to  time,  and  as  the  results  to  be  obtained  may 
have  an  important  bearing  on  the  fisheries,  especially 
with  reference  to  future  legislation,  it  is  well  for 
the  intelligent  fisherman  to  learn  something  of  the 
methods  employed  by  expert  scientific  men,  and 
the  results  which  have  up  to  the  present  been 
obtained. 

Considerable  attention  is  now  being  devoted  to 
the  physical,  as  distinguished  from  the  biological 
conditions  which  obtain  in  our  seas.  The  methods 
of  observation  which  were  first  of  all  practised  by 
the  famous  Challenger  expedition  are  being  now 
amplified  and  applied  to  the  determination  of  those 
changes  in  the  physical  condition  of  the  seas  which 
may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  affect  the  presence 
of  fish,  and  consequently  the  success  or  otherwise 
of  the  fisheries. 

Physical    Character    of     Sea    Water. 

The  characters  of  sea-water  (apart  from  the  plankton , 
whiYh  is  separately  considered)  that  are  investi- 
gated are  the  tempcratim,  .«,///// /ty,  f?ni*iti/,  and 
gaseous  contatt*.  By  means  of  the  first  three  data 
it  is  possible  to  trace  the  movements  of  large  bodies 
of  salt  water,  and  to  determine  at  given  seasons  of 
the  year  whence  the  water  in  our  seas— the  North 
v. .:.  Knglish  Channel,  and  Irish  Sea,  for  instance— 
j-  derived  The  movements  of  shoals  of  fish,  such 
M  tin-  herring  and  anchovy,  may  possibly  be  cor- 
i  with  the  movements  of  bodies  of  water  of  a 
"•it,,  in  temperature  and  density.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  anchovy  fishing  in  the  Scheldt  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  temperature  of  the  sea,  and  that 
the  arrival  of  the  autumn  hen-ing  off  the  Norwegian 
coast  corresponds  with  the  appearance  of  water  of 
trigfe  temperature  and  medium  salinity.  At  present 
these  observations  are  carried  out  on  the  special 
Steamer*  subsidised  by  the  various  Government!!. 
5188 


How  the  Sea  is  Analysed.  The  methods 
are  briefly  as  follows  :  Soundings  are  taken  to 
determine  the  depth  and  nature  of  the  bottom; 
observations  of  temperature  are  made  at  the  surface 
and  at  varying  depths.  Samples  of  the  floating 
organisms  are  collected  at  the  surface  and  at  various 
depths.  The  temperature,  pressure,  and  humidity 
01  the  atmosphere  are  also  noted.  Samples  of 
water  are  also  collected  for  analysis.  The  results 
are  then  collected  -and  deductions  drawn,  at  the 
shore  laboratories.  Charts  are  published  showing 
the  lines  of  equal  temperature  (isotherm*)  and  lines 
of  equal  salinity  (isohalines). 

It  has  been  found  that  during  the  year  1903  the 
waters  in  the  English  Channel  were  derived  in 
February  and  May  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  in 
August  from  the  Irish  Sea,  and  in  November  from 
both  sources.  North  Sea  water  is  derived  from 
three  main  sources  :  (a)  North  Atlantic  water  of 
high  density  enters  chiefly  from  the  north-west; 
(b)  Baltic  water  of  low  density  enters  as  a  surface 
current  from  the  Skagerack  :  and  (r)  North  Sea 
water  of  medium  salinity.  There  is  also  what  is 
known  as  Bank  water  forming  a  fringe  to  the 
coast  line.  It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  Atlantic  and 
Baltic  waters.  There  are  various  seasonal  changes 
in  the  inflowing  and  outflowing  currents,  which 
prove  that  the  North  Sea  fishing  grounds  are 
subject  to  periodical  variations  with  respect  to  the 
water  covering  them.  The  ultimate  bearing  of  these, 
hydrographies  I  observations  on  sea  fishery  problems 
is  for  the  future  to  decide.  They  are  still  being 
carried  on,  and  it  would  be  premature  to  criticise  the 
results  until  further  information  is  at  hand. 

Drift  Bottles  and  Surface  Cur- 
rents. The  determination  of  the  influences 
which  affect  the  distribution  of  floating  bodies  has 
been  largely  accomplished  by  means  of  drift-  bottle*. 
Strong,  short-necked  bottles  are  weighted  with  a 
small  quantity  of  sand,  so  that  they  are  immersed 
with  as  little  of  the  neck  protruding  as  possible. 
Each  bottle  has  enclosed  in  it  a  stamped  postcard 
addressed  to  the  laboratory  from  which  the  experi- 
ments are  initiated.  The  postcard  has  a  printed 
statement  on  it  requesting  the  finder  to  fill  in  infor  - 
mation  as  to  the  date  and  place  of  finding,  and  to  post 
the  card.  It  is  found  that  in  a  somewhat  circum- 
scribed area,  such  as  the  Irish  Sea,  about  one  in 
every  three  bottles  is  picked  up,  ami  the  postcards 
returned  with  the  requisite  information.  A  number 
of  bottles  being  weighted  and  made  watertight  by 
means  of  cork  covered  with  paraffin- wax,  a  special 
voyage  is  made  on  a  scientific  steamer,  and  the 
bottles  are  thrown  out  at  intervals  of  five  minutes 
or  so  along  certain  lines  which  have  been  previously 
selected  as  likely  to  furnish  important  results.  The 
rate  at  which  the  steamer  travels  being  known,  the 
distances  at  which  the  bottles  are  dropped  over- 
board can  be  marked  off  on  a  chart.  As  the, 
postcards  return  to  the  laboratory  the  journeys 
made  by  the  Inttles  can  be  traced.  Some  of  the 
bottles  are  picked  up  very  soon,  others  perform 
remarkable  journeys.  The  effect  of  tidal  currents 


and  the  wind  on  the  distribution  of  surface  organ- 
isms is  in  this  manner  estimated,  and  the  problem 
has  a  practical  bearing,  as  will  be  seen  later,  in 
determining  the  most  favourable  locality  for  the 
planting  of  the  fry  from  marine  hatcheries" 

The  Plankton  Investigations.  A  word 
that  is  frequently  used  in  all  discussions  on  sea 
tishery  matters  is  plqnkton.  All  organ- 
isms which  merely  drift  and  are  con- 
sequently at  the  mercy  of  the  wind 
and  tide  are  included  in  the  plankton 
in  contradistinction  to  those  animals 
which,  like  fish,  are  capable  of  inde- 
pendent motion,  and  are  therefore 
able  to  move  against  a  tide  or  cur- 
rent. The  plankton  has  been  studied 
for  a  number  of  years,  and  its  con- 
stitution is  fairly  accurately  known.  It 
consists  of  minute  plants  such  as 
diatoms ;  various  animalcules,  small 
Crustacea,  especially  those  known  as 
copepoda,  the  larvae  of  free -swimming 
young,  stages  of  various  worms,  Crustacea 
(crabs  and  lobsters),  mussels,  cockles, 
oysters,  and  other  shell-fish,  and  the 
floating  eggs  and  larvae  of  most  of 
our  food  fish,  the  only  notable  excep- 
tion being  the  herring,  the  eggs  of 
which  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  develop 
there. 

Now,  the  plankton,  apart  from 
interesting  facts  which  will  be  discussed 
later,  is  of  considerable  importance, 
insomuch  as  it  serves  as  a  direct  source 
of  food  supply  of  some  of  our  most 
valuable  fish,"  notably  the  herring, 
pilchard,  sprat,  anchovy,  mackerel, 
and  others.  There  can  be  no  reasonable 
doubt  that  the  supply  of  these  important  fishes 
bears  a  direct  relation  to  the  amount  of  plankton 
present  in  the  ocean. 

The  Collection  of  Plankton.  The  plank- 
ton is  collected  by  means  of  fine-meshed  nets  of 
silk  bolting  cloth,  which  are  known  as  toiv  nets, 
having  for  their  object  the  fishing 
plankton  from  a  definite  volume 
of  sea-water.  Of  these  nets  the 
most  successful  is  the  vertical 
plankton  net  invented  by  Hensen 
[11].  This  net,  which  is  shaped  like 
an  inverted  truncated  cone,  is 
lowered  perpendicularly  in  the  water 
to  a  given  depth,  and  then  raised  to 
the  surface  also  perpendicularly. 
By  this  method  a  cylindrical  column 
of  water  filters  through  the  net,  and 
its  planktonic  constituents  are  cap- 
tured. 

Quantitative  Examina= 
tion  of  Plankton.  Now,  the 
volume  of  this  cylindrical  column  ot 
water  can  be  calculated  since  the 
filtration  capacity  of  the  net  can  be 
calculated  and  the  depth  to  which 
the  net  is  sunk  is  known,  as  is  also 
the  area  of  the  net  opening.  This 


11.   THE  HENSEN 

VERTICAL  NET 
a.  Conical  headpiece 


Fishing  part  of  neb 
c.  Bucket,     d.  e.  f.  Sup- 
porting rings 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

by  volume,  by  weigJii,  by  clu-inirnl  f//w///.s/\.  and 
by  enumeration.  For  the  latter,  a  special  form 
of  microscope  [12]  is  used,  having  a  large  mechani- 
cal stage,  which  can  by  means  of  two  screws  In- 
rotated  in  any  given  direction.  The  stage  is  ruled 
with  fine  lines  cut  by  means  of  a  diamond,  and 
these  lines  divide  the  stage  into  squares.  Conse- 
quently, it  is  a  simple  though  a  tedious 
matter  to  enumerate  the  constituents 
of  a  given  volume  of  plankton. 

Important  results  have  been  deduced 
from  this  method  of  enumeration,  more 
especially  with  regard  to  the  floating 
fish  nrgs.  Take,  for  instance,  the  Ecken- 
forde  fishery  in  the  West  Baltic.  This 
fishery  for  cod  and  plaice  is  carried  on 
over  an  area  of  about  16  sq.  miles. 
and  there  are  on  an  average  in  January, 
30  ;  in  February,  from  45  to  50  ;  in 
March,  at  least  60;  and  in  April.  f><) 
floating  eggs  of  cod  and  plaice  for  every 
square  metre  of  surface  (a  square  metre 
equals  M96  sq.  yd.).  These  eggs  tA«- 
on  the  average  about  fifteen  days  to 
develop  under  the  conditions  which 
obtain  in  the  West  Baltic,  so  thai  tin- 
numbers  above  recorded  must  be 
doubled  in  order  to  give  the  number 
occurring  per  month  under  the  square 
metre  of  surface  water.  This  gives 
370  eggs  from  January  to  April. 

Determination  of  Intensity 
of  Fishing.  Now  it  has  been  calcu- 
lated from  a  nine-year  average  that  the 
number  of  cod  and  plaice  annually 
caught  by  the  fishermen  of  this  district 
would,  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  sea, 


have  produced    110  '5  eggs  per  square 
This,   added  to  the  370 


out    of 


metre  of   surface  water. 

above,  gives  a  total  of  480'6,  which  represents  the 
number  of  eggs  that  would  have  been  produced  from 
all  cod  and  plaice,  captured  and  free,  yearly  for  each 
square  metre  of  surface  water.  As  a  consequence 

11Q'6  —  _L  gives  the  fraction  of  the  total  quantity 

480  -K        4  -48 

of  adult  cod  and  plaice  actually 
captured,  or,  in  other  words,  man 
captures  for  his  own  consumption 
about  one-fourth  of  the  total 
number  of  adult  fish  in  this  locality 
in  the  West  Baltic.  This  estima- 
tion has  beenconfirmed  in  a  remark- 
able manner  by  the  marked  -tish 
experiments  which  are  now  being 
carried  on  in  the  North  Sea  by  the 
International  Council. 

Marked-fish  Experi- 
ments. Plaice  are  marked  [ 
with  a  numbered  brass  label  attached 
to  their  bodies  by  a  silver  wire  and 
then  liberated.  The  active  co-oper- 
ation of  the  fishermen  is  secured  by 
means  of  a  system  of  payment  of 
rewards  for  marked  fish  returned  to 
the  laboratory,  with  information  as 
to  date  and  place  of  capture.  A 


i  in      cU.ca     wi     i'ii^    iiv,  */    v/^^-.*"-^.,-         —  _    . 

bein"  known,  the  number  of  organisms  captured 
the  column  of  water  through  which  the  net  has  fa 
can  be  ascertained,  and  thus  the  contents  of  a  given 
volume  of   sea  water  are  known.     The    catch    is 
next  preserved  in  some  suitable  medium,   si 
formaline  or  spirits,   and   then    it  is   subsequently 
estimated  in  the  laboratory.     There  are  four  chi 
methods  of  estimating  the  contents  of  the  catc 


12.   MICROSCOPE  USED   IN 

PLANKTON  INVESTIGATIONS        _ ^ 

large  number  of  such  marked  fish have  been  returned 
,    °,i__    i_i 4-™.,r    of  1  .nwpistoft.  and  it   li   -    i» en 


to  "the   laboratorv   at  Lowestoft,  and 

calculated  that  trawl  fishing  in  the  southern  part 

of  the  North  Sea  has  caused  an  appreciable  reduc- 


from  20  to  30  per  c« 
this  size  in  one  year. 


of 


5189 


FOOD    SUPPLY 

with  the  estimate  of  25  per  cent,  derived  years  ago 
I)V  tin-study  of  the  plankton  along  quantitative  lines. 

Other  results  from  fish-marking  experiments  may 
be  briefly  mentioned  here.  The  extent  and  nature 
of  the  migration  of  plaice,  dabs,  and  soles,  is  one 
of  the  cnief  results  to  be  noted.  In  the  southern 
part  of  the  North  Sea  plaice  migrate  from  the 
inshore  to  the  offshore  grounds,  in  spring  and  summer 
months  th<-  general  direction  being  a  northerly  one. 
Larger  lish  move  quicker  and  further  than  smaller 
It  is,  ]>erhaps,  rather  dangerous  to  attempt 
generalisations  of  too  broad  a  nature,  based  as  they 
are  at  present  on  rather  insufficient  evidence,  but 
there  seems  to  be  a  winter  migration  of  all  plaice 
above  9  in.  in  length,  towards  the  south. 

Practical  Bearings  of  Migration. 
Young  flat-fish  live,  as  is  well  known,  for  the 
most  part,  in  shallow  inshore  waters  called 
nurseries,  and  some  of  the  largest  North  Sea 
nurseries  are  those  off  the  Dutch  coast.  The  facts 
as  to  the  summer  migration  tend  to  show  that  the 
English  plaice  fisheries  to  some  extent  depend  for 
their  supplies  on  these  inshore  grounds.  On  the 
west  coast  certain  nurseries  are  closed  to  all  kinds 
of  trawling  on  account  of  the  large  proportion  of 
undersized  fish  met  with  ;  there  is  a  closed  area  off 
Blackpool,  for  instance.  If  large  numbers  of  plaice 
are  marked  and  liberated  in  these  closed  grounds,  it 
is  obvious  that  it  will  be  possible  to  deter- 
mine how  far  they  serve  as  a  reserve  for 
neighbouring  fishing  grounds  where  trawl  - 
ing  is  permitted;  and  where,  when,  and  pos- 
sibly why  these  young  fish 
move  into  deeper  waters. 

Can  the  Sea  be 
Depleted  of  Fish  ? 
One  of  the  vexed  ques- 
tions of  the  sea  fisheries 
of  recent  times  is  that 
of  over-fishing.  It  would, 
perhaps,  be  more  correct 
to  say  that  the  ques- 
tion of  over  -  fishing  has 
been  with  us  for  some 
considerable  time,  but  that  it  has  only  recently 
become  acute.  The  question  can  best,  perhaps, 
be  put  in  the  following  form :  Can  man,  by  his 
efforts,  so  upset  the  balance  of  Nature  as  to 
render  further  fishing  unprofitable  ?  That  there 
must  be  some  reason  for  supposing  the  answer 
to  be  in  the  affirmative  would  seem  to  be  an 
obvious  deduction  from  the  numerous  Acts  of 
Parliament — and  local  by-laws  passed  in  pursuance 
thereof — which  have  for  their  object  the  regulation 
of  the  sea  fisheries.  The  various  restrictive  enact- 
ments which  have  for  their  object  the  protection 
of  immature  fish,  or  the  prevention  of  destructive 
or  wasteful  methods  of  fishing,  have  all  been  passed 
as  a  result  of  the  outcry  against  over-fishing"  and 
the  alleged  depletion  of  the  sea.  Restrictions 
as  to  the  sizes  and  conditions  under  which  fish 
may  not  be  removed  from  a  fishery,  the  regulation 
of  implements  of  fishing,  and  the  enactment  of  close 
limes,  ;ill  have  resulted  largely,  but  not  entirely, 
as  a  consilience  of  the  alleged  vanishing  of  the 
harvest  of  the  seas. 

Statistical    Evidence  Wanting.    If  the 

deterioration  of  the  fishing  grounds  is  a  fact,  then 

one  would  naturally  expect  to  find  evidence  of  it  in 

;  itistic.it   returns   which  have   been  furnished 

from  year    to    year    by   the   Government   depart- 


13.  A  MARKED  PLAICE 

This  fish  was  liberated  off  the  River  Mersey  on  Nov.  12th, 
1904,  and  recaptured  in  the  River  Lune  ou  Dec.  2nd,  1904 


Continued 


ments  concerned.  Unfortunately  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  statistical  evidence  has  not  in  the 
past  been  collected  with  sufficient  care  to  render 
any  results  obtained  from  its  analysis  reliable;  and 
even  with  six  years  of  the  twentieth  century  gone, 
we  have  no  more  certain  statistical  evidence  of 
over-fishing  than  was  available  at  the  time  of  the 
Royal  Commission  of  1803,  when  the  Commissioners 
found  the  fisheries  were  not  only  not  deteriorating, 
but  were,  on  the  contrary,  capable  of  improvement. 
As  regards  methods  of  fishing  in  vogue  at  that  time, 
there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  of  the  accuracy  of 
this  finding.  But  since  then,  the  extreme  develop- 
ment of  trawling,  and  latterly  the  invention  ot  the 
otter  trawl,  and  the  enormous  annual  output  of 
steam  fishing  boats,  have  introduced  new  factors 
that  it  would  not  be  wise  or  safe  to  ignore. 

Statistical  evidence  being  unavailable,  we  have  to 
examine  another  scientific  method,  which  consists 
of  making  observations  by  means  of  a  special 
fishing  boat  or  steamer  on  certain  grounds 
at  periodic  intervals.  Against  this  method  very 
grave  objections  can  be  urged.  Every  practical 
fisherman  knows  that  whereas  one  vessel  may 
make  a  splendid  catch  another  not  five  or  even 
two  miles  away  may  catch  nothing. 

Fishing  is  Skilled  Labour.  Fishing  is 
not  unskilled  labour  ;  more  is  to  be  credited  to 
the  personal  experience  and 
local  knowledge  of  the  skipper, 
than  is  generally  supposed,  and 
it  by  no  means  follows  that 
trawl  shot  at  hazard  in  a 
given  locality  can  be 
relied  upon  to  give  a 
fair  average  sample  of 
the  number  of  fish  even 
for  a  very  limited  area 
around  that  spot.  Only 
extremely  limited  areas 
can  be  satisfactorily 
investigated  by  this 
method.  While  there 
are  undoubtedly  many 
practical  problems  which  can  only  be  satis- 
factorily investigated  from  a  specially  equipped 
steamer — such  as,  for  instance,  the  determination 
of  the  vitality  of  undersized  fish  caught  in  a 
trawl,  or  the  relative  destructiveness  to  young 
fish  of  various-sized  meshes — we  would  advise 
caution  as  to  the  acceptance  of  deductions  as  to 
over-fishing,  based  on  evidence  accumulated  from 
one  or  even  a  few  steamers. 

Collecting  New  Statistics.  With  the 
discovery  of  new  fishing  grounds  off  the  Icelandic 
coast,  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  even  so  far  distant 
as  the  White  Sea  and  Morocco,  there  is  no  cause  for 
surprise  in  the  fact  that  the  gross  quantity  of  fish 
landed  in  the  British  Isles  shows  a  continual  and 
gradual  increase.  At  the  same  time  the  quantity 
of  fish  on  and  near  the  British  territorial  waters 
may  be  on  the  decrease,  and  evidence  of  fish  caught 
in  or  adjacent  to  these  waters  is  urgently  needed. 
Steps  have  been  taken  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
and  Fisheries  for  the  careful  and  accurate  collection 
of  statistics  of  fish  landed  from  what  may  be 
called  home  waters,  and  in  addition  the  actual 
catches  of  vessels  of  a  certain  class  are  separately 
recorded.  There  can  be  no  shadow  of  doubt  that 
this  is  the  only  reliable  method  of  obtaining  evidence 
for  the  regulation  of  the  fisheries. 


5100 


MAKING    HORSE    COLLARS 

Back  Harness.     Cruppers  for  Cart,  Van,  and  Saddle  Harness.     Breech- 
ing  and  Straps.     Cutting    Horse    Collars.    Making   the    Collar    Body 


Group  20 

LEATHER 
17 


continwd  from 

v*\s<-- 


By  W. 

""THE  horse  collar  is  the  piece  of  harness  next 
to  the  bridle ;  but  because  the  work  of  making 
the  back  harness  belongs  to  the  same  class  as 
the  latter,  we  may  take  it  first.  The  back  harness 
consists  of  several  pieces,  which  are  made  sepa- 
rately and  then  j  oined  together.  In  the  centre,  and 
forming  the  backbone  of  it,  is  the  crupper  ;  the 
crupper  terminates  in  a  round  loop  called  the 
dock  ;  through  the  crupper  pass  a  pair  of  straps 
named  loin-strap  and  hip-strap  respectively  ;  on 
the  ends  of  these,  at  both  sides,  are  the  tugs 
connecting  the  crupper  with  the  breeching ; 

last  is  the  breeching  itself,  going  round  from  loin 
to  loin  behind  the  horse.  In  constructing  the 

back  harness,  the  worker  has  to  exercise  a  sense 

of  proportion.  Accurate  measurement  is  the 
first  essential ;  but,  in  addition,  the  harness- 
maker  is  called  upon  to  use  his  judgment.  Like 

all  animals,  horses  vary  in  their  proportions,  and 

what  might  suit  one  horse  may  be  altogether 

unsuitable  for  another,  though 

the    difference     between    them 

may   be   imperceptible    to   the 

casual  observer.    The  gradations 

from  what  we  call  a  light  to  a 

heavy  horse  are  very  close.     Our 

measurements  have  been  calcu- 
lated for  the  average  size  of  horse. 

Variation  for  special  cases  may 

be  proportioned  on  that  basis. 
Cruppers.     From   one  end 

of  the  broad    strip    of    leather 

designed   for-   the   cart    harness 

crupper,   cut  out  a  semicircle  ; 

narrow  the  other  end  to  2  in. 

in    breadth ;     race    and    crease 

it  along  the  sides  and  ends ;  edge, 

black,  and  polish  the  creases  with 

hot    irons ;     prick   it    for   nine 

stitches  to  the  inch.     Shape   a 

piece  of  leather  8£  in.  by  f  in., 

double  the  sides   over  and  sew 

to  within   about  2  in.    of  each 

end  ;  black,  round,  and  rub  it , 

flatten  the  ends.  Under  the  points  of  the  semi- 
circle at  the  termination  of  the  crupper  lay 
the  ends  of  the  rounded  piece,  and  sew  them 
together,  forming  the  dock.  „ 

Crupper  Lay.  Cut  the  crupper  lay 
1  in.  narrower  than  the  body;  turn  in  one  end 
10  in.,  and  beat  it  flat ;  at  the  other  end  turn 
down  2  in.,  and  narrow  for  a  buckle  1*  in. 
broad  ;  cut  a  hole  for  the  buckle.  Across  the 
broad  erid  run  a  line  about  2  in.  from  the  point 


S.  MURPHY 

angular  panels,  with  spaces  between  for  the  hip 
straps.  Black  and  prick-stitch  four  lines  on 
all  sides  of  the  openings.  Set  the  buckle  in 
place,  and  let  the  broad  end  of  the  lay  touch  on 
the  semicircle  of  the  crupper.  Tack  the  whole 
down  and  stitch  together,  thus  forming  the 
crupper  body. 

Van  Harness  Crupper.  The  chief 
difference  between  this  crupper  and  that  de- 
scribed above  is  in  the  dock  and  the  loop  equip- 
ment. For  joining  the  dock,  the  body  of  tht- 
crupper  is  split  for  6  in.  at  the  back  end.  Com  - 
posed  of  soft-grained  leather,  stitched  in  the 
shape  of  a  bag,  filled  with  linseed  or  sawdust, 
the  ends  flattened  out  and  the  centre  rounded 
and  set,  the  dock  is  sewn  to  the  crupper.  The 
loops  are  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  loops  of 
the  bridle. 

Saddle  Crupper.  Light  and  slender  as 
it  is,  the  saddle  crupper  is  a  very  nice  piece  of 
work,  and  strong.  Slit  the  body 
piece  up  the  centre,  about  5  in. 
at  one  end,  and  form  the  othei 
into  a  chape  for  the  buckle, 
narrowing  it  to  the  size  of  the 
buckle.  Sew  a  strap  called  a 
billet  over  the  chape,  taking  in 
the  buckle ;  crease,  rub,  and 
polish  both  body  and  billet. 
Make  a  loop  and  sew  it  on  the 
body  of  the  crupper,  about  5  in. 
down.  Now  form  the  crupper 
dock  with  a  piece  of  soft,  fine 
leather.  Eoll  round  a  bit  of  thick 
twine  a  few  plies  of  brown  paper ; 
damp  to  make  it  flexible  ;  sew 
the  leather  over  it,  and  round 
it  to  a  circle,  with  long  ends. 
When  fixed  and  dry,  join  the 
ends  of  the  dock  to  the  split 
ends  of  the  crupper  body. 
Punch  holes  for  the  buckle 
tongue  in  the  overlapping  billet ; 
blacken  and  finish. 

^^"te^^eitft^Kg^ 
Turn  it  down  to  4  ft.  10  in.,  in  the  manner  of 
the  turning  for  buckle  chapes  ;  run  the  trimmer 
alonfthe  edges  ;  blacken ;  make  a  double  crease 
alon!  both  sides  ;  shave  both  ends,  and  racj ;  a 
line  fcross  about  1£  in.  from  the  centre  of  the  band. 
St  the  lining  pieces  to  size  ;  skive  the  ends^ 
turn  over  and  put  in  between  the  folds  ot  t 
Seech  Stitch'down  the  linings,  formmg^at 
the  eye  of  th 
and  beat  flat  t 


13.  HORSE-COLLAR  MAKING 


tacw. 


begin  to  stitch, 


LEATHER 

lines  and  cross  lines,  as  marked.  Cut  out  the 
holes  for  the  bridgeband  chains  and  the  tugs. 
Form  the  bridgebands,  with  D-rings  and  screws, 
and  join. 

The  loin  straps  and  breech  tugs  are  double 
straps  that  connect  the  breech  with  the  crupper. 
As  we  have  seen,  the  loin  straps  run  through  the 
crupper  from  side  to  side.  Having  formed  the 
tugs  and  sewn  on  the  buckles,  we  stitch  them  to 
the  breech,  thus  forming  the  back  harness  into 
a  unity.  The  back  harness  of  vans,  gigs,  and 
carriages  have  special  additions,  such  as  the 
breeching- straps,  backband,  and  shaft  tugs ;  but 
in  no  case  do  they  present  any  difficulty  to  the 
man  who  has  made  a  cart  harness. 

Horse  Collars.  The  materials  and  pro- 
cedure for  horse  collars  are  as  follows : 

In  ironmongery  we  need  frames,  hame  clips, 
terrets,  swivels,  and  buckles. 

In  cutting  out  we  have  forewale,  4  ft.  by  7|  in.  ; 
straps,  18  in.  by  1£  in.;  linings  and  side  pieces  to 
measure  and  pattern ;  felt  linings  also  to  pattern. 

Setting  the  Forewale.  Damp  the 
forewale  piece  and  stretch  it  firmly  by  pulling 
evenly  with  the  pincers  all  round.  Measure  off 
£  in.  on  one  side  and  mark  ;  mark  off  2  in.  on 
the  other  side  ;  fold  over,  and  make  the  two 
marks  meet  the  spare  £  in.  on  the  inside  to  form 
the  hinge  of  the  lining,  the  2  in.  of  spare  on  the 
outside  being  the  hold  for  the  side  pieces  of  the 
collar.  Make  a  long,  strong,  and  well-waxed 
thread,  and  select  a  fine  strong  needle.  Stitch 
firmly  along  the  line  of  the  marks,  making  the 
leather  into  a  pipe  with  flanged  joints. 

Stuffing.  Get  ready  a  large  bunch  of  good 
straw  for  stuffing,  and  lay  the  forewale  round 
the  collar  block.  Having  made  a  straight  wisp 
of  straw,  thrust  it  into  the  forewale  with  the 
stuffing  rod,  driving  it  home  evenly,  yet  not  with 
such  force  as  to  break  the  straw  or  cause  it  to 
lump.  Put  a  nick  at  the  centre  of  the  forewale, 
and  press  the  foot  a  little  on  the  inside  to  the  left 
of  the  nick,  driving  down  wisps  of  stuffing  into 
each  side  alternately.  When  near  the  top,  turn 
the  ends  in,  and  beat  the  stuffing  firmly  down. 
The  ends  of  the  forewale,  if  the  stuffing  be  firm, 
are  standing  apart.  Put  a  stitch  of  strong  thread 
through  both  ends,  and  pull  them  together, 
easing  up  with  the  hand  iron,  till  they  are  close. 
Join  with  the  stitching  so  as  to  make  an  even  top. 
The  forewale  is  ready  for  the  body  of  the  collar. 

Making  the  Collar  Body.  Now  we  are 
ready  to  begin  making  the  collar  body  [13].  The 
greater  part  of  the  lining  is  a  textile  fabric, 
cither  woollen  felt  or  cloth,  or  linen;  but  the 
bottom  part,  called  the  throat  piece,  is  nearly 
always  of  soft  leather,  and  often  the  top  is  basil. 
We  think  it  best  to  shape  our  lining  for  leather 
on  the  bottom  only,  making  the  whole  inside 
one  fabric.  Hem  the  throat  piece  to  the  lining, 
joining  so  that  the  narrow  end  of  the  throat  piece 
will  lie  in  to  the  forewale  when  the  lining  is  in 
place.  Centre  the  narrow  end  of  the  throat 
piece  on  the  inner  rim  of  the  forewale,  and  sew 
it  tightly  on.  Turn  in  the  edges  of  the  lining, 
tack  slackly  on  the  forewale  just  above  the 
bottom  curve ;  draw  up  tightly,  and  make 


another  tack  about  5  in.  from  the  head.  Mako 
a  long  four-cord  waxed  thread,  cut  it  in  half,  and 
with  one  half  thread  the  harness  needle.  With 
the  help  of  an  awl,  whip -stitch  the  lining  on  to 
the  outer  rim  of  the  forewale,  keeping  the 
stitches  to  the  inside. 

Stuffing  the  Collar.  Stuffing  a  collar  is 
exacting  work.  Place  everything  required  within 
easy  reach.  Wax  a  bit  of  strong  twine  3|  yd.  long ; 
make  a  seven-cord  waxed  thread  1  \  yd.;  straighten 
and  select  a  bundle  of  good  straw  ;  have  at  hand 
the  throat  strap,  the  hand  iron,  collar  needle, 
seat  awl,  collar  knife,  scissors,  and  mallet.  Sit 
down ;  thread  the  collar  needle  with  the  waxed 
thread  ;  place  the  collar,  throat  upwards,  against 
the  left  knee,  with  the  right  leg  inside. 

Select  a  big  handful  of  straw  ;  lay  it  across 
the  centre  of  the  throat  piece  on  the  forewale  ; 
with  needle  and  thread,  stitch  from  the  centre 
of  the  throat  over  the  straw  to  the  broad  margin 
on  the  other  side,  for  about  6  in.  ;  do  6  in.  on 
the  other  side  of  the  centre  in  the  same  way. 
Drive  in  straw  till  the  \vhole  bottom  is  hard,  then 
fix  it  by  buckling  the  throat  belt  over  it. 

Form  a  wisp  of  straw  the  length  of  the  side 
of  the  collar,  wind  it  round  with  hemp  to  make 
it  firm  and  neat.  Pull  out  the  lining  as  flat  as 
possible  ;  underlay  it  with  a  padding  of  flock  ; 
fill  round  with  straw,  then  thrust  the  long  packet 
of  straw  down  the  centre,  pushing  well  in  on  the, 
bottom  packing.  Lace  the  lining  to  the  forewale 
from  where  the  stitching  left  off,  right  to  the 
head.  Perform  the  same  operation  on  the  other 
side.  Fill  up,  and  then  draw  the  lacing  as  tight 
as  it  will  hold.  Shape  the  body  of  the  collar, 
and  where  depressions  appear,  loosen  the  lacing 
and  put  in  more  packing,  making  sure  that  the 
straw  has  been  pushed  well  into  the  seams.  Crop 
the  straw  even  at  the  top  ;  form  a  leather  cap  ; 
join  it  on  the  forewale,  sew  down  the  lining,  and 
cover  the  join  with  the  leather  cap. 

Finishing  the  Collar.  Having  already 
punched,  creased,  and  blacked  the  collar  straps, 
sew  one  on  each  side  of  the  forewale,  about 
5  in.  from  the  top,  putting  the  stitches  into 
the  groove  formed  by  the  sides  of  the  collar  and 
forewale  at  the  point  of  contact. 

Collar  side  pieces  are  shaped  so  as  to  cover 
the  body  all  round,  forming  a  projecting  roof  over 
it.  Fit  the  two  pieces  on  the  collar  and  trim 
the  size  at  top  ;  join  them  together  by  stitching, 
and  strengthen  the  joint  by  a  binding  of  leather. 
Damp  the  collar  cover  ;  clear  it  of  water  ;  set 
it  in  place  and  fix  it  to  the  top  of  the  collar  body 
with  an  awl.  Pull  the  side  pieces  well  down 
close  to  the  body  and  begin  to  lace-stitch,  making 
sure  that  the  lining  is  caught  in  with  the  stitches. 
Lace-stitch  again,  this  time  joining  the  forewale 
and  side  pieces.  When  done,  the  collar  should 
be  a  strong,  firm  bit  of  work. 

We  have  gone  over  the  principal  points, 
leaving  aside  the  smaller  details,  about  which 
nearly  every  harness-maker  has  his  own  pet 
ideas,  based,  we  suppose,  upon  local  experience. 
Van  harness  collars  are  made  of  finer  materials  ; 
but  in  structure  they  differ  in  no  essential 
particular  from  cart  collars. 


Continued 


5192 


LIGHT  &  WARMTH  IN  THE  HOUSE 

What  Colour  is.      The  Value  of  Sunlight.     Arti- 
ficial Light.     Heat  Radiation.     The  Perfect  Stove 


Group  25 

HEALTH 
18 

Con UHU.-.I  .-,-,„„ 
page  5086 


By    Dr.    A.    T. 

"THE  sun  is  the  life,  the  light  and  the  warmth 
of  the  world.  Let  us  turn  to  the  illustration 
showing  the  threefold  action  of  the  sun's  rays  [24]. 
In  the  centre  we  get  the  prism,  with  its  seveii 
colours  or  notes  corresponding  to  the  notes  in 
music,  the  former  being  due  to  vibrations  in 
ether  varying  from  445  billions  per  second 
at  the  red  end  to  667  billions  per  second  at  the 
violet  end,  as  compared  with  those  in  air  pro- 
ducing sound,  which  vary  from  16  per  second 
in  the  bass  to  some  30,000  per  second. 

What  we  Mean  by  Colour.  Colours 
are  therefore  to  light  as  pitch  is  to  sound.  Of 
course,  colour  is  not  a  property  of  things  but 
of  light.  In  complete  darkness  all  the  ribbons 
and  flowers  in  a  shop  are  the  same  colour,  or, 
rather,  no  colour  at  all.  The  apparent  colour  in 
various  things  and  substances  simply  arises  from 
the  different  part  of  the  prismatic  rays  they  are 
able  to  absorb,  varying  from  the  extreme  of  white 
(paper  or  linen,  etc),  which  can  absorb  none  of  the 
seven  colours,  but  reflects  the  whole  back  to  the 
eye,  forming  white,  to  black  (paper,  ink,  etc.), 
which  absorb  all  and  reflect  none  back.  A  red 
rose,  therefore,  absorbs  all  the  upper  end  of 
the  spectrum  (violet,  etc).,  and 
reflects  the  lower,  whereas  with 
a  violet  it  is  the  reverse  ;  and  in- 
asmuch as  the  red  rays  are  with- 
in those  vibrations  that  give 
heat,  we  call  it  a  warm  colour, 
while  violet  and  blue  are  cold. 

A  picture,  therefore,  may  be 
called  a  song  painted  in  ether,  while  a  song 
is  a  picture  painted  in  air.  An  instrument 
has  been  devised  that  plays  music  for  the  eye 
instead  of  the  ear  in  colours. 

All  light,  it  is  now  known,  does  not  come  from 
the  sun.  Radium  and  other  substances  have 
power  to  emanate  it.  Electricity,  too,  has  five 
times  the  chemical  or  metabolising  (life-sustain- 
ing) power  of  the  sun's  rays  when  presented  in 
the  arc  light. 

As  we  have  said,  the  violet  end  of  the  spectrum 
and  beyond  it  are  life-sustaining  and  growing 
rays,  the  middle  or  yellow  part  of  the  spectrum 
is  the  centre  of  the  light  rays,  and  the  red  end  and 
beyond  are  the  heat  rays,  so  that  violet,  yellow, 
and  red  may  be  taken  to  represent  the  three 
primary  colours. 

Glass  intercepts  the  radiant  heat  rays,  but 
alloAvs  the  dark,  most  of  the  light,  and  chemical 
rays  to  pass  through.  But  though  the  radiant 
heat  rays  cannot  pass  directly,  the  light  rays  may 
be  decomposed  in  passing  through  and  reflected 
as  heat  rays,  as  in  a  greenhouse.  Glass  also 
intercepts  some  light  rays  ;  polished  plate  glass 
stops  13  per  cent.,  ordinary  glass  30  per  cent.. 
and  rolled  plate  stops  53  per  cent. 


(567  billions  per  sec.     Prism     445  billions  per  sec 
24.  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  ACTION  OF 
SUNLIGHT 


SCHOFIELD 

Sunlight  and  Health.  The  hygienic 
value  ,of  sunlight  is  naturally  very  great,  as  it 
contains  such  powerful  chemical  rays.  The  value 
of  sunbaths  is  very  great.  The  aspect  of  houses 
is  also  of  great  importance.  Nurseries  and  all 
living-rooms  should  get  plenty  of  sun,  as  we 
have  seen.  Sunlight  is  a  powerful  bactericide, 
as  these  organisms  flourish  in  gloom  and  dark- 
ness. Some  deep  Swiss  and  Derbyshire  valleys 
are  so  situated  that  the  sun  hardly  ever  pene- 
trates them.  Here  disease  is  rife,  and  goitre 
flourishes.  It  is  found  that  barracks  which  face 
the  sun  are  much  healthier  than  those  with  a 
northern  aspect.  In  England  we  want  eveiy 
ray  of  sun  that  we  can  get.  In  hot  climates, 
it  should  be  noted,  French  windows  are  not  good, 
as  they  let  in  too  much  light  from  below. 

Artificial  Light.  A  great  part  of  our 
existence  is  illumined  by  substitutes  for  sunlight 
of  some  sort.  These '  consist  almost  entirely 
(save  in  electric  arc  light)  of  incandescent  carbon 
or  some  of  the  rarer  earths. 

In  the  incandescent  electric  light  we  have 
carbon  only.  In  gas  and  mineral  oil  we  have 
carbon  and  hydrogen ;  in  colza  oil,  carbon  and 
oxygen;  in  incandescent  gas, 
some  of  the  rarer  earths. 
Hydrogen,  when  heated,  com- 
bines with  the  oxygen  in  the 
air  to  form  H2O  (water),  and 
gives  a  non-luminous  flame  of 
great  heat.  The  carbon,  which 
in  a  lamp  is  in  the  oil  as  well, 
makes  the  flame  luminous  as  its  particles  become 
incandescent.  Carbon  and  oxygen  in  air  form 
CO2,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  ignite  with  a 
luminous  flame. 

No  colours  are  fully  seen  in  this  or  any  other 
artificial  light,  because  only  in  sunlight  do  we  get 
the  full  prismatic  colours  in  their  right  propor- 
tions. 

Candles  owe  their  light  to  the  incandescent 
carbon  in  the  wick  and  grease.  The  standard 
sperm  candle  burns  120  grains  per  hour.  This 
represents  one-candle  power.  It  burns  80  per  cent, 
of  carbon,  13  per  cent,  of  hydrogen,  6  per  cent, 
of  oxygen,  and  produces  per  hour  '4  cubic  ft. 
of  water  and  '4  cubic  ft.  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

One  paraffin  candle  burning  62  grains  per  hour 
burns  86  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  14  per  cent, 
hydrogen,  and  produces  '2  cubic  ft.  water  and  '2 
cubic  ft.  carbonic  acid  gas  per  hour.  One  cubic  ft. 
of  coal  gas,  when  burnt,  produces  '5  cubic  ft. 
carbonic  acid  gas.  Lamps  are  used  with  petroleum 
and  colza  oil. 

In  petroleum  the  flashing  point— i.e.,  the  tem- 
perature at  which  inflammable  vapour  is  given 
off—must  not  be  below  73°  F.  Explosions  are 
caused  by  the  ignition  of  the  vapour.  Sand  is 

5193 


HEALTH 

the  substance  for  extinguishing  burning  petro- 
leum—water is  useless.  Colza  oil  gives  a  soft, 
gentle  light,  and  is  good  for  the  sick-room  and 
for  reading. 

Lamps  burn  about  150  grains  of  oil  per  hour 
and  produce  '6  cubic  feet  CO2.  They  also  burn 
62  grains  per  hour  per  each  candle-power  of  light 
they  give. 

Gas  is  produced  from  coal,  and  is  really  a 
'combination  of  marsh  gas  (CH4),  which  gives 
heat,  and  olefiant  gas  (C2H4),  which  gives  light, 
together  with  some  other  gaseous  hydrocarbon, 
such  as  naphthaline. 

Gas-light  has  been  enormously  improved,  owing 
to  the  competition  of  the  electric  light.  The 
incandescent  burner  has  practically  revolutionised 
the  using  of  gas.  The  ordinary  burners  are  the 
fishtail  of  16-candle  power,  the  batswmg  of  the 
same,  and  the  argand  of  30-candle  power. 

The  number  of  candle-power  which  any  gas- 
light is  equal  to  is  ascertained  by  the  shadow  of 
an  object  illuminated  by  candle  and  gas  on  a 
white  screen.  The  intensity  of  light  rays  (like 
heat)  diminishes  with  the  square  of  the  distance. 

Each  cubic  foot  of  gas  burnt  per  hour  pro- 
duces about  the  same  amount  of  carbon  dioxide 
as  the  respiration  of  a  man.  A  man  produces 
"6  cubic  ft.  of  carbon  dioxide  per  hour,  and  1 
cubic  ft.  of  gas  produces  '52  cubic  ft. 

Oxygen  pn     No.  of 
Used     UU2     Men 
A  good  flat  flame  burning  equal  to 

5  cubic  ft.  per  hour  and 

=  16  candles       ..          ..      6'5      2'5        5 
'Same     light    with     petro- 
leum, and  =  16  candles. .     6'2     3'5        7'5 
16  separate  candles  ..     9*5      6*5      11 

One  cubic  ft.  of  pure  CO2  requires  900  ft.  of 
air  per  hour  to  dilute  it,  therefore  each  flat  gas- 
jet  burning  5  cubic  ft.  per  hour  requires  over 
2,000  cubic  ft.  pure  air  per  hour  above  what  is 
required  for  any  persons  in  the  room  if  the  air  is 
to  be  kept  fresh. 

A  ground-glass  shade  over  the  light  takes 
away  30  per  cent,  of  the  light.  Incandescent 
mantles  give  as  much  light  as  argand  burners, 
and  burn  little  more  than  an  ordinary  gas-jet. 
They  can  also  be  used  inverted,  so  as  to  throw 
the  light  down,  which  is  a  great  advantage. 
Gas,  however,  has  many  disadvantages  ;  it  uses 
up  the  air,  and  its  products  destroy  all  gilding, 
books,  stories,  mortar,  and  iron. 

Apart  from  the  incandescent  light,  "  sun- 
light "  or  ordinary  gas-fittings  fixed  to  the 
ceiling,  through  which  they  ventilate,  are  best. 
Gas  should  issue  from  the  burner  slanting  and 
at  low  pressure,  and  there  should  be  a  plentiful 
supply  of  fresh  air  to  every  part  of  the  flame. 

Unburnt  gas  is  very  dangerous,  and  with 
pressure  a  good  deal  may  escape  into  the  room, 
containing  6  per  cent,  of  the  deadly  poison 
carbonic  oxide  (CO) ;  hence  care  is  required.  Any 
hissing  and  flaring  is  bad.  A  gas  regulator  on  the 
meter  is  invaluable,  and  generally  saves  its  cost. 

The  Welsbach  incandescent  mantle  is  of 
asbestos  and  other  rare  earths,  and  can  burn 
with  a  non-luminous  flame.  Gas  that  could  be 
used  with  such  a  mantle  could  be  supplied, 

5194 


if  the  demand  were  sufficient,  at  Is.  per  1.000 ft.; 
very  little  gas  is  required,  and  the  light  is  much 
whiter — all  excellent  qualities.  The  albo-carbori 
is  a  very  brilliant  white  light,  and  is  really 
naphthaline.  It  is  commonly  used  for  motor- 
lamps.  Gas  should  not  be  used  in  nursery 
bed-rooms,  although  it  is  excellent  in  halls 
and  passages. 

The  electric  light  for  domestic  purposes 
should  always'  be  incandescent.  It  is  a  cool 
and  sanitary  light,  as  it  gives  little  heat  and 
consumes  no  air,  being,  indeed,  only  capable  of 
burning  in  a  vacuum. 

The  substitution  of  electricity  for  gas  in  a 
large  bank  has  so  reduced  the  sickness  as  to 
pay  for  its  instalment.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
arc  light  in  another  bank  had  to  be  taken  down 
and  incandescent  lamps  substituted,  owing  to 
the  mental  excitement  and  exhaustion  its 
powerful  chemical  rays  produced. 

The  Production  of  Heat  Rays.  We 
must  now  turn  from  the  brief  summary  of  light 
to  the  kindred  topic  of  heat. 

Heat  rays  are  conveyed  by  radiation,  by  air,  by 
conduction  by  solids,  and  by  convection  by  gases 
and  liquids.  They  are  produced  by  the  combus- 
tion of  fuel  composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  in 
an  atmosphere  containing  oxygen,  the  products 
of  combustion  being  invariably  (as  for  light) 
carbonic  acid  (C02)  and  water  (H20). 

Every  pound  of  carbon  produces  3J  Ib.  of 
C02  and  can  raise  87  Ib.  of  water  from  60°  F. 
to  212°  F.  ;  in  other  words,  it  can  produce 
some  13,000  heat  units,  a  heat  unit  being 
I  Ib.  raised  one  degree.  • 

The  perfect  combustion  of  1  Ib.  of  dry  wood 
produces  6,400  heat  units. 

One  pound  of  peat  "produces  7,200,  of  coal 
10,000,  of  petroleum  20,000,  of  carbon  (as  we 
have  seen)  13,000,  of  hydrogen  62,535.  This 
last  is  remarkable.  Every  pound  of  hydrogen 
will  produce  by  combustion  9  Ib.  of  water,  and 
can  raise  417  Ib.  of  water  from  60°  F.  to 
212°  F.,  which  is  equal  to  62,500  heat  units. 

In  the  evaporation  of  water  intense  cold  is 
produced,  and  this  is.why  such  severe  chills  and 
pneumonia  are  contracted  even  on  a  hot  sum 
mer's  day  by  the  rapid  evaporation  from  the 
hot  surface  of  the  body,  if  wool  be  not  worn  next 
the  skin.  Nine  hundred  and  sixty-six  heat  units 
are  lost  for  every  pound  of  water  evaporated. 

Heat  Radiation.  Heat  radiates  in 
straight  lines,  but  these  cannot  be  seen  till  the 
vibrations  reach  446  billion  waves  per  second, 
when  they  appear  as  red  rays  at  the  slowest  end 
of  the  spectrum. 

Heat  radiates  through  transparent  mediums 
without  loss,  except  through  glass,  which,  if 
%  in.  thick,  absorbs  half,  only  the  dark  heat 
rays  passing  through.  A  body  may  be  trans- 
parent and  yet  be  impervious  to  heat  rays, 
or  it  may  be  opaque  and  yet  allow  them  to 
pass.  Blue  glass  is  opaque  to  red  and  yellow 
rays,  and  vice  versa. 

Convection  occurs  through  currents  of  air 
or  water,  which  carry  off  heat  from  the  body. 
When  a  man  stands  out  of  doors  they  stream 
from  him  in  every  direction,  and  oblige  fresh 


HEALTH 

currents  of  air  to  flow  toward  him.     Therefore  there    are    many  faults    in    its    construction  • 

the  nearer  the  outer  temperature  is  to  98"  F.  Grates  are  set  too  far  back     th flue™ ^  built 

(blood  heat)  the  less  the  circulation  of  air  round  too  straight ;  the  back  Jnd  'sides  are  of  h 

the    body.      When  the    two    are  equal,  as   in  which  absorbs  the  heat,  and  them  are  bars  at' 

India,   the   air  stagnates,  and  the  punkah,  or  the  bottom,  which,  further,  are  too  wTde  apart 

electric  fan,  is  needed  A  good  £rate   ]ike  thft  ornR  J^r  Tl?P*Ji 
Smells     unfortunately     diffuse 


along    warm 
currents  of  air  also  by  convection. 

Eighty-  one  pounds  of  air  fill  1,000  cubic  ft, 
and  contain  a  certain  amount  of  moisture, 
which  is  deposited  if  there  are  solid  particles 
in  the  air  (soot,  etc.),  forming  a  fog. 

Radiant  heat  does  not  warm  the  air  through 
which  it   passes,  but  all  solids  which 
it  strikes.     It  therefore  prevents  the 
formation  of  water  on  walls  through 
condensation  by  warming  them. 

The  vapour  of  water  absorbs  the 
luminous  rays  of  radiant  heat,  but 
not  others.  Walls  and  furniture  of 
light  colours  make  a  room  warmer 
because  they  reflect  the  radiant  heat 
instead  of  absorbing  it. 

With  radiant  heat  in  a  room,  the 
result  is  cold  air  and  hot  chairs  ;   with  warmed 
air,  the  result  is  cold  chairs  and  hot  air  ;    the 
ideal  is  a  mixture  of  the  two. 

Coal  fires  yield  only  13  per  cent,  of  the  heat 
produced  in  the  room,  and  wood  fires  6  per 
cent.  Radiant  heat  can  keep  the  temperature 
of  a  room  60°  to  65°  F.,  adds  no  impurities,  but 
Jets  five  -eighths  of  the  heat  escape  up  the  chimney. 
In  English  houses  the  temperature  is  not  alike 
in  any  two  places.  The  hottest  place  is  by  the 
fire  in  the  room,  and  the  further  away  the 
colder  the  room.  When  the  room  is  opened  and 
the  passage  entered  it 
is  colder  still;  on  the 
staircase  more  so  ;  in 
the  hall  chilly;  and  at 
the  hall  door  quite  cold. 

In  an  American  house 
heated  with  warm  air 
this  is  not  so.  One  is 
in  the  uniform  tempera- 
ture of  a  mild  hot-house 
everywhere.  Bed-room, 
sitting-room,  cupboards, 
passages,  hall,  staircases, 
all  are  uniform.  The 
result  is  that  one  steps 
much  more  suddenly 
out  of  the  heat  into 
the  cold,  and  severe 
chills  are  more  common, 
though  it  is  un- 
doubtedly more  luxuri- 
ous and  comfortable.  Some  people,  moreover 


25.    A  WELL-BUILT 
GRATE 


. 

good  grate,  like  the  Grosvenor,  is  set  well 
forward  into  the  room,  has  firebrick  back  and 
sides,  and  above  slants  forward  to  a  narrow 
flue.  It  has  close  bars  beneath,  with  a  waste 
preventer  in  front  stopping  all  draught  from 
below. 

There  are  also  grates  with  solid  floors  level 
with  the  hearth,  sunk  floors  below  it  without 
any  bars  at  all ;  grates  that  are 
fed  from  beneath;  "down  draught" 
grates,  where  the  flue  is  carried  down- 
wards ;  and  grates  where  the  whole  fire 
is  contained  in  a  sort  of  brass  coal- 
scuttle, like  the  "  Nautilus." 

In  the  Teale  grates  there  is  a  solid 
floor,  back  and  sides  being  of  firebrick, 
arched  forward  to  one -third  of  the 
front,  with  a  very  narrow  chimney- 
throat.  The  Staffordshire  grate  is  a 
good  one,  and  consists  of  an  angular  recess 
lined  with  firebrick  or  white  tiles,  and  bars 
across  the  front  [25]. 

Fireplaces.  Fireplaces,  when  possible, 
should  always  be  fitted  in  an  inner  wall,  so 
that  all  the  heat  warms  the  house.  Underfed 
fires  are  smokeless,  but  are  much  more  trouble 
to  work. 

An  ordinary  fireplace  burns  about  8  Ib.  of  coal 
per  hour,  which  in  a  perfect  fireplace,  with  care, 
can  be  reduced  to  2  Ib.  It  requires  2,400  cubic  ft. 
of  air  for  its  combustion,  but  the  up-draught  of 
the  heated  chimney 
draws  20.000  more 
cubic  ft.  per  hour  out 
of  the  room,  thus  en- 
suring a  constant  rush 
of  fresh  air  by  doors, 
windows,  etc. 

The  Galton  grate 
[26],  which  allows  air  to 
circulate  round  it,  and 
warms  it,  gives  double 
the  heat  with  the  same 
fuel. 

The  ideal  grate  only 
lets  enough  heat  escape 
up  the  chimney  to 
warm  it  and  produce 
a  draught.  Of  course, 
the  heat  that  enters  the 


never  get  accustomed  to  breathing  warmed  air 

The  intensity  of  heat  decreases  inversely 
with  the  square  of  the  distance.  Thus,  if  one 
stands  3  ft.  away  from  a  fire  one  only  gets 
one-ninth  of  the  heat  that  would  be  felt  1  ft. 
away.  At  double  the  distance,  6  ft.,  instead 
of  getting  half  (one-eighteenth)  one  only  gets 
a  quarter  (one-thirty-sixth). 

The  open  fire  is  wasteful,  but  most  hygienic. 
The  grate  is  a  powerful  ventilator, 


25.    THE    GALTON    GKATE,  SHOWING   RADIATION 

AND  VENTILATION    IN  ROOM 

1.  Grate    2.  Flue    3.  Warm  air  flue    4.  An  inlet    5.  Warm    roomjs  principally  by  the 

radiation    of    luminous 

rays  ;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  luminous 
heat  rays  are  more  healthy  than  dark  ones. 

Gas  fires,  when  open  and  set  in  a  chimney-place, 
are  good,  producing  no  smoke.  The  fogs  may 
be  as  frequent  in  towns  where  these  are  common, 
but  they  are  less  yellow.  Sulphur  fumes  are  still 
produced.  Water-gas  makes  the  most  econo- 
mical fire,  owing  to  its  heat  properties.  It  is 
produced  by  a  blast  of  steam  over  red-hot  coke, 
continued  for  14  minutes,  when  the  coke  has 
to  be  re-heated  for  10  minutes  by  blasts  of 

510.% 


As  a  rule 


HEALTH 

air.  The  resulting  gas  is  purified  by  oxide  of 
iron,  and  stored.  It  has,  however,  33  per  cent. 
of  CO  instead  of  6  per  cent.,  as  ordinary  gas, 
and  as  tliis  is  a  deadly  poison  its  use  is  dangerous. 
It  gives  a  superior  heat  to  gas,  has  no  sulphur 
fumes,  produces  pure  water  and  CO2  by  com- 
bustion, and  costs  only  4d.  instead  of  3s.  per 
1,000  ft.  What  this  could  mean  to  the  poor  in 
winter  may  be  imagined.  As,  however,  it  is  such 
a  powerful  respiratory  poison,  if  unburnt,  it  has 
never  yet  become  popular. 

Stoves.  All  gas  radiation  stoves  or  geysers 
must  have  flues  to  carry  the  burnt  product  out 
of  the  room.  Calorigen  stoves  are  economical 
[27].  In  them  a  coil  full  of  air  from  outside 
passes  through  the  gas  fires,  so  that  the  room 
is  heated  by  the  warmed  air  as  well  as  the  gas. 

Stoves  conduct  heat  from  one  molecule  to 
another,  and  also  by  convection  by  movement 
of  the  -heated  air.  They  may  be  closed,  venti- 
lated, or  open,  and  air  should  freely  circulate 
round  them. 

The  slower  the  combustion,  the  greater  the  heat 
they  give  out  for  the  same  gas.  They  are  good 
for  warming  rooms,  but  have  no  ventilating 
power.  They  dry  the  air  ;  there  is  the  same 
absolute  humidity  with  less  relation. 
A  vessel  of  water  should  therefore 
ahvays  be  placed  on  the  stove  to 
evaporate. 

If  stoves  are  overheated  at  150°  F., 
the  organic  particles  in  the  air,  coming 
in  contact  with  the  heat,  begin  to 
char  and  produce  a  peculiar  close 
smell.  Cast-iron  stoves  heat  too  soon 
and  cool  too  quickly,  and  also  give  off 
CO  (carbonic  oxide).  Stoves  with 
flanges  are  good.  The  best  are  lined  with 
fireclay,  while  some  are  made  entirely  of  porcelain. 

Heating  by  hot  air  is  better  and  cheaper  than  by 
hot-water  pipes,  which  always  produce  draughts. 
In  public  buildings,  such  as  churches  and  halls, 
no  great  heat  is  needed,  on  account  of  the  warmth 
given  off  from  the  people  present.  The  heat 
from  one  man  is  equal  to  that  from  one  yard  of 
4-in.  pipe  at  200°  F.  if  the  temperature  is  50°  F.; 
if  70°  F.,  only  half  as  much  heat  is  given  off. 
Women  give  off  half  the  heat  of  men. 

The  heat  of  a  church  should  be  kept  at  56° 
to  58°  F.  by  pipes,  and  this  should  be  lowered 
or  cut  off  when  it  is  full.  Public  buildings 
generally  require  5  ft.  of  4-in.  iron  piping  for 
every  1,000  cubic  ft,  to  raise  the  air  to  55°  F.  in 
cold  weather.  If  the  pipes  are  inside  the  build- 
ing the  best  place  for  them  is  in  the  window 
recesses,  not  too  near  the  floor.  Steam-pipes 
(1  in.  instead  of  4  in.)  are  handier  than  hot  water. 

The  Ideal  Heating  System.  In  a  perfect 
system  of  supply,  the  warmed  air  is  filtered. 
washed,  damped,  and  enters  the  church  or  hall 
4  ft  .  above  the  head  in  an  upward  direction. 
Tin-  foul  air.  with  germs,  dust,  etc.,  is  drawn 
off  at  the  floor  level  by  a  shaft  reaching  above  the 
roof.  The  air  is  changed  six  to  ten  times  per 
hour.  This  removes  sill  fog.  and  keeps  the  air  pure. 

Forced  ventilation  can  be  obtained  by  forcible 
extraction  of  air,  allowing  the  fresh  air  to  rush 


„_ 
27<  AN 


STOVE 


in  naturally  to  supply  its  place,  or  forcible 
impulsion  of  air,  causing  the  foul  air  to  pass 
out.  Of  the  two,  impulsion  is  the  better. 
Forced  ventilation  is  much  more  under  control 
in  all  weathers  than  any  natural  ventilation, 
which  really  depends  for  its  efficiency  on  the 
difference  of  temperature  within  and  without. 

In  the  ordinary  class-room  with  natural 
ventilation  only,  we  get  1,556  bacteria  in  each 
cubic  foot.  In  forced  ventilation  with  extrac- 
tion we  get  2,000.  In  forced  impulsion  the  num- 
ber is  brought  down  to  198  only.  The  inlet 
chamber  is  made  of  cement  and  concrete,  and 
contains  pipes  for  heating  the  air  and  a  string 
screen  down  which  water  is  ever  flowing  for  wash- 
ing, and  a  gas-engine  4  to  6  h.p.  to  pump  it  in 
by  the  fan.  It  enters  above  the  head.  A  slow 
fan  and  large  inlet  channels  cause  least  draught. 
In  rooms  the  air  is  drawn  off  at  the  top,  in 
churches  and  schools  at  the  bottom  by  a  high 
shaft,  but  no  exhaust  or  fire  at  bottom  of  shaft 
is  needed  with  forced  impulsion. 

The  reason  why  extraction  of  air  is  so  much  less 
desirable  than  impulsion  is  because  a  vacuum  is 
produced  by  sucking  out  the  foul  air  with  a  fan, 
and  thus  fresh  air  finds  its  way  in  any- 
where, whatever  its  state  of  foul- 
ness. The  care  should  really  be  spent 
on  the  fresh  air  that  enters,  not  on 
the  foul  air  that  leaves.  Of  course, 
in  no  case  must  entrances  and  exits 
be  near  together.  A  floor  entrance 
is  bad,  because  it  must  carry  up  with  it 
for  respiration  all  the  foul  dust  and  dirt 
of  the  floors.  This  is  the  weak  point 
of  the  House  of  Commons  ventilation. 
Heating  by  Hot  Water.  Be- 
fore leaving  the  question,  it  should  be 
noted  that  all  hot-water  heating  requires  special 
inlets  and  outlets  for  ventilation,  because  there  is 
no  open  fireplace.  A  hot- water  system  or  steam 
at  low  pressure  has  4-in.  pipes,  with  ventilation  at 
the  highest  point.  The  circulation  is  at  200°  F. 
from  the  boiler.  In  high  pressure  there  is  no 
boiler.  The  pipes  are  1  in.  wrought  iron,  with  a 
|-in.  bore  passing  through  a  furnace,  and  the  heat 
is  350°  F.  Perkins'  hot-water  pipes  are  a  closed 
circuit  coiled  for  one-sixth  of  their  length  in  a 
furnace,  with  an  expansion  tube  at  the  highest 
point,  and  an  inlet  just  below  it.  They  main- 
tain a  temperature  of  £00°  F.  Soft  water  is 
best  for  these  pipes.  Boilers  burst  through 
being  encrusted,  and  by  frost. 

One  foot  of  4-in.  pipe  at  200°  F.  raises  222  cubic 
ft.  of  air  one  degree  per  minute.  To  find  the  length 
of  4-in.  pipe  to  warm  a  church,  divide  the  cubic 
feet  of  space  by  200.  This  gives  the  length  of  pipe 
in  feet.  For  house  warming  allow  12  ft.  for 
every  1,000  cubic  ft,,  to  maintain  65°  in  mild,  50° 
in  cold  weather.  Work-rooms  require  6  ft.  per 
every  1,000  cubic  ft.  to  reach  55°  F. 

Every  square  foot  of  glass  window  cools  1£ 
cubic  ft.  of  air  per  minute,  down  to  the  external 
temperature.  Heated  air  from  a  central 
furnace  on  the  American  plan  can  be  supplied  to 
rooms  or  flats  at  8d.  per  1,000  cub.  ft.  per  annum 
if  by  day  only. 


Continued 


51% 


CIRCLES 


Circles — contd.   Angles  in  Same  Segment.    Concyclic  Points.    Quadrilateral 
in  a  Circle.    Arcs  and  Chords.     Definition  of  Tangent.    Tangent  Properties 


Group  21 

MATHEMATICS 
36 

tA  ii  "iu  page  5044 


By   HERBERT  J.   ALLPORT,    M.A. 


Proposition  40,     Theorem 

Angles  in  the   same   segment  of  a  circle   are 
equal. 

Let    ACB    and 
ADB  be  angles  in 
o  the  same  segment 
.  ACDB    of    a    0, 
whose  centre  isO. 
It  is  required  to 


prove  that  z_ACB  =  A  ADB. 

Proof.     Join  AO,  BO. 
Then  L  AOB  =  twice 


ACB  (Prop.  39), 


L  AOB  =  twice  L  ADB  (Prop.  39). 
=  Z.ADB. 


and 


Circle  Through  Three  Given  Points. 

It  has  been  shown  that  a  point  can  be  found 
Avhich  is  equidistant  from  three  given  points 
not  in  the  same  straight  line.  Hence,  a  circle 
can  always  be  described  through  these  three 
points.  Its  centre  will  be  the  point  equidistant 
from  the  three .  Again,  this  point  which  is  equi- 
distant from  the  others  was  shown  to  be  at  the 
intersection  of  a  certain  pair  of  straight  lines ; 
and,  since  a  straight  line  cuts  another  at  only 
one 'point,  it  follows  that  only  one  circle  can  be 
described  through  three  given  points. 

Only  under  certain  conditions  can  a  circle  be 
drawn  through  more  than  three  points. 

If  a  circle  can  be  drawn  through  four  or  more 
points,  the  points  are  said  to  be  concyclic. 

When  a  rectilineal  figure  can  be  placed  so  that 
its  angular  points  lie  on  the  Qce  of  a  ©»  ifc  !s 
said  to  be  inscribed  in  the  circle  :  the  circle  is 
said  to  be  circumscribed  about  the  figure. 

Proposition  41.     Theorem 

The  opposite  angles  of  a  quadri- 
lateral inscribed  in  a  circle  are 
supplementary. 

Let  ABCD  be  a  quadrilateral 
inscribed  in  the  0  whose  centre 
isO. 

It  is  required  to  prove  that 

L  ABC  +  L  ADC  -  2  right  L  s, 
and         L  BAD  +  L  BCD  -  2  right  L  s. 
Proof.     Join  OA,  OC. 

Then  'L  ABC  at  the  Oe"  -  half  the  reflex  L  AOC 
at  the  centre,  standing  on  the  fame  arc  AJJL, 
and  -Z.ADC  at  the  CT  =  half  the  /.AOC  at  the 
centre,  standing  on  the  same  arc  ABC. 

Z.ABC+  L  A  DC  =  half    the  sum   of    the 
<_s  at  0  =  2  right  _s  (Cor.  Prop.  1). 
Similarly  it  can  be  shown  that 

-BCD  =2  right  _s. 


Proposition  42.     Theorem 

If  two  opposite  angles  of  a  quadrilateral  are 
supplementary,  the  vertices  of  the 
quadrilateral  are  concyclic. 

Let  ABCD  be  a  quadrilateral 
in  which 

L  B  +  L  D  =  2  right  L  s. 
It   is  required  to   prove   that 
A,  B,  C,  D  are  concyclic. 
Proof.      Draw  the    0   through    the    points 
A,  B,  C. 

If  this  0  does  not  also  pass  through  D,  let  it 
cut  CD,  or  CD  produced,  in  E.     Join  AE. 
Then,  since  ABCE  is  a  quadrilateral  in  a  0 
.'.  ^B+  z_AEC=  2  right  La  (Prop.  41). 
But     ^B  4-  L  ADC=  2  right  Ls,  (Hyp. ). 

.'.  L  AEC  =  L  ADC,  which  is  impossible,  since 
the  exterior  L  of  the  AAED  must  be  greater 
than  the  interior  opposite  L . 

.'.  the  0  must  also  pass  through  D. 

Proposition  43.     Theorem 
In  equal  circles,    if   two  arcs   subtend  equal 
angles  either  at  the  centres  or  at  the  circumferences, 
the  arcs  are  equal. 

Let  ABK,  DEL  be  equal  Qa,  and  let  £  AGO 

L  centres,   and    there- 

fore the  L  AKC  = 
^.DLF  at  the  Octs 
(Prop.  39). 

It  is  required  to 
prove  that  the  arc 
ABC  =  the  arc  DBF. 
Proof.  Place  the  0  ABK  on  the  0  DEL  so 
that  the  centre  G  falls  on  the  centre  H,  and  GA 
falls  along  HD.  Then,  since  L  AGC  =  L  DHF, 
GC  will  fall  along  HF.  Also,  since  the  0s  have 
equal  radii,  the  points  A  and  C  will  fall  on  the 
points  D  and  F  respectively,  and  the  QCM  of  fche 
two  0s  will  coincide  entirely. 

/.  the  arc  ABC  =  the  arc  DEF. 
Proposition  44.     Theorem 
In  equal  circles,  angles,  whether  at  the  centres  or 
the  circumferences,  which  stand  on  equal  arcs  are 


e    ABK,  DEL  be  equal  0s  [see  figure  to 
Prop.  43]  and  let  the  arc  ABC  -    the  arc  I 
It  is  required  to  prove  that  the 

"$£$    Hace'thfolBK  on  the  0  DEL  so 

that  the  centre  G  falls  on  the  centre  H,  and  C 
falls  along  HD.     Then,  since  the  0s  have  equa 
radii,  A  will  fall  on  D,  and  the  0s  will  coincide 


the  arc  ABC=  -DEF,  the  point  C 
wiilfallonF. 


MATHEMATICS 

And,  since  the  L  s  nt  K  and  L  are  the  halves 
of  these  (Prop. 


Proposition  45.     Theorem 

In  equal  circles,  arcs  which  are  cut  off  by  equal 
chords  are  equal. 

Let  ABK  and  DEL  be  equal  0s  whose  centres 
are  G,  H,  and  let  the 
chord  AC  —  the  choi  d 
DF. 

It   is   required    to 
prove   that    the    arc 
ABC  =  the  arc  DEF. 
Proof.     Join    GA, 
GC,  HI),  HF. 
Then  the  AS  AGC,  DHF  have  the  sides  of 
the  one  equal  respectively  to  the  sides  of  the 
other. 

•    ^AGC  =  L  DHF  (Prop.  7). 
/.arc  ABC  =  arc  DEF  (Prop.  43). 
Proposition  46.     Theorem 
In  equal  circles,  chords  which  cut  off  equal  arcs 
are  equal. 

Let  ABK,  DEL  be  equal  0s  [see  figure  to 
Prop.  45]  whose  centres  are  G,  H,  and  let  the 
arc  ABC  =  the  arc  DEF. 

It  is  required  to  prove  that  the  chord  AC 
=  the  chord  DF. 
Proof.     Since  the  arc  ABC  =  the  arc  DEF, 

•;•  ^AGC-  L  DHF  (Prop.  44). 
.'.    As  AGC,  DHF,  have  two  sides  and  the 
contained  /_  of  one  equal  to  two  sides  and  the 
contained  L  of  the  other, 

/.  AC  =  DF  (Prop.  4). 

NOTE.  The  properties  proved  for  equal  circles 
will  evidently  be  true  in  the  case  of  the  same 
circle. 

Tangent  Properties 

Tangent.  A  straight  line  cuts  a  circle  in 
two  points.  If  the  line  moves  in  such  a  way 
that  the  points  approach  one  another  and  ulti- 
mately coincide,  the  straight  line  then  becomes 
a  Ian  <jent  to  the  circle. 

Thus,  let  a  straight  line  cut  a  0  in  the  points 
7  P,    Q.     Imagine    P    to    remain 

fixed,  and  Q  to  move  along 
the  Qce  towards  P.  The  line 
PQ  will  turn  about  P,  and 
when  Q  coincides  with  P  will 
have  come  into  the  position 
PT.  The  straight  line  PT  is 
the  tangent  to  the  0  at  P. 
Contact  of  Circles.  If  two  0s  cut  one 
another  at  P  and  Q,  and  we  imagine  Q  to  move 
up  to,  and  coincide  with,  P,  then  the  0s  are 
said  to  touch  at  P,  and  the  straight  line  PQ 
becomes  the  tangent  to  both  0s,  at  P. 

Proposition  47.     Theorem 
The  tangent  to  a  circle  at  any  point  is  per- 
jn'iiil  indar  to  the  radius  drawn  to  that  point. 

Let  P  be  any  point  on  a  0  whose  centre 
isC). 

It  is  required  to  prove  that  OP  is  _L  to  the 
tangent  at  P. 

I'ronf.  Let  PQ  be  any  straight  line  through 
P,  cutting  the  O"'  again  at  Q.  Draw  OM  J_  to 


PQ.  Then  OM  bisects  PQ  (Prop.  36).  Now 
let  Q  move  along  the  Qce  till  it  coincides  with  P, 
and  let  PT  be  the  final  position  of  the  straight 
line.  Then  PT  is  the  tangent 
at  P.  Also,  when  Q  coincides 
with  P,  the  point  M  (which  is 
always  midway  between  P  and 
Q)  must  also  coincide  with  P, 
i.e.,  OM  coincides  with  OP. 
And,  since  OM  is  always  J_  to 
PQ,  its  final  position  will  be 
J_  to  the  final  position  of  PQ. 

/.  OP  is  _L  to  PT. 

Corollary  1.  Since  only  one  line  can  be  drawn 
_]_  to  OP  at  the  point  P,  one,  and  only  one 
tangent  can  be  drawn  to  a  circle  at  a  given  point 
on  the  circumference. 

Corollary  2.  Since  only  one  line  can  be  drawn 
JL  to  PT  from  the  point  P,  the  perpendicular  to 
a  tangent  at  its  point  of  contact  passes  through 
the  centre. 

Corollary  3.  Since  there  is  only  one  line  from 
O  J_  to  PT  the  line  draic.n  from  the  centre  per- 
pendicular to  a  tangent  passes  through  the  point 
of  contact. 

Proposition  48.     Theorem 

If  two  circles  touch,  the  straight  line  joining 
their  centres  passes  through  the  point  of  contact. 
Let  ABC,  ADE  be  two  0s  touching  at  A. 


and  let  O,  O'  be  their  centres. 

It  is  required  to  prove  that  UU'  passes 
through  A. 

Proof.  Since  the  0s  touch  at  A,  they  have 
a  common  tangent  at  A.  Also,  OA  and  O'A  are 
each  perpendicular  to  this  tangent  (Prop.  47). 

.'.  A,  0,  and  0'  must  be  in  the  same  straight 
line. 

Proposition  49.     Theorem 
Two  tangents  can  be  drawn  to  a  circle  from  an 
external  point. 

Let  PQR  be  a  0  whose  centre  is  O, 
and  let  A  be  a  point 
outside  it. 

On  AO  as  diameter 
describe  a  0  APOQ, 
cutting  the  given  0  at 
P  and  Q.  Join  AP,  AQ, 
OP,  OQ. 

Then,  since  z_s  APO,  AQO  are  angles  in  a 
semicircle, 

.'.  they  are  right  Ls  (Prop.  39  Cor.);  i.e.,  AP 
and  AQ  are  J_  to  radii. 

.'.  they  are  tangents. 

Corollary.  The  tivo  tangents  are  equal,  and 
subtend  equal  angles  at  the  centre.  For  it  is 
easily  seen  (Prop.  20)  that  the  As  APO,  AQO 
are  equal  in  all  respects. 

/.  AP=  AQ,  and  ^AOP=  Z.AOQ. 


Continued 


5198 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  RUBBER 

Commercial  Notes.     Making  Crude  Rubber  into  Sheets.     Making  Rubber 
Goods.     Various  Processes  of  Vulcanising  Rubber.     The  Machinery  Used 


Group  23 

APPLIED 
BOTANY 


Kl  BBIJR    AND 

continued  tic.ii 


R 


AW    RUBBER    comes    on    the   market    in 
variety  of  shapes  and  under  numberless  desig 


surface    washing,    cutting   up,    rolling,    washing    ;» 
second  time,  and  finally  drying.     The  first  washing 


varey  o    sapes  an     uner  numeress     esg-  secon       me,  an       nay    ryng.          e    rs    wasng 

nations,    such    as    balls,    buttons,    biscuits,    cakes,  has  the  effect  of  softening  the  rubber,  which  becomes 

lumps,  marbles,  negroheads,  niggers,  scraps,  sheets,  hard  on  storing,  and  consists  of  soaking  the  rubber 

spindles,    and    thimbles,    to    which    the    name    of  for  periods  varying  from  two  to  four  hours  in  hot 

the  port  from  which  it  is  shipped,  or  the  district  water.     When  it  is  softened  sufficiently  it  is  cut 

from  which   it   originates,   is  frequently   attached.  into  1|  in.  to  2|  in.  squares,  but  if  the  crude  rubber 

These  names  are  constantly  changing  as  old  ones  is  in  small  fragments,  this  naturally  can  be  omitted. 

disappear  and  new  ones  are  invented.  The  next  operation  of  rolling  and  washing  is  a  very 

The  total  production  of  rubber  from  all  sources  has  important  one. 

been  calculated    for    the    year  ending  June,  1906,  The  Rolling  and  Washing  Mill.     The 

at  68,000  tons;    of  this  quantity,  36,000  tons  are  mill  [7]  used  consists  of  two  heavy  horizontal  rollers, 

estimated  to  be  of   South  American  origin,  mostly  placed  side  by  side,  and  supported  in  a  strong  frame, 

Brazilian.     The  next  largest  source  is  Africa,  with  which  revolve  inwardly  at  different  rates  of  speed. 

about     23,000     tons.     Liverpool     is     the     central  These  rollers  are  either  smooth  or  grooved.     A  per- 

European  market  for  raw  rubber,  but  Hamburg  is  forated  pipe  is  fixed  about  2  ft.  immediately  above 

rapidly  growing  in  importance  as  a  trading  centre  these  rollers,  so  that  a  stream  of  water  can  be  directed 


for  this  product. 


VllC'St?  1  UH^l  Oj   OVJ   KllCtU  Ct   OULV>Ctill    VI     "^ 

upon  the  rubber  while  it  is  passing  between  them. 


r  tms  prouuci.  upon  me  ruuuer  wuii          is  piaomg  u* 

The  price  naturally  fluctuates  according  to  the  The  object  of  this  operation  is  to  remove  vegetable 

figure  which  has  impurities,   sand,   and  other   mineral   matter,   and 

was  in  1905,  when  -i« ,.o^^  oiL-oi;  ™  ntWr  nUfmi^al  rAaaftnt,  which 


J.ne  price  naturaiiy  iiuviiiuaico  c»^vri.u.Lug  «•<-»  ***~ 
supply  and  demand,  the  highest  figure  which  has 
been  attained  during  recent  years  was  in  190*  ™^ 

cultivated  Para  reached  the  figure  of  6s.  9d.  r , 

and  fine  Para  5s.  9d.  per  Ib.     Prices  since  then  have 
fallen  somewhat,  being  now  about  5s.  6d.  per  Ib.  for 
the  former,  and  slightly  over  5s.  per  Ib.  for  the  latter. 
Physical    Properties  of   Crude    Rub- 
ber.      The    physical    properties    of    raw    caout- 
chouc may  be  briefly  summarised  as  follows.     It 
has  a  distinctive  odour,  and  when  it  has  not  been 
cured    by   smoking   the   smell   is   frequently   very 
disa<reeable,  especially  in  inferior  brands  or  qualities. 
It  is°very  elastic  under  normal  conditions,  but  when 
cooled  to  freezing  point,  it  becomes  hard  and  brittle, 
regaining  its  original  state  on  being 
warmed.     When  freshly  cut,  the  sur- 
faces are  very  adhesive  and  can  be 
easily  made  to  reunite.     It  is  a  non- 
conductor of  electricity.     Raw  caout- 
chouc is  insoluble  in  water,  but  has 
the  curious    property   of   taking  up 
nearly  25  per  cent,  when  soaked  for 
a     considerable     time ;      its     other 
characteristics,  such  as  extensibility, 
resilience,   and  tenacity,  are  thereby 
greatly   impaired.     It   is   affected  in 
a  very  similar   way  by  alcohol,  but 
the   action   is  rather    more   marked. 
Acetone  also  has  a  like  effect,  and 
ether   causes    it    to    swell   considerably,  but  does 
not     dissolve    it.       It    is     soluble    in    turpentine^, 
petroleum   spirit,    carbon   bisulphide,    benzol     and 
chloroform.     Strong    acids,    such    as    concentrated 
sulphuric    and    nitric    acids,    attack   it   vigorously, 
hydrochloric    acid    in    rather    a    less    degree,    anc 
organic     acids     merely     make     it    swell     slightly. 
Solutions   of   alkalis   have   little   effect  upon  crude 
rubber   unless  it  is  heated.       Exposure  to   air   and 
light  in  a  warm  place  slowly  oxidise  the  rubber  on 
i,0.   t ,• .,;,,;^™  i+a  «>iaet,imtv.       It  begins  io 


7.    WASHING  MILL 
poles  or 


nipuriues,    sauu,    ami    ui 

also  any  acid,  alkali,  or  other  chemical  reagent  which 
has  been  used  in  coagulating  the  latex.  The  rollers 
have  a  tearing  and  kneading  action  upon  the  rubber, 
and  at  the  same  time  crush  any  solid  impurities 
present,  so  that  they  are  more  readily  carried  away 
by  the  stream  of  water.  Fine  Para  rubbers  and 
similar  qualities  are  easy  to  wash,  but  rubbers  of  a 
greasy  or  pitchlike  nature  are  very  difficult  to 
clean  properly.  After  having  passed  through  the 
rollers  several  times,  the  washed  rubber  issues 
a  sheet  somewhat  resembling  blotting  paper,  with 
a  characteristic  shrivelled  appearance;  very  dry 
rubbers,  however,  come  out  of  the  mill  in  small 
fragments.  Cultivated  rubber  is  fre- 
quently washed  before  coming  on  to 
the  market,  when  it  is  known  as  crepe, 
or  sheet  rubber. 

The  crude  rubber  is  fed  into  the 
machine  by  hand,  and  as  this  is  a 
somewhat  dangerous  occupation,  an 
ingenious  device  has  been  invented 
by  F.  Clouth,  whereby,  in  the  event 
of  a  workman  being  caught  by  one, 
or  even  both  hands,  between  the 
rollers,  he  can  immediately  stop  the 
machine. 

Drying      The  rubber  is  now  dri< 
by  hanging  the  sheets  or   leaves  on 
wires   either  in  the  open  or  in  drying- 
are   artificially  heated  and  provided 
~  removing    the    moist   air. 

lumps,   it  is  dried  on  frames. 
3h  air  accelerates  drying,  which 
two  or  three  days,  and  in  winter 
e    use    of    vacuum    drying 
•piiiiv  been  introduced  for  drying 

to  produce  a  fine  nervy  product,  but  it  is  now 


fans 


and  finally  liquefies  au  auuui,  ™v/  *.-.  ,     ,    nlace  until  requireu. 

First     Stages    of     Manufacture  vJiot*  of  weight  in  washing  fluctuates; 

crude  rubber  as  received  by  the  ^ufacturer  has  1 ^               ^    diffcrent    qua|it        of   rubber 

first  to  undergo  a  prelimmary  treatment  to     me  co ,                ,             ^^  ]oge  ag  much  as  60  per  cent, 

removal  of  impurities,  which  consists  of  soaking  M99 


APPLIED   BOTANY 

of  their  weight,  but  the  better  qualities  rarely  lose 
more  than  15  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent.  Another 
factor  which  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the 
value  of  rubber  is  the  amount  of  resin  that  it 
contains.  Fine  Para  has  from  (Hi  per  eent.  to  3  per 
mil.,  neoTohcads  generally  about  1'5  per  cent., 
Mangabeira  contains  about  8'5  per  cent.,  other 
American  rubbers  2'5  per  cent,  to  7'5  per  cent. 
African  rubbers  seldom  fall 
below  3  per  cent.,  and 
more  usually  reach  10  pot- 
een t.  or  11  per  cent., 
and  sometimes  as  much 
as  30  per  cent,  of  resin. 
Asiatic  rubbers  range  from 
5  per  cent,  to  10  per 
cent.,  with  the  exception 
of  Ceylon  Para,  which 
contains  from  1*5  per  cent, 
to  1'8  per  cent. 

The  Manufacture 
of  Rubber  Sheets. 
The  next  stage  in  the 
process  of  manufacture  is 
the  milling,  or  mastication, 
of  the  dried  rubber,  in 

order  to  reduce  it  to  a  soft  homogeneous  mass.  This 
is  done  on  hot  rollers  in  a  machine  of  similar  con- 
struction to  that  used  for  the  washing  process. 
If  desired,  various  ingredients  can  also  be  incor- 
porated with  the  rubber  at  the  same  time.  Up  to  this 
point  the  treatment  of  all  crude  rubber  is  the  same. 
For  articles  in  which  the  very  best  rubber  is  required, 
the  dried  material  is  only  kneaded  on  the  hot  rollers, 
no  ingredients  being  added.  When  homogeneous, 
it  leaves  the  mill  in  the  form  of  rolls,  which  are 
compressed  into  blocks  in  a  hydraulic  press.  These 
blocks  are  exposed  to  changes  of  temperature  for 
some  months,  and  are  thoroughly  frozen  at  least  once. 
Eventually  they  are  cut  up  by  rapidly  moving  knife- 
blades  into  thin  sheets,  which  are  known  in  the 
trade  as  fine-cut  sheets.  These  sheets  are  also 
produced  by  pressing  the  rubber  in  a  cylinder  by 
means  of  a  piston,  and  from  the  cylindrical  blocks 
thus  formed  sheets  are  cut  off  in  the  same  way.  A 
very  perfect  imitation  of  fine-cut  sheets  is  manu- 
factured by  carefully  rolling  thin  Para  rubber  into 
sheets  between  hot  rollers,  which  are  engraved  so 
as  to  produce  lines  similar  to  those  made  by  the 
knives.  The  resemblance  is  excellent,  but"  the 
quality  cannot  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  real  article. 

By  the  addition  of  pigments 
coloured  sheets  of  various 
shades  can  be  produced,  but 
the  natural  colour  is  generally 
preferred.  In  thickness  the 
sheets  range  from  one-sixth 
to  one-fortieth  of  an  inch, 
and  after  having  been  cut 
they  are  rubbed  with  warm 
soap  and  water  to  prevent 
them  sticking  together.  Up 


8.    SHEET   AND    BELTING    CALENDER 


over  with  benzol,  and  tapped  with  a  small  round- 
headed  hammer.  The  articles  are  then  ready  for 
vulcanisation. 

Kneading  and  Calendering  Pro* 
cesses.  Additions  on  the  kneading  rollers 
comprise  a  variety  of  substances.  Sulphur  for 
effecting  vulcanisation  and  various  compounds 
for  assisting  vulcanisation  are  incorporated  in  this 
way,  as  well  as  many 
other  ingredients,  accord- 
ing to  the  special  pro- 
perties it  is  required  to 
impart  to  the  rubber. 
Those  most  largely  em- 
ployed are  litharge,  zinc 
white,  lithopone,  white 
lead  and  other  lead  com- 
pounds, sulphide  of  anti- 
mony, chalk,  barytes, 
gypsum,  magnesia,  metal, 
soot,  asbestos,  ground 
hemp,  etc.  Many  of  these 
are  merely  added  to 
cheapen  the  quality,  and 
deterioration  in  the  value 
of  manufactured  rubber 

may  be  traced,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  consumer's 
ignorance  and  inability  to  judge  the  quality,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  over-production,  entailing 
reduced  prices,  which  naturally  leads  to  cheap 
goods  of  low  quality. 

The  process  of  mixing  the  ingredients  with  the 
rubber  is  as  follows  :  The  quantities  are  first  weighed 
out,  and  placed  between  the  rollers  in  small  por- 
tions ;  the  mass  speedily  becomes  plastic  and  forma 
a  loose  cover  round  the  first  rollers,  the  whole 
batch  finally  accumulating  in  this  way  on  the 
roller.  It  is  ripped  off  with  a  knife  after  passing 
through  several  times,  rolled  up  and  again  placed 
in  the  mill;  this  is  repeated  until  the  whole  is 
uniformly  kneaded,  when  the  material  is  rolled 
into  thin  sheets  on  a  calender  [8].  The  calenders 
have  three,  four,  or  sometimes  even  six  rollers, 
which  are  generally  hollow  and  heated  by  steam. 
Sheets  of  various  thicknesses  may  be  produced  by 
altering  the  positions  of  the  rollers,  but  they  are 
usually  about  one-twenty-fifth  to  one-twelfth  of  an 
inch  thick.  The  temperature  of  these  rollers  is  im- 
portant, and  in  order  that  they  may  be  cooled  if  de- 
sired, they  are  provided  with  a  cold-water  pipe  which 
enters  at  the  axle.  The  rubber 
leaves  the  calender  on  a  hori- 
zontally-stretched cloth  and 
is  rolled  on  wooden  cylinders. 
To  produce  the  above  men- 
tioned imitation  cutting  marks 
on  rubber  sheets  the  lowest 
roller  is  engraved  accordingly, 
or  other  signs  can  be  im- 
printed on  the  sheets  in  the 
same  way.  Rubber  in  the  form 
of  sheets,  either  cut,  rolled,  pure 


or  mixed,  forms  the  basis  for 

to  recent   years  line-,  ut  sheets  9-     THREAD,    TAPE   AND    WASHER-CUTTING  the     production     of     all    kinds 
were     above     suspicion,     hut  MACHINE  of    rubber    articles,    with    the 


no\v.    1 1 1) fortunately,   they  arc 

met  with  considerably  adulterated.  Fine-cut 
sheets  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  small 
objects,  such  as  tubes,  bracelets,  rings,  balls, 
surgical  appliances  and  air  cushions.  The  pro- 
cedure is  comparatively  simple:  the  desired 
!-h;ipr  i-  cut  or  Stamped  out  of  the  sheets,  the 
C(|MC<  \\hicli  are  required  to  be  united  are  pressed 
together,  when  they  adhere;  the  join  is  then  brushed 
5200 


exception  of  waterproof  cloth, 

on   account    of    the    ease   with    which    it    can    be 
manipulated  in  this  form. 

The  Preparation  of  Mechanical 
Rubber  Goods.  Small  articles  are  made,  as 
already  described  in  the  case  of  fine-cut  sheets, 
of  pure  rubber.  Mixed  sheets  are  employed 
for  the  manufacture  of  a  large  number  of  more 
bulky  objects,  such  as  cords,  hose,  belting,  valves, 


roller  covers,  etc.  In  many  of  these  an  insertion 
of  cotton  or  linen  fabric  or  woven  wire  is 
made. 

Discs  and  flat  rings  are  cut  out  of  sheets  by 
rotating  knives  [9] :    rings  are  also  cut  from  tubes 
flam  cords   without   any   insertion   can   be  rolled 
out   of  fine-cut   sheets,   or   made    by  forcing    the 
prepared  material  through  an  orifice  of  the  desired 
dimensions.  In  the  latter  method 
fi     variety    of     shapes    can    be 
produced  according  to  the  form 
of  the  opening.     By  introducing 
a  core  into  the  orifice,  tubes  are 
made     in     a     similar     manner. 
Many    goods    of    a    larger    de- 
scription, such    as    thick    discs, 
valves,    billiard   cushions,    mats 
and    buffer*    are    manufactured 
in  moulds.     The  material  is  first 
cut  to  shape,  and  then  placed  in 
the  mould,   where  it  is  vulcan- 
ised under  pressure.     Similarly, 
hollow  articles,   pouches,  toys,'  dolls,  and  so  forth, 
are  first  roughly  fashioned,  and  then  a  little  liquid 
is  injected  before  closing  up  the  last  join,  so  that 
when  vulcanised  in  the  moulds  the  heat  develops 
steam,  which  forces  the  rubber  into  all  interstices. 

Insertions  of  cotton  or  linen  fabrics  must  be 
coated  with  rubber  before  they  can  be  utilised  ; 
this  is  effected  either  by  passing  the  tightly-stretched 
fabric  through  a  calender,  which  gives  it  a  thin  layer 
of  rubber  [10],  or  a  solution  of  rubber  in  benzine 
is  brushed  on  by  hand.  The  calender  is  also 
employed  for  producing  sheets  that  are  required 
to  have  insertions  or  stiffeners.  The  rollers  are 
set  so  as  to  permit  a  certain  thickness  of  the  fabric 
and  rubber  to  pass,  and  for  each  layer  of  rubber 
added  the  material  has  to  pass  once  through  the 
calender. 

The    Making    of    Cycle    and    Motor 
Tyres.     For  making  tubes,  hose,  or  piping,  sheet 
rubber  is  cut  into  narrow  strips  which  are  wound 
round  a  metal  tube  together  with  the  insertion  if 
such  be  required  [11].     In   this   way  also  wire   is 
often  introduced  spirally  between  the  insertion  and. 
the  rubber.     The  vulcanisation  of  such  tubing   is 
generally  carried  out  without  removing  the  metal 
tube,  the  rubber  being  kept  in  position  during  the 
process  by  a  firm  binding  with  linen  strips  which 
leave  their   impression  upon  the  surface.     Driving 
belts  are  composed  of  layers,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness required,  of  good  strong  cotton   material   as 
insertion.     Strips  are  sewn  together  longitudinally 
and  encased   in  a  rubber  coating ;   they  are  then 
ready   to   be    pressed    in   the   mould.     Covers   for 
cycle  tyres  are  constructed 
in  two  ways ;  they  are  either 
built  up  on  a   drum   from 
strips  of  sheet  rubber,   or 
the    prepared    rubber     is 
pressed     into     moulds. 
Covers  for   auto-car    tyres 
are  made  in  special  moulds. 
Roller   covers    are    manu- 
factured from  thin    sheets 
on  a   spindle   in  the  same 

way  as  tubes,  or  if  made  on  the  axle  the  rubber 
sheets  are  wound  thereon  and  pressed  into  a  uni- 
form cover. 

Waterproof  Fabrics.  The  material  known 
as  waterproof  fabric  finds  extensive  use  for  a 
large  number  of  purposes,  such  as  diving  dresses, 
tents,  cushions,  mattresses,  and  beds,  as  well  as 
for  garments;  it  is  manufactured  by  brushing  a 

2G  26  0 


10.    SPREADING    MACHINE 


APPLIED   BOTANY 

solution  of   rubber  in   turpentine  oil   or    benzene 
over   the   textile   fabric   by  means   of  a   sin-Hall  v 
constructed    machine    called    the    tpreader.     Th- 
rubber  coating  is  applied  to  either   one   or   both 
sides   of   the   cloth,  and  "  double    textures"    „.-• 
made  with  two  layers  of  material  remented  teethe, 
by  the  coating  of  rubber.     The  machine  in  whieh 
is  process  is  carried  out  consists  of  a  roller  over 
which    a    blunt    blade    is    fixed. 
and    immediately     behind     tin- 
roller  is  situated  an  iron  table 
heated     with     hollow      pl.-.t,-,. 
The   rubber  solution  is  applied 
to    the  material  just   before   it 
reaches  the  knife  or   "  doctor," 
which  is  adjusted  according  to 
the    thickness    of    the    eoatnn; 
required.        On      passing      th«- 
material    over    the    roller    tin- 
knife  removes  excess  of  rubber 
solution,    and    while    travelling 
over   the    hot   plates,    most   of 
the  solvent  is  evaporated.     The  process  is  repeated 
until  a  coating  of  the  desired  thickness  is  obtained. 
Latex  fresh  from  the  tree  has  been  tried  for  coat- 
ing fabrics   in  this    way  but  without  satisfactory 
results.    After  vulcanising,  the  waterproof  materuil 
is  made   up  into  garments  in  the   same    w;,>. 
other  fabrics,  except  that  the  seams  are  solutioned 
together  as  well  as  sewn. 

Rubber    Shoes    and    Goloshes.      Th* 

manufacture  of  rubber  shoes  is  in  itself  quite  a 
branch  of  the  rubber  industry,  and  has  attained  u 
high  state  of  perfection.  The  actual  process  of 
manufacture  comprises  uniting  the  various  parts 
cut  to  pattern  over  an  iron  frame.  A  special  varnish 
is  then  applied  by  brush  to  produce  a  fine  black 
gloss,  and  the  shoe  is  vulcanised  on  the  mould  or 
last.  The  machinery  for  rapid  production  of 
rubber  shoes  in  quantity  is  very  complicated,  the 
various  parts  of  the  shoe  necessitating  different 
appliances.  Thus,  the  soles  and  upper  part- 
require  separate  calenders,  with  specially  engraved 
rollers ;  there  are  also  cutting  machines  for  in- 
dividual parts,  and  presses  for  the  heels.  The 
shoes  are  vulcanised  many  hundreds  at  a  time, 
and  this  process  requires  great  attention  and 
considerable  experience,  as  a  fine  black,  glossy 
appearance  as  well  as  the  production  of  a  reliable 
article  depends  upon  this  process  being  efficiently 
carried  out. 

Rubber    threads    for    elastic    textures    are    cut 
from  specially  prepared  rubber  sheets ;    they  are 
also  made  of  unvulcanised  rubber,  which  is  prac- 
tically the  only  way  in  which  rubber  is  now  used 
in  the  raw  state  and  thi- 
to  only  a  slight  extent. 

A  large  variety  of  rub- 
ber articles  are  moulded, 
necessitating  a  great  num- 
ber of  moulds,  in  \vhieh 
they  are  vulcanised  under 
pressure.  The  moulds,  in 

11.   HOSE   PIPE    AND     fact,  form  a  very  eon-ider- 
PACKING  MAKING  MACHINE     able  part  of  the  cost  in  tlu- 
production  of  these  good-. 

Insulated  wire  is  made  either  by  forcing  the  rubber 
over  the  wire  bv  a  tubing  machine,  or  strips  of 
rubber  are  welded  together  by  being  run  through 
grooved  rollers. 

Vulcanising  Processes.  The  next  |>n>. 
cess  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  good-  -~ 
vukanisation—\*  a  most  important  one.  Th« 
caoutchouc  is  converted  thereby  from  a  more  ..r 

5201 


APPLIED  BOTANY 

loss  adhesive  plastic  material,  liable  to  become 
sticky  or  pitchy  on  continued  exposure  to  the  air 
and  'light,  and  very  sensitive  to  slight  changes 
from  the  normal  temperature,  into  a  tough,  elastic, 
i-silient  product,  uninfluenced  by  considerable 
variations  of  temperature,  and  possessing  greater 
•Mpat.-ity  for  resisting  the  action  of  chemical  reagents 
than  pure  rubber.  Vulcanisation  was  discovered 
by  Goodyear  in  1839,  but  Han- 
cock also  independently  dis- 
covered, after  patient  research, 
the  vulcanising  effect  of  the 
prolonged  action  of  sulphur ; 
as  however  he  had  already  seen 
samples  of  vulcanised  rubber- 
produced  by  Goodyear,  priority 
must  be  accredited  to  the  latter. 
Goodyear's  process  consists  of 
mixing  sulphur  with  the  raw 
rubber  and  subjecting  the  mix- 


become  burnt  or  over- vulcanised.  This  process 
tinds  favour  on,  account,  of  its.  quickness,  the  ease 
with  which  it  can  be  carried  out,  and  further,  it  does 
not  necessitate  extensive  plant;  but,  with  proper 
management,  the  Hancock  method  is  to^be  preferred. 
Other  Methods  of  Vulcanisation.  Sul- 
phides of  the  alkaline  methods  have  also  been  pro- 
posed for  vulcanising  caoutchouc,  and  produce  a  soft, 
velvety  surface,  but  the  method 
is  only  suitable  for  small  articles. 
This  is  known  as  Gerard's  pro- 
cess, and  consists,  for  instance, 
in  heating  the  rubber  in  a 
solution  of  potassium  sulphide 
of  25°  B.,  vulcanisation  being- 
effected  thereby  at  a  compara- 
tively low  temperature.  Vul- 
canisation by  the  vapour  of 
chloride  of  sulphur,  or  the 
vapour  cure,  is  another  variation 


hire     to    the    action    of    heat,    12.  VULCANISING  PAN,  WITH  CLOTH   for  thin  g°ods>  but  &  is  seldom 
Sulphur  has  no  effect  on  caout-  rvT/ncmsR  employed    now.       V  ulcamsa 


chouc  when  cold,  but  if  heated 
to  a  temperature  slightly  above  the  melting  point 
of  sulphur— namely,  from  205  to  285°  F,  after 
about  thirty  or  forty  minutes  an  alteration  in 
the  appearance  of  the  rubber  takes  place  and  it 
assumes  a  yellowish  tint.  On  completion  of  the 
treatment  it  will  no  longer  amalgamate  with  itself 
and  its  elasticity  is  considerably  increased,  re- 
maining permanent  when  cold.  Following  upon 
Goodyear's  patent  for  the  vulcanisation  of  rubber 
with  sulphur,  a  large  number  of  other  compounds 
were  suggested  by  different  inventors  to  take  its 
place.  Thus,  experiments  were  carried  out  with 
chlorides,  iodides,  bromides,  nitrates,  and  nitrites, 
none  of  which,  however,  gave  results  equal  to  sul- 
phur. Patents  were  also  taken  out  for  vulcanising 
with  bromine,  and  iodine  and  sulphur  combined,  but 
with  inferior  results  to  those  obtained  with  sulphur. 

Hancock's  Process.  By  Hancock's  pro- 
cess, known  as  heat  vulcanisation,  the  goods  are 
steeped  in  a  bath  of  molten  sulphur  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  266  to  275°  F.  for  two  or  three  hours, 
a  preliminary  drying  being  essential  to  prevent 
seams  that  have  been  solutioned  from  coming 
apart.  Small  pieces  of  rubber  are  immersed  in 
the  bath  at  the  same  time,  and  are  taken  out  from 
time  to  time  to  ascertain  how  vulcanisation  is 
proceeding.  Sulphur  is  at  first  absorbed,  the 
rubber  turns  brown  and  then  orange,  and  after 
saturation  the  real  reaction  starts  which  is  complete 
in  two  or  three  hours.  Immediately  after  vulcan- 
isation the  goods  are  washed  in  cold  water  and  the 
sulphur  on  the  surface  removed  by  scrapers. 
Goods  treated  by  this  method  have  the  defect  of 
"  blooming" — that  is,  sulphur  appears  on  the 
surface  as  a  grey  powder ;  but  it  is  removable 
by  a  treatment  with  a  dilute  solution  of  soda. 
Small  articles  made  from  fine-cut  sheets  are_.yul- 
i-aniscd  in  this  way  as  it  is  most  suitable  for  them. 

Cold  Vulcanisation.  A  third  method  of 
\  ulc-.-inisation  is  the  cold  cure,  invented  in  1846  by 
Parkes,  who  found  that  chloride  of  sulphur  also 
vulcanises  rubber,  and  recommended  the  use  of 
a  mixture  of  100  parts  of  carbon  bisulphide  and 
2£  parts  of  chloride  of  sulphur.  The  articles  are 
dipped  in  this  solution  for  periods  varying  from 
H  to  :j  minutes,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the 
articles,  then  taken  out  and  washed  in  water,  and 
finally  dried.  This  method  can  only  be  employed 
for  thin  goods,  as  long  exposure  to  the  action  of 
•  •hloridc  of  sulphur,  in  order  that  it  may  penetrate 
to  the  interior  parts,  causes  the  outer  portions  to 

5202 


CYLINDER 


by  sodium,  or  calcium  hypo- 
chlorite,  or  by  hypochlorous  acid  was,  at  one  time, 
in  more  common  use  than  now.  Since  it  entails 
the  use  of  an  aqueous  solution,  vulcanisation  by  this 
method  is  only  suitable  for  very  thin  goods,  or  for 
the  production  of  "  surfacings  "  or  ;'  enamels  " 
on  ordinary  rubber  goods,  and  its  use  is  practically 
confined  to  the  latter  purpose. 

Compounding  Rubber.  The  vulcanising 
process  invented  by  Goodyear  finds  the  most 
extensive  use.  A  thorough  mixing  of  the  washed  and 
dried  crude  rubber  with  the  sulphur  is  essential — 
7  to  10  per  cent,  being  the  usual  quantity,  but  even 
as  low  as  2|  to  3  per  cent,  has  been  met  with,  and 
6  per  centC  gives  good  results.  The  amount  of 
sulphur  actually  fixed  by  the  rubber  rarely  exceeds 
3  per  cent.  After  the  goods  have  been  given  their 
shape  they  are  placed  in  a  sealed  boiler  [12'j  and 
steamed  at  a  pressure  of  3|  to  4  atmospheres  for 
three  to  four  hours,  termed  the  steam  cure,  or, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  articles,  they  are 
pressed  between  hot  plates. 

On  stretching  and  pressing  goods  vulcanised  by 
this  method  the  sulphur  blooms  on  the  surface, 
as  in  Hancock's  process,  and  can  be  removed  by 
washing  with  a  solution  of  soda. 

There  are  several  inorganic  compounds  which 
play  an  important  part  in  assisting  vulcanisation 
and  in  modifying  the  resulting  product.  A 
certain  class  are  known  as  sulphur  carriers,  the  most 
important  of  these  being  sulphide  of  antimony 
and  the  three  sulphides  of  arsenic.  In  a  lesser 
degree  certain  lead  compounds,  such  as  lead 
thib-sulphates — technically  termed  Hypo — and 
litharge,  zinc  sulphide,  and  lithopone — a  com- 
bination of  zinc  sulphide  and  barium  sulphate. 
These  compounds  are  employed  to  assist  vulcanisa- 
tion and  to  act  as  a  preventive  against  over- 
vulcanisation.  The  exact  nature  of  their  action 
is  not  thoroughly  understood;  they  enable  the 
manufacturer,  however,  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
sulphur  and  to  moderate  the  temperature  and 
length  of  vulcanisation.  In  fact,  nearly  all  rubber 
goods  that  have  not  of  necessity  to  be  of  a  white 
or  drab  colour  contain  a  proportion  of  one  of 
these  compounds ;  litharge  possibly  is  the  one 
that  is  most  extensivelv  employed.  The  well- 
known  red  colour  of  rubber  ^oods  is  due  to  the  use  of 
antimony  penta-sulphide,  or  Golden  sulphide  as  it 
is  known  in  the  trade.  It  varies  in  colour  from 
a  reddish  orange  to  a  purplish  scarlet.  English 
manufacturers,  "  however,  generally  prefer  an 


intermediate  shade  of  colour.  It  is  an  excellent 
compounding  material,  producing  vulcanised  rubber 
of  fine  colour,  texture,  and  durability  with  little 
bloom,  and  is  chiefly  used  for  high-priced  goods. 

Besides  these  sulphur  carriers  a  large  number  of 
other  inorganic  substances  added  to  sulphur  com- 
pounds are  incorporated  in  rubber  partly  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  bulk,  and  also  for  impart- 
ing certain  characteristics.  Others,  of  the  nature 
of  pigments,  are  introduced  for  producing  certain 
desired  colours.  Among  those  of  the  former 
class  may  be  mentioned  barytes,  or  blanc  fixe, 
which  is  employed  as  a  make- weight;  it  also 
increases  the  resiliency  of  the  rubber.  Chalk  or 
whiting  is  one  of  the  inorganic  compounds  most 
extensively  used  for  this  purpose  ;  in  small  quantities 
it  increases  the  resiliency,  but  also  has  the  tendency 
to  harden  the  rubber.  Lime  is  sometimes  employed, 
but  excess  should  be  avoided,  as  it  induces  oxidation, 
and  furthermore  reduces  the  resiliency  of  india- 
rubber  while  increasing  its  hardness.  Magnesia 
used  in  moderation  increases  the  toughness  and 
resiliency  to  a  marked  degree ;  it  is  also  used  for 
compounding  rubber  for  insulating  wires.  On 
account  of  its  low  conductivity  of  heat,  asbestos  is 
largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  steam 
packings.  The  chief  pigments  employed  in  rubber 
manufacture  are  white  lead,  zinc-white,  lithopone, 
golden  sulphide  of  antimony,  oxide  of  iron,  cadmium 
yellow,  chrome  oxide  green,  and  ultramarine.  For 
black  goods  lead  sulphide  is  used,  but  when  lead 
compounds  are  prohibited,  as  is  often  the  case  for 
surgical  appliances,  lampblack  must  be  substituted. 

The  Addition  of  Sulphur  to  the 
Latex.  It  is  most  important  that  the  prepared 
caoutchouc  and  sulphur  for  vulcanisation,  or  other 
compounding  ingredients,  should  be  mixed  as 
intimately  as  possible,  to  ensure  good  results ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  too  prolonged  working  on  the 
rollers  is  detrimental  to  the  elasticity  and  resiliency 
of  the  rubber — it  becomes  fatigued;  or  if  the  masti- 
cation has  been  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render 
the  rubber  plastic,  it  is  termed  kitted.  With  the 
object,  therefore,  of  securing  thorough  inter- 
mixture of  the  sulphur  and  rubber,  experimental 
trials  have  recently  been  made  of  adding  the  sulphur 
in  definite  quantities,  about  2  per  cent.,  to  the  latex 
before  coagulating,  so  that  the  crude  material  is 
evenly  permeated  throughout  with  sulphur,  and 
thus  the  incorporation  of  sulphur  on  the  rollers  is 
avoided,  as  well  as  the 
washing  operations.  It 
remains  to  be  seen,  how- 
ever, whether  this  idea 
will  germinate  into  a  prac- 
tical working  method. 

The  precise  nature  of 
the  reaction  which  takes 
place  during  vulcanisation 
of  rubber  is  not  yet  known. 
The  time  and  temperature 
for  different  goods  under- 
going the  process  must  be 
determined  by  experience, 

and  varies  with  the  size  and  construction  of  the 
goods.  Over- vulcanisation,  or  burning,  is  caused  by 
too  high  a  temperature  ;  the  goods  become  brittle, 
and  lose  their  elasticity.  Under-vulcanisation  is 
equally  bad,  and  results  from  too  low  a  temperature, 
the  rubber  then  retaining  to  a  certain  extent  its 


13.    HYDRAULIC  BELT  VULCANISING   PRESS 


APPLIED  BOTANY 

tion  process  is  another  consideration,  dependent 
upon  the  quality  of  the  rubber  as  well  as  upon  the 
size  of  the  articles,  since  some  kinds  vulcanise  mucker 
than  others.  Resinous  rubbers  vulcanise  quicker 
than  fine  Para  caoutchouc. 

Vulcanising  Machinery.  Vulcanising 
boilers  and  presses,  heated  by  direct  steam  have 
now  largely  superseded  the  walled-in  vulcanisation 
chambers,  although  these  are  still  in  use  for  rubber 
shoes  and  some  sorts  of  rubber  cloths,  vulcanisation 
being  effected  by  heating  the  enclosed  air.  Steam- 
jacketed  vulcanising  boilers  also  act  in  the  same 
way.  It  is  curious,  however,  that  a  certain  amount 
of  litharge  is  essential  to  produce  satisfactory  results 
with  this  dry  heat  cure.  The  dimensions  of  vul- 
canising boilers  depend  upon  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
articles  to  be  treated,  and  range  from  20  ft,  in  dia- 
meter, and  from  about?  ft,  to  100  ft,,  or  even  more, 
in  length.  Rubber  hose,  being  vulcanised  on  the 
metal  on  which  it  is  fashioned,  necessarily  requires 
long  boilers.  The  average  length  of  rubber  hose  in 
England  is  about  60  ft,,  and  in  Germany  often  as 
long  as  110  ft.  Vulcanising  boilers  are  made  of 
riveted  iron  plates,  similar  to  steam  boilers,  and 
are  provided  with  a  steam  supply  pipe,  an  outlet  pipe 
for  the  removal  of  steam  and 'condensed  water  at 
the  end  of  the  process,  and  also  means  for  running 
off  condensed  water  as  it  is  formed.  The  pressure 
is  regulated  by  a  manometer,  and  a  safety  valve  Is 
also  fitted.  The  end  of  the  boiler  is  closed  by  a 
detachable  cover  carried  by  a  small  crane.  Mov- 
able bolts  are  attached  to  the  flanged  edge  of  the 
boiler,  and  when  the  cover  is  brought  into  position' 
they  fall  into  corresponding  notches  cut  in  its  edge, ' 
and  are  tightened  up  by  means  of  nuts ;  packing  is 
inserted  between  the  boiler  and  the  cover  to  make 
an  airtight  joint. 

In  order  that  articles  which  are  not  enclosed  in 
moulds  shall  retain  their  shape  under  the  influence 
of  heat  during  vulcanisation  in  these  boilers,  they 
are  embedded  in  French  talc,  or  wrapped  in  cloths. 
Vulcanising  Presses  for  Flat  Goods. 
Vulcanising  presses  are  used  chiefly  for  flat  goods, 
such  as  mats,  driving  belts,  and  heavier  rubber 
goods  used  for  engineering  and  industrial  purj>oses. 
Some  articles,  like  driving  belts,  are  vulcanised 
simply  between  the  plates  of  the  press;  others  art- 
enclosed  in  moulds,  and  are  then  placed  in  the 
press.  The  most  simple  form  of  vulcani-inir  pres- 
somewhat  resembles  an  ordinary  letter-copying 
press:  the  plates,  however. 
are  hollow,  and  arc  heated 
by  steam.  Small  pivsM- 
only  a  few  feet  in  diameter 
can  be  worked  by  hand. 
but  power  is  needed  for 
larger  presses  ranging  from 
10  ft.  to  14  ft.  long  and 
3  ft.  to  5  ft.  wide.  The 
upper  plate  is  carried  by 
supporting  pillars  con- 
nected at  the  top  by  a 
voke,  through  which  a 
worm  tcrew  passes  for 
raising  and  lowering  the  plate.  Hydraulic  presses 
are  chiefly  employed  for  the  production  of  heavy 
driving-belts,  and  are  huge  constructions,  havmj 
two  or  more  cast-iron  plates,  often  30  ft,  long, 
which  are  heated  by  steam  [13].  Ihe  upper  plate 
is  carried  between  a  double  row  of  pillars,  and  a 


the  article  is  in  use. 


The  duration  of  the  vulcanisa-      catalogue  of  Messrs.  D..Bridge  &  Co,  Castl. 
Continued 

5203 


Group  12 

MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERING 

36 


page  3009 


MILLING  &  GRINDING  MACHINES 

Milling  Machines  for  Plain  and  Special  Work.     Miscellaneous 
Machines.     Plain  and  Universal  Grinders.     Various  Appliances 


By    FRED    HORNER 

MILLING  machines  have  one  thing  in  common 
with  drilling  and  boring  machines— the  use  of 
a  revolving  spindle.      The  action,  however,  is  not 
similar,  since  in  drilling  or  boring  the  feed  motion 

:~    :~    4\.,.    1 .  ,„„  ,,-U  , ..  I  ,'.^ .,  1    Ai**fm  +  i/-v»i      it'll  lift    iii    milliner   tli*^ 


is  in  the  longitudinal  direction,  while  in  milling  the 
feed  motion  takes  place  transversely  to  the  spindle, 
so  that  a  cutter  held  in  the  latter  tools  across  faces 
either  plane  or  curved.  A  reference  to  the  article 
on  page  3401  dealing  wl.h  practice  will  give  an  idea 
of  how  many  different  ways  milling  cutters  are 
applied.  And  the  machines  for  utilising  these 
cutters  assume  diverse  forms,  with  spindles  both 
vertical  and  horizontal,  or  capable  of  Angular 
settings.  As  in  some  other  types  of  machine  tools, 
it  may  be  either  the  cutter  or  the  work  that  moves, 
but  in  the  majority  of  cases  a  .table  carries  the 
piece  past  the  cutter  revolving  in  fixed  .bearings, 
this  being  more  convenient  from  some  points  of 
view  than  travelling  the  cutter,  it.  is  necessary 
to  have  a  frame  or  housing  to  support  the  bearings 
of  the  spindle,  but,  if  fixed,  this  frame  is  of 
lighter  and  simpler  construction  than  if  it :  had 
to  travel  on  ways,  and  by  being  fixed  it  lends 
itself  to  certain  adjustments  and  fixings  of  auxiliary 
portions  readily.  The  feeds  of  milling  machines 
are  continuous,  and  not  intermittent,  like  those 
of  the  reciprocating  machines,  because  there  is  no 
to-and-fro  cut  and  return  stroke.  The  time  wasted 
in  these  strokes  is  saved  by  milling,  this  being  one 
of  the  many  advantages  of  the  process. 

Early  Machines.  Although  milling  as  a 
method  of  tooling  is  not  new,  its  development 
lias  only  proceeded  rapidly  in  the  last  twelve  to 
fifteen  years ;  many  factories  producing  special 
objects,  such  as  guns,  sewing  machines,  etc., 
have  employed  milling  machines  extensively  before 
their  use  became  general  in  ordinary  engineers' 
shops.  The  machines  in  these  special  shops  are 
very  light  in  character,  and  they  do  not  attempt 
heavy  tooling.  Hence,  though  milling  has  been 
found  an  excellent  method  in  such  work,  when  it 
was  first  applied  to  heavy  objects,  which  had  hitherto 
been  done  on  the  planer  and '  allied  machines, 
difficulties  were  experienced  in  getting  such  good 
results  as  by  planing  with  narrow-pointed  tools. 
The  reason  lay  principally  in  not  making  the 
machines  stiff  enough,  and  the  spindles  strong 


66.    LINCOLN  MILLER 


enough,  to  withstand  the  great  strain  of  cutting. 
The  weak  portions  therefore  gave  or  sprung  slightly, 
and  the  cutters  were  consequently  not  held  up  to 
their  work  as  they  should  be,  resulting  in  uneven 
surfaces  and  the  production  of  innumerable 
chatter  marks  over  the  surfaces.  The  cutters  were. 
also  partly  to  blame  in  not  being  ground  with  the 
teeth  truly  concentric,  so  that  all  the  work  perhaps 
came  upon  a  few  teeth  only,  and  they  were  unable 
to  stand  the  feed  put  011.  Improvements  have 
been  made  in  the  way  of  using  stiffer  spindles,  ade- 
quately supported  in  bearings  close  to  the  cutters,  by 
giving  ample  bearing  surfaces,  and  by  putting  plerity 
of  metal  in  slides  and  saddles  to  absorb  vibration 
where  a  light  flimsy  casting  would  be  too  weak. 
Provision  for  taking  up  slackness  in  bearings  or 
slides  is  also  important,  because  any  shake  or  loose- 
ness is  fatal  to  .the  accurate  working  of  cutters. 
;  .The  lathe  was  the  first  machine  in  which  milling 
was  done,  by  holding  a  cutter  in  the  spindle  and  tra- 
versing the  slide-rest,  holding  a  piece  of  metal,  across 
in  front  of  it.  Plain  faces  and  slots  were  milled  in 
this  manner.  The  first  true  milling  machine  still  re- 
tained the  lathe  features,  comprising  simply  a  head, 
with  cone  pulley  and  spindle,  and  a  sliding  rest  lying 
below  the  cutter.  The  extent  to  which  this  broad 
principle  is  still  carried  out  may  be  seen  from  the 
illustrations  of  machines  in  this  article.  There  were 
two  features  in  the  bald  design  that  were  quickly 
modified,  one  being  the  addition  of  a  height  adjust- 
ment to  the  spindle  to  accommodate  work  of 
different  depths,  and  a  cross  motion  to  the  table  to 
bring  work  nearer  to  or  farther  from  the  cutter. 
With  the  addition  of  a  self-acting  feed  instead  of  a 
motion  by  handle,  and  a  gear  drive  in  place  of  the 
plain  belt  cone,  we  have  what  is  termed  a  Lincoln 
miller,  used  to  an  enormous  extent  in  shops  doing 
repetition  work,  of  either  plane  or  curved  outlines, 
the  use  of  gang  mills  being  common. 

Lincoln  Machine.  Fig.  66  gives  front 
and  end  views  of  a  Lincoln  machine  (John  Holroyd 
&  Co.,  Ltd.,  Milnrow).  The  bare  outline  resem- 
blance to  the  lathe  model  will  be  noted.  There  is  a 
head,  A,  carrying  a  vertically  adjustable  slide  or 
saddle,  B,  which  has  two  bearings  for  the  spindle, 
D,  that  drives  the  cutter  arbor,  the  opposite  end 
of  the  latter  being  supported  by  a  point  centre 
held  in  a  slide,  E,  bolted  to  a  standard, 
F.  adjustable  along  the  machine  bed  to 
suit  different  lengths  of  arbors.  As  the 
spindle  height  is  altered  by  moving  B,  so 
the  latter  keeps  E  at  a  corresponding 
height  by  means  of  a  connecting  steady- 
bar,  G,  clamped  in  the  split  bearings  of  B 
and  E.  B  is  moved  up  or  down  by  a 
vertical  screw  actuated  by  mitre  wheels 
from  the  hand  wheel  H.  The  spindle  is 
revolved  from  the  three-speed  cone  pulley 
.),  having  a  pinion  gearing  with  a  large 
-i)!!r  wheel,  K,  on  the  spindle,  affording  a 
power  gain  of  4J.  The  cone  pulley  spin- 
illc  is  carried  in  bearings  held  by  pivoted 
arms  pinned  to  the  bed  of  the  machine  and 
to  ihc  slide  B  respectively,  to  keep  the  u<':irs 


5-204 


•n  mesh  at  all  vertical  positions  of  B     The 
having  two  tee-slots,  slides 


handwheel  N.      The  ta 


,L, 


massive 


the 
as  a  screw  feed,  oper- 


J«"t 


ated  by  hand  through  spiral  gears  and  wheel  O  or 
by  power  through  the  belt  cones  Pand  Q   O  ch-ivin 
3  ;^0mli«eari^  With  a  ™™  wheel  above  it,  and 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

piano-miller,    shown    in   71.    embodies 
enumerated.     The     machine     „ 

H'  end.   the    t.il.l,- 

t for  cutting,  and 

rapid   return    by   hand.     The 
up   or   down   the   faces  of  tho 

thence  througlfspur  gears"io"the"tabfe^w"'  T?"      1    "^  *°  pl"ner  P""'"'"'  '"«'  <>'<• 
™».  R,  is  supported  in  pivoted  bearJM,  in  JE      Xe^C^  "  ""    ^ 


s^t^b'-^ra 

dropping  being  effected  by  a 
dog  bolted  at  any  position 
on  the  table  L,  so  as  to 
arrest  its  feed  at  a  predeter- 
mined point.  The  attendant 
may  thus  leave  the  machine 
at  work  to  attend  to  other 
duties,  and  when  the  length 
of  work  is  milled  the  table 
stops  and  the  cutter 
revolves  idly,  pending  the 
operator's  attention. 

In  some  lighter  machines 
of  the  Lincoln  type  the 
•spindle  and  back  support 
are  carried  in  square  box 
bearings  which  slide  with- 
in slots  in  the  vertical 
housings,  and  a  steady- bar 
to  tie  the  standards  to- 
gether is  not  used.  In 
heavier  machines  the  driv- 
ing head  is  movable  on  the 
bed,  while  the  table  slides 
on  a  fixed  bed  [67]  made  of 
considerable  length,  to  accommodate  lone  and  mas- 
sive pieces.  The  spindle  bearings  in  this  example  are 
counterbalanced  by  weights  attached  with  chains 
passing  up  over  pulleys.  The  steadying  standard  is 
removable,  to  leave  the  table  free  for  large  work 
which  may  overhang  considerably.  An  end  or  face 
cutter  is  then  used  in  the  spindle.  Fig  68  is  a  step 
further,  and  here  no  steady  bearing  is  used,  and  the 
work,  being  inconveniently  large  to  move,  is  fixed 
instead,  and  the  head  is  fed  along  past  it.  upon  a 
slide  bed.  The  cutter  head  is  a  large  disc  holding 
several  dozen  tools  pinched 
with  set-screws.  Heads  are 
made  in  this  manner  to 
several  feet  in  diameter, 
and  the  machines  are  used 
for  finishing -off  large  sur- 
faces on  castings  and  forg- 
ings,  including  columns, 
standards,  brackets,  etc. 
As  the  ends  of  these  are 
done,  the  term  ending 
Machine  is  often  applied. 
Rotary  planer  is  another 
name.  There  is  no  height 
adjustment  in  68,  the  work  being  packed  up  as 
necessary.  A  good  many  machines  are  constructed 
with  double  heads,  to  operate  upon  both  ends  of 
a  single  piece  of  work  simultaneously.  One  or 
both  heads  are  adjusted  to  suit  the  length  of  work. 
Piano-millers.  The  slab-millers,  or  piano- 
millers  resemble  planing  machines  in  their  bare 
outlines,  possessing  a  travelling  table,  fixed  hous- 
ings, adjustable  cross-rail,  and  tool  saddles,  but 
the  last-named  support  spindles  instead  of  single- 
edged  tools.  The  work  done  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
planer,  with  the  added  advantages  which  may  be 
gained  by  the  use  of  gang  mills  built  up  on  an  arbor. 


67.   HEAVY  LINCOLN  MILLER 
(H.  W.  Ward  &  Co.,  Birmingham) 


on 

the  end  of  the  outter 

Ihe  spmdle  is  driven  through  gears  eon- 
ncrting  to  a  hi-e  wheel 
mounted  between  its  two 
fartlu  r  bearings,  the  hinder 
one  not  being  therefore  visi- 
ble in  the  photo.  Several 
taps  are  placed  above  tin- 
cutter,  to  turn  on  a  flood  of 
lubricant,  which  is  supplied 
from  a  pump  through  a  flex- 
ible pipe.  Where  objects  of 
greater  height  or  width  are 
concerned,  the  machines 
assume  taller  housings. 
with  more  space  between. 
and  the  tables  increase  in 
length,  the  planer  mode!  still 
prevailing.  The  vee  way>. 
common  to  planer  beds,  arc. 
however,  omitted  in  favour 
of  flat  ways,  with  gibbed 
edges,  to  prevent  any  ten- 
dency to  lifting  or  chatter- 
ing. When  a  considerable 
width  of  cross-rail  necessi- 


68.   ROTARY  PLANER 
(Newton  Machine  Tool  Works,  Philadelphia; 


tates  the  use  of  a  very  long 
arbor,  an  intermediate  bear- 
ing is  placed  between  sets  of  cutters,  when  possible, 
to  give  ample  support.  Thus,  in  milling  the  ways 
of  a  lathe  bed  there  would  be  two  batches  or  gangs 
of  cutters  separated  by  a  considerable  interval,  and 
the  opportunity  is  taken  of  putting  in  an  additional 
bearing.  Spindles  of  this  character  are  given  an 
endlong  motion,  to  effect  adjustments  of  cutter-. 
To  enable  this  to  be  done  without  affecting  the  drive 
the  spindles  are  splined  to  slide  through  tho  bushes 
or  sleeves  of  their  driving  gears. 

Multi=spindles.  A  practice  copied  from  the 
planing  machine  is  that  of 
duplicating  spindles,  plac- 
ing two  on  the  cross-rail 
and  one  on  each  lioii^iim. 
the  two  latter  being  ein- 

!>loyed  either  independent* 
y  with  a  face  cutter  each, 
or  in  conjunction,  support- 
ing a  long  spindle.  Fig.  72 
illustrates  a  four-spindle 
machine  (Ingersoll  Milling 
Machine  (  'ompanv.  IJncU- 
ford,  111..  I'.S.A.  ^'embody- 
ing these  provisions.  A 
large  piece  of  work  may  be  milled  on  four  fai  es 
simultaneously,  obviously  with  a  great  saving 
in  time,  as  compared  with  the  method  of  shift- 
ing the  work  about  to  suit  a  spindle.  A  draw- 
ing of  a  vertical  spindle,  fitted  to  tho  saddle  of 
a  piano-miller,  is  given  in  69,  from  the  practice 
of  John  Hetherington  &  Sons,  Ltd..  Manchester. 
The  spur  gear  at  the  top  is  keyed  to  a  sleeve  runnini; 
in  the  bearing  and  driving  the  spindle  by  a  key. 
Below  is  an  intermediate  bearing,  and  underneath 
that  a  nose  bearing,  in  which  the  spindle  revolves 
inside  a  taper  bush.  Lock-nuts  take  up  wear.  The 
nose  of  the  spindle  is  bored  out  tapered,  to  receive 

5205 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

a  cutter  arbor,  held  in  with  a  cottir,  as  seen,  and  the 
.irhor  holds  its  cutter  with  a  key.  If  the  cutter  is 
-hort  and  used  for  face  milling,  no  other  support 
would  he  necessary,  but  if  it  is  long  an  extra 
-lay  |69J  is  bolted  to  the  bottom  of  the  spindle 
In  Mi-inn  and  extended  downwards  into  a  hood, 
with  a  tapered  bush,  in  which  runs  the  end  of 
the  arbor.  This  style  of  fixing  is  much  used 
for  profiling,  in  which  a  long  cutcar  mills  the  edge 
of  work. 

Pillar  and  Knee  Machines.  There  is  a 
large  amount  of  work  which  cannot  be  conveniently 
handled  on  the  foregoing  machines,  owing  to  the 
form  of  the  parts,  and  we  therefore  find  that  an 
increased  range  of  usefulness  is  obtained  by  making 
ihe  work-table  adjustable  up  and  down  besides  its 
longitudinal  and  cross  motions.  This  style  is  termed 
the  pillar  and  knee  machine,  the  knee  sliding  upon  . 
ways  on  the  vertical  face  of  the  pillar  or  column 
supporting  the  spindle. 

The  build  of  such  machines  will  be  clear  from 
the  drawing  [70]  and  photos  [73  and  75].  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  spindle  head  resembles  that 
of  a  lathe  head,  with  cones  and  back  gears  ;  the 
cutter  arbor  is  held  in  with  a  taper,  and  its 
outer  end  is  supported  with  a  split  bush  fitted 
within  the  overhanging  arm,  clamped  in  split 
bearings  above  the  spindle  bearings,  thus  allowing  of 
endlong  adjustment,  or  removal.  If  face  mills  are 
used  in  the  spindle  there  is  no  chance  to  employ  the 
arm.  The  knee,  of  approximately  triangular  form,  39 
.slides  with  vee  ways  upon  the  vertical  face  of  the 
pillar  ;  it  is  moved  by  turning  the  squared  shaft  at 
the  front,  which  revolves  a  horizontal  shaft,  driving 
bevel  gears  rotating  the  vertical  screw,  which 
passes  through  a  nut  held  in  a  projection  of  the 
pillar.  The  other  screw  nearer  the  pillar  is  for 
stopping  the  motion  at  any  predetermined  position, 
settled  by  the  location  of  the  lock-nuts,  which  touch 
the  lug  that  stands  out  from  the  pillar.  In  this 
way  the  operator  may  repeat  any  depth  of  cut  on 
duplicate  pieces.  A  transverse  slide  moves  across 
the  top  of  the  knee,  also  by  handle  and  screw,  and 
a  longitudinal  table  runs  on  this  slide.  The  move- 
ment is  produced  by  a  central  screw,  turned  with  a 
handle  at  either  end  as 


is  convenient,  and  the 
work,  bolted  to  the  top 
of  the  table,  may  be 
thus  manipulated  and 
fed  under  the  cutter  in 
any  direction.  As  the 
longitudinal  feed  of  the 
top  table  is  considerable, 
the  operator's  time  is 
saved,  and  the  work 
better  produced  by  fit- 
ting  a  power  feed,  de- 
rived primarily  from  the 
rutter  spindle,  passing 
from  the  three-stepped 
belt  cone  on  its  end  to 
•  •in-  In-low,  which  drives 
;i  universal  telescopic 
-haft  connecting  to  a 
worm,  worm  wheel,  and 


70.    PILLAR    AND    KNEE 
MACHINE 


spur  wheels  working  on  the  end  of  the  screw. 
The  telescopic  shaft  has  ball  joints,  which  allow 
it  to  angle  and  twist  about  in  any  direction — 
a  neco-ity  on  account  of  the  rising  and  falling  of 
the.  table.  An  automatic  trip  device  is  fitted  to 
•  Irop  the.  worm  out  of  gear  when  de.-ired,  as  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  66.  These  points  repre 
-in  the  principles  of  the  design,  but  many  modifi- 
5206 


Cations  are  present  in  machines  by  different  makers. 
In  the  lightest  types  110  back  gears  are  used,  and 
the  tables  are  fed  by  hand  levers  operating  pinions 
gearing  with  racks  under  the  tables,  the  traverses 
being  short ;    the  name  hand  miller  is  applied  to 
this  pattern.     These  pillar  machines  are  classified 
into  two  groups — plain  and  universal.    In  the  plain 
there  are  only  two  tables  moving  at  right  angles 
[see  also  73]  (Cincinnati  Milling  Machine 
Company,  Cincinnati,  O.,  U.S.A.),  but 
in    the    uni versa!  s     the    top    table   is 
mounted  on  a  secondary  saddle  with  a 
circular  base,  which  can  be  swivelled  to 
turn  the  top  table  into  angular  posi- 
tions, to  permit   of  milling  work   out 
of  the  ordinary   run,  such  as  certain 
gears,  of  worm,  and  spiral  forms,  twist 
drills,  etc.,  requiring  the  cutters  to  be 
placed  angularly   in   relation  to  their 
work.       To  do  this,   index  centres  are 
necessary,  shown  on   the  table  of  the 
universal  in  75  (Brown  &  Sharpe  Manu- 
facturing  Company,  Providence,  R.I., 
U.S.A.).     The  principal  ways  in  which 
machines  differ  from   the  type  in   70 
concern  the  feeds,  which  are  not  derived 
by   belt    cones   in  a  great  number  of 
modern  machines,  but  through  gears, 
giving  a  positive  drive.     The  necessary 
changes  are  obtained  by  nests  of  gears 
VERTICAL  m  boxes,    any   combinations   required 
SPINDLE        being  obtained  by  sliding  the  gears  or 
moving    keys   to   throw   different  sets 
into  engagement.    Much  heavier  cuts  are  now  pos- 
sible   as    a    consequence    of   using    geared    feeds, 
and  advantage  is  taken  of  the  extra  capacities  of 
the  high-speed  steels. 

The  changes  are  also  obtained  without  the  trouble 
of    belt   shifting,  small   levers    sufficing  to   throw 
the    feeds     in     and    out.       The    most    complete 
machines  have  a  power  vertical  feed  in    addition 
to   the   one  given   to  the  top  table.      Automatic 
trips   are   fitted,    consisting    of    levers   which   are 
struck  by  dogs  on  the  moving  slides,  the  levers 
transmitting  the  motion  to  throw-out  clutches,  so 
that  the  feed  is  instantly  stopped.     As  the 
dogs  may  be  bolted  anywhere  on  the  table 
edges,    the   precise   location  at  which  the 
throw-out  occurs  is  easily  settled.     It  will 
be  noted  in  73  and  75  that  the  knee  is  tied 
to  the  overhanging  arm  by  slotted  braces, 
which    impart    additional    rigidity,    com- 
pensating largely  for  the  .one-sided  nature 
of  the  design.   These  braces  cannot  be  used 
when  the  knee  is  moving  vertically.    The 
vertical  knee  screw  in  75  is  of  telescopic 
form,  comprising  one  screw  within  another, 
the  effect  of  which  is  to  obviate  the  necessity  of 
cutting  a  hole  in  the  shop  floor  to  pass  the  screw 
into,  as  in  70,  where  the  screw  is  plain.  Modifications 
are  made  in  the  latest  machines  concerning,  the 
driving   arrangements,    an   electric  .motor   driving 
by  chain  to  a  series  of  change-speed  gears  which 
give  different  speeds. 

Index  Centres.  The  index  centres,  or  divid- 
ing heads,  bolted  to  the  machine  table,  may  be  of 
plain  form,  consisting  of  a  couple  of  heads  with  point 
centres,  the  chief  one  being  fitted  with  a  notched 
plate,  by  which  settings  are  successively  made  to 
divisions  of  the  circle.  Thus,  a  plate  with  four 
notches  at  right  angles  is  employed  for  work  which' 
has  to  have  squares  milled  on  it.  When  the  plate 
has  a  larger  number  of  notches,  divisions  may  be 
effected  into  smaller  numbers  by  skipping  one  or 


more  of  the  notches.      The  plates  are  locked  bv 
spring  catches  in   the  various  positions,  and  the 
work,  lying  between  the  point  centres  of  the  head 
and  the  tailstock,  is  held  with  a  carrier,  so  that  it 
must  turn  round  with  the  plate.    The  notched  plate 
device  is  suitable  only  for  low  numbers  ;    above 
these,   plates  are   used,    consisting    of   steel   discs 
drilled  with  several  circles  of  hoies,  such  as  24,  30. 
36,  and  42,  or  other  sets.     A  spring  pin  is  allowed 
to  slide  into  the  required  holes,  and  so  to  lock  the 
disc  at  each  setting.     The  most  complete  dividing 
heads  have  a  plate  on  the  spindle  for  low  numbers, 
and  another  on  a  secondary  spindle,  which  turns  a 
worm,  engaging  with  a  worm  wheel  on  the  main 
spindle.     Very  fine  subdivisions  may  be  obtained 
by  this  combination.    For  example,  supposing  the 
worm  wheel  has  forty  teeth,  then  one  turn  of  the 
worm   would     rotate     the     spindle 
through  one-fortieth  of  a  revolution. 
A    movement    from    one    hole    to 
another  in  the  index  plate  would 
consequently     result    in    a     much 
smaller  motion  of  the  spindle.     In 
addition    to    the    intermittent 
movements  obtainable  by  hand, 
there  is   a  continuous   motion 
possible  in    the   universal  ma- 
chines, derived  from  the  rota- 
tion   of  the   table  feed  screw. 
This  turns  a  set  of  gears  at  the 
end  [75].  connected  up  to  the 
worm   and   driving  the   latter, 
and  thence  the  wheel  and  spindle,  at  a  uniform  rate 
as  the  table  travels  along.     Helical  lorms  may  be 
cut  upon  the  work,  such  as  in  spiral  gears,  milling 
cutters,  and  twist  drills,  the  ratios  being  varied  by 
substituting  different  change  gears,  the  case  being 
similar  to  that  of  screw-cutting  in  the  lathe.     The 
spindle  of  the  headstock  may  be  angled  up  or  down, 
for  cutting  tapered  or  bevelled  work.    The  tailstock 
also  has  a  range  of  vertical  motion  and  angling  to 
support  the  work. 

Index  centres  of  plain  form  are  often  of  multiple 
type,   possessing  three  or  more  spindles  to  carry 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

graduated  to  swivel  to  exact  angles  for  setti'i<j  t!  o 
work.  Attachments  are  held  to  the  face  of  th»- 
pillar  encircling  the  spindle  nose,  some  carrying  a 
vertical  spindle  driven  from  the  ma  in  one,  the  ver- 
tical position  increasing  the  range  of  the  machine 
for  some  classes  of  work.  A  slotting  device  in  which 


a  short  ram  is  driven  up  and  down 
cutting,  etc.   A  very  complete 
system  of  lubrication  is  pro- 
vided for,  includ- 
ing a  pump  and 
tubes.    Rims  are 
cast 
around 
the  top 
table  ««    —m,       .— 


i>  u.M't'iil  for  die- 


(Sir  W.  G 


72.    FOUR-SPINDLE  PLANO-MILLER 

.duplicate  pieces  of  work,  which  are  cut  simultane- 
ously by  mills  mounted  on  the  one  arbor  above. 

There  are  numerous  fittings  and  attachments  used 
with  these  pillar  arid  knee  machines.  A  vice,  seen 
on  the  table  of  73  and  on  the  floor  in  75,  is  employed 
to  hold  work  that  cannot  be  held  so  conveniently 
with  bolts  and  clamps.  The  base  is  circular,  and 


71.    HEAVY  PLANO -MILLER 
Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Co.  Ltd.,  Mauchester) 

and  the  base  to  catch  the  oil.  The  table  rim  con- 
nects with  a  pipe  to  a  tank  on  which  the  pump  is 
mounted  to  return  the  liquid  (oil  or  soapy  water) 
to  the  work.  A  moderate  amount  of  lubrication, 
sufficient  for  some  jobs,  may  be  secured  by  the  drip 
can,  seen  in  75  above  the  spindle. 

Vertical  Spindles.  The  vertical-spindle 
machines  have  some  advantages  not  possessed  by 
the  horizontals,  and  there  are  consequently  a. 
number  of  designs  of  this  class.  They  are  especially 
favourable  to  the  use  of  end  of  face  mills,  and  tin- 
work  can  be  seen  clearly  by  the  operator.  Anything 
in  the  nature  of  grooving  or  recessing  is  suitable 
for  a  vertical  spindle,  and  several  edges  of  an  object 
can  be  milled  around  in  succession,  or  circular 
pieces  finished.  Points  common  to  drilling  machines 
and  to  Blotters  are  found  in  the  vertical  millers : 
there  is  a  revolving  and  vertically  adjusta hit- 
spindle  and  a  base  with  slides.  But  the  spindle  is  not 
fed  down  quickly  like  that  of  a  drill,  and  the  feeds 
of  the  tables  are  continuous  instead  of  intermittent.  A 
very  complete  example  of  a  vertical-spindle  machine 
is  illustrated  in  74  (Kendall  &  Gent,  Ltd.,  Man- 
chester). The  spindle  is  belt-driven,  like  a  drilling 
machine  shown  in  the  last  article,  but  has  additional 
back  gears  to  gain  power  for  heavy  cutting.  Tin- 
spindle  is  moved  downwards  by  sliding  its  lower 
bearing  by  means  of  a  vertical  screw  moved  with  the 
large  hand  wheel  seen  on  the  bearing.  A  support 
is  afforded  to  the  bottom  of  the  cutter  arbor  of  a 
similar  character  to  that  described  in  69,  but  th«- 
bearing  is  carried  out  and  fastened  by  a  hinge 
to  the  framing.  The  tables  comprise  two  moving 
at  right  angles,  and  a  circular  one  on  the  top,  all 
moved  by  hand  or  by  power  through  the  step j KM! 
belt  cones  seen,  actuating  a  shaft  and  gears  in  tin- 
tables,  clutches  being  used  to  throw  the  feeds  in  or 
out.  Rules  are  attached  to  the  slides,  and  in  con- 
junction with  pointers  indicate  the  amount  of  m<>\  e- 
ment  given.  This  is  an  alternative  to  the  employ- 
ment of  graduated  discs  on  the  feed  sm-w<.  such 
devices  being  used  on  most  high-class  machines  now . 

5307 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

l'"i-.  72  '•<•!•!•<  -cuts  a  very  large  Belgian  machine 
having  points  in  common  with  tbe  last  illustration; 
i',  i<  driven  from  an  electric  motor  seen  to  the  rear, 
operating  through  change-speed  gears  (enclosed) 
;ind  thence  the  belt  \\hii-h  passes  up  over  the  guide 
pulleys  to  the  spindle.  The  back  ge.irs  for  the  latter 
are  enclosed  in  the  sliding  head,  which,  on  account 
of  its  massiveness.  has  a  power 
travel  for  quick  adjustment  up 
,ind  down.  Its  weight  is  counter- 
balanced by  the  weight^  pa»ing 
into  the  floor  below  the  machine, 
The  table  feeds  are  efl'ected  by 
the  hand  wheels,  or  automatically 
by  power  in  the  manner  pre- 
viously described. 

A  class  of  machine  not  exactly 
like  either  of  the  designs  shown 
has  a  vertical  movement  to  the 
tables,  which  are  carried  on  a  knee 
like  the  pillar  and  knee  machines, 
the  movement  being  used  to  ac- 
commodate work  of  various  thick- 
nesses, while  the  feed,  when  re- 
quired, is  imparted  to  the  spindle 
.slide. 

Profilers.  The  profiling 
machines  constitute  an  important 
group.  They  carry  saddles,  which 
are  coerced  by  the  action  of  a  tracer  pin  [see  272, 
page  3403]  pressed  against  the  copy  or  form  piece  by 
a  weight,  or  by  the  attendant  holding  a  lever,  and 
the  outline  of  the  copy  is  reproduced  on  the  work  by 
the  milling  cutter  ;  both  the  work  and  the  copy  are 
bolted  to  the  sliding  table.  A  profiling  machine  (by 
•James  Archdale  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Birmingham)  is  shown 
in  77,  one  of  two-spindle  type,  one  of  the  spindles 
carrying  a  roughing  cutter  and 
the  other  a  finishing  cutter.  The 
ta  ble  is  travelled  along  by  the 
hand  wheel  at  the  side,  operat- 
ing a  rack  drive  through  the 
spur  gears  seen  dotted.  The 
two  milling  spindles  are  driven 
by  endless  belts  from  a  long 
drum  at  the  base,  which  accom- 
modates their  sliding  move- 
ment. The  spindles  are  carried 
in  vertical  slides;  these  again 
are  supported  on  light  hori- 
zontal slides,  which  move  upon 
another  heavy  saddle  running 
on  the  cross-rail.  The  heavy 
saddle  is  moved  across  for 
adjustments  for  bringing  either 
spindle  into  position  by  the  ball 
.handle  seen  in  the  front  view, 
rotating  spur  gears  connected 
with  a  rack  on  the  underside  of 
the  saddle.  After  thus  bringing 
the  main  saddle  into  position, 
the  attendant  moves  the  light 
spindle  slides  during  cutting, 
using  the  long  levers  -c.-u 
-landing  out,  these  ljuht  -addle.-, 
running  on  rollers.  Balance 
weights  are  mounted  on  pivoted 

-  to  counterbalance  the  vortical  slides;  the 
latter  are  Jiit.->|  \\ith  «4op  screws  seen  at  their 
right-hand  sides  Profiling  mechanism  is  used  on 
the  piano-millers  previously  treated,  the  mechanism 
including  of  course,  a  tracer  pin ;  weights  pull 
the  slides  over  into  constant  bearing  a»ainst 
the  cut, 

5206 


73.    PLAIN    MILLING    MACHINE 


74. 


Circular  Milling  Machines.  These  have, 
been  brought  into  prominence  during  recent  years, 
supplanting  the  turning  lathe  for  some  kinds  of 
work.  They  are  especially  suitable  for  gear  blanks, 
belt-pulleys,  rope-wheels,  etc.,  of  light  sections, 
which  can  be  milled  more  quickly  than  they  can  be 
turned.  A  certain  amount  of  circular  milling  is 
pns-ible  on  ordinary  machines, 
using  a  rotary  table,  but  the 
special  machines  are  more  con- 
venient and  have  greater  capa- 
cities. In  IS,  a  circular  miller 
by  Ludw.  Loewe  &  Co.,  Berlin, 
the  cutters  are  held  in  the  spindle 
of  a  heaclstock  with  belt  cones 
and  back  gears,  seen  to  the  left 
of  the  figure,  while  the  work  is 
placed  upon  a  mandrel  driven 
from  the  spindle  of  the  head  to 
the  right,  the  mandrel  being  sup- 
ported at  its  free  end  by  the 
bearing  on  the  triangular 
bracket,  this  bearing,  together 
with  the  head,  being  adjustable 
to  and  from  the  cutter  for  varia- 
tions in  the  diameter  of  work.  A 
series  of  rotary  feeds  given  to 
the  work  is  derived  from  the 
friction  discs  at  the  rear  of  the 
cutter  headstock,  transmitted  thence  to  the  work 
head,  and  driving  a  worm  gearing  with  a  worm 
wheel  on  the  spindle. 

Cam  Milling.  These  machines,  also,  have  two 
sets  of  spindles  to  drive  the  cutter  and  the  work 
(if  the  latter  is  circular),  and  the  cam  outline  is 
reproduced  from  a  master,  or  copy,  a  principle 
similar  to  that  described  under  profiling  machines. 
Screw  Milling 
Machines.  These  have  been 
largely  developed  during  the  last 
few  years,  cutting  the  threads 
of  vee  or  square-thread  screws' 
by  milling  instead  of  using  a 
single-pointed  tool  in  the  lathe. 
The  output  is  considerably 
greater  with  the  milling  cutter. 
The  machines  have  means  for 
rotating  the  blank  at  a  suit- 
able speed,  while  either  it  or 
the  cutter  head  travels  along, 
ploughing  out  the  spiral  thread 
as  it  goes.  The  cutter  is 
necessarily  placed  on  an  angle 
to  suit  the  pitch  of  the  screw. 
Some  machines  of  this  type 
can  handle  work  up  to  12  in. 
diameter  by  48  in.  long.  7VAs7- 
drill  milling  machines  are  of  an 
allied  character;  there  are  t\\o 
cutters  operating  simultan- 
eously in  the  two  flutes  of  the 
drill,  while  the  latter  is  slid 
longitudinally,  and  also  given 
a  twisting  motion. 

Gear  -  cutting.  These 
machines  are  divisible  into 
two  classes,  one  having  rotary 
cutters,  the  other  planer  tools,  the  latter  being- 
employed  chiefly  for  bevel  gears,  which  cannot  be 
cut  accurately  with  rotary  cutters  except  by  making 
special  movements.  Spur  gears  are  cut  on  milling 
machines  fitted  with  index  centres,  but  the  pro- 
duct is  limited  to  rather  small  gears,  and  the 
method  is  not  economical  for  manufacturing 


VER1ICAL-SPINDLE    MILLING 
MACHINE 


in  quantity.     Machines  are 

the    latter 

tions 

nionly   used,    is    shown 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 


F-SSSTiShS!    many  fSSSt       ZFVfSSS?  "*  "*"  "  "«  *V  " ' - 

_A    semi-automatic    ,,y>,    w£ch  T $£      ^  '  »'1'<  ^  I!!.™"'""'  V'1'  "-  ""!*  » 


com 

n     0   (G.    Birch    &    Co 
Manchester).    The   wheel    blank    is    held    on   the 


horizontal  arbor,  and,  if 


leciprocatmg,  thus  generating  the  true  tooth  cur 
nrnr?  mentlon*l  previously,  rotary  cutters  cannot 
produce  true  bevel  tooth  curves  on  account-  of  the 


turned  round  a  portion  of  a  revolt  tteiu"h  a      ?„  /nale'Tt'  fV*"''!  '"°™"™<3  ">  ">» 
series  of  chance  gears.     After  vuik  n»,.tr,i  t  ?  ,™'lble  rt  to  tolluw  the  Inner  of  the  eon 


to  the  slotted  facc-ptate.     oTS^r'eSI.'t      ±7'  °f,'?™  t"«  «S  «™^  "'^- '£."" 

•^A".^  ?™^.  «™  ±*  a&t  Xe  ^mSin— :;•  ^ar^r; 

S?A-»5SS2SSSS 

produces   accurate   teeth,    because    the   strokes   all 
point  to  the  apex  of  the  gear  cone,  and  a  good  many 
mitC^lnesJare  built  ^bodying  the  principle.   In  the 
or  form-tooth  of    In-' 


series  of  change  gears.     After  each  partial  turn  a 

tooth  space  is  cut  by  a  mill  held  on  the  vertical 

arbor  seen  to  the  right,  on  the  saddle  that  slides 

along  the  horizontal  rail,  either  bv  the  hand  \vWl 

seen*  or   by   self-acting  gears,   which   aT  r  ppJd       G^o"  deST"  "T* 

after  each  traverse.    A  machine  of  this  descrintL        rlt  1™!^'  *  I*"'"1 


this  description 


;LO^.    a  uuwujjMj  "i  tnis  aescription  BISM  is  n^prJ  +n  „   •  i     *u 

is  also  adapted  to  cutting  bevel  and  worm  rou*  •*      g          the  movements  of  the  tool, 

!  t,,e  cutter  dWe  is  madeiith  a  s.iveE^S  ^^'  ^± 'J^  «  ;',„— 

&•  one    rnr   IIBP   «/Vion   V.I<-K^.IT,\,~  ~..i    ii__  x    ,v.. 


to  allow  of  angula 

A  full  automatic  spur  ^gear  cutter,  by  J.  Par- 
kinson &  Son,  Shipley,  is  shown  by  the  photo  [791 
The  wheel  blank  is  held  on  the  "horizontal  arbor 
supported  in  the  dividing 
head  spindle  to  the  left, 
and  at  its  outer  end  in 
an  upright  steady- pillar. 
The  height  is  adjustable 
to  suit  differing  diameters 
of  wheels  by  sliding  the 
spindle-bearing  saddle  up 
or  down  its  pillar  through 
the  screw  and  handle. 
The  cutter  is  keyed  on  an 
arbor  lying  below  the 
work  mandrel,  and  hav- 
ing bearings  in  a  slide 
which  is  given  a  slow 
motion  during  cutting 
and  a  rapid  backward 
motion  after  a  tooth 
space  is  cut.  At  the  same 
time  the  blank  is  moved 
around  by  the  amount  of 
one  tooth  and  another 
cut  taken.  The  large 
dividing  worm  wheel, 
covered  with  a  guard,  is 
partly  turned  by  a  worm 
on  a  Vertical  shaft  as  the 
cutter  slide  moves  back ; 
v^uange  gears  are  set  to 
determine  the  requisite 
amount  of  rotation  to  suit 

movement  is  so  arranged  that  the  speed  of  the 
dividing  is  gradually  accelerated  at  first,  and  then 
retarded,  thus  avoiding  shocks  to  the  parts. 
Another  useful  device  "is  that  incorporated  for 
intermittent  spacing :  instead  of  cutting  the 
teeth  in  regular  order,  some  are  skipped  over, 
and  every  second  or  every  fourth  tooth  cut,  the 
intervening  ones  being .  cut  subsequently  as  the 
wheel  comes  around.  The  object  of  this  is  to 
avoid  risk  of  inaccuracies  through  the  unequal 
heating  and  expansion  of  the  blank  at  one 
location  where  cutting  has  proceeded  on  several 
teeth  close  together.  A  device  is  also  fitted  to  pre- 
vent the  cutter  from  feeding  up  as  usual  should  the 
dividing  mechanism  fail  to  act  through  accident, 
which  would  otherwise  result  in  a  spoilt  gear. 


75.    UNIVERSAL  MILLING    MACHINE 
ie  wheel  pitch.  "  The 


one  for  use  when  blocking  out  the  centre  of 'the 
tooth  spaces,  and  two  others  when  toolin<r  the 
flanks,  which  are  done  one  after  another.  The  wluvl 
blank  is  mounted  on  a  mandrel,  which  is  rotated 
intermittently  by  di- 
\iding  mechanism.  A 
good  many  machines  of 
similar  character  are 
made,  but  we  cannot 
attempt  to  describe  them 
here.  There  aae  al-<> 
generating  machines, 
cutting  gears  without 
the  use  of  formers,  the 
tooth  curves  being  pro- 
duced or  initiated  by  the 
action  of  rolling  move- 
ments of  the  blank 
against  the  tool.  Worm 
and  spiral  gears  are  cut 
by  rotary  mills.  They  are 
done  on  machines  with 
arrangements  for  rotat- 
ing the  blank  at  a  suit- 
able rate  as  the  cutter 
Gyrates.  In  worm 
wheel  bobbing  machines 
the  cutter  assumes  the 
form  of  a  worn:,  notched 
to  make  cutting  edges, 
and  it  works  into  the 
wheel  while  rota  ting,  just 
as  though  the  two  were 
driving  together.  Hob- 

bing  machines  are  made  to  cut  spur  gears,  the 
blank  revolving  while  the  cutter  rotates,  and  also 
feeds  downwards  to  make  the  teeth  straight. 

Miscellaneous  Machines.  Among  other 
machines  used  in  the  machine  shop  are  saws, 
screwing  machines,  and  key-seaters.  Saws  of 
band,  circular,  and  hack  types  are  used  for  cutting 
out  portions  of  metal,  and  for  parting  oft  bars, 
tubes,  etc.  The  band  saws  resemble  the  familiar 
wood- working  type,  with  stiffer  tables,  having  power 
feeds,  and  different  saws.  Circular  saws  run 
slowly,  and  the  beds  embody  provision  for  clamping 
pieces  of  work  down  while  the  saw  cuts  through. 
Hack  saws  use  narrow  flat  blades.  Lubrication  is 
essential  in  cutting  wrought  iron  and  steel. 

Screwing  machines,  used  for  cutting  threads  on 
bolts  and  bars,  are  made  in  diverse  forms,  but  the 


Machines  built  on  this  model  are  also  arranged       general  principle  is  that  of  a  revolving  die'head, 


for  bevel  gear  cutting,  by  making  the  cutter  slide 
tilt  up,  so  as  to  feed  angularly,  or  else  by  swivelling 
the  spindle  head  carrying  the  blank. 

Spur  gears  are  also  cut  with  planing  tools,  but  the 
act  ion  is  not  so  rapid  as  by  using  milling  cutters.    In 


carrying  screwing  chasers,  which  cut  the  threads 
on  a  piece  held  in  a  vice  and  moved  along  a  bed 
as  screwing  proceeds.  The  chasers  are  constructed 
to  fly  outwards  in  the  head  on  moving  a  lever,  so 
that  'the  bolt  may  be  drawn  back  instantly  after 

5209 


MECHANICAL     ENGINEERING 

threading.  Kit  her  plain  belt  cones  or  geared  drives 
rotate  the  die-heads.  Tapping  is  done  with  long 
taps  passed  through  nuts  held  in  a  vice.  This  sort  of 
work  is  simple,  but  there  are  some  classes  of  tapping 
in  which  danger  of  breakage  of  taps  is  incurred,  and 
spring  friction  devices  arc  introduced  to  let  the 
taps  slip  should  undue  strain  come  upon  them. 

Kry-ttcatiny  machines,  though  not  very  old,  have 
mown  rapidly  in  favour.  They  supplant  the 
ordinary  slotting  machine  for  the  work  of  cutting 
key -ways  in  wheel  bores,  and  avoid  employing  an 
ox[>ensive  large  machine  for  work  which  is  far  within 
its  utmost  capacity.  The  slotter  is  quite  suitaVo  for 


76.     HEAVY    VERTICAL- 
SPINDLE   MILLING 
MACHINE 


key- way  slotting, 
but  is  an  expensive 
machine  to  use  on 
such  small  work. 
The  key-seaters  produce  the  same  effect  without 
anything  like  the  massiveness  of  a  slotter,  and  they 
possess  certain  advantages.  The  mode  of  operation 
is  shown  on  page  3403  [275],  and  the  machines  com- 
prise a  horizontal  table  up  through  which  the 
slotting  bar  reciprocates  inside  the  wheel  bore. 
Feed  is  given  to  the  tool,  or  to  the  table  on  which 
the  work  is  held.  The  top  of  the  bar  is  supported 
above  the  wheel,  so  that  a  stiffer  construction  is 
afforded  than  that  of  the  ordinary  slotter  tool 
when  working  in  deep  holes. 

Grinding  Machines.  These  constitute  an 
important  group  existing  in  numerous  varieties,  for 
executing  both  plane  and  curved  surfaces.  The 
common  grindstone,  or  gritstone,  is  not  representa- 
tive of  any  modern  machines,  since  it  combines  no 
provision  for  precise  and  accurate  grinding  to  exact 
forms  and  limits.  Machines  which  use  artificial  wheels 
moulded  of  emery,  corundum,  car- 
borundum, alundum,  etc.,  are 
capable  of  very  high-class  work, 
and  also  of  rapid  reduction  of 
material,  due  to  the-  accuracy  of 
shape  of  the  wheels,  the  forms 
into  which  they  can  be  moulded, 
and  their  durability.  Grinding 
maehines  are  not  designed  pre- 
eisely  like  the  types  of  machines 
hitherto  shown  because  regard  has 
to  be  paid  to  the  fact  of  vibration 
introduced  by  the  high  speeds,  ;ind 
the  necessity  for  protecting  slides 
and  hearings  from  flying  dust,  which 
would  quickly  ruin  them.  There 
is  also  a  difficulty  on  account  of 
the  rise  ia  temperature  occasioned 
I>y  the  grinding  action,  which  tends 
to  distort  the  work  and  affect  its 
I  ruth.  A  copious  supply  of  water  is 
tht-ret'ure  necosary,  and  means niusl 
be  provided  for  catching  it  again  ,;s 

5210 


it  runs  off  the  work  and  wheel.  Guards  are  re- 
quired over  the  wheels,  both  to  prevent  thedu.st  from 
flying  and  in  case  of  accidental  fracture  of  the  wheels. 
Plain  Grinders.  The  plainest  grinders  are 
those  mounted  similarly  to  natural  grindstones,  with 
a  wheel  fastened  on  a  spindle  revolving  in  two  bear- 
ings, a  belt-pulley  affording  the  means  of  driving. 
The  work  is  held  against  the  wheel  by  the  hands 
alone,  a  very  suitable  method  for  some  kinds  of  jobs. 
The  addition  of  a  plain  rest  increases  the  usefulness 
of  the  machine,  enabling  work  to  be  pushed  up 
readily  without  its  slipping  about.  The  rest  must 
come  very  close  to  the  wheel,  and  the  latter  must 
run  in  a  direction  towards  the  rest. 
\ ,  nen  two  wheels  are  provided  at  oppo- 
site ends  of  a  spindle,  the  range  of  use- 
fulness is  further  increased  ;  the  wheels 
may  be  of  similar  kinds,  for  a  couple  of 
men  to  work  at  simultaneously,  or  of 
different  kinds  or  grades  for  particular 
operations  or  classes  of  work.  Thus,  81 
shows  a  machine  with  a  disc- wheel  at 
the  left-hand  side  and  a  face  or  cup 
wheel  at  the  right,  both  with  work- 
rests.  A  steel  guard  is  placed 
around  the  disc-wheel  to  prevent 
the  fragments  from  scattering  by 
centrifugal  force  in  the  event  of 
bursting.  Many  bad  and  occa- 
sionally fatal  accidents  have  occurred  through  the 
breaking  of  grinding  wheels,  and  it  is  very  common 
to  encase  them  in  the  manner  shown,  or  by  eqiiiva- 
lent  methods.  In  this  machine  there  is  also  a  small 
exhaust  fan  at  the  rear  of  the  pillar,  which  sucks 
through  the  pillar  from  hollow  troughs  underneath 
the  wheels,  and  also  through  the  hollow  base  of  the 
face  wheel  rest,  all  the  dust  produced  in  grinding 
being  thus  instantly  removed  and  deposited  wherever 
convenient.  In  what  are  called  tool  grinders,  having 
one  or  two  wheels,  water  is  supplied  from  a  pump, 
or  by  a  tank,  and  the  wheel,  being  thus  constantly 
flooded,  does  not  scatter  its  dust  about  in  the  air. 
Disc  Grinders.  Although  very  true  sur- 
faces cannot  be  produced  by  holding  work  in  the 
hand  against  the  periphery  of  a  disc-wheel,  rapid 
roughing  can  be  done  thus,  and  a  flat  finish  given 
by  holding  the  piece  against  the  side  of  the  wheel. 
A  type  of  machine  that  does  this  class  of  work 
very  accurately  and  rapidly  is  the  disc  grinder, 
which  has  no  solid  wheels,  but  sheets  of  abrasive 
cloth  cemented  on  to  steel  discs,  running  at  a  much 


TWO-SPINDLE    PROFILING    MACHINE 


work. 


.uglier  speed  than  that  safe  for  moulded  wheels 
Both  rapidity  and  accuracy  are  attained  thus.    Com- 
plete  views  of  a  disc  grinder  have  been  given  on 
page  2792,  which  may  be  referred  to.  Some  machines 
have   two   discs   set   opposite   to   each   other    the 
work    being    slid    between,    and    thicknessed    ac- 
curately and  smoothly.     A  good  amount  of  work 
that  was  formerly  sent  to  be  shaped  or  milled  is 
now  finished  more    rapidly  and  as  accurately  by 
disc  grinders.     Keys,  cottars,  half-brasses,  glands, 
nuts,  etc.,  are  among  the  objects  so  ground.     The 
discs  of  emery  or  other  cloth  are  cemented  on  the 
steel  discs  (removed  from  the  spindle  for  the  pur- 
pose) by  keeping  them  in  a  press,  a  spare  set  of 
discs  being  employed  to  avoid  waiting  for  the  cement 
to  set.    Old  worn-out  paper  or  cloth  is  removed  by 
scraping,  after  the  disc  has  been  placed  in  hot  water. 
Grinders  for  Plane  Work.     The  addition 
of  a  slide-rest  to  an  ordinary  grinder  enables  it  to 
work  more  accurately,  and  grind  plane  faces,  but 
the  length  of  travel  is  necessarily  limited.     Hence, 
for  flat  surfaces  of  considerable  length,  a  machine 
resembling  a  planer  or  miller  framing  is  required, 
with  a  table  to  carry  the  work  pa  st  the  wheel.   Some  of 
the  smaller  machines  of 
this  class    have  a  single 
upright  upon  which  the 
wheel  saddle  slides  up  and 
down,    to    accommodate 
various   depths  of    work 
placed  on  a  table  below. 
Larger  machines  have  two 
standards,    like    planers, 
and  the  wheel  is  supported 
on  a  cross-rail,  the  move- 
ments somewhat   resem- 
bling those  of   a   planer. 
Fig.  82  is  an  illustration 
of  a  large    piano-grinder 
(Friedrich          Schmaltz, 
Offenbach-on-Main),  built 
on  the  planer  model,  the 
table,  housings,  and  cross- 
rail  being  obvious.      The 
wheel  spindle,  running  in 
bearings  upon  the  saddle, 
is  rotated  by  an   endless 
belt   coming'  down  from 
the    countershaft    above,      „ 

passing  around  two  idle  79'  AUTOMATIC  SPUR-GEAR  CUT 
pulleys  attached  to  the  back  of  the  cross-rail,  round 
the  spindle  pulley,  and  round  a  tightening  pulley  on 
the  base  of  the  machine.  By  this  arrangement  the 
alteration  in  height  of  the  cross-rail  on  its  housings 
makes  no  difference  to  the  drive.  The  wheel  spindle 
is  prolonged  on  the  left-hand  side,  to  pass  through 
the  pulley  and  the  bearings  as  the  wheel  saddle  is 
moved  across  the  rail.  The  latter  movement  is  effected 

by  the  screw 
seen  lying 
within  the 
rail,  and 
driven  from 
gears —  worm 
and  bevel — 
off  the  wheel 
spindle.  The 
stop  rod 
above  the 
saddle  has 
dogs,  which 
are  struck 
by  a  stop  on 
SPUR-GEAR  CUTTING  MACHINE  the  saddle, 


78. 


Cl  RCULAR    MILLING    MA(  1 1 1  M; 
(Ludw.  Loewe  &  Co.) 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

reversing  the 
motion 
through  a 
clutch  and 
bevel  gears, 
shown  dotted 
at  the  end  of 
the  screw. 
The  table  is 
actuated  in 
planer  fash- 
ion by  the 
fast  and  loose 
pulleys  and 
striking  gear. 
In  the  end 

view,  the  wheel  guard  is  not  shown,  but  it  is  in  tin- 
side  elevation,  together  with  the  water  pipe,  dotted. 
Flat  work  of   various    kinds,  as   slide-bars,   rods, 
guides,  etc.,  are  ground  with  accuracy  and  rapidity, 
with    the    added     advantage   that   they    may   be 
hardened  beforehand  without  affecting  the  tooling. 
A   planer  would  not  be   able  to  tackle   hardened 
Machines  of  this  class  are  also  constructed 
with    a    face   wheel,  the 
spindle  of   which   stands 
vertically,  an    advantage 
in  some  instances. 

Piston    =   rod 
Grinder.   Flat  surfaces 
of  another  kind,  on  cir- 
cular discs  or  rings,  such 
as     piston      rings,      are 
ground  with    a    machine 
[83]    (J.     E.    Reinecker, 
Chemnitz  -  Gablenz)      in 
which  the   table  rotates, 
carrying  the   work  upon 
it,      and      the    grinding 
wheel  above  is  traversed 
along    the    cross-rail    by 
hand,     or  automatically. 
The  design  reminds   one 
at  once  of  the  boring  and 
turning     mill.       A    neat 
arrangement  is  fitted  for 
automatically  decreasing 
the  rate  of  revolution  of 
the    table   as    the    wheel 
iCHINE       gej-s  nearer  the  periphery, 
where  the  speed  of  the  work  should  lessen,  to  main- 
tain a  correct  grinding  ratio.    A  pair  of  re  verse  cones 
is  used,  one  on  the  countershaft,  shown  dotted,  and 
one  on  the  top  of  the  machine,  a  belt  connecting  the 
two.    In  the  position  in  which  it  is  shown,  the  larger 
end  of  the  countershaft  cones  drives  the  machine 
cone  at  a  quick  rate,  and  the  latter  cone  transmits  the 
motion  by  a  three-stepped  pulley  on  its  left  down  to  a 
similar  pulley  actuating  bevel  and  spur  gears  gear- 
ing with  the  table  spur  ring.   When  the  wheel  saddle 
begins  to  travel  outwards,  it  operates  a  belt  shifter, 
which  gradually  moves  the  belt  along  the  cones,  so 
continually  lowering  the  table  speed.   The  movement 
of  the  wheel  saddle  across  the  rail  is  by  a  screw  and 
hand  wheel,  or  through  the  small  belt  cones  on  the 
right  of  the  machine," driving  from  the  bottom  cone 
up  to  the  top  one,  thence  horizontally,  and  down 
again  by  a  shaft  to  bevel  gears  and  a  worm  wheel 
working    on    the    cross-rail    screw.     The    grinding 
wheel  is  rotated  by  its  pulley,  belted  from  a  Long 
drum  at  the  back  of  the  machine,  driven  from  the 
countershaft.     The  drum  is  iitted  with  adjustable 
bearings,  sliding  to  and  fro,  to  accommodate  the  belt 
length  to  suit  the  relative  position  of  the  cross-rail 

5211 


£0 


GBINPHTQ    MACHINES 


£l*nComiton  grinder      82.  Piano-grinder       83.  Piston-rinR  jirinder       84.  Hole  grinder      85.  Eccentric  spindJe  for 
grinding  86-89.  Universal  grinding  machine  90  and  91.  Headatock  and  poppet  92.  Wheel  head  93.  Plan  of  cutter  "ri 
5212 


up  or  down  the  housings.  The  wheel  spindle  is  not 
mounted  in  fixed  bearings  on  the  saddle,  but  in 
pivoted  ones,  which  allow  a  very  fine  up  or  down 
movement  to  be  given  by  an  adjusting  screw. 

Hole  Grinders.    Machines  for  grinding  out 
holes    are    increasingly  numerous,  because    of   the 
extent  to  which  hardened  work  is  now  used  in  the 
best  practice,  and  also  because  it  is  found  that  finer 
results  can  be  obtained  by  grinding  than  by  boring. 
One  type  of  machine  which  is  rather  common  [84] 
has  a  circular  table  revolved  by  cone  pulleys  and 
bevel  gears.     Above  the  table  there  is  a  grinding 
spindle  running  in  a  long  sleeve,  and  supported  on  a 
saddle  that  has  a  cross  motion,  upon  a  slide  having 
an  up  and  down  motion  upon  the  vertical  frame. 
The  slide  is  counterbalanced  with  a  weight  inside 
the  frame.      The  spindle  is  driven  by   belt  from 
the  vertical  drum,   the  latter  being  rotated  by  a 
bait  from  one  of  the  cone  pulleys  at  the  base,  the 
belt    passing   up    over    angle  pulleys  and    around 
idle     pulleys.      The    vertical    feed    is   self-acting, 
and    is   provided   with  a   throw-out  by   dogs   and 
reversing    bevels,    in    a    manner 
described  in  connection  with  other 
machines.     If  a  piece  of  work  is 
therefore  bolted  to  the  table,  and 
the    spindle   set   sideways    suffi- 
ciently to  let  the  grinding  wheel 
touch  the  interior  wall  of  a  hole 
in    the  centre  of  the  piece,  this 
hole  may  be  ground  out  circularly 
by  revolving  the  table  and  wheels 
[see  282,  page  3404].  If,  however, 
the  work  is  too  large  or  awkward 
to    revolve   upon    a    table,   the 
planet  spindle  device  (283,  page 
3404]  is  employed,  and  also  for 
pins,    as    in   281.     The    work   is 
fixed,    and    the  grinding   wheel, 
besides  its  own  rotation  at  a  high 
speed,  describes  a  circle  at  a  low 
speed,  the  range  of  the  circle  being 
variable  to  let  the  wheel  move  in 
a  larger  or  smaller  diameter.    The 
usual  pattern  of  spindle  [85]  is  of 
triple  form,  comprising  the  wheel 
spindle — the  innermost  one,  run- 
ning   in  conical  bearings  within 
another  spindle,  but  out  of  centre, 
a  further  outride  sleeve  embracing 
the   other.     The  outer  sleeve  is 
rotated  slowly,  the  grinding  spin- 
dle rapidly,  and  the  latter  is  increased  or  diminished 
in    range     by    turning    the    intermediate    spindle 
to    bring    the    grinding    spindle   out   towards   the 
circumference,  or  in  nearer  the  centre,   where   its 
throw  is  lessened.     The  means  of  alteration  are  not 
shown  in  the  drawing,  but  they  usually  »iclu.d« 
worm  gears.     A  hole-grinding  machine  fitted  with 
a  planet  spindle  is  illustrated  in  94,  grinding  out  a 
cvlinder  bore.     Horizontal  forms  are  useful  in  many 
cases,  the  parts  of  the  grinding  head  being  more 
than  in  the  verticals.     In  the  last  two  or 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

which  coerces  the  motion  of  the  link  upon  a  table. 
while  the  grinding  wheel  simply  revolves  within  th.- 
slot.  Some  machines  specially  built  for  rod  work 
possess  two  vertical  spindles"  the  centres  bcinir 
adjustable  to  suit  the,  rods;  both  bushes  are  ground 
out  at  one  setting  of  the  work. 

Cylindrical  Grinders.     The  grind  iim   <-i 
cylindrical  work  is,  perhaps,  the   most  important 
class  of  this  process  in  the  machine  shop,  just   u 
lathe  work  predominates  over  planing,  shaping,  and 
slotting.     It  is  done  on  machines  that  bear  resein 
blances  to  the  lathe.     In  fact,  all  tho  early  grinding 
was  done  in  lathes  by  adopting  the  device  of  putt  ing 
a   grinder   head  on   the   slide-rest,  a    practice    still 
followed  by  a  few  firms.     An  ordinary  lathe,  how- 
ever, is  not  fitted  to  withstand  the  damaging  effect  ^ 
of  grit,  and  it  has  several  inconvenient  points  which 
are   not   found   in   proper   grinders.     The    obvious 
necessity  for  cylindrical  work    is    two  heads,  \\ith 
point  centres,  and  a  means  of  driving  and  of  feeding 
the   wheel  along  the  work.     This   is   met   in  two 
different  ways  ;    in  the  smaller  machines  the  heads 
are    placed    upon    a   long    table 
which  slides  past  a  fixed  wheel. 
in    the    larger    ones    the    heads 
are  stationary,  while  the   wheel 
travels  on  a  saddle.     The  reason 
for    this     difference     is     chieily 
one  of  convenience,    because    it 
would  be   awkward   to    have    a 
long  table  projecting  by  a  con- 
siderable    amount     beyond     its 
bed  at  each   travel,  and  requir- 
ing a  lot  of  space  left  in  the  shop. 
A  machine   belonging   to    the 
class  with  moving  table,  is  shown 
in  86  to  88  (G.  Birch  &  Co.,  Man- 
chester).    Its   capacity  is  10  in. 
diameter,  by  24  in.  long.    The  hrd 
supports  a  long  sliding  table  upon 
a  vee  and  a  flat,  and  upon  this 
table  an  upper  table  is  fitted  in 
such  a  manner  that   it  can   be 
swivelled  to  bring  its  head  and 
tail  stock  lying  angularly  in  rela- 
tion to  the  wheel   head   at   the 
rear,  enabling    tapered  work  to 
be  ground.     The  wheel  head  can 
be  swivelled  around  on  a  circular 
base,  and  moved  to  or  from  the 
table,   by    the  hand   wheel  seen 
in  front.     The  other  hand  wheel 
it  is  also  fed 


94.    HOLE    GRINDING   MACHINE 
(F.  Schmaltz) 

moves  the  table  along  ; 


by  the  four-stepped  cone  pulley  [87  and  88]  which 
operates  gears  driving  a  pinion  meshing  with  a  rack 
under  the  table.  An  automatic  reversing  device 
is  incorporated,  which,  by  means  of  dogs  on  the 
tiblp  keeps  the  latter  sliding  to  and  no  %\m 
taoie,  K  5  L.u  ,  .  ,  ... ._\^  1,  At  each 


deeper.     The 


three  years  several  firms  have  brought  out  machines 
specially  for  motor-cylinder  grinding,  boring  bein 
dispensed  with  altogether  in  many  cases,  so  that 
although  the  hole-grinders  were  originally  developed 
for  engine  work,  to  deal  with  the  hardened  bushes 
in  rods  and  link  motions,  their  scope  has  beer 
greatly  extended.  ^  ^^  ^  Q{  ^^ 

loved  for  finishing  out  the 


and  a 


ng 


lor    uiivniit    lin-     — — 
b  to  slide  as  the  table  moves  along. 
m  sufficiently  long  to  accommodate 
tions  of  the  belt  on  the  wheel  spMidlc-, 


referral"  to  89,  which  is  a  view 
e-out  of  the  countershafts,  the 


swivelling  move- 


radius  is  produced  by  using  a  long 


rod, 


MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING 

rendering  them  incapable  of  tackling  certain  angular 
work  which  tho  universal  is  fitted  to  do.  The  hrad- 
stock  of  the  machine  [91]  has  its  upper  portion 
swivelling  upon  a  circular  graduated  base  for 
angular  settings.  The  hollow  spindle  is  driven 
either  by  the  pulley  at  the  left-hand  end,  or  the 
pulley  may  be  locked  with  the  plunger  seen,  and  the 
work  rotated  on  dead  centres  by  the  other  pulley, 
which  runs  loosely,  and  drives  a  carrier  on  the  work. 
The  head  is  clamped  to  the  table  with  a  tee-headed 
1  >olt  and  a  handle.  The  spindle  bearings  are  split,  to 
take  up  wear  with  set-screws.  Fig.  91  gives  a 
section  of  the  poppet,  which  differs  from  that  of  a 
lathe  in  having  a  spring-actuated  lever  to  press  the 
centre  up  to  the  work,  the  object  being  to  allow  tho 
work  to  expand  lengthwise  as  it  heats  up,  without 
bending,  as  it  would  if  the  poppet  barrel  did  not  give 
way.  The  nut  on  the  tail  end  of  the  barrel  prevents 
it  going  too  far.  For  work  which  does  not  need  the 
spring  device,  the  barrel  is  clamped  firmly  by  the 
ball  lever  squeezing  in  a  split  lug  at  the  nose.  The 
wheel  head  [92J  has  a  spindle  running  in  split  bushes, 
tapered  on  the  outside  and  fitted  with  nuts  to  draw 
them  endwise  for  take-up.  The  wheel  is  gripped  in 
a  concave  disc,  and  guarded  around  as  much  of  its 
diameter  as  possible.  A  fine  endlong  movement  is 
given  by  a  graduated  disc  and  micrometer  screw  at 
the  opposite  end  of  the  wheel,  so  that  the  latter 
may  grind  minute  amounts  from  shoulders.  Larger 
heads  have  a  wheel  at  each  end  of  the  spindle.  A 
small  spindle  is  provided  with  these  grinders  to  true 
out  holes  in  work,  held  in  a  chuck  screwed  on  the 
nose  of  the  headstock  spindle. 

A  photo  of  a  heavy  grinder,  constructed  on 
the  model  previously  mentioned,  with  travelling 
wheel  head,  is  shown  in  94.  Steady  rests  are  .fitted 
to  prevent  the  work  from  springing  away  and 
chattering. 

Tool  Grinders.  Cutter  grinders  somewhat 
resemble  the  machines  just  discussed,  but  they  are 
lighter  in  construction.  A  typical  machine  is  that 
in  96,  possessing  head  and  tail  stocks  and  grinding 
head,  with  two  wheels.  A  plan  view  of  a  table  and 
head  is  given  in  93,  which  is  representative  of  the 
usual  pattern.  The  centres  are  carried  out  on 


There  are  other  types  of  machines  for  grinding 
tools,  including  twist  drills,  which  are  gripped  in  a 
holder,  and  given  a  peculiar  twisting  motion  against 


96.   ELECTRICALLY-DRIVEN    CUTTER    GRINDER 


special  heads,  and  the  top  table  swivels  for  doing 
angular  cutters.  A  reference  to  the  article  on 
l»u<-  :?401  will  enable  the  reader  to  understand  the 
application  of  the  various  parts  of  these  machines. 

Continued 
5214 


95.    UNIVERSAL    GRINDING    MACHETE 

the  grinding  wheel,  to  sharpen  the  lips  at  the  end. 
Other  machines  grind  lathe  and  planer  tools  by 
movements  embodied  in  the  mechanism,  graduated 
circles  giving  the  means  of  finding  what  angles  are 
ground. 

Polishing  Machines.  Years  ago  aii  me 
bright  parts  on  finished  work  were  got  up  with  the 
file  and  emery  cloth,  but  the  greater  part  is  now 
polished  on  special  machines,  using  either  wheels, 
bobs,  or  belts.  The  wheels  are  of  wood,  covered 
with  leather,  on  which  is  glued  emery  or  other  fine 
powders  or  compositions.  The  bobs  are  built  up 
of  calico  discs,  which  accommodate  themselves  to 
awkwardly-shaped  work.  Belt  machines  have  long 
endless  bands,  charged  with  polishing  material,  and 
running  around  several  pulleys.  On  a  long  stretch 
between  pulleys,  the  work  is  applied  by  hand  to  the 
belt,  which  twists  and  bends  around  and  into  curves 
and  hollows  in  the  work. 

Shop  Appliances.  There  are  numerous 
auxiliary  appliances  used  in  machine  shops  to  enable 
the  work  of  the  machine  tools  to  be  facilitated.  Some 
of  these  are  regular  machines,  as  the  liar  straighteners, 
which  true  up  bent  bars  and  shafts  ready  for  the 
lathe;  the  cutting '-off  machines  that  part  off  bars  to 
definite  lengths  for  various  purposes,  and  the 
centring  machines  for  drilling  and  countersinking 
holes  in  the  ends  of  shafts,  etc.  Mandrel  presses 
are  used,  comprising  an  arched  frame  holding  a 
vertical  ram  that  can  be  forced  down  by  rack  and 
pinion  to  push  work  mandrels  into  or  out  of  their 
objects,  instead  of  driving  them  with  the  hammer. 
When,  however,  the  latter  practice  is  followed,  by 
the  aid  of  a  lead  or  copper  hammer,  mandrel  stands 
are  brought  into  use ;  these  are  hollow  pillars, 
provided  with  a  number  of  differently  sized  rings, 
placed  on  the  top,  one  of  suitable  size  being  selected 
that  will  allow  a  given  mandrel  to  pass  through  and 
hang  down  while  the  work  is  supported  on  the  face 
of  the  ring. 

In  shops  where  a  good  system  of  lubrication  for 
the  cutting  tools  is  adopted,  oil  separators  are 
installed.  They  have  vessels,  revolved  at  a  very 
high  speed,  which,  when  oil-soaked  chips  from  the 
machines  are  placed  inside,  whirl  the  oil  outwards, 
by  centrifugal  force,  through  perforations  into  an 
outer  receiving  vessel,  leaving  the  chips  dry.  The 
oil  is  thereby  largely  saved,  ready  to  be  used  again. 

SJiop  stands  are  installed  in  most  shops  nowadays  ; 
they  are  fitted  with  shelves  or  racks  to  carry  pieces 
of  work,  or  tools  and  appliances,  and  save  the 
damage  and  untidiness  caused  when  these  things  are 
allowed  to  knock  about  on  the  floor.  In  the  best 
practice,  each  lathe  and  machine  is  supplied  with 
a  stand  close  to  it,  and  convenient  to  the  operator. 


A  SHORT  °™?lr  rCHINE  TOOL  ™™CE 

-   .i,nj.Nh   AND  FITTIXG-SHOP  'Fvu\t*     .-,.,„.    .>  ,** 


Planers,  to  shear  off  whin  a  dangcr- 
ffi8SL*5?*«Wfr  come,  ouTlfe 


to  obtaiS  the  ^d  cha,.^  '''' '  ' 
Apron—The  part  of  a  lathe  carriage 

which    hangs    down    in  "front    and 

carries  the  clasp-nut  and   gears  for 

sliding  and  surfacing. 
Axle -grinding    Machine— A  design 

somewhat  resembling  that  of  a  lathe 


and  poppet  on  the  bed. 

S^rlmoothing  out  round 
ttLVr  «broach  or  reamer.  In 
America  the  word  means  drittnui 

ployed.r°aChing     maChines    ai('"": 
Bush  Grinder— j 


Axle  -  turning  Lathe  —  Used  for 
rapidly  finishing  railway  axles, 
usually  turning  both  journals  simul- 
taneously. 


TERMS,  page  :UOO. 


Cut-Off   Rest  -A  transverse  rest  used 
Cn'tUnf  taw  latl"'*  to  1>art  off  work. 
in    ,    rMay   -be    tUrilil18    t0018   held 
nr  £.J.ar'bori'"-'   toflili  lacing  tools, 
or  milling  cutters. 

Cutting  -  off  '  Machine -A  type 
evolved  from  the  lathe.  It  has  a 
hollow  spindle  and  a  cross-slide,  part- 
awuracy  and  bars  wi«>  Perfect 

Crankshaft  Lathe-This  is  a  massive 

«SS«fe6s5aS 


Back 


hinder  centre 


formers. 


machines 


mill- 
using 


gam  powt 

spindle. 

Baclang-off  Lathe-  >n 

ciprocating    slide-rest, 


'XT' ils  opposea  to  live  centres. 

— . Tools — Diamonds  are  em- 

plpyed  to  true  up  grinding  wheels  of 

)ie-xy=^~U^.'ar-borf?n(lun1' etc- 
in 


with  a  re- 
3    cut  the 


Centring 


Machines— For      drilling 
ends  preparatory 

pe    of 


- •—•«-»•  — wi«i  which  holds  several 
chasers  radially,  these  being  remov- 
able for  sharpening,  and  may  some- 
times release  or  move  outwards  to 
clear  the  thread  after  cutting  it, 
Disc  Grinders-Machines  employing 


ployed  for  cutting  metal. 
Bed— Any  base  or   lower    portion  on 
which  slides  are  set  or  moved. 


,i 

a  number  of 

A18°  temed 


Change-wheels-  Toothed  gears  used        accurate  results  may  be  obtained  in 
to  obtain  speed  ratios  in  screw -cutting         tn19  manner. 

etc.  "    Dividing  Head— A  fitting  which  has 

Chasing  Lathe— One  used  for  the  pro-       provision  for  locking  a  spindle  in  a 

number    of    positions,    representing 
of   *u-    ~«— i- 


duction  of  screws  by  a  die,  or  with 

tools  traversed  from  a  hob. 
Chuck— Any  appliance  used  for  grip- 

ping  work  to  be  tooled. 
Chucking  Lathe— A  face  type  of  lathe 

employed   for   tooling   objects   held 

in  a  chuck  by  one  end  only. 


which  runs  an  endless  belt  charged  Ch'uckinfiT"  Tool's^ Long'    drills 

with  polishing  material,  adapted  to  reamers  used  in  chw&  £%£. 

tgoUld0byUwheelf1Ch  wuld-tbe  Circular  Milling  Machine- 
Belt     Shipper-A      handle 
forks    which    "  strike 
driving    belt 


moving 
or    push   a 
from    one    pulley    to 
another. 
Bench— A    prefix   applied   to  certain 


and  cut  by  milling  cutters,  instead 
of  turning  in  the  lathe. 
Circular    Motion  — A    fitting   on   a 
shaper  which  rotates  to  shape  curved 
pieces. 


divisions  of  the  circle;  used  for 
tooling  polygonal  objects  and  for 
cutting  gears  on  the  milling  machine. 
Also  termed  index  centres. 

Division  Plate— A  disc  fitted  to  a 
lathe-head,  or  a  dividing  head.  It  has 
several  circles  of  holes  to  effect 
divisions  around  a  circle. 

Dog  Chuck— A  chuck  with  jaws 
moving  in  slots. 

Double— Ihis  prefix  is  placed  before 
many  types  of  machines  having 
double  heads  or  spindles,  etc.,  or 
possessing  double-acting  mechanism 
to  increase  output. 


small    machines,   as    bench   drilling    Clamping  Plates -Employed  on  most    Drifting— Finishing  out  holes  of  square 
machine,  bench  lathe,  bench  erinder.        mfl^hinp  tnnia  t^  hs>i<r«»?i*  a«»>,,ra  or  other  shape  with  a  drift,  having 


lathe,  bench  grinder, 
which    are    not  fastened    on    inde- 
pendent  standards. 
Bevel  Gear  Cutting  Machines— These 
use  either  rotary  cutters    or,  with 
more  accurate  results,  planer  tools. 
Bolt-screwing     Machine,    or    Bolt 
Cutter— One  which  cuts  the  threads 
on  bolts,  revolving    in  a  spindle,  by 
means    of  dies  in  a  sliding  carriage, 
or  vice  versa. 
Boring — Performed  either  in  the  lathe 

or  in  special  machines. 
Boring    Bar— A    cylindrical    bar    in 
which  boring  cutters  are  fixed.    The 
bar  may  have  a  large  head  to  carry 
cutters  ;    the  head  may  slide  instead 
of  moving  the  work. 
Boring  Head— A  cylindrical  head  car- 
rying  a   number  of   cutters   around 
its  periphery. 

Boring  Lathe — One  used  for  preparing 
wheels  for  turning.  It  only  bores 
and  faces  the  hub.  A  slide-rest  or  a 
special  poppet  is  fitted. 
Boring  Machines— Either  of  hori- 
7ontal  or  vertical  types,  with  one  or 
several  spindles. 

Boring  Mill— A  lathe  having  its  axis 
vertical,   with   table,   and   cross-rail 
carrying  a  tool-saddle. 
Boring  Rest— Used  to  steady  and  sup- 
port either  work  or  boring  tools. 
Box   Tools— Cutters  held  in  cast-iron 
boxes  with  steadies  to  ensure  uniform 
results  in  turning. 

Brass-finisher's  Lathe— A  type  of 
lathe  with  a  chasing  rest,  and 
usually  a  turret. 


machine  tools  to  hold  work  securely 
during  tooling,  or  to  grip  the  tool's 
in  their  rests. 
Clasp  Nut— A  divided  nut  which 
may  be  disengaged  at  will  from  a 
guide  screw. 

Cold-iron  Saw— A  circular  saw,  rotat- 
ing at  moderate  speed  (unlike  the 
hot-iron  saw),  for  sawing  castings 
and  forgings. 

Collet— An  intermediary  fitting  to 
hold  cutters,  drills,  dies,  etc.,  in 
spindles. 

Combination  Chuck— A  lathe  chuck, 
the  jaws  of  which  can  be  operated 
independently  or  simultaneously  at 
will. 

Combination  Machines—  Those  which 
are  capable  of  performing  various 
operations,  instead  of  only  one,  as 
boring,  drilling,  and  milling,  planing 
and  grinding,  planing  and  slotting. 
Compound  Rest— A  slide-rest  with 
superimposed  slides,  affording  move- 
ments in  two  directions. 
Concentric  Chuck— One  in  which  the 
jaws  are  moved  simultaneously.  It 
is  also  termed  self-centring. 
Cone-plate— A  form  of  steady -rest, 
comprising  a  disc  bored  with  differ- 
ently-sized taper-holes  and  mounted 
on  a  bearing-pin.  It  is  set  upright 
facing  the  lathe-head,  and  one  taper- 
hole  receives  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
work,  which  is  then  drilled. 
Countershaft— An  intermediate  shaft 
with  belt  pulleys  by  which  speed 
changes  are  obtained,  and  machines 
started  and  stopped. 


shape  with  a  drift,  having 
serrations,  or  teeth,  forced  through 
the  holes  by  power. 

Drill— A  tool  which  originates  holes  ; 
flat,  fluted,  and  twist-drills  are  the 
principal. 

Drill  Chuck— A  small  chuck  with  long 
jaws  operated  concentrically. 

Drilling  Machines— Ma>  be  <>t  vertical 
or  horizontal  designs,  with  one  or  more 
spindles,  provision  for  angling,  hand 
or  power  feeds. 

Duplex— This  is  a  term  applied  to 
machines  when  portions  are  dupli- 
cated, as  duplex  rests. 

EDGE  MILL— A  milliim  i-iitt.-r  th:it 
acts  by  teeth  on  its  si  :^.  Called  also 
a  side  mill. 

Elliptic  Chuck— A  special  lathe  chuck 
possessing  a  sliding  portion,  by  which 
elliptical  objects  are  turned  or  bored. 
Erroneously  called  oval  rhurk. 

End  Mill — A  milling  cutter  operating 
by  its  end  teeth,  as  distinct  from  an 
edge  mill. 

Ending  Machine — Th-;  same  as  a 
f<.,tiir>i  jil'iiK'i-  :  employed  for  trim- 
ming the  ends  of  large  girders  am! 
columns,  etc. 

Engine  Lathe— One  of  complete  type. 
for  sliding,  surfacing,  and  scn-u- 
cutting. 

FACE  LATHE— One  that  has  no 
poppet,  work  being  held  on  the  plate 
or  chuck  only. 

Face  Mill— An  '-//</  ini.ll,  but  uf  larye 
.Uamcter. 

5215 


DICTIONARY     OF     MACHINE    TOOL     PRACTICE 


Face  Plate— The  disc  screwed  on  tlic 
hit  he  spindle  nose,  and  slotted  to 
•  receive  holding-down  bolts. 

Facing  Arm— 1  his  is  an  attachment 
to  a  boring  bar,  by  which  the  end 
portions  of  bored  work  are  laced 
across. 

•Feed  Mechanisms — Devices  employed 
to  feed  slides  or  spindles  at  definite 
rates.  licit-cones  or  gears  or  friction 
wheels  arc  used  to  effect  the  neces- 
sary changes. 

Fixture— An  appliance  for  setting  and 
holding  a  piece  of  work  on  a  machine 
in  a  definite  position,  which  may  be 
repeated  exactly  for  other  similar 
pieces.  Jig  is  another  name.  Some, 
as  for  drilling,  have  guide  bushes  to 
control  the  position  of  the  drills. 

Flexible  Shaft— Used  in  connection 
with  portable  machine  tools,  driving 
them  in  any  position  by  the  flexibility 
of  the  shaft,  -which  is  produced  by 
coiled  wires  or  a  number  of  joints. 

Floor  Plate — A  large  tee-slotted  plate 
on  which  massive  work  is  laid  and 
tooled  by  portable  machines  shifted 
alout,  and  bolted  anywhere  on  the 
plate. 

Forge  Lathe— A  massive  lathe  em- 
ployed for  turning  forged  work,  as 
shafts,  etc. 

Forming — Turning  irregularly-shaped 
pieces  with  tools  of  the-same  profile. 

Frame-plate  Slotting  Machine— This 
is  a  special  type  for  locomotive  work, 
having  several  slotting  heads  above 
a  long  table  on  which  a  pile  of  frame- 
plates  are  laid. 

Friction  -  clutch— Employed  exten- 
sively in  machine-tool  work,  both 
for  countershafts  and  in  machine 
construction,  for  throwing  move- 
ments in  and  out  quickly. 

GANG— Applied  to  a  set  of  tools, 
such  as  gang  mills,  which  are  built 
up  of  several  separate  cutters. 

Gap  Lathe— A  lathe  with  a  break  in 
the  bed  to  receive  large  objects. 

Gear-cutting  Machines— These  em- 
ploy either  rotary  cutters  or  recipro- 
cating planer  tools.  Teeth  are 
pitched  out  with  dividing  wheels,  or 
worm  wheels.  Machines  are  semi  or 
entirely  automatic.  Teeth  derive 
their  shape  from  the  cutters,  or  from 
formers  or  templets,  or  are  gener- 
ated by  the  mechanism  embodied  in 
the  machine. 

Grinding  Machines— Those  employing 
rotating  wheels,  and  used  for  finishing 
plane  surfaces,  curves,  holes,  and  cylin- 
drical portions.  Either  the  work  or 
the  wheel  may  move,  or  both. 

Grinding  Wheels— Wheels  of  emery, 
corundum,  carborundum,  oralundum, 
used  in  grinding  machines. 

Gun  Lathe— A  very  heavy  type  for 
turning  and  boring  guns.  Steady 
rots  are  employed  to  support  the 
great  weight. 

HACK-SAW  MACHINE— A  recipro- 
cating type,  carrying  an  ordinary 
blade  ;  it  ha-;  a  vicn  to  hold  work. 

Hand— Applied  to  hand  -  operated 
mechanisms,  as  hand-drill,  hand-feed, 
hand-lathe  (one  with  plain  slide-rest). 

Headstock— The  driving  head  of  a 
lathe  or  grinder.  Also  called  the  live 
head,  fixed  poppet  head,  or  fast  head- 
stock. 

High-Speed— Kelates  to  the  abnormal 
speeds  possible  by  the  use  of  high- 
spcnl  steels.  Lathes  and  other 
machines  are  much  modified  in 
driving  ami  f.-eding  details  and 
strength  of  parts. 

Hob— A  short  screw  which  guides  the 
nut  in  a  chasing  lathe.  Also  a  cutter 
for  producing  worm  -  wheels.  A 
master  tap  over  which  screwing  dies 
are  cut. 

Hobbing— Cutting  worm  and  spur 
K.-ar  teetli  by  a  rotating  hob,  the 
gear  blank  rotating  continuously. 

8216 


Hollow  Drill — Made  so  in  ordet  to 
pump  oil  through  to  the  cutting 
I ii lint  and  wash  out  the  chips. 

Hollow  Mill— A  hollow  cutter  which 
passes  over  a  bar  and  reduces  its 
diameter  ;  usually  held  in  a  turret. 

Hollow -spindle  .Lathe— One  with  a 
hole  bored  right  through  the  spindle, 
to  pass  bars,  which  are  turned  and 
cut  off.  Spring  chucks  are  placed 
on  the  nose. 

Horizontal— A  prefix  used  in  con- 
nection with  drilling,  boring,  and 
milling  machines  which  have  their 
spindles  lying  horizontally. 

INDEPENDENT  CHUCK— A  chuck, 
the  jaws  of  which  can  be  moved  inde- 
pendently of  each  other. 

Indicator  —  An  instrument  which 
magnifies  error  in  machine  move- 
ments and  enables  delicate  tests  to 
be  made. 

KEY8EATER,  or  KEYWAY  CUT- 
TING MACHINE— An  adaptation 
of  the  slotting  machine,  for  cutting 
keyways  in  wheel-bores.  It  has  a 
reciprocating  tool. 

LAPPING  MACHINE— A  kind  of 
lathe  which  revolves  a  lap,  charged 
with  abrasive  powder ;  used  for 
truing  out  holes. 

Lathe — A  machine  which  rotates  work 
upon  a  plate  or  chuck,  or  between 
two  centres,  and  cuts  with  turning 
tools. 

Lead  Screw  or  Leading  or  Guide 
Screw — The  master  screw  of  a  lathe, 
by  which  threads  of  various  pitches 
are  produced. 

Line  Shafting— The  main  shafting 
driven  by  the  prime  mover,  and  from 
which  countershafts  are  belted. 

MACHINE  VICE— A  vice  with  mov- 
able jaw,  to  hold  pieces  of  work  for 
tooling. 

Magazine  Feed— A  mechanism  which 
feeds  separate  pieces  of  work  into  u 
machine,  instead  of  employing  an 
attendant. 

Mandrel — The  spindle  of  a  lathe-head. 
Also  a  separate  spindle  on  which 
work  is  held  for  tooling.  A  mandrel 
press  is  used  for  forcing  work  on  and 
off. 

Milling  Machine— One  which  employs 
rotary  many-toothed  cutters. 

Multiple-spindle  Drilling  Machine- 
One  with  several  spindles  to  drill  a 
number  of  holes  simultaneously. 

NEST  GEAR — A  set  of  toothed  gears 
mounted  in  such  a  manner  that 
changes  of  speed  can  be  obtained 
by  different  combinations. 

Nut  Lathe— Used  for  facing  and 
chamfering  nuts,  held  on  a  mandrel. 

Nut-tapping  Machine— A  machine 
using  long  taps,  which  pass  through 
the  nuts  until  a  string  of  them  is 
done. 

OIL— Used    for    lubricating    machine 

parts  and  cutting  tools. 
Open  and   Crossed    Belts— A  means 

of  reversing  the  motion  of  a  pulley. 
Open-side  Planer— A  planer  in  which 

one    standard    is    omitted,    leaving 

space  for  large  work  to  project  over 

the  table. 
Open-spindle     Lathe  —  A     Italian - 

xiiimlh  type,  with  a    large   slot    into 

Which  the  operator'!  hand  reaches. 

PIT  PLANER— A  large  style  of  planer, 
in  which  th  •  housings  and  rail  travel 
over  work  supported  in  a  pit. 

Planing  Machine— A  reciprocating 
type  of  machine,  in  which  the  work 
usually  travels  on  a  massive  table 
under  the  tools  ;  sometimes  the  tools 
move. 


Poppet— The  loosr,  headstock  of  a 
lathe  or  grinder.  Called  also  the 
tailstock,  foot  stock,  or  sliding  head. 

Profiling  Machine— A  milling  ma- 
chine, the  cutter  slide  of  which  ia 
controlled  by  a  form  resembling  the 
work  outline. 

Pump— Used  for  supplying  oil  or  sud& 
under  pressure  to  cutting  tools. 

QUARTERING  MACHINE  —  Em- 
ployed for  drilling  the  crank-pin 
holes  at  right  angles  in  locomotive 
wheels  after  they  are  pressed  on 
their  axles. 

Quick  Return — The  rapid  backward 
motion  of  slides  during  the  non- 
cutting  stroke. 

RADIAL  DRILI — A  drilling  machine 
haying  a  pivoted  arm,  enabling  the 
drill  to  be  moved  about  over  the 
work. 

Reamer— A  fluted  tool  used  to  finish 
drilled  holes. 

Rotary  Planer— A  form  of  milling 
machine  using  a  large  face  cutter 
with  inserted  teeth. 

SADDLE— A  sliding  portion  which 
carries  other  slides  or  rests. 

Screwing  Machine— Either  a  bolt- 
screwing  machine  or  a  pipe-threader. 

Screw  Machine— A  type  distinct  from 
the  above.  It  possesses  turret  and 
rest,  and  turns  and  cuts  off  the  work. 

Screw-milling  Machine — A  recent 
development  by  which  screws  are 
milled  instead  of  being  turned. 

Sensitive  Drill— A  small  type,  the 
spindle  of  which  is  fed  by  hand  lever. 

Shaping  Machine— A  machine  in  which 
the  tool  is  carried  in  a  reciprocating 
ram  passing  over  the  work-table. 

Side  Planer— Eesembles  a  shape?,  but 
the  head  travels  along  the  bed,  taking 
a  long  cut  on  the  end  of  work  too 
big  to  go  in  the  ordinary  planer. 

Slot-drilling  Machine— Used  for  cut- 
ting keyways  and  cottar-holes  by  a 
revolving  cutter,  endlong  motion 
producing  a  slot. 

Slotting  Machine— A  vertical  ram 
machine  with  horizontal  table. 

TAPPING  MACHINE— This  operates 
taps  for  nuts,  etc.  A  sensitive  de- 
vice obviates  breakages. 

Tool  Grinders— include  those  foi  lathe 
and  planer  tools,  cutter  grinders, 
and  drill  grinders. 

T-slot  or  Tee-slot— This  special  shape 
is  employed  to  enable  bolts  to  be 
slid  into  any  position  for  clamping 
work  on  tables. 

Tyre  Lathe — Used  for  boring  and 
turning  railway  wheel  tyres. 

UNIVERSAL  —  Used  in  connection 
with  certain  machines  which  embody 
very  complete  movements,  as  uni- 
versal millers,  universal  grinders, 
distinguishing  them  from  simple  or 
"  plain  "  machines. 

Universal  Joint— A  pivoted  joint 
employed  to  transmit  motion  to 
portions  which  are  not  stationary. 

VALVE  CHUCK— A  lathe  chuck  hav- 
ing jaws  by  which  a  several-faced 
object  may  be  turned  successively 
into  several  positions  for  tooling. 

Vertical— Applies  to  the  position  of 
spindles  or  rams,  as  in  vertical 
drills  and  boring  machines;,  vertical 
lathes  or  boring  mills. 

WALI — Used   to   denote   wall-drilling 

machines,   wall   planers,  etc.,  which 

are  not  self-sustaining. 
Wheel  Lathe — A  special  kind  used  in 

locomotive    shops    for    boring    and 

turning  wheels. 


STRAW  &  FANCY  HAT  SHAPES 


By  ANTOINETTE  MEELBOOM 
straw  used  for  working  up  in  hat,  toque,  For    the    crown,    start   from 


Group   9 

DRESS 
36 

MIIXINKRY 

Continued  from 

l»«e  50.17 


English  straws  are  made  in  pieces  of  12  yards, 
Italian  and  some  of  the  expensive  makes  iii 
pieces  of  8  metres.  Diagrams  84,  85,  86  show 
some  different  kinds  of  straw.  Although  made 
straw  hats  or  bonnets  can  now  be  bought  at 
very  little  cost,  they  are  more  likely  to  fit,  be 
much  lighter  and  more  original  hi  design,  when 
they  are  worked  up  by  hand. 

There  are  several  different  methods.  The  one 
in  general  use  at  present  by  all  first-class  milliners 
is  to  work  the  straw  over  a  wire  shape  [see  page 
4860].  This  method  is  specially  suitable  for 
fancy  or  crinoline  straws  [85,  86],  and  is  the  only 
possible  one  for  making  up  fancy  and  more 
difficult  shapes. 

Make  the  wire  shape  according  to  the  style 
desired  ;  if  for  a  very  fancy  crinoline,  lace,  or  a 
very  open  straw,  cover  it  with  net,  chiffon  or 
tulle,  and  stitch  the  plait  to  it.  No  covering 
is  needed  for  a  non-transparent  straw  [84]. 
For  sewing  use  glazed  cotton  to  match  the  straw, 
and  a  straw  needle. 

Pin  the  straw  round  the  outside  edge  [89], 
stretching  it  slightly  (if  a  wide  one)  along  the 
upper  side,  making  the  join  where  the  trimming 
is  likely  to  hide  it.  Wirestitch  it  to  the  edge  wire 
just  below  the  edge  of  straw.  If  the  straw  is 
over  1  in.  wide,  cut  it  through  and  interlace  the 
ends,  keeping  them  in  place  by  a  few  stitches. 
Some  straws  can  be  so  joined  as  to  be  hardly 
visible. 

When  using  narrow  straw  do  not  cut  each 
round,  but  continue  one  into  the  next. 

Notice  whether  the  shape  has  a  curved-up  brim 
like  the  Napoleon  shape  or  a  drooping  one  like 
the  mushroom.  For  the  first,  the  plait  is  sewn 
on  rather  tightly,  with  the  right  side  of  straw 
underneath.  The  stitches  are  seen  on  the  wrong 
side  inside  the  brim. 

For  drooping  brims,  the  right  side  of  the  straw 
is  on  the  outside  of  the  brim.  The  stitches  will 
show  underneath  the  brim. 

Pin  on  the  second  row,  and  sew  it  to  the  first, 
using  the  straw  stitch,  keeping  the  long  stitch 
on  the  wrong  side,  and  slanting  the  little  stitch 
back  the  way  of  the  plaiting  of  the  straw,  which 
will  prevent  it  being  visible  on  the  right  side. 

Continue  pinning  and  stretching  each  row 
along  the  outer  edge,  and  slightly  contracting 
the  inner  edge  of  the  previous  row  till  the  brim  is 
covered.  Hat  brims  wider  in  front  and  sides 
[83]  will  require  gussets— that  is,  extra  rows 
of  straw  inserted  across  the  wider  parts.  Some 
brims  may  have  three  rows  of  straw  at  back  and 
five  or  six  along  sides  and  fronts. 

2  H  ,P 


edge,  manipulating  it  with  the  left  hand  and 
easing  it  sufficiently  to  allow  it  to  lie  flat.  In 
wide  straws  this  is  a  little  troublesome  at  first 
but  it  is  a  difficulty  which  is  soon  mastered.' 
J^ach  straw  is  stitched  underneath  the  last  one, 
the  fancy  edge  always  showing  outside  Be 
careful  not  to  get  a  fluted  tip,  which  happens 
when  the  straw  is  "eased"  too  much.  If 
stretched  too  tightly,  the  crown  will  bulge. 

If  the  straw  can  be  pressed,  do  not  sew  it  to 
the  wire,  but  make  it  separately ;  press  it,  and  then 
sew  it  to  the  crown.  Finish  off  the  brim  with 
another  edge  of  straw  along  the  outside  edge, 
and  in  the  case  of  some  toque  shapes  line  the 
inside  brim  for  two  or  three  rows,  or  all  over. 
In  this  case,  do  not  take  the  stitches  through  the 
outside,  but  slipstitch  the  straw  to  the  wrong 
side  of  brim.  The  tip  must  be  pressed  before  the 
sideband  is  begun  unless  it  is  a  dome  crown,  when 
it  is  finished  entirely,  and  afterwards  pressed. 
When  the  tip  is  the  right  size,  bend  the  plait 
in  hah* ;  this  forms  the  turnover  for  sideband  ; 
the  half-width  turned  over  will  be  the  first  row 
of  it  [87]. 

Sidebands.  For  straight  sidebands,  each 
row  is  simply  stitched  to  the  next  in  a  straight 
line.  If  larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  base,  tighten 
each  row  of  the  straw  towards  the  headline. 

For  sidebands  larger  at  the  base  than  at  top 
ease  on  each  row  of  straw  towards  the  headline. 
It  is  usual  to  make  the  crown  and  brim 
separately  in  this  method  of  straw-working. 
By  working  the  straw  over  a  wire  shape  as  the 
foundation  it  can  be  sewn  in  all  kinds  of  fancy 
ways,  and  two  or  more  different  colours  of  straw 
used. 

The  curved-up  brims  of  toques  can  be  trimmed 
with  leaves  of  straw  [90],  rounds  of  straw,  lace 
insertion,  or  lace  medallions  edged  with  straw, 
and  various  other  variations  which  would  not 
be  possible  if  a  wire  foundation  were  not  used. 

It  is  possible  to  work  straw  without  a  wire 
foundation,  but  this  is  only  suitable  for  very 
firm  makes  [84].  Insert  a  wire  the  size  of  head- 
line plus  2  in.  (for  very  brittle  straw  sew  it  on), 
on  the  top  inner  edge  of  straw.  Bend  it  so 
that  the  outer  edge  of  plait  lies  flat  on  the 
table,  and  join  as  securely  and  neatly  as  possible, 
the  wire  edge  making  headline,  and  the  flat  edge 
the  row  of  brim. 

Most  hat  brims  are  wider  in  the  front  than  the 
back,  the  extra  width  being  obtained  by  gussets, 
which  should  be  next  sewn  on.  Mark  the  centre- 
front  of  the  headline,  keeping  the  join  for  centre  - 
back ;  pin  on  a  piece  also  with  a  wire  inserted 

5217 


DRESS 

in  the  inner  edge,  graduating  it  to  the  sides. 
Repeat  till  the  extra  width  is  obtained.  Then 
insert  the  wire,  keeping  it  in  one  length,  running 
it  invisibly  between  the  straw  edges.  Begin 
from  the  back,  pinning  and  stitching  it  on  to 
the  gussets  till  the  right  size  of  brim  is  obtained. 

Ease  on  the  straw  for  fluted  and  crinkled  brims  ; 
contract  it  for  turned-up  and  for  drooping  brims. 
For  flat  brims,  ease  on  the  straw  just  sufficiently 
to  allow  each  row  to  lie  flat.  Make  the  crown 
in  the  same  way  as  before  ;  the  wire  is  not 
interlaced  in  the  edge  of  straw  unless  it  be  for 
a  very  large  flat  crown,  and  in  a  few  other 
exceptional  cases. 

Straws  used  to  be  made  up  over  another  hat 
brim  of  straw  or  buckram.  If  this  method  is 
required,  pin  the  straw  on  to  the  shape,  beginning 
from  the  outside  edge.  The  straws  may  then  be 
sewn  together. 

Firm,  hard  straws  can  be  made  entirely  by 
hand,  starting  from  the  headline,  one  or  two 
gussets  inserted,  and  hat  or  toque  finished  off 
as  explained.  It  must  be  wired  round  the 
edge.  Four  support  wires  laced  in  and  out  the 
straw  are  then  inserted,  leaving  one  end  about 
an  inch  in  hat  and  the  other  securely  nipped 
round  the  outside  edge.  Finish  Math  a  row 
of  straw  to  cover  the  edge  wire,  or  line  with  a 
gauged  chiffon,  lace,  or  velvet  lining,  finishing  the 
edge  with  the  straw  if  desired. 

Pressing.  Only  plain  straw  can  be  sub- 
jected to  the  process  of  pressing,  as  raised  fancy 
edges  would  be  quite  flattened  and  spoiled. 
At  the  present  time  very  few  straws  can  be 
pressed.  It  is  done  in  this  way.  Place  the 
brim  flat  on  the  table,  right  side  downwards, 
on  an  ironing  blanket  and  cloth  Place  a  damp 
cloth  over  it,  and  press  with  a  warm  iron. 


When  nearly  dry,  remove  the  cloth,  and  finish 
drying  it  by  placing  the  iron  lightly  over  it. 
Some  plaits  are  more  stiffened  than  others,  so 
discretion  must  be  used  as  to  the  degree  of  damp- 
ness needed.  Moisture  will  make  the  brim 
quite  stiff  and  flat.  Very  limp  strands  are  some- 
times brushed  over  with  gum  arabic  or  white  of 


83.  Straw  brim       84.  85,  and  86.      Three  kinds  of  straw 

87.    Shaping  the   side-kind        88.   The   tip       89.  Coveriny 

\\hi- sham-      90.  Straw  toque      91.   Net  shape 

5218 


irved  fancy  shaped  crowns  are  best  ironed 
as  the  work  is  proceeding,  as  it  is  difficult 
to  get  the  iron  in  the  small  curve  wheri  the 
shape  is  completed.  Oval  and  dipped  crowns 
of  the  boat-shape  type  are  started  with  a  piece 
of  straw  about  2  in.  long,  and  the  straw  worked 
round  it.  Press  it  as  soon  as  the  dip  is  formed — 
it  is  impossible  to  get  the  iron  in  after  the  crown 
is  finished.  [92.] 

Bonnets  are  made  on  exactly  the  same  principle 
[94].  The  front  is  worked  first,  leaving  a  piece 
of  straw  at  one  ear  long  enough  to  finish  the 
back  off  neatly  when  the  other  part  of  the  bonnet 
is  finished.  Cut  off  each  straw  at  the  back. 
The  end  of  the  straw  left  at  the  ear  will  finish  it 
neatly.  Make  the  crown  separately,  and  sew 
it  on. 

Net  Shapes.  Hat  shapes  made  in  un- 
glazed,  French  stiff  net  [91]  are  used  for  the 
foundation  of  chiffon,  silk,  linen,  broderie 
anglaise,  and  mourning  millinery.  The  glazed 
kind  of  net  is  not  worth  making  up,  as  it  loses 
its  stiffness  directly,  leaving  the  net  limp. 

Cut  the  pattern  in  the  same  way  as  for  an 
espatra  shape,  with  the  only  difference  that 
|-in.  turnings  are  allowed  on  all  the  parts.  Wire 
in  the  same  manner,  sewing  the  wire  inside 
the  turning  along  the  edge  of  brim,  and  at  the 
top  of  sideband.  The  turnings  should  be  at  the 
bottom  of  sideband.  The  |-in.  turnings  of 
tip  come  over  the  top  edge  of  sideband,  where 
they  should  be  secured  firmly  just  under  the 
wire.  Large  shapes  in  net  hats  Avill  require 
a  second  round  wire,  and  some  supports  to  keep 
the  brim  in  shape.  The  supports  are  mulled  or 
covered  with  narrow  sarcenet  ribbon.  As  few  of 
these  as  possible  should  be  used,  as  the  wire  is 
likely  to  show  through  the  transparent  trimmings. 
Mull  all  the  edges  in  the  same  way  as  for  espatra 
shapes. 

Another  method  much  used  by  good  milliners 
is  to  make  the  wire  shape  and  cover  it  with  net 
cut  to  shape.  Bonnet  and  toque  brims  are 
sometimes  made  of  net,  shaped  and  curved  by 
pleating  and  easing  the  net,  and  aftenvards 
wired. 

For  a  lace  hat  make  the  wire  shape  and 
cover  it  with  a  single  or  double  thickness 
of  tulle  or  chiffon.  Stretch  the  lace  across 
the  brim,  with  the  front  on  the  cross.  Pin  round 
hea  line  and  edge.  Cut  the  lace  round  the 
brim  and  crown,  and  allow  small  turnings* 
Wirestitch  it  to  the  headline  and  edge  wire. 
Cover  the  tip  in  the  same  way. 

Fit  the  lace  round  the  sideband  quite  smoothly. 
Match  the  pattern,  if  possible,  where  the  lace  has 
to  be  joined.  Quantity  of  lace  required  Avill 
be  the  diameter  of  the  widest  part  of  the  brim, 
])lus  .',  yd.  for  large  crouns. 

If  both  the  upper  and  under  brim  art-  covered 


with  lace,  twice  the  diameter  pins  \  yd  to  3  yd 
for  crown— according  to  size— will  determine  the 
quantity  needed.  Guipure,  and  Irish  lace  look 
well  with  the  edge  of  brim  bound  with  velvet 
or  fur  ;  or  the  upper  brim  and  crown  can  be 
trimmed  with  medallions  of  lace  edged  with 
narrow  Valenciennes  or  ruchings  of  pleated  tulle. 

Picture  hats  are  usually  large  hats  of  the 
Gainsborough,  Rembrandt,  or  Amazon  type,  with 
tam-o'-shanter,  low,  high,  or  jam-pot  shaped 
crowns.  They  are  made  of  lace,  net,  tulle,  chiffon 
[93],  crinoline,  or  velvet.  All  but  those  to  be 
covered  with  velvet,  which  have  an  espatra 
foundation,  have  their  foundation  shape  made 
of  wire,  covered  with  net,  chiffon,  or  tulle. 
Occasionally  the  whole  shape  is  covered  with 
tulle  quillings.  Handsome  feathers  are  their 
chief  trimming,  and  they  are  worn  with  or 
without  tulle  strings. 

Picture  Hats.  For  chiffon  hats  make  a 
wire  shape,  and  cover  it  with  one  or  two  thick  - 
nesses  of  chiffon.'  jN^iill  the  edge  and  bind  with 
velvet  or  double  chiffon.  Cut  the  chiffon  into 
2|-in.  strips  on  the  cross,  and  join ;  or  use  the 
chiffon  double,  and  run  the  edges  together.  Sew 
the  first  chiffon  fold  even  with  the  brim,  and 
let  the  next  rows  overlap  nearly  half-way. 

F6r  the  sideband,  work  from  headline  up- 
wards. Cover  the  top  of  crown,  starting  from 
the  outside  edge,  and  working  round  and  round 
to  the  centre. 

Lace  medallions,  or  motifs,  make  a  pretty 
finish,  and  an  ecru  shade  of  lace  on  a  black  hat 
relieves  what  may  otherwise  be  unbecoming. 

Rows  of  transparent  lace,  fancy  chenille  or 
crinoline  inserted  between  the  folds  look  well. 

For  fancy  chiffon  hats,  make  a  wire  shape,  and 
cover  it  with  double  chiffon.  Cover  it  plainly 
with  printed  or  embroidered  chiffon  of  a  small 
simple  pattern,  such  as  bunches  of  pink  roses 
on  a  white  ground.  Line  the  under  brim  plainly 
or  with  gauged  chiffon.  Edge  it  with  narrow 
Valenciennes,  and  sew  another  row  half  an  inch 
from  edge  underneath.  Cut  out  the  upper  brim 
again,  allowing  1  in.  turning.  Make  a  narrow 
hem  round  the  edge,  on  which  should  be  sewn 
narrow  black,  white,  or  ecru  Valenciennes  lace. 

Make  a  large  round  to  cover  the  crown, 
hem  round  and  edge  with  narrow  Valenciennes 
lace.  Sew  in  a  bandeau.  Trim  the  hat  with  soft 
satin  ribbon,  making  a  bow  at  the  side,  and 
another  on  the  bandeau.  For  this  hat,  f  yd. 
of  double-width  printed  chiffon,  12  yd.  narrow 
Valenciennes  lace,  3i  yd.  of  7-in.  wide  satin 
ribbon  are  required. 

Motor  Hats.  For  motoring,  shapes  can  be 
made  with  a  round  brim,  or  a  peak  in  front,  of 
the  mushroom  shape,  with  eight -gored  crown. 
Where  stiffness  is  required  for  the  interlining  of 
brim,  peak,  or  band  for  headline,  use  firm  canvas 
or  double  stiff  net.  Wire  as  for  shape-making. 
Interline  the  crown  with  canvas  or  quilted  linen. 
Linen  hats  are  made  of  double  stiff  net, 
cut  to  shape,  and  wired  round  the  edge  and 
once  in  centre  brim.  Cover  top  and  bottom 
of  brim  with  linen,  tack  and  machine-stitch 
round  edge  once  or  thrice.  Finish  crown  in  the 


DRESS 


92 


92.  Straw  boat  shape  93.  Chiffon  hat  94  Straw  bonnet 
same  way  and  trim  plainly  with  a  niching  mad,- 
of  ribbon  or  crossway  silk,  or  any  other  simple 
trimming  that  may  be  preferred. 

Fancy  Shapes.     Garden  party,  river  hats 
etc.,  are  made  of  light  material  and  fancifully 
trimmed.     They  have  a  wire  foundation  covnvil 
with  two  thicknesses  of  tulle  or  Brussels  net. 
The  edge  of  the  brim  is  covered  with  velvet 
or  quillings  of  lace.     The  shape  may  be  coveiv.1 
with  narrow  Valenciennes  lace  (eased  while  being 
sewn  on),  petals  of  flowers,  medallions  of  lace, 
broderie  anglaise  edged  with  narrow  Valencienm- 
lace,  or  net,  or  tulle  quillings.     The  brim  between 
the  medallions  may  be  covered  with  lace  or  fine 
crinoline  straw.     Ninon  silk  muslin,  accordion- 
pleated  silk  may  be  used,  or  batiste,  edged  with 
lace,  baby  ribbon,  or  narrow  straw  ;  and  there 
are  still  an  infinite  variety  of  other  methods  of 
treatment.    These  hats  must  be  lightly  trimmed. 
Drawn  silk  bonnets  may  be  made  of  taffetas 
velours   silk,    net,   chiffon,    or   chiffon   velours. 
First  obtain   a   pattern   shape   to   work   over. 
Put  the  support  wires  on  the  shape,  turning 
them  over  the  edge  to  keep  them  in  position. 
Fix  firmly  where   they  cross  each   other.     To 
cut  the   material    for   bonnet,  measure  length 
from  ear  to  ear,  and  allow  twice  or  three  times 
as  much  for  fulness.     Then  measure  width  from 
centre-front  of  brim  to  centre  of  crown,  allowing 
.1  in.  extra  for  each  casing.     Mark  centre-front, 
and  run  a  casing  for  outside  edge.     Decide  the 
position  of  round  wires,  and  run  casings  to  cor- 
respond, measuring  distance  at  centre-front  and 
at   ears,    also  at   an   intermediate    distance    if 
necessary.     Push  in  the  wires,  making  the  out- 
side wire  long  enough  to  go  round  the  back  and 
wrap  over  two  inches.     Pin  net  or  silk  on  shap-, 
centre-front  to  centre-front,  the  silk  to  reach 
the   ears   only.     Fix   outside  wire  round   back. 
Draw  up  each  casing  in  turn  to  required  si/.c, 
and  fix  wires  to  outside  wire.      Regulate   the 
fulness  carefully  and  secure  threads.     Nip  each 
support  wire  in  turn  over  the  outside  wire ;  when 
the  last  one  is  thus  fixed,  the  pattern  shape  will 
come    freely   away.      Fix   the   round  wires   to 
support   wires,   and    tie    them   firmly  and    in- 
visibly wherever   they  cross.     Cut   away    any 
superfluous  silk  in  centre  of  crown,  turn  it  in, 
and  finish  the  crown  off  neatly.     Bind  the  back 
of  the  bonnet  with  a  piece  of  silk,  velvet,  or 
net,  and  trim  it  with  velvet,  Ho\fers,  passemen- 
terie, tips,  or  any  light  trimming. 


Continue'! 


.-,219 


Group  26 

SHOPKEEPING 
36 

t'niitiiiuvd  from  page  4W<8 


CYCLOPAEDIA  OF  SHOPKEEPING 

SHIP  CHANDLERS.   The  Ship  Chandler's  Shop.  Departments.  .Details 
of  Stock.     Varieties  of  Trade.     Profits 

SILK  MERCERS.    The  Necessary  Experience.    A  "  West-End"  Trade. 
Stock  and  Profits.     Silk  as  a  Side  Line 

SILVER  AND  ELECTRO-PLATE  DEALERS    Buying  and  Oire  of  Silver. 
Licences.     Qualities  of  Electro-plate.     Profits 


SHIP  CHANDLERS 

In  many  seaport  towns,  usually  in  premises 
abutting  the  quays,  or  hidden  away  in  small 
streets  running  off  the  water's  edge,  there  may  be 
found  shops  in  which  the  grocer,  the  baker,  and 
candlestick  maker  seem  to  unite  in  one  personality. 
Ship  chandlery  is  the  comprehensive  term  applied 
to  the  stock  of  the  proprietor  whose  business 
is  to  supply  the  wants  of  seafarers.  If  the  port  is 
frequented  only  by  sailors  who  never  get  beyond 
the  beams  of  the  "  Coastwise  Lights  of  England," 
the  nature  of  the  stock  will  most  probably  consist 
of  comestibles,  but  if  the  harbour  is  one  where 
ocean-going  vessels  put  in  there  will  be  one,  at  least, 
important  shop  where  a  great  variety  of  stores  can 
be  obtained. 

The  business  is  one  in  which  some  experience 
at  first  hand  is  desirable  if  success  is  to  be  won, 
but  there  seems  no  reason  why  an  enterprising 
ironmonger,  or  a  grocer  with  ambitions  not  bounded 
by  butter-kegs  and  sugar-boxes,  should  not  engage 
in  it.  We  recommend  those  who  contemplate  such 
an  enterprise  to  read  the  articles  beginning  on  pages 
3041  and  3572. 

The  Shop  and  Fixtures.  A  big  rent  is 
not  essential  for  this  business.  Ship  chandlery 
implies  trading  between  man  and  man,  and  con- 
venience rather  than  style  is  to  be  sought.  A  shop 
with  a  good  depth,  a  fair-sized  window  and  a  big 
doorway  would  meet  the  case.  The  depth  is 
necessary  to  allow  for  a  big  display  inside,  where 
a  survey  on  the  part  of  the  purchaser  is  likely  to 
remind  him  of  this  or  that  article  not  on  the  list  in 
his  hand.  A  comparatively  small  window  should 
suffice  because  the  stock  —  except  in  the  lamp  depart- 
ment—does not  lend  itself  to  effective  display.  We 
think  the  big  doorway  will  need  little  comment.  It 
is  inviting,  and  if  the  side  is  used  to  display  tackle, 
lamps,  blocks,  ropes,  etc.,  it  is  fairly  certain  to 
tempt  the  passing  skipper,  or  his  steward,  purser  or 
cook,  to  stop  and  examine  the  wares. 

The  fixtures  on  the  provision  side  will  be  like 
those  of  a  grocer's  shop;  in  the  hardware  depart- 
ment, about  half  the  available  shelves  may  be  divided 
like  those  in  an  ironmonger's  store,  the  rest  be  in" 
somewhat  deeper  from  back  to  front,  and  higher  be- 
t  \\ccn  the  shelve.  The  reason  for  these  differences 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  a  fair  proportion  of  the 
-lock  is  not  kept  in  parcels.  Such  articles  as  cleats. 
'hocks,  blocks,  thimbles,  and  the  like,  are  galvanised 
.uid  kept  strung  on  cords,  the  bundles  being  placed 
in  the  fixtures  in  full  view  of  the  customers. 

I'Y'iin  the  ceiling,  and  possibly  from  one  wall, 
half-inch  iron  tube-  should  be  fixed  in  hangers  or 
bracketo,  the,.-  being  provided  with  S  hooks  for 
receiving  w.m-s  \vhidi  lend  themselves  to  han^iii" 
up  for  display  or  storage.  A  .-substantial  counter 
•ith  plenty  of  good  deep  drawers  in  it  is  necessary. 
bul  the  ship  chandler  need  not  worry  about  show- 
t>ra«  rails,  window  fittings  in  bron/.e.  and  other 
ve  accessories. 


The  Stock.  The  proprietor  of  a  business  such 
<!>  we  are  describing  will  have  to  possess,  or  acquire, 
a  sound  knowledge  of  market  grooves  somewhat  out 
of  the  ordinary.  Any  sum  between  three  or  four 
hundred  and  as  many  thousand  pounds  might  be 
invested  easily,  and,  opportunity  being  propor- 
tionate, profitably.  Some  of  the  stock — that  which 
represents  the  requirements  of  every  single  trip  a 
ship  makes — will  be  turned  over  six  or  eight  times 
in  a  year,  whereas  the  capital  locked  up  in  other 
departments  may  not  be  moved  more  than  once  or 
twice.  The  profits  on  the  former  class  will  have 
to  be  cut  nearly  as  fine  as  those  on  grocery  and 
provisions  for  home  consumption.  On  the  latter 
they  should  show  margins  equal  to  those  mentioned 
in  the  article  on  ironmongery  [page  3572],  and  pos- 
sibly even  a  little  more  if  local  competition  be  not 
too  keen. 

Departments.  Although  the  stock  will 
be  kept  under  one  roof,  and  more  or  less  mixed,  it  is 
useful  for  our  purpose  to  classify  it.  First  there  will 
be  the  food  stores,  including  packed  food,  ships' 
biscuits,  tlour,  yeast,  spirits,  soap,  candles,  oil. 
brushes,  and  the  hundred  and  one  items  wihch  are 
necessary  for  feeding  the  passengers  and  crew 
and  for  maintaining  the  comfort  of  the  boat  at  the 
standard  permitted  or  prescribed  by  the  owners. 
This  is  the  department  which  must  be  visited  every 
time  a  ship  puts  into  port.  It  will  be  the  mainstay 
of  the  small  concern,  and  therefore  must  be  kept  to 
the  front.  Next  to  it  in  importance  will  be  the 
stock  of  small  marine  hardware.  Here  we  should 
expect  to  find  shipping  tackle  in  wrought  and 
malleable  cast  iron  (galvanised),  brass,  bronze,  and 
wood.  Here  are  just  a  few  of  the  many  lines 
which  might  be  carried :  Blocks  (a  single  list- 
before  us  enumerates  thirty  distinct  types,  and  shows 
hundreds  of  patterns  which  do  not  include  the 
common  elm  pattern  with  lignum-vitse  sheaves), 
gaff,  boom,  and  other  bands,  chains,  cleats,  bushings, 
deck  lights,  hinges,  and  fastenings,  hooks  (nearly 
40  sorts),  nails,  mast  fittings,  rowlocks,  sheaves, 
shackles,  thimbles,  swivels,  and  turnbuckles.  or 
straining  screws. 

The  foregoing,  with  wire,  rope,  and  hemp  cordage, 
constitute  quite  common  stock,  and  as  the  busiucs- 
expands  room  will  have  to  be  found  for  anchors, 
ships'  bells,  cooking  arid  heating  apparatus  (tin- 
latter  sometimes  including  steam  radiators),  pumps, 
steering  gear,  capstans,  windlasses,  etc. 

Lamps.  Lamps  cannot  be  neglected.  The  stock 
to  be  seen  in  a  well-equipped  business  include.- 
side,  anchor,  and  masthead  signal  lamps,  some  of 
them  listing  up  to  £5  and  £6  per  pair.  These 
are  made  with  copper  bodies  and  fitted  with 
what  are  known  as  dioptric  lenses.  Among  smaller 
lamps  mention  may  be  made  of  those  found  in  the 
engine-room,  gimball  lamps  for  the  cabins,  and 
cargo  lamps  for  the  holds.  From  the  sources 
where  these  are  procured,  the  ship  chandler  can 
draw  such  goods  as  fog-horns,  speaking-trumpets, 


megaphones,  oil-feeders,  water-dippers,  forecastle  and 
bunker  lamps,  fillers,  measures  and  funnels  for  oil 
and  other  liquids  A  demand  for  a  certain  class  of 
lamp-glass  ware  for  replacement  may  be  expected 
and  tools  for  shipwrights  and  sailmakers  should  not 
be  overlooked  m  making  up  the  schedule  of  stock 
required  for  a  start.  To  the  tools  usually  required 
by  a  carpenter  must  be  added  such  special  forms  as 
caulking  and  crease  irons,  scrapers,  marline- spikes 
sheathing  hammers,  caulking  mallets,  sail  hooks 
and  prickers,  and  sailors'  palms  and  needles. 

Naval  Brass-  Foundry.  Under  this  head 
a  few  lines  may  be  devoted  to  the  consideration  of 
fittings  in  brass  or  bronze  which  are  specially  likelv 
to  be  in  demand  in  yachting  centres  where  some 
pretensions  to  style  are  maintained  aboard.  This 
class  of  stock  will  include  strap,  hook,  and  plain 
hinges,  hasps,  port  lights,  ventilators,  deck  lights, 
ships'  bells  from  6  in.  diameter  up  to  possibly  20  in., 
name-plates,  cleats,  curved  and  fair  leads,  rowlocks' 
straining  screws,  boathooks,  step  nosings  and 
plates,  hand  and  cabin  rails,  and  brackets,  not  to 
mention  scores  of  other  items  of  general  brass 
foundry.  So  important  is  this  department  that  it 
pays  to  cultivate  a  trade  in  repair  work  to  pattern, 
and  special  parts  for  replacing  in  case  of  breakdowns. 
To  run  such  a  section  profitably  it  is  necessary  to  be 
in  touch  with  a  brassfounder  who  can  guarantee 
prompt  and  special  attention  to  shipping  orders 
without  regard  to  their  intrinsic  value.  It  is  often 
a  matter  of  great  importance  that  a  replacement 
should  be  obtainable  within  a  strictly  limited 
time,  and  there  is  small  consolation  for  the  shop- 
keeper who  receives  an  expensive  fitting  an  hour 
after  a  boat  has  sailed.  Much  the  same  remark 
applies  to  the  galvanised  ironwork.  A  contract 
with  a  firm  who  do  galvanising  for  the  jobbing  trade 
may  end  in  so  much  business  that  way  as  to  war- 
rant, in  due  course,  your  chandler  in  putting  down 
his  own  "  pot,"  In  that  case  there  would  be  other 
opportunities  for  making  profits. 

In  towns  where  steam- boats  and  packets  put  in, 
such  stores  as  boiler  mountings,  lubricators,  tube 
brushes  and  scrapers,  shovels,  files,  engineers' 
tools,  lubricating  oils,  cotton-waste,  and  engine 
wipers  find  ready  sales,  and,  on  the  East  Coast 
at  any  rate,  fishing  tackle  would  have  to  be  handled. 
As  a  business  grows  in  importance,  the  proprietor 
may  expect  to  be  consulted  about  charts  and 
instruments  for  navigation,  but  before  that  comes 
to  pass  there  ought  to  have  grown  up  a  call  for 
lifebuoys,  compasses,  and  bunting. 

Working  Department.  Sooner  or  later  a 
successful  ship  chandler  has  to  face  the  question  of 
a  workshop  staff.  Unless  he  is  prepared  to  neglect 
possible  sources  of  profit  he  must  have  a  smithy, 
with  a  clever,  resourceful  man  at  the  forge  as 
well  as  a  competent  coppersmith.  Besides,  there 
will  be  opportunities  of  fixing  cooking  apparatus, 
filtering  systems,  sanitary  equipments,  not  to  men- 
tion jobbing  work  for  machine  men  and  fitters  in 
connection  with  engine  repairs  and  pump  parts. 
Sufficient  work  to  keep  a  forge,  a  lathe,  and  a  drilling 
machine  busy  may  be  confidently  looked  for  if 
the  plan  is  adopted  of  boarding  every  boat  that 
puts  into  port,  with  a  view  to  soliciting  orders  for 
stores  arid  work. 

Terms  of  Business.  Something  about  pro- 
fits has  been  already  written.  As  a  fair  percentage 
of  the  turnover  is  likely  to  be  for  cash  against 
sailing,  list  prices  are  not  uniformly  obtained.  In 
pleasure  resorts,  however,  full  prices  for  cash  are 
sometimes  obtained  from  wealthy  owners  of  yachts, 
the  one  thing  demanded  being  a  prompt  service. 


8HOPKEEPING 

Sales  not  infrequen.lv 

t    s  ant  t  ,          iage    fr°m    Wor^  the 

gilt  is  apt  to  be  rubbed  off  the  gingerbread 

cJh'K  Chan?erj'  however,  is  notnall  done  on  a 
cash  basis  Seafarmg  folk  are  no  better  off  than 
many  landsmen,  and  credit  has  to  be  given  just 
is  the  custom  in  an  inland  town,  and  with  about 
equal  risk  of  making  bad  debts.  Fleet-owninz 

and  P'?  USUally  have  their  own  chandlery  stores! 
and  buy  directfrom  the  sources  open  tothechandln  ; 

comn  £  "f  a  r  doeS  get  a  foothold  with  ™<'h  » 
company,  he  has  to  give  the  usual  terms,  montl.lv 
or  quarterly  accounts,  subject  to  prearranged  d» 
counts.  Owners  of  smaller  vessel,-  Mho  run  their 
i  coast-bound  craft,  may  expect  to  pav  on  the 
return  trip  bas.s.  Whether  that  plan  is  'safe  and 
profitable  is  a  matter  which  has  to  be  decided  in 


SILK  MERCERS 

There  was  a  time  when  the  silk  mercer  was  one 
of  the  richest  and  busiest  of  shopkeepers.  In 
London  the  neighbourhood  of  Ludgate  Hill  was  hi* 
habitat,  and  the  country  squire  or  well-to-do  farmer 
visiting  the  metropolis  invariably  called  on  him 
and  took  back  as  a  present  to  his  lady  twenty  yards 
or  so  of  silk  for  a  dress.  The  business  was  an  im- 
portant and  flourishing  one  even  up  to  fifteen  or 
twenty  years  ago,  for  then  every  lady  had  at  Ic.-ot 
one  rich  black  silk  dress  —  "  one  that  could  stand  by 
itself"—  as  an  indispensable  article  of  her  ward- 
robe. But  times  have  changed,  and  the  modern 
silk  mercer,  doing  a  retail  business  in  silks  and 
velvets  solely,  is  now  seldom  to  be  met  with.  The 
large  drapery  stores,  with  their  silk  departments, 
and  the  rage  for  the  less  expensive  silks,  are  mainly 
responsible  for  this.  In  the  old  days  10s.  to  12s., 
and  even  los.  to  18s.,  per  yard  was  by  no  means  an 
unusual  price  to  pay  for  silk,  while  nowadays  Is.  to 
10s.  6d.  for  good  qualities  is  considered  quite 
enough.  But  there  is  no  reason  why,  even  in 
these  unregenerate  days,  and  in  spite  of  the  rage 
for  cheapness,  a  man  with  the  requisite  experience, 
taste,  and,  above,  all  capital,  should  not  make  retail 
silk  mercery  an  extremely  profitable  outlet  for  his 
energies  and  capital. 

Experience    and    Other  Requisites. 

In  the  warehouse  of  a  wholesale  dealer  in  silks 
the  necessary  experience  may  be  gained.  Silks  ami 
velvets  go  together,  so  that  the  youth  whose  father 
or  friends  can  ensure  a  capital  running  into  at  least 
four  figures  would  get  to  know  the  business  in  such 
an  establishment.  If  possible,  he  should  endeavour 
to  go  for  a  year  or  so  to  some  of  the  large  manu- 
factories in  Lyons,  Zurich,  or  Como,  so  that  he 
may  be  taught  the  making  of  silks  from  the  begin- 
ning, the  varieties,  and  the  prime  costs.  There 
are  several  manufacturers  in  England  who,  of  late 
years,  have  been  producing  silks  more  suitable  than 
formerly  for  the  home  market.  The  youth  could 
get  good  experience  in  such  factories  without  going 
abroad.  Such  experience  is,  however,  only  for  th« 
privileged  few,  and  would  be  out  of  the  reach  of 
most  aspiring  silk  mercers.  But  they  need  not  be 
discouraged.  The  majority  of  the  successful  silk 
mercers  of  to-day  were  drapers  first  and  silk  mercers 
afterwards.  A  very  thorough  training  may  be 
obtained  in  the  silk  department  of  a  large  drapery 
business,  and  provided  the  youth  has  the  necessary 
taste  and  liking  for  this,  the  highest  grade  of  the 
drapery  business,  there  is  no  reason  why  he  should 
not  succeed.  In  fact,  the  usual  evolution  of  the 
silk  mercer  is  by  rising  from  the  ranks  in  drapery 

5-221 


6HOPKEEPINC 

lo  the  position  of  silk  buyer  in  a  large  draper\  busi- 
ness, and  soon  to  business  on  his  own  account.  We 
will  endeavour  to  treat  the  subject,  first,  from  the 
standpoint  of  tht  man  uho  wishes  to  retail  bilks  MIK! 
velvet  only  on  his  own  account,  and  secondly, 
silk  mercery  as  a  department  of  draper}-. 

The  Money  Required.  The  articles  sold 
may  be  classed  as  luxuries,  therefore  a  first-class 
neighbourhood  must  be  chosen  for  opening.  The 
question  of  capital  is  therefore  all-important,  for 
not  only  nuist  the  establishment  itself  be  fitted  up 
in  first-class  style,  but  the  goods  sold  are  expensive. 
It  might  be  possible  for  a  man  who  knows  the  silk 
and  velvet  trade  intimately,  and  who  in  buying  for 
a  large  drapery  house  for  years  has  gained  the  con- 
fidence of  the  manufacturers,  to  begin  on  a  capital  of 
from  £1,000  to  £2,000.  But  it  must  be  distinctly 
understood  that  unless  he  is  sure  of  the  backing  of 
manufacturers  in  the  way  of  extended  credits,  such  a 
sum  is  not  a  safe  one.  When  a  young,  energetic  man 
has  been  the  buyer  for  the  silk  department  of  some 
well-known  draj>ery  house  for  some  years,  and  has 
demonstrated  his  capability  and  business  aptitude 
by  making  the  department — an  extremely  "  tricky  " 
one,  always — a  success,  he  may  gain  the  confi- 
dence of  the  silk  merchants  and  manufacturers  with 
whom  he  has  come  in  contact  so  that  the  sum  men- 
tioned may  serve  ;  for  then  there  is  a  possibility  of 
obtaining  a  certain  class  of  goods  on  sale  or  return, 
and  easy  payments  may  be  arranged.  But  it 
is  desirable  that  at  least  £4,000  should  be  forth- 
coming before  a  start  is  made,  and  then  the  manu- 
facturer will  be  the  beginner's  good  friend. 

The  West  End  Establishment.  With 
the  capital  named,  the  shop  selected  would  be  a 
small  one  in  the  best  neighbourhood.  Let  us  take 
the  West  End  of  London  as  an  example,  and 
assume  that  a  suitable  shop  with  one  window  is 
chosen  in  a  locality  like  Oxford  Street.  The  rent 
would  not  be  less  than  £500  a  year,  and  the  fittings 
would  cost  about  £300.  The  ideal  fittings  would  be 
in  light  oak,  yjlain,  substantial,  and  good.  On  one 
side  of  the  interior  a  plain  wall  fitting  with  "  silk 
fixtures"  would  be  erected.  The  "silk  shelves" 
are  specially  made,  shallower  than  the  usual  drapery 
fixtures,  and  the  requisite  length  (22  in.  to  24  in.) 
to  take  a  piece  of  silk.  The  fixtures  could  be  made 
to  come  well  out  from  the  wall,  and  may  be  pro- 
vided with  false  backs  to  give  an  apjxrarance  of 
fulness.  On  these  shelves  are  placed  velvet-boxes 
for  stock,  either  millboard  covered  with  green 
linen,  or  preferably  the  boxes  might  be  of  imitation 
light  oak  to  match  the  fittings.  At  first  a  set 
of  dummy  boxes  might  be  employed,  for  it  can 
scarcely  be  expected  that  the  beginner  would  fill  up 
his  shop  with  stock  even  if  he  had  the  necessary 
capital.  On  the  opposite  side  to  the  shelving  silk 
show  tables  should  be  placed.  These  are  narrow 
tables,  and  from  the  tables  to  the  ceiling  there 
would  be  mirrors  with  brass  brackets  fixed  here 
and  there,  from  which  the  varieties  of  silk  are 
draped  in  neat  and  effective  folds.  Such  a  device 
MTM-S  the  double  purpose  of  displaying  the  goods 
to  the  best  advantage  and  of  making  the  most 
of  a  small  stock.  Plain  but  handsome  chairs  of 
light  oak,  a  plain  counter  of  the  same  material, 
and  imitation  parquette  (linoleum)  in  light  oak 
squares  for  the  floor,  would  complete  a  charm- 
ing interior.  The  window  interior  should  be  fitted 
with  mirrors  up  the  sides  and  perhaps  half- way 
up  the  back,  and  a  few  brass  brackets  and  brass 
stands  (these  not  costing  more  than  £5  all  told) 
f««r  displaying  the  goods.  Although  electricity  is 
preferable  for  lighting,  the  shop  should  be  heated 

5222 


(with  gas  or  otherwise),  in  order  to  keep  the  goods 
in  prime  condition.  The  cost  of  fitting  and  wiring 
a  small  shop  (including  two  outside  lamps  over  the 
window)  should  not  exceed  £20. 

Buying.  The  cautious  man  would  be  care- 
ful to  select  mainly  silks  of  the  plainer  sort  for  a 
start,  and  a  few  expensive  brocades  and  fancy  goods 
in  short  lengths  for  display.  The  fashions  being 
so  fickle,  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  advise  what 
particular  kind  of  material  to  stock.  The  alert  man 
would  know  what  was  to  be  the  fashion  of  the 
season,  and  buy  accordingly.  He  would  (assuming 
a  £4,000  capital)  lay  out  about  £2,000  on  an  opening 
stock,  buying  only  "safe"  sales,  and  taking  every 
precaution  that  foresight  and  experience  has  taught 
him  to  buy  the  "right  thing."  There  are  plenty 
of  wholesalers  in  London  from  whom  he  may  buy, 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  man  who  can  go 
to  Lyons,  Zurich,  or  Paris  has  better  chances,  seeing 
he  buys  at  first  hand.  He  has  more  frequently 
the  advantage  of  bargains  and  longer  discounts. 
In  Lyons,  silks  are  sold  either  by  the  metre  or  by 
the  aune  (115  centimetres);  in  Paris  usually  by  the 
metre.  The  usual  credit,  buying  from  the  manu- 
facturers or  manufacturers'  agents  on  the  London 
market,  is  1|-  per  cent,  discount  for  30  days.  Buying 
from  the  wholesale  houses  the  discount  is  2i  per 
cent,  for  four  months.  The  practice  in  Lyons,  if  one 
can  secure  the  "long  discount,"  is  "13  per  cent. 
and  2  per  cent";  in  Zurich  it  is  Ij  per  cent,  for 
30  days.  The  experienced  man  knows  well  the 
advantage  of  such  discounts,  and  there  is  little 
trouble  in  calculating  the  price  per  yard.  One 
aune  equals  1  '15  metres,  or  1£  'yards.  Buying 
with  long  discount  at  Lyons,  silk  costing'  about 
2  fr.  per  aune  would,  with  the  discount  off,  come 
out  at  about  ]s.  Id.  per  yard  on  the  English 
counter ;  a  cost  of  3  fr.  00  per  aune  would  mean 
Is.  IHd.  per  yard  net,  and  so  on.  In  Paris,  on 
the  other  hand,  5  per  cent,  is  the  usual  discount, 
and  goods  costing  2  fr.  per  metre  would  mean  a 
net  cost  of  Is.  4|d.  per  yard  in  London,  while  3  fr. 
60  per  metre  would  come  out  at  2s.  Gd.  per  yard. 
There  are  many  agents  for  the  cheaper  silks  and 
velveteens  in  London,  or  the  buyer  may  go  for 
these  to  the  Manchester  manufacturers  direct.  The 
terms  in  this  country  are  practically  those  which 
prevail  in  the  drapery  trade  [see  page  2221]. 

What  Is  Bought.  So  much  depends,  as 
has  been  said,  on  the  unaccountable  vagaries 
of  fashion  that  the  judgment  of  the  buyer  and  an 
exact  knowledge  of  what  is  going  on  in  fashionable 
dressmaking  and  millinery  circles  are  essential 
in  choosing  an  open  stock.  Velvets  may  ])c  a  rage 
at  the  period  our  beginner  intends  to  .start.  It 
will  be  his  business,  therefore,  to  choose  with  taste 
and  discrimination  the  correct  shades  and  qualities 
in  black  and  coloured  silks  and  in  velvets.  If 
coloured  silks  have  a  vogue,  an  assortment  of 
fancy  moire  antique,  moire  velours,  taffetas. 
broche,  surahs  (checked  and  striped),  mervs,  shot 
glace*,  plain  foundations,  satins  (plain  or  fancy 
brocaded),  may  probably  be  the  proper  goods  to 
choose.  Silks  for  trimming  dresses  or  hats  are 
often  necessary,  and  for  these  a  considerable  variety 
of  shades  must  be  secured.  Black  silks  are  nearly 
always  in  request,  Bonnet  et  Cie,  and  Tresca,  of 
Lyons,  being  the  noted  makers.  The  "  latest  " 
designs  in  moire  velours,  moire  antique  dama,  moire 
cotelee,  striped  moire,  black  broche,  black  faille 
Francais,  bengaline,  Irish  poplins,  and  black 
Duchesse  satin  may  be  the  season's  requisites.  But 
in  starting  it  is  not  a  bad  plan  to  make  one  class 
of  fcilk — such  as  Japanese  silk,  for  instance — a 


r,  and  to  "  run  it 


m  a  good  long  ranee  of 
the  choicest  colours.  There  are  always  many 
specialities  in  silks  and  satins  for  evening  we-vr 
and  for  bridal  gowns  to  be  thought  of.  \  judicious 
selection  of  whatever  is  the  correct  thing  for  the 
season  having  been  obtained,  the  pieces  should  be 
laid  longways  in  the  fixtures.  The  proper  way  to 
store  silk  m,  of  course,  end  on,  but  the  beo-imier's 
stock  would  not  be  large  enough  at  first  to  admit  of 
this  without  giving  a  somewhat  empty  appearance 
to  the  shop.  There  are  velveteens  of  different  colours 
also  that  may  be  bought  in  boxes  of  20-yard 
lengths.  These  are  the  things  to  make  specialities 
A  low-priced  silk  or  velveteen  costing  probably 
Is.  8d.  to  Is.  9d.  per  yard  will  sell  readily,  if  the 
shade  and  appearance  is  right,  at  2s.  6d.  per  yard 
There  are,  besides,  English  silks  retailing  at  Is.  to 
Js.  (id.  per  yard  that  would  have  to  be  kept  now- 
adays, and  Japanese  silks,  dyed  all  colours,  have  a 
quick  sale.  These  may  cost  anything  from  8id.  to 
Is.  per  yard,  and  will  sell  well  at  Is.  to  Is  6d. 
Although  it  is  considered  somewhat  out  of  the 
province  of  the  pure  silk  mercer,  there  is  no  reason 
why  made-up  silk  blouses  and  silk  skirts  should 
not  be  kept  in  stock.  These  are  in  no  wise  out  of 
place,  and  the  modern  craze  is  for  made-up  goods. 

Assistance.  It  would  be  necessary  to  have  at 
least  one  assistant  (£40  a  year,  indoors),  unless 
the  beginner  resolved  to  work  the  business  with  an 
apprentice  only  to  help  him.  An  apprentice  would 
serve  three  years,  receiving  no  salary,  but  he  would 
be  useful  in  many  ways,  such  as  cleaning  the  inside 
of  the  windows  and  doing  the  general  dusting.  At 
first  the  outside  window- cleaner  might  also  serve 
as  porter  and  message  boy,  for  a  regular  messenger 
is  not  usually  necessary  in  a  small  business.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  in  measuring  the  silk  for  sale, 
as  a  few  inches  wrong  makes  a  great  difference  in 
the  profits,  and  the  goods  are  expensive.  The  assis- 
tant should,  therefore,  be  looked  after  until  his 
exactitude  in  this  respect  is  established,  and  the 
apprentice  needs  careful  training.  Silks  are  usually 
measured  by  the  fold. 

The  Silk  Department.  As  an  adjunct  to 
a  regular  drapery  house,  the  establishment  of  a 
silk  department  is,  of  course,  much  easier  to  accom- 
plish than  an  independent  start,  for  the  draper's 
credit  is  established  beforehand  with  the  manu- 
facturers and  wholesale  houses ;  moreover,  his 
customers  are  already  secured.  All  that  is  necessary 
to  develop  the  business  is  to  lay  out  from  £1,000  to 
£1,500  in  a  silk  stock  on  the  lines  that  have  already 
been  indicated.  Occasionally  the  thriving  draper 
may,  by  arrangement,  secure  "a  large  consignment 
of  silks  for  show  purposes,  on  sale  or  return.  But 
the  same  care  must  be  exercised  if  the  department 
is  to  be  made  to  pay,  although  the  draper  has 
greater  advantages  in  being  able  to  employ  silk 
remnants  directly  in  the  millinery  and  dressmaking 
departments  of  the  house. 

Looking  for  Business.  Reverting  to  the 
pure  silk  mercer,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should 
endeavour  to  increase  his  sales  by  cultivating  the 
fashionable  dressmakers  and  milliners.  These 
ladies  should  be  assiduously  looked  after,  as  oppor- 
tunity occurs,  not  only  in  order  to  sell  them  silk 
for  dress-pieces,  but  also  silk  linings  of  all  kinds, 
largely  used  nowadays  for  good  dresses,  coats, 
mantles,  etc.,  little  lengths  of  velvet  and  coloured 
silks  for  trimmings  for  hats,  dresses,  etc.,  and  things 
of  that  sort.  The  draper  with  a  silk  department 
has  an  outlet  for  these  oddments  in  other  parts  of 
the  house,  but  the  silk  mercer  has  to  look  for 


somewhere  to  plant  the 
™<m»id<™blt'- 


8HOPKEEPINO 

scraps,"  which   are  bv 
«  *«   which   mean 

-"nportant  Question.  Providing 

ig«mUVS  a  keen  buyer'  and  l>»vs  what 
l,  his  profits  should  be  considerable..  The  stock 
|1  heavy,  and  ought  to  be  turned  over  at  least 
three  times  a  year;  therefore  he  must  have  a  profit 
tf  at  least  33  J  per  cent,  on  the  turnover  in  plain 

!o±  anr  45  i?-™!;  to  50  P*  =ent-  on  f™'y 

goods.  Good  plain  silk  costing  3s.  6d.  to  3s  't,j 
per  yard  will  sell  readily  at  5s.  (xf.  to  6s.  (id.  per  van! 
t  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  buyer  who  knows  his 
market,  and  who  is  able  to  buy  in  fair  quantity  to 
pay  4s.  Id.  to  4s  3d.  per  yard  for  a  certain  dass 
of  superior  stuff  for  which  the  customer  will  mv 
os.  6d.  to  8s  6d.  per  yard,  and  think  she  is  getting 
a  bargain.  But  the  cheaper  silks,  although  they 
bear  a  smaller  profit,  have  the  recompense  of  a  con- 
siderably quicker  sale,  and  they  bring  customers 
to  the  establishment  whose  taste  in  silk  it  might 
be  possible  to  educate  to  a  higher  standard— 
of  profit. 

SILVER  AND  ELECTRO-PLATE  DEALERS 

It  would  be  folly  to  open  a  shop  for  the  sale  of 
only  silver  and  electro-plate  without  considerable 
capital.  True,  there  are  such  shops,  but  they  are 
few  in  number  and  old-established,  with  a  connec- 
tion that  has  taken  years  to  build,  and  are  found 
only  in  the  heart  of  our  largest  and  wealthiest  cities. 
Therefore,  we  shall  consider  the  business  as  allied 
to  that  of  a  jeweller. 

The  jeweller  is  sure  to  know  something  about 
silver  and  electro-plate  ware,  and  whether  his 
district  justifies  him  in  adding  the  silver  department, 
provided  he  has  the  necessary  capital. 

Opening    Shop.       The   aspirant  to  a  new 

business    will   find,   under   Jewellers   [page  3732], 

hints    regarding  the  selection  of  the  site,  on  the 

basis    of    a    £500    capital.      An    additional    £200 

to    £250    is    necessary    if    the    silver    branch    be 

undertaken    as    well.      The    preliminary   expenses 

are  largely  in  fitting  up  the  necessary  show-cases. 

We  advise  the  purchase  of  good-fitting  cases,  the 

essential   quality  of  which   is   air-tightness,  which 

means  being  practically  dust-proof.    Dust  soils  silver 

and  electro-plate,  hence  the  need  of  dealing  only 

with  experts  in   that  branch  of    cabinet-making. 

But  you  may  by  chance  get  hold  of  some  good 

secondhand  cases  ;    but  if  unable  to  procure  uni- 

formity in  design  and  colour,  it  is  well  to  purchase 

new  cases,  as  uniformity  or  harmony  is  essential, 

and  alterations  are  expensive.     The  distinguishing 

characteristic    in   cases   should    be    brightness  —  in 

other  words,  as  much  glass  as  possible,  including 

mirror  backs,  and  on  no  account  should  wooden 

shelves   be   used.     The   cost   of  a  case   will   vary 

according    to    size,    design,    and    the    wood    used. 

Leave    ebony    colour   alone.       Ebony  in    itself  is 

expensive,   and     its     colour     is     depressing.     The 

minimum    cost    for    good    cases    will    be    about 

£30  each.     Two  or  three  will  be  required  for  an 

attractive  display.     Fittings  will  probably  run  into 

about  £100,  and  £150  will  be  left  for  stock      In 

business  as  a  jeweller,  the  retailer  should  have  no 

difficulty  in  getting  the  usual  terms  from  the  whole- 

sale  houses,   varying  from   one  to   three   months' 

credit,  with  different  discounts.     Some  firms  give 

5  per  cent,  for  cash  in  one  month,  2i  per  cent,  in 

two  months,  and  net  at  three  months  :   others  give 

2J  per  cent,  at  one  month  only.     The  beginner  \\  ill 

likely  have  to  pay  something  down,   unless  he   is 

known  in  the  trade. 

5228 


SHOPKEEPINQ 

Stock.  The  purchase  of  stock  requires"  careful 
consideration.  The  nature  of  the  district  must  be 
considered,  the  class  and  quality  of  the  goods  likely 
to  be  in  demand,  whether  useful,  or  ornamental,  or 
both .  M ost  retailers  stock  both  classes,  but  preference 
in  quantity  is  given  to  the  useful.  It  is  presumed 
that  our  retailer  has  some  practical  knowledge  of 
the  trade  technicalities,  such  as  the  difference 
IK -tvveen  silver  and  base  metals,  when  the  latter  is 
plated  with  silver.  On  a  manufactured  article 
there  is  always  the  hall-mark,  and  the  public 
demand  it,  the  only  exception  being  on  copies  of 
antique  silver  work.  The  hall-mark  for  Great 
Britain  is  a  "lion  passant"  ;  on  Continental  and 
American  manufacture  is  stamped  the  word 
"  Sterling." 

Silver.  Silver  is  used  in  two  forms — solid,  and 
made  into  articles  of  itself,  or  deposited  through  the 
process  of  electro- plating  on  base  metals,  such  as 
"Nickel  silver,"  sometimes  called  "German  silver," 
and  on  Britannia  metal,  known  in  the  trade  as 
"Pewter."  The  difference  in  the  two  base  metals 
can  be  detected  by  sound,  by  giving  the  article  a 
slight  tap  ;  the  "  nickel  silver  "  will  give  a  bell-like 
ring,  whereas  the  "  pewter  "  gives  only  a  dull  thud. 
The  latter  is  also  very  soft,  and  more  easily  worked  : 
it  therefore  constitutes  the  cheapest  material  sold 
as  electro- plated  ware,  and  receives  only  one  coat 
of  silver  deposit.  All  the  articles  of  better  quality 
are  made  in  "  nickel  silver,"  plated  with  one,  two, 
or  three  coats  of  silver,  technically  termed  "  plated," 
"  A  quality,"  and  "  Al  quality."  The  article  with 
the  one  coating  has  more  often  stamped  upon  it  the 
two  letters  "  E.P."  Some  firms  use  the  letters 
A,  B,  and  C,  C  denoting  the  poorest  quality. 
The  first  quality  is  usually  applied  to  table  ware, 
spoons,  forks,  etc.,  as  these  are  subject  to  the  greatest 
amount  of  wear. 

The  nucleus  of  the  stock  should  be  carefully 
selected,  and  several  houses  must  be  visited  in 
making  the  selection.  Certain  firms  confine  them- 
selves to  certain  articles.  Again,  even  in  the  same 
article,  houses  may  vary  a  little  in  price.  But  there 
is  quality  and  finish  to  be  considered.  What  may 
look  alike  in  two  different  windows  will  occasionally 
look  totally  different  when  under  close  inspection. 

The  jeweller  should  confine  himself  principally  to 
the  silver  and  better  quality  of  electro- plate. 
People  look  to  the  jeweller's  shop  as  a  guarantee 
for  quality.  Of  course,  in  some  districts,  the  better 
quality  would  be  rather  expensive,  so  we  repeat 
that  from  the  new  start  the  retailer  must  find  out 
the  nature  of  the  demand  in  the  district,  erring  on 
the  side  of  caution.  A  good  middle-class  neigh- 
bourhood can  be  relied  upon  for  articles  of  a  quality 
that  will  .stand  wear  and  tear  and  yet  keep  their 
a|)|M-iirance. 

The  bulk  of  domestic  items  should  be  in  silver- 
plate,  on  "  nickel  silver" — namely,  tea  sets,  cruets, 
entree  dishes,  butter  and  preserve  dishes,  trays 
and  salvers,  spoons  and  forks.  But  smaller 
articles,  such  as  single  salts,  peppers,  mustard-pots, 
sugar-sifters,  butter-knives,  preserve  spoons,  and 
afternoon  tea-spoons,  should  be  mostly  in  silver. 
There  are  side  lines,  both  useful  and  ornamental, 
Mich  as  ( -andlrsticks,  flower  vases,  serviette  rings, 
inkstand-,  and  separate  ink-bottles,  and  toilet  ware, 
which  should  be  chiefly  in  silver.  Owing  to  the 
present  cheapness  of  silver,  most  little  nick-nacks 
arc  made  with  it. 

Where  to  Buy.  Where  to  buy  is  a  difficult 
question  to  answer.  There  are  at  the  present  so 


many  manufacturers  and  wholesale  houses  that  make 
and  stock  silver  and  electro-plated  goods.  The  best 
trade  pa|x-r  i>  the  "Watchmakers,  Jewellers'  and 
Silversmiths1  Journal,"  and  therein  will  be  found 
the  names  of  selling  firms.  The  three  leading 
centres  are  London,  Sheffield,  and  Birmingham, 
in  England :  Glasgow,  in  Scotland,  and,  in  a 
minor  degree,  Dublin,  jn  Ireland.  London  manu- 
facture, however,  is  usually  the  most  expensive. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  heavier  and  better  finished,  and  tin- 
demand,  of  course,  is  principally  in  the  West  Knd 
of  the  metropolis.  All  advertisers  invite  retailers 
to  send  for  catalogues,  on  receipt  of  business  card. 
Once  it  is  known  in  the  trade  that  you  are  stocking 
silver  goods,  the  ubiquitous  commercials  will  not 
be  long  in  calling.  Remember  that  what  may  sell 
in  one  district  does  not  always  sell  in  another. 

StocK=Keeping.  Having  gathered  your  stock. 
see  that  you  take  care  of  it,  for  nothing  is  more  sub- 
ject to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  more 
especially  is  it  so  in  winter.  Finger-marks  ought  to 
be  removed  at  once  by  a  chamois  skin  kept  for  the 
purpose.  To  be  continually  allowing  silver  to 
become  oxidised  or  tarnished  means  a  lot  of  work 
in  renovating,  and  the  freshness  may  be  taken  oft' 
in  the  process.  Nothing  looks  more  seedy  and 
unattractive  than  dirty-looking  silver.  You  not 
only  lose  the  sale,  but  your  reputation  and  profit 
will  suffer. 

It  is  only  the  expert  who  can  get  the  mirror- 
like  surface  on  silver,  and  the  all-powerful  medium 
is  rouge.  It  is  not  a  pleasant  material  with  which 
to  work,  and  in  the  hands  of  the  novice  there 
would  be  destruction  through  it  in  other  ways. 
For  instance,  if  it  gets  on  to  wood  or  cloth,  it  is 
difficult  to  get  out ;  in  fact,  the  more  you  rub  it,  or 
wash,  the  more  it  will  spread.  But  there  are  many 
brands  of  plate-powder,  of  various  qualities  and 
degrees,  but  by  sampling  the  best  you  can  easily 
find  out  which  is  the  mast  .suitable.  Always  use 
a  soft  chamois  skin  ;  keep  it  clean,  and  only  for  the 
one  purpose  ;  the  best  result  is  thus  obtainable. 

Profits.  Profit  will  vary  according  to  the  variety 
and  quality  of  your  goods.  Photo  frames  are  tin- 
least  remunerative  of  all  articles,  and  are,  in  fact,  not 
worth  stocking,  although  the  jeweller  must  keep 
them.  The  retailer  ought,  if  possible,  to  price  on 
50  per  cent,  profit,  this  high  rate  being  necessary  by 
reason  of  expenses,  the  detriment  to  stock  through 
atmospheric  influence,  and  having  to  sell  at  a  big 
discount  designs  out  of  demand.  Some  firms  issue 
priced  catalogues,  subject  to  33  ^  per  cent.,  which 
is  equal  to  the  above  50  per  cent,  on  cost  price. 

We  find  that  silver  and  electro-plate  arc  sold  by 
other  branches  of  retail  business,  notably  by  iron- 
mongers, drapers,  stores,  fancy-goods  shops,  and 
even  chemists.  The  "pewter"  article  is  chiefly 
found  in  the  ironmonger  or  cutlery  shops ;  theol  her>. 
outside  of  the  stores,  generally  confine  themselves 
to  silver  nick-nacks,  being  able  to  do  so,  as  t  hey  come 
under  the  exemption  clause  of  the  licence  fee,  which 
is,  up  to  5  dwt..  free  :  above  that  weight,  and  up 
to  30  oz..  £2  (5s.  per  annum.  Over  that  weight, 
unlimited,  it  is  £5  16s.  per  annum.  The  licence  is  not 
much,  but  it  is  an  item  to  be  considered  when 
competition  is  so  keen.  Under  the  nature  of  his 
business,  the  jeweller  or  silversmith  is  bound  to 
possess  one  or  the  other  of  them.  Those  who  carry 
only  electro-plate  are  also  exempt,  which  is 
somewhat  of  a  hardship  on  the  legitimate  silver- 
smith. 


Continued 


ITALIAN-FRENCH-SPANISH-ESPERANTO 

Italian  by  F  de  Feo  ;  French  by  Louis  A.  Barb6,  B.A.  -  Spanish  b 
Amaha  de  Alberti  and  H.  S.  Duncan;  Esperanto  by  HaraM  Clegg 


Group  18 

LANGUAGES 
36 

n  tin  tied  from  pngt  30SS 


puge  5082 

PREPOSITIONS 

Prepositions  (from  the  Latin  prceponere,  to  place 
before)  in  Italian  always  precede  the  words  they 
govern.  They  indicate  a  relation  between  two 
words,  as :  Vcnitc  con  noi,  Come  with  us.  II  libra  e  su 
la  tarola.  The  book  is  on  the  table.  Venyo  da  Roma, 
I  come  from  Rome.  Una  catena  tforo,  A  gold  chain.' 

Prepositions  may  be  divided  into  Simple  and 
Compound. 

Simple  prepositions  are  :  di,  of  :  a,  to  ;  in,  in  and 
into  :  con,  with  ;  su,  on  ;  per,  for  ;  tra,  fra,  among 
and  between. 

[See  page  2045  for  the  prepositions  di,  a,  da,  in, 
co a,  su.  per  compounded  with  the  article.] 

Compound  prepositions  are  :  accanto  a,  beside  ; 
dietro  a,  behind ;  dirimpetto  a,  opposite  to ;  a 
c.agione  di,  on  account  of,  etc.  Many  words  are 
sometimes  used  as  adverbs,  and  sometimes  as  pre- 
positions. Examples :  sopra,  upstairs ;  sopra 
fa  tavola,  011  the  table.  Many  words  which  are  real 
adjectives  or  parts  of  verbs  are  used  also  as  pre- 
positions. Examples  :  durante,  during ;  eccetto,  tranne, 
except ;  nonostante,  notwithstanding  ;  lungo,  along  ; 
mcdiante,  by  means  of,  etc. 

The  preposition  is  invariable. 

The  prepositions  most  frequently  used  are  : 
contra,  against  avanti,  before  (not 

dopo,  after  of  time) 

oltre,  besides  senza,  without 

fra,  tra,  among,  between  sotto,  under 

The  above  prepositions  are  sometimes  followed 
by  di,  especially  if  they  precede  a  personal  pronoun. 
Examples :  Dopo  di  lei,  after  you  ;  tra  di  noi,  among 
us  ;  senza  di  lui,  without  him  ;  sotto  di  esso,  under 
it,  etc. 

Senza  (di)  also  means  "  but  for,"  as:   Senza  di  hit 
fim-i  worto,  But  for  him  I  should  have  been  dead. 
of  di  la  di,  on  the  other    attorno  a,  around 

side  of  innanzi  a,  dinanzi  a,  be- 

nl  di  qua  di,  on  this  fore 

side  of  riy-uardo  a,  concerning 

accanto  a,  near,  by  the      vicino  (vee-ehee-no)  a,  near 

side  of  per  mancanza  di,  for 

per  mezzo  di,  by  means  of       want  of 
inrece  di,  instead  of  a  ca^lsa  di,   on  account  of 

ad  onta  di,  in  spite  of        insieme  con,  together  with 
lunr/i  (loon-dgee)  da.  in  quanta  a,  as  to 

far  from  fin  da,  since 

in  iaccia  a,  in  front  of       fino  a,  until 
etc. 

Sometimes  two  simple  prepositions  are  used 
together,  as  :  da  per  me,  by  myself ;  al  di  la  del 
finmc,  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  Prepositions 
are  occasionally  placed  after  their  complement, 
when  the  complement  consists  of  either  (1)  pro- 
nominal or  adverbial  particles  united  to  the  verb, 
or  of  (2)  adverbs  of  place.  Examples  :  Gli  si  mm- 
daranti  =  si  mise  davanti  a  lui,  He  put  himself  before- 
him.  Pcnsateci  su  =  pen-sate  sw  do,  Think  over  it. 
Qui  ricino  =  vicino  a  qucsto  luogo,  near  here.  La 
(I  i  at /-a  —  dcntro  qucl  luogo,  in  there. 


By  Francesco  de  Feo 

EXERCISE  XLIX. 
1.  Lei  non  imparera  mai  niente,  perehe  eioca 
sempre  durante  la  lezione.  2.  Invece  di  cento  1,,-i' 
ne j  abbiamo  ricevuto  soltanto  cinquanta.  3.  L, 
villa  di  cm  le  ho  parlato  si  trova  a!  di  la  del  Tamigi 
4.  biamo  stati  obbligati  di  rimandare  la  partenza 
fino  a  lunedi  per  mancanza  di  danaro.  5.  Se  avete 
freddo  sedete  accanto  al  fuoco.  6.  Dirira  petto  a 
noi  c  e  una  casa  da  fittare.  7.  Badate,  li  c'  £  il  mio 
cappello;  non  vi  ci  sedete  sopra.  8.  Em-It., 
questi  due,  tutti  gli  altri  quadri  non  valgono 
mente.  9,  Parliamoci  chiaro,  fra  noi  non  ci  devono 
essese  misteri.  10.  Lo  faro  per  amor  vostro.  11.  Pin 
di  quaranta  persone  restcarono  sepolte  sotto  le 
macerie. 

ESERCIZIO  DI  LETTURA 
"  In  che  posso  ubbidirla  ?  "  1    disse  dou  Kodrigo, 

piantandosi-  in piedinel mezzo della  sala.     II  sunn,. 

delle  parole  era  tale ;    nia  il  modo  con  cui  eran 

proferite,  voleva  dir  chiaramente  :    bada  a  chi  sei 

davanti,  pesa  le  parole,  e  sbrigati.:i 

^  Per  dar  coraggio  al  nostro  fra  Cristoforo,   non 
c'  era  mezzo  piu  sicuro  e  piu  spedito,  che  prenderlo 
con  maniera  arrogante.     Egli  che  stava  sospeso,* 
cercando  le  parole,  e  facendo  scorrere  tra  le  dita 
le   avemarie    della  corona5    che   teneva   a  cintohi. 
come    se    in    qunlcheduna    di    quelle    spera-sse    di 
trovare  il  suo  esordio;  aquel  fare6  di  don  Rodrigo 
si  senti  subito  venir  sulle  labbra  piu   parc>le  del 
bisogno.     Ma  pnsando  quanto  importasse  di  non 
guastare  i  fatti  suoi  o,  cio  ch'  era  assai  piu,  i  fatti 
altrui",  corresse  e  tempero  le  frasi  che  gli  si  eran 
presentate    alia    mente,    e    disse,    con    guard  inga 
umilta  :    "  Vengo  a  proporle  un  atto  di  ghistizia. 
a  pregarla  d'una  carita,    Cert'  uomini  di  mai  aff.-irf- 
hanno  messo  innanzi  il  nome  di  vossignoria  illus- 
trissima,  per  far  paura  a  un  povero  curato,  e   ini- 
]jedirgli  di  compire  ilsuo  dovere,  eper  sovfrclii;ui 
due  mnocenti.    Lei  puo,  con  una  parola,  confondci 
coloro,  restituire  al  diritto  la  sua  forza,  e  sollev;'u- 
quelli   a   cui  e    fatta    rnia    cosi    crudel    violenza. 
Lopuo;  e  potendolo  ...  la  coscienza,  1'  onore  .  .  ." 
"Lei   mi   parlera   della   mia   coscienza.    qiiiituln 
verro  a  confessarmi  da  lei.    In  quanto  al  mio  onorf ' " 
ha  da  sapere  che  il  custode  ne  sono  io,  e  io  solo;  e 
che  chiunque  ardisce  entrare  a  parte  con  me   in 
questa   cura,    Io   rigiiardo  come   il   temerario   che 
1'offende."  Fra  Cristoforo,  avvertito  da  queste  parole 
che  quel  signore  cercava  di  tirare  al  peggio  le  sue. 
per  volgere   il   discorso   in   contesa,   e  non  dargli 
luogo  di  venh-e  alle  strette11,  s'iuipegno  tanto  |>iii 
alia  sofferenza,  risolvette  di  mandar  giu i-  qualunqiu- 
cosa  piacesse  all'altro  di  dire,  e  rispose  subito.  con 
un   tono   sommesso:     "  Se   ho  detto   c-osa   che   It- 
dispiaccia,    e  stato  certamente   contro   la    mia    in- 
tenzione.    Mi  corregga  pure,  mi  riprenda,  se  non  so 
parlare  come  si  conviene,  ma  si  degni  ascoltanin. 
Per  amor  del  cielo,  per  quel  Dio.  al  cui  cos{>etto 
dobbiam   tutti  comparire   .    .   ."    e,   cosi    dicondo. 
avera  preso   tra  le  dita,   e   metteva   davanti   agli 
occhi  del  suo  accigliatoia  ascoltatore  il  teaofcfetto 

5-225 


LANGUAGES— ITALIAN 

di  leguo14  atdu'cato  alia  sua  corona,  "non  s'ostini 
anegare  unagiustizia  cosi  facile,  ecosi  clovuta  a  del 
povcrcili.  Pen.si  die  Dio  ha  sempre  gli  occhi  sopra 
di  loro,  e  che  le  loro  grida,  i  loro  gem  iti  sono  ascol- 
tati  lassu1"'.  L' innocenza  e  potente  al  suo  .  .  ." 

"  Eh,  padre !  "  interruppe  bruscamente  don 
Rodrigo,  "  il  rispetto  ch'  io  porto  al  suo  abito 
e  grande :  ma  se  qualche  cosa  potesse  farmelo 
dimenticare,  sarebbe  il  vederlo  indosso  a  uno  che 
ardisse  di  venire  a  farmi  la  spia  in  casa."  (Manzoni. 
"  I  Promessi  Sposi,"  Cap.  VI.)  Continued. 

NOTES.  1,  In  what  can  I  oblige  you  ?  2,  planting 
himself ;  3,  be  quick  ;  4,  hesitating ;  5,  the  beads 
of  his  rosary  ;  6,  on  this  behaviour  ;  7,  of  others  ; 
8,  certain  ill-conditioned  men ;  9,  oppress ;  10, 
regarding  my  honour;  11,  to  come  to  the  point; 
12,  suffer;  13,  frowning;  14,  little  wooden  skull; 
15,  on  high. 

IRREGULAR    VERBS 

Second  Conjugation — continued 

Verbs  in  ere  (short)  —continued  : 

Prediligere,  to  love  partially,  to  prefer 
Pant  Def. — Predilessi,  predilesse,  predilessero. 
Past  Pa'rt.—Prediletto. 

Premere,    to    press    (impers.  :     to  -be    of    im- 
portance) 

Past  Def. — The  regular   forms   premei,   premesti, 
etc.,    are   more   common    than    the    forms    pressi, 
presse,  pressero. 
Past  Part. — Premuto   (Presso). 

Presumere,  to  presume 

PaM  Def. — Presumei,  presumesti,  etc.  (regular), 
and  presunsi,  presunse,  presunsero. 

Past  Part.—Presunto. 
Produrre   (producere),  to  produce  [see  addiirre, 

page  5082] 

Proteggere,  to  protect 
Past  Def. — Protessi,  protesse,  protessero. 
Past  Part.—Protetto. 

Pungere,  to  sting,  to  pique 
Past  Def. — Punsi,  punse,  punsero. 
Past  Part.—Punto. 
Conjugate  like  pungere  ;  compungere,  to  afflict. 

Redimere,  to  redeem 
Past  Def. — Redensi,  redense,  redensero. 
Past  Part.—Redento. 

Reggere,  to  support 
Past  Def. — Ressi,  resse,  resse.ro. 
Past  Part.—Retto. 

Conjugate  like  reggere  :  sorreggere,  to  sustain  ; 
correggere,  to  correct. 

Reprimere,  to  repress 
Past  Def. — Repressi,  represse,  repressero. 
Past  Part. — Represso. 
Ridurre    (riducere),     to    reduce    [see     addurre, 

page  5082] 

Riflettere,  to  reflect 

Past  Def.— The  regular  forms  riftettei,  riflettesti, 
etc.,  are  much  more  common  than  the  forms 
riflessi,  riftesse,  riflessero. 

Past  Part. — Riflettuto,  considered  ;  riflesso,  re- 
verberated. 

Rifulgere  (poet.),  to  shine 
Past  Dcf.—Riful,ri,  rifulse,  rifulsero. 
Past  Parl.—Rijidso. 

Rilucere  (poet.),  to  glitter,  to  shine 
Past  Def. — Rilussi,  rilussc,  rilussero. 
This  verb  has  no  Past  Part. 

Risolvere,  to  resolve 

Past  Def.—Risolvctti,     risolvcsti,    etc.     (regular), 
and  risolsi,  risolse,  risolsero. 
Past  Part. — Risoluto  and  risolto. 
5226 


Scegliere,  to  choose  (pron.  sli-eK -lee-ehreh) 

I  ml.  Pres. — Scelgo,  scegli,  sceglie,  scegliamo,  see- 
ijliiii ,  scelgono. 

Past  Def. — Scelsi,  scelse,  scelsero. 

Future — Sceyliero,  sccglierai,  etc.  (scerro,  sc<mti, 
etc.). 

Jmperat. — Scegli,  scelga,  scegliamo,  sccgliete,  seel- 
gano. 

Subj.  Pres. — Scelga,  scelga,  scelga,  scegliamo, 
scegliate,  scelgano. 

Condit. — Sceglierei,  scegliercsti,  etc.  (scerrei,  scer- 
rcsti,  scerrebbe,  etc.). 

Past  Part.—Scelto. 

Conjugate  like  scegliere  ;  trascegliere,  to  choose 
among  ;  prescegliere,  to  select. 

Sciogliere    (sciorre).    to    untie    (pron.   shff-lee- 
ehreh) 

Ind.  Pres. — Sciolgo,  sciogli,  scioglie,  scioglianto, 
sciogliete,  sciolgono. 

Imperf. — Scioglievo,  scioglievi,  etc. 

Past  Def. — Sciolsi,  sciolse,  sciolsero. 

Imperat. — Sciogli,  sciolga,  sciogliamo,  sciogliete, 
scidlgano. 

Subj.  Pres. — Sciolga,  sciolga,  sciolga,  sciogliamo, 
sciogliate,  scidlgano. 

The  forms  sciorro,  sciorrai,  etc.,  and  sciorrei, 
sciorresti,  etc.,  for  the  Future  and  Conditional 
instead  of  sciogliero,  etc.,  scioglierei,  etc.,  are  only 
used  in  poetry. 

Conjugate  like  scidgliere  ;  discidgliere,  to  dissolve  ; 
prosciogliere,  to  free,  to  deliver. 
Sconnettere,    to    disjoint,    to     be    incoherent 

[see  connettere,  page  5082] 
Scorgere,    to   perceive   [see    accorgere, 

page  5081] 
Scrivere,  to  write 

Past  Def. — Scrissi,  scrisse,  scrissero. 

Past  Part.—Scritto. 

Conjugate  like  scrlvere  ;  descrivere,  to  describe  ; 
inscrivere,  to  inscribe ;  prescrlvere,  to  prescribe ; 
ascrlvere,  to  ascribe ;  sottoscrwere,  to  subscribe ; 
circoscrwere,  to  circumscribe  ;  trascrlvere,  to  tran- 
scribe. 

EXERCISE   L. 

1.  L'albero  buono  produce  frutti  buoni.  2. 
Quaudo  sciogliero  il  pacco,  potrete  scegliere  quello 
che  piu  vi  piace.  3.  Che  cosa  avete  scelto  ? 
4.  La  domanda  fu  sottoscritta  da  circa  cento 
persone.  5.  Mio  fratello  mi  ha  scritto  una  lunga 
lettera.  6.  Se  il  signer  N.  non  vi  avesse  protetto, 
ora  non  occupereste  questo  posto.  7.  La  povera 
bambina  piange,  perche  si  e  punto  un  dito  con 
1'ago.  8.  Premete  il  bottone,  per  chiamare  il 
cameriere. 

CONVERSAZIONE 

Va  sovente  in  casa  N.  ? 

Di  quando  in  quando  (now  and  then),  e  lei  ? 

Quasi  mai,  ma  i  miei  cugini  ci  vanno  molto  sj«¥s.so. 

A  che  ora  ritorna  ? 

Non  so  precisamente ;  verso  le  sette,  credo. 
]Ma  se  per  le  sette  non  sono  ritornato,  non  mi  aspet- 
'ate  ;  potrebbe  darsi  che  vada  a  teatro. 

Come  sta  la  sua  sorellina  ? 

Molto  meglio,  grazie.  Spero  che  fra  qualche 
giorno  potra  dirsi  completamente  guarita. 

Si  dice  che  la  signorina  N.  sposi  un  ufh'ciale  di 
marina  ;  e  vero  ? 

Ma  che  ;  posso  assicurarle  che  non  ce  n'  e  assolu- 
tamente  niente. 

Resta  a  pranzo  con  noi  ? 

Volentieri ;    poi  si  andra  fuori  insieme. 


KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XLVI. 

1.  You  have  done  well  to  come  to  me-  I  shall 
easily  get  you  out  of  trouble.  2.  He  alwavs  speaks 
modestly  of  himself.  3.  Speak  distinctly  if  you 
wish  me  to  listen  to  you.  4.  Unfortunately' we 
arrived  too  late.  5.  Little  by  little  we  shall  over- 
come all  the  difficulties.  0.  Tell  .him  to  wait;  I  will 
come  down  at  once.  7.  Probably  we  .shall  have  an 
answer  this  evening.  8.  It  was  so  dark  that  we  went 
groping.  9.  The  bearer  is  an  intimate  friend  of 
mine ;  I  recommend  him  to  you  particularly. 
KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XLVII. 

1.  Come  this  way,  sir  ;  the  way  is  much  shorter 
2.  Do  you  wish  then  that  I  should  be  compelled 
to  ask  here  and  there  what  has  happened  to  my 
master  ?  3.  One  after  the  other  all  went  away 
and  left  me  alone.  4.  If  by  any  chance  that  gentle  - 


LANGUAGES     FRENCH 

K|*  if  >'°U  are  no(  'fit*-  sure 

able  to  keep  your  promise.  7.  You  l,!m. 
played  enough  :  now  it  is  time  to  oO  to  bed  8 
It  is  possible  that  we  .shall  meet  mM,,,,,,  iu 


We  Ml 
10.  Come  down  • 


FRENCH 


up    there   even    by    to-morrow 
the  carriage  is  ready. 

KEY  TO  Exntnsi;  XLVI  1 1 
1.  The  reasons  you  have  adduced  do  not  ju,(ih 
your  action.  2.  The  vault  of  this  church  w's 
painted  by  a  great  artist  3.  The  fire  destroyed 
a  great  part  of  the  building.  4.  When  they  ner- 
ceived  my  presence,  they  began  to  speak  of  M,,,,,.. 
thing  else.  0.  I  have  been  running  about  all  d;lv  • 
now  I  want  a  little  rest.  (>.  I  cannot  eat  this  meat  • 
t  is  overdone.  7.  Much  has  been  already  said 
on  this  subject.  8.  Such  a  thick  fog  came  down, 
that  nothing  could  be  distinguished.  9  The 
enemies  (enemy)  directed  their  fire  against  fort 
J5.  10.  Here  is  all  we  have  been  able  to  i-oll-.-t 
Continued 


By  Louis  A.  Barbe,  B.A. 


PREPOSITIONS 

The  Prepositions  in  most  frequent  use  are  : 


a,  to,  at 

apres,  after 

a  travers,  through 

attendu,  considering 

avant,  before  (time) 

avec,  with 

chez,  at  the  house  of 

co  ncern  ant,  concern  in  g 

contre,  against 

dans,  in 

de,  of,  from,  with 

depuis,  since 

derriere,  l>ehind 

det>;  from,  as  early  as 

devant,  before  (position) 

durant,  during 

en,  in 

entre,  between 

infers,  towards 


excepte,  except 
hormis,  except 
malgre,  in  spite  of 
moyennant,  in  considera- 
tion of 

outre,  in  addition  to 
par,  by,  through 
parmi,  amongst 
pendant  during 
pour,  for,  in  order  to 
sans,  without 
selon,  according  to 
sou-s,  under 
suivant,  according  to 
sur,  on,  upon,  about 
sauf,  save 
touchant,  concerning, 

touching 
vers,  towards 
vu,  seeing,  considering 
Remarks.     The  preposition  a  is  used  to  form 

prepositional  phrases,  of  which  the  most  common 

are  : 

jusqu  a,  till,  to,  as  far  as         quant  d,  as  for,  as  to 

par  rapport  d,  with  regard  to  grace  a,  thanks  to 
The  preposition  dc  is  used  to  form  the  following 

prepositional  phrases  : 

autour  de,  around,  about 

au-dessus  de,  above 

(tn-dcssous  dc,  below 

d  I'egard  dc,  with  regard  to 

uu-devant  dc,  towards,  to 
meet 

u  cote  de,  beside 

du  cotede.  in  the  direction  of 

a  force  de,  by  dint  of 

u  fleiir  df,  flush  with 

aupres  de,  near 

an  deld  de,  beyond 

d  Vabri  de,  sheltered  from 

2.  The  prepositions  a,  dc  and  en  must  be  repeated 
before  every  complement. 

3.  All   prepositions   except  en  require   the  verb 
coming  after  them  to  be  in  the  infinitive.     En  is 
followed  by  the  present  participle  :  Je  suis  lien  loin  dc 
partayer  rotre  opinion.  I  am  very  far  from  sharing 


au-travers  de,  through 
d  moins  de,  unless 
d  rinsu  de,  unknown  to 
en  depit  de,  in  spite  of 
en  face  de,  facing 
faute  de,  for  want  of 
le  long  de,  along 
•pres  de,  near 
proche  de,  adjoining 
vis-d-v-is  de,  opposite 
au-dedans  de,  inside 
au-deJtors  de,  outside 


your  opinion.  //  ne  partira  fxt*  xa//x  r.nir  nous 
voir,  He  will  not  go  away  without  coming  to  see  us. 
Vest  en  voyageant  que  fai  appris  la  geogrn^iii. 
It  is  by  (in)  travelling  that  I  have  learnt  geography. 

4.  In,  or  at,  when  followed  by  the  name  of  a 
town,  is  expressed  by  d.     When  followed  by  the 
name  of  a  country,  continent,  or  large  island,  it 
is  expressed  by  en  :  II  demeure  d  Paris,  He  lives  in 
Paris.      Son  pere  est  en  France,  His  father  is   in 
France. 

5.  Speaking  generally,  "in"  is  to  be  translated 
by  dans  when  followed  by  an  article,  a  possessive, 
or  a  demonstrative,  and  by  en  when  there  is  no 
such  determinative  :  Ette  rencontra  un  loup  dans  le 
bois,  She  met  a  wolf  in  the   wood.     En  hivtr  la 
terre  est  couverte  de  neige,  In  winter  the  ground  is 
covered  with  snow. 

6.  Before    expressions    of    time,    dan*   e\]>r 

"  time  when,"  and  en  "  time  how  long  " :  Je  ferai  cela 
dans  une  heure,  I  shall  do  that  in  an  hour's  time 
(from  now).  Je  ferai  cela  en  une  heure,  I  shall  do 
that  in  an  hour  (it  will  take  me  an  hour). 

7.  Chez  means  "at  the  house  of,"  and  requires  no 
de  after  it :  S'il  n'est  ;x/,s  chez  lui,  U  est  chez  son 
tousin,  If  he  is  not  at  his  own  house,  he  is  at  his 
cousin's. 

8.  Durant  and  pendant  both  mean  during :    but 
durant  implies  the  whole  of  a  period,  and  pind<ii<t 
a   point   of   time   during   a   period :  Nous  sommes 
restes  a  Paris  durant  tout  le  siege,  We  remained  in 
Paris    during    the    whole    siege.     C'<«t    JH  i«f">tt    /< 
siege  que  s'est  livree  cette  bataille,  It  was  during  the 
siege  that  this  battle  was  fought. 

9.  Durant  may  be  placed  after  its  complement  : 
Ette  aura  cette  fortune  sa  vie  durant,  She  will  have 
that  fortune  during  her  lifetime. 

10.  Vers    implies     actual     movement     toward,-  : 
Ette  leva  les  mains  rers  le  del,  She  raised  her  hand- 
towards  heaven. 

11.  Envers    is    used    figuratively,    in    connection 
with    feelings,    sentiments,  etc. :     U    s\-*t    ///»//'/••' 
reconnaissant   tnven   «""s   He   has  shown   himselt 
grateful  to  (towards)  us. 

12.  Vers     also     approximates     "time    \\hen 
Nous  arriverons  rers  midi,   We  shall  arrive  about 

13    Approximation  of  -time  how  long,"  and  of 
number   or   quantity    generally,    is    expressed    by 

5227 


LANGUAGES-FRENCH 


c  )in'n>n  ;  XOHS  //  festerous  une  lieure  environ,  We 
shall  remain  there  about  an  hour.  Nous  avons  fait 
environ  <!i.r  i/tillc*,  We  have  walked  about  ten  miles. 

14.  After   a  preposition,    all    personal    pronouns 
must  be  in  the  disjunctive  form  :   Nous  ne  pouvons 
pas  -part  ir  *n»s  ettc,  We  cannot  start  without  her. 

15.  Personal  pronouns  coming  after  a  preposition 
usually  refer  to  persons.     Consequently,  an  English 
preposition   followed    by  a  neuter    pronoun    "  it," 
"  1  lit'in,  "  is  commonly  rendered  by  the  corresponding 
adverb  :  Ouvrons  la   boite   pour   voir  ce  qiCil  y   a 
dedans,  Let  us  open  the  box  to  see  what  is  in  it. 

EXERCISE  XXXVII. 

1.  The  sluggard    (paresseux)    works    in   spite    of 
himself. 

2.  The  sun  shines  for  everybody. 

3.  Work  with  zeal  ;   work  is  the  source  (la  source) 
of  wealth  (abondance,  f.)  and  joy  (la  joie). 

4.  The  invention  of  the  telephone  (le  telephone)  is 
due  to  Graham  Bell,  and  that  of  the  phonograph 
(le  phonographe)  to  Edison. 

5.  From  Calais,  when  the  weather  is  clear  (clair), 
you  perceive  Dover  (Douvres)  opposite  you. 

6.  Learn  that  according  to  the  saying  (le  dire) 
of  one  of  the  ancients  (an  ancient)  we  must  eat  to 
live,  and  not  live  to  eat. 

7.  Write  insults    (injure,  f.)  on  sand    (le  sable), 
and  favours  (le  bienfait)  on  brass  (airain,  m.). 

8.  I  fear  God,  and,  after  God,  I  mainly  (princi- 
pally) fear  those  who  do  not  fear  Him. 

9.  We  must  try  (lacker)  to  live  on  good  terms 
(bien)  with  everybody. 

10.  He  works  the  whole  week,  except  Sunday. 

11.  A  well-bred  (eleve)  child  must  do  nothing  in 
despite  of  his  parents. 

12.  The  holidays  (vacances,  f.  pi.)  will  begin  in 
less  than  two  months. 

13.  Perhaps   your   uncle   does   not   know   where 
our  house  is;    go  and  meet  him,  and  bring  him  if 
you  see  him. 

14.  One  of  Jules  Verne's  novels  has  for  (its)  title 
(le  litre)  "  Around  the  (le  Tour  du)  World  in  Eighty 
Days." 

15.  Let  us  put  ourselves  under  this  tree  ;     we 
shall  there  be  sheltered  from  the  rain. 

10.  He  owed  his  (the)  life  to  the  clemency 
(la  demence)  and  the  magnanimity  (la  magnanimite) 
of  the  victor. 

17.  Fulfil  your  duties  (le  devoir)   towards  God, 
your  parents,  and  your  (the)  native  land  (la  patrie). 

18.  The  same  prejudices  (le  prejuge)  are  found  in 
Europe,  in  Africa  (V  Afrique),  and  even  (as  far  as)  in 
America. 

CONJUNCTIONS 

Simple    conjunctions    are    not    very    numerous. 
The  chief  of  them  are  : 
car,  for  •«/,  nor 

cependant,  however,  yet      non  plus,  either 
cotnme,  as  or,  now 

done,  therefore,  then  ou,  or 

et>  and  /,<>  n  rtant,  nevertheless,  yet 

inn!*,  but  quand,  though 

si,  if,  whether  puisquc,  since 

que,  that  quoique,  although 

parce  que,  because 

A  great  number  of  conjunctive  phrases  (locutions 
conjonctives)  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  que 
to  certain  adverbs  or  to  certain  prepositions. 
Some  of  these  are  followed  (a)  by  the  indicative  ; 
others  (b)  by  the  subjunctive  ;  and  others  (c)  again 
by  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive  according  to 
their  meaning  : 

5228 


(a)  a  cause  que,  because  (b)   afin  que,   in  order 

a  ce  que,  according  to  what  that 

ainsi  que,  as  amoinsque — ne,  unless 

a  mesureque,  in  proportion  avantque,  before 

apres  que,  after  bien  que,  although 

attendu  que,  considering  that  de  crainte  que — ne,  lest 

peut-etre  que,  perhaps  de  peur  que — ne,  for 

tandis  que,  whilst  fear  that 

vu  que,  seeing  that  en  cas  que,  in  case 

au  lieu  que,  whereas  non  que,  not  that 

aussitot  que,  as  soon  as  pour  que,   in  order 

'iutant  que,  as  much  as  that 

depuis  que,  since  pourvu  que,  provided 

des  que,  as  soon  as  sans  que,  without 

pendant  que,  whilst  soit  que,  whether 

outre  que,  besides  suppose  que,  suppos- 

tant  que,  so  long  as  ing 

jusqu'a  ce  que,  until 

(c)  de  maniere  que,  in  such  a  way  that 

de  (en)  sorte  que,  so  that 

si  ce  n'est  que,  except  that 

si  non  que,  unless 

tettement  que,  so  that 

These  last  conjunctions  require  the  indicative 
when  actual  fact  is  indicated,  and  the  subjunctive 
when  a  purpose  or  contingency  is  expressed  : 

11  a  bien  travaille  de  sorte  que  son  pere  est  content 
de  lui,  He  has  worked  well,  so  that  his  father  is 
pleased  with  him.  Travaillez  de  maniere  que  votre. 
pere  soit  content  de  vous,  Work  in  such  a  way  that 
your  father  may  be  pleased  with  you. 

Remarks.  1.  The  conjunction  "  for  "  mean- 
ing "  because,"  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  preposition  "for"  meaning  "on  behalf 
of,"  "  instead  of,"  etc.  : 

Ce  n'est  pas  pour  vous  que  fai  achete  ces  livre-s  car 
vous  ne  lisez  jamais,  It  is  not  for  you  I  have  bought 
those  books,  for  you  never  read. 

2.  Conversationally,    mais    is    frequently    used 
simply  to  emphasise  a  statement,   and  may  then 
generally  be  translated  by  "  why  "  :     FoWefe-VOtM 
me  preter  votre  lime  ?     Mais,  certainement,  Will  you 
lend  me  your  book  ?     Why,  certainly. 

3.  Que  is  used  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  commc, 
as  ;   quand,  when  ;    and  si,  if.     In  the  last  of  these 
cases  it  is  followed  by  the  subjunctive  :    Com  me  II 
fait  beau  temps  et  que  nous  n'avons  rien  a  faire 
nous  allons  nous  promener,  As  it  is  fine  and  (as)  we 
have   nothing   to   do,    we   are   going   for   a   walk ; 
Quand  il  fait  beau  temps  et  que  nous  rf avons  rien  a 
faire  nous  allons  nous  promener,  When  it  is  fine  and 
(when)  we  have  nothing  to  do,  we  go  for  a  walk  ; 
Si  nous  n' avons  rien  a  faire  et  qu'il  fa^se  beau  temps 
nous  irons  nous  promener,  If  we  have  nothing  to  do 
and  (if)  it  is  fine,  we  shall  go  for  a  walk. 

4.  Non  plus  is  equivalent  to  the  English  "  either/' 
at  the  end  of   a  sentence  :    Je  ne  le  connais  pa*,  n I 
son  frere  non  plus,     I  do  not  know  him,   or  his 
brother,  either. 

5.  Puisque  and  depuis  que  both  mean  "  since  " ; 
but,  the  former  introduces  a  motive,  and  is  nearly 
synonymous    with    '*  because,"    whilst    the   latter 
refers  to  a  point  of  time  :   Je  le  lui  donnerai,  puisquc 
je  le  lui  ai  pro  mis,  I  shall  give  it  to  him,  since  I 
promised   it  him;     II  ma   ecrit  deux  fois  d<  i>ni* 
qiCil  est  en  France,     He  has  written  to  me  twice 
since  he  has  been  in  France. 

EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 

1.  (The)  Charity  is  patient,  gentle  and  benevo- 
lent (bienfaisant). " 

2.  The  compass  (la  boussole)  was  not  discovered 
(tro liver)  by  a  mariner  (mar in),  nor  the  telcsco]>e 
(.'c )  by  an  astronomer  (astronomc). 


S.  Neither  (the)  gold  nor  (the)  greatness  (la 
yrandeur)  make(s)  us  (rendrc)  happy. 

4.  (The)    Man    is   unhappy   only    because    he    is 
w icked  ( tn  echant) . 

5.  Obey  (sing.)    if  you    wish   to   be   obeyed  one 
day. 

0.  The  swallows  depart  as  soon  as  the  first  cnld 
(pi.)  comes  (arriver). 

7.  A  child    is   no   longer    believed    when   he    has 
told  a  lie. 

8.  If    (the)    water    boils    .sooner    on    (the)    high 
mountains,  it  is  because  the  pressure  (la  pre-ssion) 
of  the  air  is  less  strong  there. 

9.  All  men  are  mortal ;     now.  you   are  a  man  ; 
therefore  you  are  mortal. 

10.  If   he   comes   to   France   and   (if  he)   passe> 
through  Paris,  I  shall  be  delighted  to  see  him. 

11.  The    earth    is    never    exhausted   (s'epui-ser), 
provided  one  knows  (how  to)  cultivate  it. 

12.  Behave    (se   conduire)  in    such    a    way  that 
e  very  body  is  pleased  with  you. 

INTERJECTIONS 

Apart  from  a  great  many  words  and  phrases  that 
are  frequently  used  as  exclamations,  the  chief 
interjections  are  : 

Ah  !  Oh  !  Gare  !  Look  out ! 

Aie  !  Oh  dear  !  Ha  !  Ah  ! 

Bah  !  Nonsense  !  Never   Helas  !  Alas  ! 

mind  !  Hdn  /  What  ?  What's 

Bis  !  Encore  !  that  ? 

Chut  !  Hush  !  Hold  !  Hi ! 

Crac  !  Bang  !  Hum  !  Hern  ! 

Eh  !  Hallo  !  "  O  !  0  ! 

IV  /  Fie  !  Pst  !  Hist  ! 

1.  A  frequent  exclamation  is  Dame  !     Etymolog- 
ieallv,    it    means    "  Loixl  !  "    from  the   Latin   word 


Continued 


LANGUAGES -SPANISH 

"Domine."  At  the  proent  day.  it  is  absolutely 
meaningless,  and  is  si,,, ply  used  to  express  hesita- 
tion or  doubt,  like  the  English  "  \\Y1I  <",„•••  \V|1V  •  " 

2  An  expression  which  i.s  frequently  hear,!,  and 
which  a  literal  translation  quite  fails  "to  render  „ 
Jf»_£««tt/  It  has  about  the  same  strength  as 
the  English  "Goodomsf"  "My!"  "Why!" 

3.  Allans!  which  litendly  means  "  |,-i  ,,s  ,'O  "  is 
used  like  the  English  word  M  Come  !  " 

Ki:vToExERcisi:  \.\.\V1. 

1.  Les  homines  narrivent  pas  imi.iediatcment 
akconmussa  nee  de  hive-rite.  2.  Iln'y  a  riende  plus 
facheux  quo  V  incertitude.  3.  Si  u«,us  aviona 
seulement  vecu  deux  si(V]es  plus  tot  nous  D'aurions 
eu  aucune  idee  des  machines  a  vapour,  des  chemins 
de  fer,  du  telegraphe.  4.  La  paresse  \  a  si  lenfement 
que  la  pauvrete  Fatteint  bientot,  5.  La  raison  du 
plus  fort  est  toiijoura  la  nu-illeurc.  (i.  Les  jeunes 
gens  doivent  parler  peu  et  ecouter  beaucouj).  7.  Le 
bonheur  du  mediant  ne  dure  pas  longtemps.  8.  CV 
voleur  est  accuse  de  s'etre  introduit  miitaminenl 
dans  une  ruaison.  9.  Qu'il  vienne  \endr«-di  •  u 
samedi ;  ce  sont  leg  jours  ou  je  suis  le  plus  ordinaire 
ment  chez  moi  le  soir.  10.  Et  maintenant.  n'- 
pondez-moi  franchement,  qu'y  a-t-il  de  vrai  dans 
cette  accusation?  11.  Je  me  suis  toujours  de- 
mande  pourquoi  les  Francais,  si  spirituels  ehez  eux, 
sont  si  betes  en  voyage.'  12.  l"n  bonheur  extra- 
ordinaire  a  constamment  accompagiic  ce  brigand 
jusqu' a  ce  jour.  Sa  tete  est  mise  a  prix  ;  pourt ml 
il  continue  impunement  son  dangereux  metier. 
13.  II  est  extremement  genereux ;  1' argent  ne  lui 
coute  guere  a  gaguer,  et  il  le  depense  facilement 
avec  les  pauvres.  14.  II  porte  ordinairement  un 
costume  d'luie  tres  grande  elegance :  son  linge 
est  toujours  d'une  blancheur  eclatante. 


SPANISH 


Continue*!  from 
page  5087 


By  Amalia  de  Albert!  &  H.  S.  Duncan 


but 


CONJUNCTIONS 

Spanish  conjunctions  comprise  a  few  simple 
conjunctions,  and  many  compound  conjunctive 
phrases  which  generally  .consist  of  adverbs  or 
prepositions  with  q>u-.  Example  :  dc  niodo  q>n  . 
so  that. 

Simple  Conjunctions 
The  simple  conjunctions  are  : 

W,  nor  y  (or  t),  and 

6  (or  n),  or  ptro  j 

que,  that  ma-y 

«i,  if  #in-o  } 

1.  3',  "  and,"  becomes  t  Ix'fore  i  or  hi,  but  not 
before  hie.     Examples  :    manzanas  e  hiyos,  apples 
and  figs  ;   sabios  e  ignoratttcs,  learned  and  ignorant  : 
madera  y  hierro,  wood  and  iron. 

2.  O,  "  or,"  becomes  u  before  o  or  ho.     Examples  : 
dicz  u  once,   ten  or  eleven  :     -trntchacho  u  hornbre, 
boy  or  man. 

3.  Ptro  and   -ma*   may   be  used   indifferently  to 
express  "  but,"  and  can  stand  at  the  beginning  of 
a  sentence. 

4.  Sino  is  only  used  when  the  first  clause  con- 
tains a  negative  opposed  by  an  affirmative  in  the 
second    clause.      Examples:     /i-s    hcrmoxo    pero  (or 
•ma*)  no  cs  jovcn.  He  is  handsome,  but  not  young  : 
No  cs  hcnnoso  si  no  inuy  fco,  He   is  not  handsome, 
but   very  ugly. 

Compound  Conjunctions 
a  fin  que,  in  order  that  antes  qite,  before 
'/  //v  no*  (jiic  \  i  asi  que,  so  that 

a  no  .?cr  '/»•:  <   "  cunirjw,  althongh 


lien  qiic-,  although  hanla  que,  until 

caso  que,  in  case  that          luego  que,  as  soon  as 

como  quiera  que,  however  mientras  qne,  while 

con  que,  therefore,  so  then  no  obstante  que,  notwith- 

con  motivo  que,  so  that  standing 

con  tal  que,  provided  that  para  que,  in  order  that 

cuanto  mas  que,  the  more  porque,  because 

since  pormtuqtte,b/awev€rwacb 

dad,o  que,  in  case  that         por  menos  que  \  however 
diidocmo  que,  supposing  por  poco  que    f     little 

that  puesque    \since,  see  in  « 

de  manero  quc  \  puestoqm)      that 

de  modo  que      J-  so  that     siempre  que,  whene\  cr 
de  suerte  que    )  sin  que,  without 

desde  que,  since  supuesto  que,   since,  sup- 

de-spues  que,  after  posing  that 

en  tanto  que,  while,  in         tanto  que,  so  that 

case  that  ya  quc,  now  that,  since 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Spaniards  are  always  prodigal  of  exclamation-; 
and  interjections.     Besides  the  usual  exclamations 
"Ah!"   "Oh!"     "Eh!''    common   to   nearly    all 
languages,  the  following  are  the  most  usual  : 
/  hota  /to  call  attention,  or  a  cry  of  welcome 

ichito!    } 

/  qucdo  '      equivalents  of  "  hush  ! 

!calla!    I 

to  c.\pic>s  surpi  -ise  or  incredulity 


/  in/  d<  nit  .'  "  Alas  ! 
'•I,/,,/,;/-'  \V«.uld  that!" 


Oh  that 


6229 


LANGUAGES— SPANISH 

iquita!  \ 

'it?e!quedalef  f  to  express  impatience 

;,/'"  dcmonio/  ) 

t<irrc  !  "Gee  up  !"  (to  horses) 

;  -^ipc  .'  a  word  used  to  frighten  cats 

1.  Familiar    conversation    is    interspersed    with 
exclamations    of    /  hombre  !    /  mujer  !   /  hija  !    etc. 
/  Caramba  !     /  candxtro  !     /  canario  !     though     in- 
elegant, are   constantly  heard,  and   may   be   used 
without  offence. 

2.  Religious  exclamations  are  used  with  a  freedom 
which   might  be  considered   profane   in   England  ; 
but    in    Spain    such    exclamations    are    perfectly 
proper   and   inoffensive,    being   equivalent   to   our 
"Good  heavens!"    or    "Oh,   dear  me!"     Those 
most  frequently  heard  are  : 

/  Jesus  !  /  Dios  mio  !  !  Dios  de  mi  alma  !  /  por 
Dios  !  i  valgame  Dios  !  /  Virgen  Santisima  ! 

VOCABULARY  VOCABULARIO 

He  is  quite  mad  i  Es  loco  rematado  ! 

To  finish  Rematar 

High,  loud  Alto 

Great  Grande 

White  Blanco 

Underlinen  La  ropa  blanca 

Wood  Lena,  madera  (f.) 

The  tips  of  the  fingers      La  ye  ma  de  los  dedos 
The  tip  of  the  nose  La  punta  de  la  nariz 

A  cavalry  soldier  Un  soldado  de  caballeria 

The  club  El  circulo,  casino 

The  pulpit  El  pulpito 

The  professorship  La  catedra 

The  professor  El  catedratico 

The  dice  Los  dados 

He  boasts  of  being  a        Hace    alarde    de    ser    bor- 

drunkard  radio 

Mr.  So-and-so  Don  fulano 

To  be  irritated  Amoscarse 

A  splinter  Una  astilla 

To  elevate  Elevar 

To  raise  Alzar 

To  raise  the  voice  Levantar  la  voz 

To  erect  Erigir,  levantar,  construir 

To  erect  a  statue  Erigir  una  estatua 

The  entrance       .  La  entrada 

An  entree  (dinner)  Un  principio 

To  save,  economise          Ahorrar,  economizar 
The  postman  El  cartero 

The  petty  theft  La  sisa 

The  pickled  meat  or        La  chacina 

pork 

The  fish-hook  El  anzuelo 

A  witticism  Una  agudeza,  un  chiste 

The  glass  El  vidrio 

The  crystal  El  cristal 

The  tumbler  El  vaso 

The  suburb  El  barrio 

The  neighbourhood         La  vecindad 
The  earthquake  El  terremoto 

The  juice  El  jugo 

The  vine  La  vina 

EXERCISE  XXI  (1). 

Translate  the  following  into  Spanish : 

1.  Better  late  than  never,  but  better  early 
[pronto]  than  late.  2.  I  sent  them  money  that 
they  may  be  able  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  journey, 
and  unless  they  receive  it  in  time  I  fear  we  shall 
not  have  the  pleasure  of  seeing  them.  3.  Although 
1  warned  him  that  the  speculation  was  risky,  he 
invested  large  sums  in  that  enterprise,  and  should 
(in  case)  he  become  bankrupt  I  shall  have  to  be 
his  surety,  since  he  is  my  brother.  4.  Hallo, 
friend  !  How  are  you  ?  It  is  a  long  time  since  I 

5230 


saw  you.     5.  Since  you    will  not  come  to  see  mi-. 

here  I  am.      As    they  say,  if    the    mountain   does 

not    come    to    Mahomet,   Mahomet    goes    to   the 

mountain. 

EXERCISE  XXI  (2). 
Translate  the  following  into  English  : 
1.    Este  hombre   es  muy  alto — demnsiado  si   mi 

parecer.     Es  casi  un  gigante.     2.  Napoleon  fue  un 

rande  hombre  apesar  de  ser  pequeno  de  talla. 
Se  lastima  uno  las  yemas  de  los  dedos  al  tocar 
el  arpa.  4.  Era  hombre  de  saber,  ocupaba  una 
catedra  en  la  universidad  de  Salamanca,  y  se 
consideraba  como  el  primer  catedratico  de  aquella 
celebre  universidad.  5.  Ocupaba  una  posicion  muy 
elevada ;  se  alzo  de  la  nada.  Fue  el  linico  que 
levanto  la  voz  en  defensa  de  la  libertad  do  la 
prensa.  6.  Las  tropas  despues  de  la  guerra 
hicieron  su  entrada  en  la  capital  con  grandes 
aclamaciones  del  pueblo  y  le  van  a  erigir  unn 
estatua  al  General.  7.  Don  fulano  se  amosoo  esta 
manana.  I  Quien  es  Don  fulano  ?  Nunca  me 
acuerdo  de  su  nombre. 

PROSE  EXTRACT. 

From  "  Notas  Sobre  el  Comercio  Hispano- 
Britanico  en  el  Afio  1904." 

The  raisins  imported  Las  pasas  importadas 
into  Great  Britain  are  of  en  la  Gran  Bret-ana  son 
the  following  kinds  and  de  las  siguientes  clases 
origin :  The  best  from  y  procedencias :  la  su- 
Malaga ;  the  Valencia  perior,  de  Malaga ;  la 
kind,  which  comes  from  de  Valencia,  procedente 
Denia  (Alicante)  ;  that  de  Denia  (Alicante)  ;  la 
called  "  Sultana,"  from  llamada  "  Sultana,"  fit- 
Turkey  ;  the  Greek  va-  Turquia  ;  la  gricga,  cono- 
riety,  commonly  known  cida  vtilgarmente  en  el 
in  the  trade  by  the  name  comercio  con  el  nombre 
of  currants  (Corinth),  and  de  "  Corinto,"  y  la  de 
that  from  Australia,  a  Australia,  producto  nu- 
new  product,  of  which  evo  en  este  mercado,  del 
we  shall  speak  later  on.  que  se  hablara  mas  a  de- 
Ian  te. 

The  British  Customs  El  Arancel  de  Aduaiias 

tariff  groups  them  all  britanico  las  inoluye 

in  the  same  category,  todas  en  la  misma  par- 

undcr  the  denomination  tida,  bajo  la  denomina- 

of  "  Dried  Fruits,"  to-  cion  de  "  Dried  Fruits," 

gether  with  figs,  prunes,  junta  men  te  con  los  higos, 

dates,  and  other  dried  or  ciruelas,  datiles  y  otras 

preserved  fruits,  although  frutas  secas  6  conserva- 

the  tax  makes  a  distinc-  das,  aunque  el  impuesto 

tion  between  "  currants  "  divide  las  pasas  en  "  cur- 

— that  is,  the  Greek  sort  rants,"  csto  es,  las  griegas 

(or  from  Corinth) — and  6  de  "  Corinto,"  y  eu 

the  "  raisins  "  —  viz.,  "  raisins  "  6  sea  las  de 

those  from  Malaga  and  Malaga  y  Valencia  y 

Valencia  and  the  "  sul-  "sultana";  pagandonn 

tana";  the  first  (currants)  derecho  de  2  ehelines  el 

paying  a  duty  of  2s.  per  quintal  ingles  (50'80 

English  cwt.  (50*80  kilos)  kilos)  las  primeras  (cur- 

and  the  others  (raisins),  rants)  y  7  ehelines  el 

7s.  per  English  cwt.  quintal  ingles  las  clem  as 
(raisins). 

The  principal  reason  of  La  razon  principal  de 
the  remarkable  difference  la  notable  diferencia  en 
in  the  tariff  duty  between  el  derecho  aranoelario 
the  currants  and  raisins,  entre  los  "  currants  "  y 
and  the  burdening  of  los  "  raisins "  y  de  quo 
the  latter  with  a  tax  of  las  ultimas  se  hallen 
7s.  per  cwt.,  lies  (apart  gravadas  con  un  derecho 
from  the  Agreement  be-  de  7  ehelines  por  quintal. 
tween  Greece  and  Eng-  esta  (aparte  del  Con- 
land,  by  which  the  duty  venio  entre  Giwia  e 
on  currants  entering  the  Inglatorra,  por  el  eual 


United  Kingdom  is  re- 
duced to  2s..  in  exchange 
for  a  reduction  in  the 
import  duty  in  Greece  on 
certain  English  articles), 
in  the  fact  that  England 
tacitly  extends  the  appli- 
cation of  the  alcoholic- 
tariff  to  produce  partially 
employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  artificial  wines 
capable  of  being  fer- 
mented and  distilled  in 
order  to  produce  an  imi- 
tation of  genuine  grape 
spirit. 


During  the  present  sea- 
son (1904),  the  prices 
have  experienced  a  drop 
of  8s.  to  10s.  per  cwt., 
owing  to  the  crop  having 
turned  out  to  be  much 
larger  than  was  antici- 
pated, to  the  diminished 
demand  from  the  Baltic 
markets,  and  to  the  great 
abundance  of  currants 
and  sultanas. 

Respecting  the  new 
raisin  from  Australia, 
this  fruit  has  re- 
cently made  its  appear- 
ance in  this  kingdom, 
and  some  fairly  import- 
ant parcels  have  been 
received  this  year.  The 
quality  of  this  raisin  is 
an  imitation  of  the  Va- 
lencia sort ;  and  al- 
though, owing  to  the 
conservative  disposition 
of  the  consumers  and 
their  attachment  to  cus- 
tom, the  reception  at 
the  beginning  has  not 
been  very  favourable,  not 
a  few  people  are  of 
opinion  that  it  is  as  good 
as  the  Valencia  raisin. 
It  is  therefore  almost 
certain  that  the  public 
will  soon  get  accustomed 
to  it,  and  if  Australia,  as 
is  to  be  supposed,  in- 
creases her  production  to 


se  rebaja  a  2  chelines 
el  derecho  sobre  los 
"  Corintos  "  a  su  entrada 
en  el  Reino  Unido,  a 
cambio  de  la  rebaja  de 
derechos  a  la  importa- 
cion  en  Grecia  de  ciertos 
articulos  ingleses)  en  el 
hecho  de  que  Inglaterra 
extiende  tacitamente  la 
aplicacion  de  la  tarifa 
alcoholica  a  una  pro- 
duccion  .  parcialraente 
destinada  a  la  fabrica- 
cion  de  vinos  artificiales, 
y  que  es  susceptible  de 
ser  fermentada  y  desti- 
lada  para  producir  lu 
imitacion  de  aguardiente^ 
legitimos  de  uva. 

En  la  actual  tem- 
porada  (1904),  los  precios 
han  sufrido  un  descenso 
de  8  a  10  chelines  por 
quintal,  debido  a  haber 
resultado  la  cosecha 
mucho  mayor  de  lo  que 
se  calculo,  a  haber  dis- 
minuido  la  demanda  de 
los  mercados  del  Baltico 
y  a  la  gran  abundancia 
de  "  corinto  "  y  "  sul- 
tana.'1 

Respecto  a  la  nueva. 
pasa  de  Australia,  esa 
fruta  ha  hecho  su  apari- 
c-ion  en  este  reino  recien- 
temente,  y  se  han  recibi- 
do  este  ano  algunas 
(•antidades  de  relativa 
importancia. 

La  calidad  de  esta  pasa 
es  una  imitacion  de  la 
de  Valencia  ;  y  aunque. 
dado  el  espiritu  con- 
servador  de  los  consumi- 
dores  y  su  relativo  apego 
a  la  costumbre,  la  aco- 
gida  que  se  le  ha  hecho 
en.  un  principio  no  ha 
sido  muy  favorable,  no 
son  pocos  los  que  opinan 
que  es  tan  buena  como 
la  de  Valencia.  Es,  pues, 
casi  seguro  que  el  publico 
se  acostumbrara  pronto 
a  la  misma,  y  si  Aus- 
tralia, como  es  de  pre- 
sumir,  aumenta  su  pro- 
duccion  en  grandes  pro- 


LANQUAGES-E8PERANTO 

a  considerable  extent,  it  porciones.  deutro  de 
is  possible  that  it  may  algunos  anus  pue.l, 
within  a  few  years  con-  un  grave  peligro  para  la 
statute  a  serious  menace  pasa  de  Valencia,  es- 
to  the  Valencia  raisin,  peo-ialmente  si  Inglatena 
especially  if  England  llegara  a  eonceder  venta- 
should  come  to  grant  jas  aran<  ,•!.,,  i,  -  a  los 
preferential  tariffs  to  Co-  productos  eoloiiiales,  co- 
lonial  produce,  -as  the  mo  pretenden  los  pro- 
protectionists  are  now  teccioni- 
demanding. 

KEY  TO  EXKKCISI    \x  (i). 

1.  A  la  hora  de  comer,  antes  de  la  sopa,  bajo  el 
pretexto  que  la  mesa  no  estaba   l>ien  puc-ta    con 
la  mano  dio  un  golpe  contra  la  lampara.  y  la  volco. 

2.  Durante  una  tormenta  el   miedo  la    hizo  de- 
smayarse. 

3.  Segun   me   han   dicho,    no    eahe    duda     (,u«. 
el  Senor  A.  se  marcha  mafuina. 

4.  Apesar  de  no  querer  tenor  auiistad  con  ella, 
tin  a  verla. 

5.  A  las  diez  de  la  noche  vino    a  venue   y  me 
ofrecio  estos  cuchillcs  a  diez  duros  la  do<  -. 

6.  Al  anochecer  saldremos  en  coche. 

7.  Ame    a    esa     mujer;     quiero    a    su    |.CIT..; 
y  aborrezco  a  su  familia. 

8.  Esta  agua  sabe  a  tierra. 

9.  Poco  a  poco,  se  fueron,  uno  a  uno. 

10.  iComole  gusta  a  Vd  el  cafe,  4  la  turca.  n  a 
la  francesa  ? 

Fui   ;i 


No, 


11.  I  Como  fue  Vd  al  campo,   a  pie? 
caballo. 

12.  i  Puede  Vd  comer  conmigo  manana  ? 
salgo  para  Paris  manana  por  la  manana. 

13.  Ademas  de  este  portamoneda  me  dio  este 
lapiz  de  plata. 

14.  Debajo   de   los   arboles    hay  soiubra,   y  es 
bueno  que  estcn  delante  de  la  casa. 

15.  Dentro  de  la  casa  hay  muchles  t>X(juisitos, 
y  da  pena  pensar  que  despues  de  tantos  anos  se 
han  de  vender  :  la  venta  tendra  lugar  en  el  ccsped 
detras  de  la  casa. 

16.  Lleva  enoima  de  sus   hombros  un    panolon 
cjue  vale  una  fortuna. 

17.  Su  ignorancia  esta  ;i  la  vista  de  todos. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  XX  (2). 
1.  At  the  end  of  twenty  years,  when  we  believed 
him  dead,  he  returned  home.  2.  Instead  of  coming 
himself  he  sent  his  delegate.  3.  Because  of  his 
misfortune  I  forgave  his  offence.  4.  As  to  what  you 
told  me  I  have  learnt  that  it  is  not  true.  5.  The 
water  came  down  over  the  mountains  in  cataracts, 
destroying  everything,  and  death  surprised  UK-M- 
poor  people  in  the  midst  of  their  joy.  6.  Beyond 
the  high  road  you  will  find  the  lane  that  leads  to 
the  fountain.  7.  Notwithstanding  he  was  told 
never  to  come  back,  he  came  this  morning.  8.  He 
left  his  father's  home  never  to  return.  !».  Hi 
brought  me  a  letter  from  my  lawyer  :  tin- 
is  going  badly. 


Continued 


ESPERANTO 


Continued  from 
page  50S8 


By  Harald  Clegg 


DEGREES  OF  COMPARISON 

Adjectives.  The  degrees  of 
comparison  in  Esperanto  are 
absolutely  regular,  and  are  formed 
by  placing  the  words  pli  (more) 
and.  'plej  (most)  before  the  words 
which  are  to  be  compared. 


COMPARATIVE  OF  SUPERIORITY. 

Pli  .  .  .  ol  (than). 
Example :  Si  estas  pli  bela,  ol  ri. 
She  is  more  beautiful  than  you. 

SUPERLATIVE  OF  SUPERIORITY. 
Pie)  .  .  .  el  (of.  out  of.  among). 


Example :     Li    estas   la    plej 
ultkreska,  el  la  fami/i".  He  is  tin- 
tallest  of  the  family. 
COMPARATIVE  OF  INFERIORITY. 
Mai  pli  (less)  ...ol  (than). 

Example:  Li  e«t<i*  'malpli  fortd 
ol  >ti>.  He  is  less  strong  than  I. 


LANGUAGES-  ESPERANTO 

SUPERLATIVE   OF    INFERIORITY. 

Malplej  (least) .  .  .  «l  (of,  out  of, 

from,   among). 

Example  :  Li  estas  la,  malplej 
f  „ t-t  a.  el  la  jamilio,  He  is  the 
weakest  of  the  family. 

COMPARISON  OF  EQUALITY. 
Tiel  (as,  so) ...  kiel  (as). 

Example  :  Mia  do-mo  estas  tiel 
granda  kiel  via,  My  house  is  as 
big  as  yours. 

SUPERLATIVE  ABSOLUTE. 
Tre  (very). 

Example  :  Vi  estas  tre  agrabla, 
You  are  very  agreeable. 

All  these  comparisons  can  be 
negatived  by  the  insertion  of  ne 
(not)  before  the  verb.  Examples  : 

Li  ne  estas  la  plej  rica  homo 
en  la  urbo,  He  is  not  the  richest 
man  in  the  town. 

Si  ne  estas  tre  bela,  She  is  not 
very  beautiful. 

Sometimes  it  will  be  found  that, 
when  the  verb  is  transitive,  the 
noun  or  pronoun  following  ol, 
being  the  direct  object  of  that  verb, 
must,  like  the  adjective,  be  placed 
in  the  accusative,  and  this  must 
be  carefully  watched,  or  ambiguity 
in  the  meaning  will  arise. 

In  the  English  sentence,  ^  I  saw 
him  more  angry  than  you,"  there 
are  two  possible  constructions,  but 
thanks  to  the  accusative  n  in 
Esperanto,  which  here  again 
vindicates  its  usefulness,  the  am- 
biguity is  removed.  If  we  mean, 
"He  was  more  angry  than  you," 
the  above  sentence  would  be  trans- 
lated Mi  vidis  lin  pli  koleran,  ol 
vin,  because  here  vin  is,  with  lin, 
the  direct  object  of  the  verb  vidis. 
But  if  the  meaning  is  "  He  appeared 
4o  me  more  angry  than  to  you," 
the  sentence  must  be  translated  Mi 
vidis  lin  pli  koleran  ol  vi,  because 
in  this  case  vi  is  also  the  subject  of 
the  verb  vidis. 

Before  adjectives  plcj  is,  as  a 
rule,  preceded  by  the  article  la. 

The  word  tre  (very)  is  often 
used  before  verbs  to  represent 
the  English  "  much,"  but  it  is 
quite  permissible  to  use,  if  desired, 
the  two  words  tre  rmdte.  Example : 
Mi  tre  (multe)  timas,  ke  li 
mortos,  I  very  much  fear  that 
he  will  die. 

Adverbs.  Adverbs  are  com- 
pared in  exactly  the  same  manner 
U  adjectives  and  follow  the  same 
mil's.  Examples: 

La  viro  frapas  pli  forte,  ol  la 
knabo.  The  man  strikes  harder 
than  tl'i-  l)oy. 


.V2*2 


Mi  parolas  tre  UMe,  vi 
pli  la  ate,  sed  mia  frato  paroJas 
plej  laute,  I  speak  very  loudly, 
you  speak  more  loudly,  but  my 
brother  speaks  most  loudly. 

,S*  amas  lin  pli  multe,  ol  vi, 
She  loves  him  more  than  you 
(do). 

/&  amas  lin  pli  multe,  ol  vin, 
She  loves  him  more  than  (she 
loves)  you. 

NUMERALS 

Collective  Numbers. 
The  collectives  are  formed  regu- 
larly from  the  cardinals  by  adding 
the' suffix  op;  and  then,  by  the 
further  addition  of  o,  a,  or  e,  nouns, 
adjectives  or  adverbs  are  obtained 
respectively.  Example : 

Mi  timas  ilian  duopan  atakon, 
I  fear  their  double  attack. 

VOCABULARY 
ador',  adore         konstru',  con- 
alt,  high,  tall  struct,  build 
bedaur',  be  sorry  kre',  create 

(for),  regret     kresk',  grow 
bril',  shine  (v.i.) 

difekt',  damage,  kruel',  cruel 

injure  lac/,  weary, 

direkt',  direct,         tired 

steer  land',  land, 

disput',  dispute  country 
dislcut',  discuss  liber',  free 
divid',  divide  lok',  place, 
esprim',  express  locality 

(v.t.)  metod',  method 

faden',  thread     mir',  wonder 
fart',  be  (in  mond',  world 

health)  nombr',  number 

fier',  proud  (subst.) 

fortik',  sturdy,    oportun',  oppor- 

robust  tune,     conve- 

graci',  graceful        nient 
j)entilf,  polite       pan',  bread 
fast',  exact,        pardon',  pardon 

right  pens',  think 

ide',  idea  perd',  lose 

interes',  interest  plen',  full 

(v.t.)  plezur',  pleasure 

jar',  year  plum',  feather 

jaluz',  jealous          (or  pen) 
komenc',  com-     pord',  door 

mence  (v.t.)  renkont',  meet, 
konfes',  confess,  encounter 

acknowledge  sovay',  savage 
konsent',  consent     wil'~ 
konsil',    advise, 

counsel 

EXERCISE  VIII. 

I  very  much  regret  to  hear 
about  your  brother's  death.  I  am 
told  that  you  are  not  so  well  to- 
day as  you  were  yesterday.  Al- 
though the  king  is  graceful  and 
robust,  he  is  proud  and  as  cruel  as 

Continued 
END  OF  You -MK  VI 


the  wildest  animal.  Our  country 
is  the  most  dear  and  beautiful  in 
the  whole  world.  I  do  not  thinl* 
that  I  am  jealous,  but  I  truly 
believe  that  she  adores  me  more 
than  you.  They  commenced  to 
discus's  freely  and  dispute  about 
our  methods,  but  I  must  confess 
that  I  could  not  express  my  ap- 
proval. Can  you  direct  me  to  the 
theatre?  Yes,  sir,  with  pleasure. 
Here  it  is,  on  the  left  hand.  The 
sun  high  in  the  heavens  warmly 
shines.  I  am  just  as  tired  as  your- 
self, but  not  so  impolite.  He 
built  a  high  house  out  of  stone. 
Your  idea  is  very  good  and  inter- 
esting, but  it  is  inconvenient.  In 
our  country  the  people  are  free. 
They  unfortunately  lost  a  great 
number  of  friends.  I  wonder  that 
I  did  not  meet  you  and  your  friends 
together.  I  pardoned  him,  but  he 
proudly  went  away  and  shut  the 
door.  Flowers  grow  during  the 
whole  year. 

KEY  TO  EXERCISE  VII. 
Dum  la  nebula  vetero  kaj  la 
malvarmaj  vintraj  tagoj ,  mi  restas 
hejme  kaj  lernas  lecionojn  pri 
Esperanto.  Mi  povas  kalkuli  de 
unu  gis  centmil  sen  malfacilo. 
Tameii,  car  la  tempo  estas  mal- 
longa,  kaj  mi  havas  mutton  por 
fari,  mi  penos  konvinkiA  vin 
morgau  se  vi  konseritos.  Cu  vi 
volas  korespondi  kun  mi  ?  La 
nuboj  estas  tre  nigraj ,  malvarma 
vento  blovas,  sed  mi  esperas  ke 
ni  ne  vidos  negon  hodiau.  Ni 
audas  per  niaj  (or,  la)  oreloj  kaj 
vidas  per  niaj  (or  la)  okuloj. 
Kvankam  li  rice  vis  multajn  dona- 
cojn  (or,  multe  da  donacoj ),  li  estis 
tre  malkontenta.  Li  estas  tre  rica, 
sed  li  estas  tamen  nature  humil; 
kaj  modesta.  Nia  najbaro  estas 
tre  malmodesta  kaj  malkuraga. 
La  leciono  estis  mallonga  kaj  la 
knaboj  gin  lernis  parkere.  Car 
la  vento  blovis  malforte,  la  ondoj 
sur  la  maro  estis  malgrandaj 
kaj  mi  ne  estis  malsana.  Cu  li  ne 
diris  al  vi,  ke  li  intencas  sin  okupi 
pri  Esperanto  ?  Oro  kaj  argento 
estas  tre  necesaj.  La  bptoj  de  la 
soldato  estas  mallargaj,  sed  ili 
estas  longaj.  La  rivero  fluas  tra 
largaj  kampoj  gis  la  maro.  Nia 
nova  najbaro  mortis  en  la  mezo 
de  la  nokto.  Lia  maniero  estis 
tre  stranga,  sed  autau  ol  morti  li 
penis  konvinki  min,  ke  li  posedaa 
multe  da  oro  kaj  argento.  Cu  U 
ne  diris  al  vi,  ke  li  nepre  pages 
vin  morgau  ?